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MAPC Project Report

masters in psychology (Indira Gandhi National Open University)

Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university

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PROJECT REPORT

―OCCUPATIONAL STRESS & JOB

SATISFACTION: A COMPARATIVE
STUDY OF TEACHERS IN
GOVERNMENT AND PRIVATE
COLLEGES‖

MASTER OF ARTS DEGREE IN

PSYCHOLOGY (MAPC)
<,

BY
NAME: ……………………
ENROLLMENT NO.: ………………..
,

SCHOOL OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

INDIRA GANDHI NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY

MAIDAN GARHI, NEW DELHI- 110068

1|Page

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CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY

This is to certify that the Project Report titled ―OCCUPATIONAL STRESS & JOB

SATISFACTION: A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TEACHERS IN

GOVERNMENT AND PRIVATE COLLEGES‖ submitted to Indira Gandhi National

Open University in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of Master of Arts

Degree in Psychology (MAPC) is an original work carried out by

……………………………… (Enrolment Number:.......................................).

The matter embodied in this Project is a genuine work done by the student and has not

been submitted whether to this University or to any other University/ Institute for the

fulfillment of the requirement of any course of study.

Signature of the Learner Signature of the Supervisor

Name: ………………………………. Name:

Enrolment Number: ……………………….. Designation:

Date: Date:

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CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Mrs. ……………………………… student of M.A. (Psychology)

from Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi was working under my

supervision and guidance for her Dissertation for the course ………………………….

Her Dissertation entitled ―OCCUPATIONAL STRESS & JOB SATISFACTION: A

COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TEACHERS IN GOVERNMENT AND PRIVATE

COLLEGES‖ which she is submitting, is her genuine and original work.

Signature:

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I feel indebted to my guide …………….. for the completion of the

dissertation entitled ―OCCUPATIONAL STRESS & JOB SATISFACTION: A

COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TEACHERS IN GOVERNMENT AND PRIVATE

COLLEGES‖ The present work could be completed only because of the able guidance

and affectionate attitude of my guide ………………….

I am thankful to all respondents and all those who assisted me by

supplying the requisite information towards the completion of the questionnaire there by

enable me to collect the relevant data.

………………………………….
………………………………..

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ABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER TOPIC PAGE

NO.

1 INTRODUCTION 1-36

2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 37-49

3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 50-62

4 RESULT AND DISCUSSION 63-90

5 CONCLUSIONS, DELIMITATIONS & 91-93

SUGGESTIONS

REFERENCES i-v

APPENDIX vi-xvi

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

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INTRODUCTION

Stress has become a very common phenomenon of routine life, and an unavoidable

consequence of the ways in which society has changed. This change has occurred in

terms of science and technology, industrial growth, urbanization, modernization, and

automation on one hand; and an expanding population, unemployment, and stress on the

other. The term ―stress‖ was first used by Selye (1936) in the literature on life

sciences, describing stress as ―the force, pressure, or strain exerted upon a material object

or person which resist these forces and attempt to maintain its original state. ‖ Stress can

also be defined as an adverse reaction that people experience when external demands

exceed their internal capabilities (Waters &Ussery, 2007).

Organizations are an important source of stress, and employees‘ workloads and

professional deadlines have increased manifold. These advancements have created stress

among employees in the form of occupational stress, which Sauter, Lim, and Murphy

(1996) define as the harmful physical and emotional responses that arise when the

demands of a job do not match the worker‘s abilities, resources, or needs. Occupational

stress is further defined as a condition arising from the interaction of people and their

jobs, and characterized by changes within people that force them to deviate from their

normal functioning (Beehr& Newman, 1978).

The perception of the effects of stress on an individual has changed. Stress is not always

dysfunctional in nature, and, if positive, can prove one of the most important factors in

improving productivity withinan organization (Spielberger, 1980). If not positive, stress

can create a number of physical and psychological disorders among employees, and can

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be responsible for frustration, haste, and job dissatisfaction. As a result, the lack of work

may cause complacency within the organization.

Stress is, therefore, multidimensional, and its results depend on whether employees

perceive it as a problem or a solution.

 Occupational stress is considered as one of the most widely researched areas in

 organizations worldwide. It consistently attracted researchers ‘ a t t e n t i o n because it
has been shown to play a role in certain job related attitudes i.e. job satisfaction and
organizational Job Satisfaction; and behaviors such as employee turnover (Sager, 1994).
Past research regarding occupational stress and coping has largely focused on male
managers, with many of these findings frequently being incorrectly generalized to
women. Neglecting to include gender as a variable in most stress-related research has
resulted in contradictions and perceived biases in the study of stress and coping (Barnett,
Biener& Baruch, 1987). A review of the literature indicated that some studies report
gender similarities in stress and coping, whilst others report that men and woman differ in
this regard. The findings of these studies have been critically evaluated in the literature
with some authors indicating that the measurement instruments and research designs of
the studies were not adequate. The many contradictions found in the literature pertaining
to how men and women cope with stress thus provided an important motivation for the
present study.

Teacher is considered a key player in teaching learning process at elementary, secondary

and higher level. The objectives of teaching process cannot be materialized without fully

satisfied teachers. A country like India where, physical resources at educational

institutions are poor, salaries are not appropriate, discipline problems are frequent, most

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of the teachers are not well equipped with modern methods of teaching as well as many

managerial issues, which keep the teachers stressful at workplace. At university level,

expectations from teachers are very high. At the same time, they have to face very

challenging and demanding tasks related to teaching and research. They face a lot of

occupational stress while performing their duties. This affects their job satisfaction and

adds to their stress (Johnes & Taylor, 1990; Hagedorn, 1994; Hsing et al., 2006).

The academic exposure towards new challenges has increased level of stress on faculty,

which ultimately encourages the researchers of education management to study the

relationship between work stress and job satisfaction of university faculty. Stress among

teachers and its relationship with job satisfaction is one of the most vital areas of study

for teachers, educational administrators and educational researchers.

Its significance lies in the fact that occupational stress closely linked with job satisfaction,

job commitment, employees' turnover, organizational performance and productivity.

Antoniou and Vlachakis (2006) brought forward the most important sources of stress

which are being faced by university teachers such as students‘ interaction issues, low

level of interest and problematic attitude of graduates. They also found the difference in

perceived stress levels in relation to their sources, like interpersonal interaction, academic

burden and emotional fatigue have higher impact on female teachers. Professional

mismatches cause burnout in younger faculty, while aged faculty feels stress due to less

support from the concerned authorities.

According to Humphreys (1993), stress in teaching has sufficient attention of educational

thinkers and researchers in present days and academic interest on this subject is

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expanding to various dimensions. The increased job-shift tendency in teaching profession

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is indicated by the trend that majority wants to leave this profession while there is

decreasing trend towards joining this profession. Occupational stress is considered as root

cause of this declining trend, which is one of the major causes of job stress. The newly

developed workplace environment in universities like increase in female teachers and

students, impacts of corporate sector and close relationship with stakeholders has made

this profession very demanding, while control is rapidly moving towards low trend.

Researchers have found inverse relationship as stress level is high, when demands are

high and control is low, contrarily stress level is low, when demands are low and control

is high. Due to recent dramatic developments in socio-economic life, the teaching

profession has become highly demanding while the control (discipline)issues have

become a major problem for many educational institutions. The combination of increased

demands and control difficulties has moved teaching into an exceedingly stressful

occupation. In this stressful environment, only the quality teacher can cope with the

situation and can better help the institutions to attain educational objectives (Anonymous,

1997).

Dua (1994), in his study about newly inducted faculty, has reported more job stress of

staff below senior lecturer. The same trend prevails in support staff in which staff below

senior technical officer level is highly stressful. Supporting staff has shown more stress

due to job significance and clerical fatigues.

Higher education sector is among the highly influenced sectors of this transition and

takes major responsibility to direct the nation towards right path. Universities primarily

play the role of promoting research and development, enhancing teaching capacity and

developing management discipline in the countries. The faculty of universities promises

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to meet this great challenge of attaining objectives of higher education, which resultantly

puts high stress on them. The stress bearing capacity is backed by their level of

satisfaction to the institutions. The highly stressed and poorly satisfied faculty cannot

help the universities to compete such global challenges. The universities in India and

other countries particularly of developing nations need to adopt continuous job

satisfaction and occupational stress assessment programs and investigate their causal

relationship. In India, higher education is dominated by two sectors: private and public.

The open market policy has encouraged now to bring foreign universities to enter into

indian market. The competition has changed from bare buildings and enrolment to

faculty, programs, contents, academic sources and reputation of institutes. The success of

universities in near future will highly depend on the capacities and performance of their

faculty. Due to the service oriented nature of the job, faculty of universities is in direct

contact with graduates/customers, and highly satisfied faculty with low level of stress can

produce stratified graduates and make long-term impact on university branding.

DEFINITION OF TERMS AND VARIABLES

Stress

Modern life is full of stress. Stress on individuals ranges from personal day to day life to

their organizational activities. Urbanization, industrialization, competition, modernization

and increasing scale of operations in the society are causing increasing stresses. People

perceive stress when they cannot meet up to the environmental expectations and feel a

misfit within themselves. Consistently increasing rate of psychosomatic and

psychological disorders and feeling of frustration and dissatisfaction with life in general

reflect the high stress being experienced by the people in the present day world. During

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last two decades frequency, severity and span of psycho-social stress have drastically

increased. The basic reason being the tremendously changed physical and socio-cultural

environment of the contemporary society and lifestyle of people. People‘s life in

contemporary societies has become more demanding, complicated, mechanical and

dependent, and is running by the clock. Ever increasing need and aspirations, stiff

competition, pressures of meeting deadlines and uncertainty of future and weakened

social support system have made the life of majority of people highly stressful in modern

societies.

The term stress has been derived from the latin word stringere which means to draw tight.

The term used to refer to hardship, strain, adversity or affliction. It was used in the

eighteenth and nineteenth centuries to denote force, pressure, strain, or strong efforts with

reference to an object or person. Various terms have been synonymously used with stress,

viz., anxiety, frustration, conflict, pressure, strain etc.

(Cannon 1914) in his work on homeostasis had used the term stress to describe emotional

states that had possible detrimental physical impact on the focal organism. (Cannon

1935) modified the use of the term stress to describe physical stimuli and used the term

strain for organism‘s response to the stressor. (Wolff 1950) described it as a state of

human organism. (Basowitz et al. 1958) have described stress as that class of stimuli

which produce anxiety and reportable experience of tense dread. (Selye 1956) has done

considerable research on stress and viewed that stress is a non-specifically induced

change within a biological system. It is non-specific because any adaptation to a problem

faced by the body, irrespective of the nature of the problem is included in stress. Stress at

workplace is a common feature and majority of people experience it. He popularized the

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term ―General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS). He defined stress as non-specific responses

of the body to any demand made upon it. He was of the opinion that organism makes a

universal pattern to response to all types of internal and external demands made

on the body. The GAS has three stages, i.e., alarm, resistance and collapse. The alarm

stage is the body‘s initial response to stressor, e.g., increase heart rate and blood pressure,

and release of glucose to provide energy for action. If the stress is prolonged, the stage of

resistance emerges. The process of homeostasis comes into play at this stage. The body

tries to maintain equilibrium. There is continuing effort to adapt to the stressor during this

stage. The body cannot go on coping with stress indefinitely. The third stage of collapse

is characterized by a loss of resistance to the stressor, and exhaustion, collapse and even

death can occur. But this model of GAS has been challenged by the stress researchers as

it does not provide any significance to cognitive processes and individual differences in

these physical responses to stressors.

Stress conceived as a stimulus has been used to describe environmental situations or

conditions characterized as new, intense, rapidly changing, demanding, sudden or

unexpected, (Beehr 19846; Beehr and Bhagat 1985.). Stressful stimuli can also include

stimulus deficit, absence of expected stimulation, highly persistent stimulation, fatigue

and boredom. In this perspective, stress has been treated as an independent variable.

(Lazarus 1966) considered such events as failure or the threat of failure, noxious or

unpleasant agents in the environment, isolation and rapid social changes as stressful

stimuli. The common features of stressful stimuli are undesirable, unpleasant,

uncomfortable, threatening and demanding. (Weitz 1970) enlisted eight types of

stressful situations, namely speeded information processing, noxious environmental

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stimuli, perceived threat, disrupted psychological function, isolation, confinement,

blocking, group pressures and frustration. These stimulus situations may be more

suitably called ―stressors‖ instead of ―stress‖. These situations are very likely to

cause or generate the feeling of stress in most of the focal persons, but not necessarily in

everyone. People react to their life situations or social conditions in terms of their own

interpretative meanings of these situations or events. Much depends upon context, mood

and experience when people come to interpret the meaning of an event. The actual

amount of stress-felt is determined by the stressful situations in combination with other

personal and situational variables.

(Sinha 1993) concluded that stress is a dynamic condition in which an individual is

confronted with an opportunity, constraint, or demand related to what he or she desires

and for which the outcome is perceived to be both uncertain and important. Two

conditions are necessary for potential stress to become actual stress. He further observed

that there must be uncertainty over the outcome and the outcome must be important.

Regardless of the conditions, it is only when there is doubt or uncertainty regarding

whether the opportunity will be seized, the constraint removed, or the loss avoided that

there is stress. Stress is highest for those individuals who perceive they are uncertain as to

whether they will win or lose and lowest for those individuals who think that winning or

losing is a certainty.

But importance is equally important. If the individual regard winning or losing as

unimportant, there is no stress. For example, if job security or earning promotion is a

casual matter for an employee, he will not mind going through a performance review

frequently. The transactional model of stress describes it as part of a complex and

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dynamic system of transaction between the person and his environment. It

emphasizes that stress is an individual perceptual phenomenon rooted in psychological

process.

Occupational Stress

In general sense, stress is the pressure people feel in life due to their reaction to situation.

In today‘s changing and competitive work environment, stress level is increasing both in

the workers as well as the managers As a result of this work stress, more and more

managers are showing signs of chronic fatigue and burnout. Stress leads to reduced

efficiency in even best of the individuals, which in turn leads to reduced productivity.

Stress at work resulting from increasing complexities of work and its divergent

demands has become a prominent and pervading feature of the modern organizations.

Occupational stress is a major hazard for many workers. Increased workloads,

downsizing, hostile work environments, shift work etc are just a few of the many

causes of stressful working conditions.

(Caplan Cobb and French 1975) have accordingly defined occupational stress as any

characteristics of job environment which possesses a threat to the individual. (Cohen

1980) have expressed that by occupational stress is meant negative environmental factors

or stressors associated with a particular job. (Parasuraman and Alluto 1981) reported that

job demands, constraints and job related events or situations were not in themselves

stressful; but they may be capable of producing psychological stress and strain

depending upon personal attributes and other factors. (Ross and Altmair 1994) have

defined occupational stress as the result of interaction of work conditions with

characteristics of the worker such that demands of the work exceed the ability of the

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worker to cope with them. (Lazarus 1984) has described occupational stress as an

environmental situation perceived as presenting a job demand which seems to exceed the

capacity and resources of the employee to meet or deal with it. Work related stress has

become the top agenda for many government agencies now-a-days.

Work stress is given much impetus since it directly affects the government in the public

sectors and the business in the private sectors. Person‘s attitude and expectations lead to

stress. If he fails to fulfill the expected demands he comes under stress. This kind of

stress is self induced by person himself. Stress is not tangible. It breeds in the minds of

the people and exists through their actions. Occupational stress can affect health when the

stressors of the workplace exceed the employee‘s ability to have some control over their

situation or to cope in other ways.

Stress is highly individualistic in nature. Some people have high tolerance for stress and

strive well in face of several stressors in the environment. In fact, some individuals fail to

perform well unless they experience a level of stress which activates and energizes them

to put forth their best efforts. On the other hand, some people have very low level of

tolerance for stress and they become paralysed when they have to interface with

routine everyday factors that appear undesirable to them. Managing stress at work place

is a very vital issue. When stress is not checked its adverse effects start pouring in.

Public Sector

Public sector is that part of the economy which is concerned with providing basic

government services. Public sector includes government and publicly-controlled or

publicly-funded agencies, enterprises, and other organizations that deliver public

programs, goods, or services. It is that portion of society which is controlled by

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national, state or provincial, and local governments. The public sector overlaps with the

private sector in producing or providing certain goods and services. The extent of this

overlap varies from country to country, state to state, province to province, and city to

city. This overlap is most often seen in waste management, water management, health

care, security services, and shelters for homeless and abused people.

Private Sector

Private sector is that part of the economy that is not state controlled, and is run by

individuals and companies for profit. The private sector encompasses all for-profit

businesses that are not owned or operated by the government. Companies and

corporations that are government run are part of what is known as the public sector, while

charities and other nonprofit organizations are part of the voluntary sector. In most free-

market economies, the private sector is the sector where most jobs are held.

TYPES OF STRESS

Occupational stress is related to the job place. Stress is an inherent factor in any type of

vocation or career. At its best, the presence of stress can be a motivator that urges the

individual to strive for excellence. However, excess stress can lead to a lack of

productivity, a loss of confidence, and the ability to perform routine tasks. There are

various types of stress which are discussed below-

Eustress: Eustress can be defined as a pleasant or curative stress. Often, it is controlled

stress that gives competitive edge in performance related activities like athletics, giving a

speech etc. The term eustress was first used by endocrinologist (Selye 1983), when he

published a model dividing stress into two major categories: eustress and distress. In his

article, Selye concluded that stress involves enhances function (physical or mental, such

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as through strength training or challenging work) and it is considered eustress. They are

able to exert a healthy effect on people. It gives one a feeling of fulfillment or

contentment and also makes one excited about life. Unfortunately, it is a type of stress

that only occurs for a short period of time. Eustress is often called the curative stress

because it gives a person the ability to generate the best performance or maximum output.

type of stress, having negative

implications. It is bad or negative stress. It is a stress disorder that is caused by adverse

events and it often influences a person‘s ability to cope. Some events leading to distress

may be death of a loved one, financial problems, heavy work responsibility or workload,

strained relationship, chronic illnesses etc. Distress can be classified further as acute

stress and chronic stress. Acute stress is the most common type of stress. It comes from

demands and pressures of the recent past and the anticipated demands and pressures of the

near future. Acute stress is thrilling and exciting in small doses, but too much is

exhausting. Overdoing on short term stress can lead to psychological distress, tension

headaches, upset stomach and other symptoms. Acute stress symptoms are recognized by

most people. The most common symptoms are emotional distress- some combinations of

anger or irritability, anxiety and depression etc. Acute stress can crop up in anyone‘s life

and is highly treatable and manageable. While acute stress can be thrilling and exciting,

chronic stress is not. This is the grinding stress that wears people away day after day, year

after year. Chronic stress destroys bodies, minds and lives. It wreaks havoc through long

term attrition. It is the stress of poverty, of dysfunctional families, of being trapped in an

unhappy marriage or in a despised job or career. Chronic stress comes when a person never

sees a way out of a miserable situation. It‘s the stress

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of unrelenting demands and pressures for seemingly interminable periods of time. The

worst aspect of chronic stress is that people get used to it. They forget it is there. People

are immediately aware of acute stress because it is new; they ignore chronic stress

because it is old, familiar and sometimes almost comfortable. Chronic stress kills

through suicide, violence, heart attack, stroke and perhaps even cancer. People wear

down to a final, fatal breakdown. Because physical and mental resources are depleted

through long term attrition, the symptoms of chronic stress are difficult to treat and may

require extended medical as well as behavioural treatment and stress management.

ushed beyond what he or she can handle, they are

supposed to be experiencing hyperstress situation. Hyperstress results from being

overloaded or overworked. It‘s like being stressed out. When someone is hyperstressed,

even little things can trigger a strong emotional response. People who are most likely to

suffer from hyperstress may be working mothers who have a multi-task, juggling

between work and family constraints or may be people under constant financial strains or

people working in fast pace environment etc

hypostress is one of those types of stress experienced by person who is constantly bored.

Someone in an unchallenging job, such as a factory worker performing the same task

over and over will often experience hypostress. The effect of hypostress is feelings of

restlessness and a lack of inspiration

SYMPTOMS OF STRESS

The nature and severity of occupational stress may be more adequately and conveniently

understood by observing physical and psychological symptoms which occur in the

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employee under the conditions of job stress. (Beehr and Newman 1978) have outlined

three categories of these symptoms, i.e., psychological symptoms, physical symptoms

and behavioural symptoms. When stress persists and becomes excessive, it culminates to

strain and, in turn, affects a

person‘s physique, psychology and behaviour. The body prepares itself for ‗fight‘ or

‗flight‘. The excessive stress develops various symptoms that harm the employee‘s job

performance and health, and threaten their inability to cope with the environment.

Psychological Symptoms: Stress manifests in various forms of emotional

disorders. These emotional and cognitive problems occur under conditions of job stress.

In their study (Singh and Singh 1992) have found that stress gets its reflection in the

form of anxiety, depression, helplessness, hopelessness and anger. Psychological

symptoms of occupational stress also include job dissatisfaction, disliking for the job,

boredom, frustration, isolation and resentment. The stressful people with the

slightest provocation are easily induced to anger and anxiety and become unable to relax.

In his study (Dua 1994) reported that the employees suffering from occupational stress

generally tend to have low psychological Job Satisfaction to the organization. (Revieki

and May 1985) reported that occupational stress exerted a direct effect on depression of

the employees.

In his extensive study, (Jagadish 1984) noted that occupational stress generated from

various inadequacies and constraints of job life negatively correlated with psychological

well being of the employees. The results also indicated that stress resulted from ―intrinsic

impoverishment‖ was one of the most potential causes of deterioration

in employees‘ psychological health. Having these problems, the employee is less able

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to cope with job problems in ways that would improve his work

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conditions and enhance his mental outlook.

Physical Symptoms: Most of the early concern with stress was directed at

physiological symptoms. This was primarily because the topic was researched by

specialists in the health and medical sciences. This research led to the conclusion that

stress could create changes in metabolism, increase heart and breathing rates, increase

blood pressure, bring on headaches and induce heart attacks. Though it is difficult to

know how much these physical symptoms have been caused by a particular job stress

versus other aspects of employee‘s life, it has been established that consistent job stress

links with certain physical symptoms and diseases. Among the common physical

symptoms of occupational stress are cardiovascular diseases, gastrointestinal problems,

allergies and skin diseases, headaches and respiratory diseases. (Brown 1977)reported

that a number of physical complaints like ulcer, headaches, chest pains, constipation,

bronchial asthma etc are outcomes of occupational stress at organizations.

Behavioural Symptoms: Job stress also bears behavioural symptoms which are easily

observable. There is general agreement that a high degree of job stress drives people adopt

certain easily visible behavioural symptoms like sleeplessness, excessive drinking,

smoking, absenteeism, obesity and gluttony. The behavioural symptoms of job stress can

be classified into two categories. The first category of the symptoms belongs to the focal

employees, while the other belongs to the organization. The employee-centred symptoms

are avoidance of work, increased intake of alcohol or drugs, overeating or under

eating, aggression towards coworkers or family members and interpersonal problems in

general. The organizational related symptoms of job stress include absenteeism, leaving the

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job, accident proneness and decrease in work

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efficiency. Job stress can also lead to less visible behavioural symptoms in the form of

bad decision- making, negative internal politics, reduced creativity, apathy and so on.

Consistently acting and feeling out of character is a serious warning that one is losing

the capability to cope with tension. Inability to feel or express any emotions indicates

loss of contact with one‘s surroundings.

(Jagdish 1987) reported that about 25% of Indian executives and 44% of middle level

executives report that job stress drives them to high level of alcohol consumption. Like

the psychological problems resulting from stress, the behavioural problems are often not

attributed to stress by co- workers or supervisors and they generate little sympathy.

SOURCES OF OCCUPATIONAL STRESS

Though occupational stress initially arises from constituent factors of job and its psycho-

physical environment, these factors are not inherently stressors. Infact, personal

characteristics of the employee and his cognitive appraisal of the job factors in the

framework of his capacity and resources determine the extent of stress he would

experience from a job factor or situation. And that is the reason one can only

hypothetically predict the potency of the job factors or situations for causing stress but

cannot categorize or generalize any work-setting variable as a universal stressor.

However, some factors like job insecurity, work overload, demotion, loss of job, extreme

heat or cold etc are likely to cause stress to the majority of employees. The various causes

or sources of stress can be classified into four broad categories: environmental,

organizational, group and individual.

sors: Environmental factors have a strong impact on employee

stress. These factors include fast technological change, family demands and obligations,

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political factors, ethnic identity, relocation and transfers. (Pestonjee 1987) concluded

that environmental force has a direct and strong bearing on the level of employees‘

stress. Political factors are likely to cause stress in countries which suffer from political

uncertainties, as in Iraq and Haiti, for example. New innovations can make an employee‘s

skill and experience obsolete in a very short period of time.

The phenomenal rate of technological and social change also had its great impact on

people‘s lifestyle which is carried over into their jobs. Computers, robotics, automation

and other forms of technological innovation are a threat to many people and cause stress.

Where medical science has made tremendous developments and advancements by

increasing the life span of people and reducing the life claiming threats of many dreaded

diseases on the one hand, the modern life style caught up in the rush-rush, urbanized and

busy lifestyle have brought forth many complexities and increased the potential for

stress on the job, on the other. Changes in the business cycle create economic uncertainties.

When the economy is contracting, people become increasingly conscious and anxious about

their security. It is no surprise that suicide rates skyrocketed during the great depression of

the 1930‘s. Minor recessions also increase stress levels. Downward swings in the economy

are often accomplished by permanent reductions in the workplace, temporary lay-offs,

reduced pay and the like. Weak financial position of a person forces him to do extra job or

the spouse has had to join work to meet ever increasing ends. Such situations reduce time

for recreation, relaxation and family activities. The overall effect is more stress on the

employees. (Bhagat and Allie

1967) in their study observed that technological change, economic and political factors,

financial position and family pressures are stressors as unresolved environmental

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demands. The physical environmental conditions such as excessive noise, poor lighting,

safety hazards, poorly designed office space, lack of privacy and poor air quality also

cause stress. (Evans and Johnson 2000) reported that clerical employees experience

significantly higher stress levels in noisy open offices than in quiet areas.

it also. Organizational stressors may come in many forms, such as organizational

policies, procedures and structure. Downsizing, for example, may be extremely stressful

to both employees who lose their jobs and also who remain in the organization. This

is because the remaining employees are forced to pick up the slack of the workers who

have left. In a study (Kivinaki et al. 2000) have established that percentage of

employees suffering from high blood pressure doubled after the company laid off ten

percent of its work force.

• Job Role: Job Role is a major source of satisfaction as well as frustration for the

employees. Certain characteristics or inadequacies of job role have been noted as

prominent source of occupational stress. (Ivancevich and Matteson 1980) observed that

whenever the expectations and demands of an employee conflicts with the expectations

and demands of the organization, the employee experiences role pressure. (Kahn et al.

1964) reported that role ambiguity, role conflict, role overload and role under- load are

important organizational stressors. (Pareek 1981) had identified ten situations of role

stress ie., inter-role distance, role stagnation, role expectation conflict, role erosion, role

overload, role isolation, personal inadequacy, self-role distance, role ambiguity and

resource inadequacy.

• Job Characteristics and Attributes: Characteristics of the job are also a very

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common source of employees‘ satisfaction, frustration and stress. Task complexity and

difficulty, quantitative and qualitative demands of the job and employees‘ controllability

over task are the frequent sources of occupational stress. The pace at which an employee

is required to do work is one of the characteristics of the job causing stress to the

employee. Another major aspect is the extent of control an employee has over the work

process. The pressure of repetitive work in machine pacing system gradually becomes a

continuous source of stress to the worker. Another important characteristic of the job

is its attributes. If the job lack enrichment and provide little opportunity to satisfy the

needs of autonomy, social interaction, power, use of knowledge and abilities etc, they

become stressful to their incumbents.

• Physical work conditions and the technology: Another set of factors in the work

setting which cause stress are related to qualities of physical work environment and

technology. Inadequate, taxing, or hazardous physical conditions at work such as

insufficient or excessive lighting, continued loud noise, extreme cold or heat, fluctuation

in temperature, crowded workplace etc. These physical qualities of work environment

cause direct sensory stress and indirect psychological stress through their potentiality for

causing negative health consequences. Technical limitations, rapid change in technology,

inadequate technical management, incongruence among task, technology and

organizational structure, inadequate man- machine system, and mechanization of man are

the potential sources of stress prevailing in work setting.

• Performance feedback and reward system: Performance feedback is another

important factor which enhances employees‘ motivation and performance, but causes

dissatisfaction and stress if it is inadequate or absent. If feedback is not given at proper

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time or it is less frequent, it is likely to cause stress to the concerned employee or worker.

Rewards and incentives which employees receive for their work also play an important

role in enhancing employees‘ motivation and performance. But if it is not adequate the

results may be vice versa. The rewards for better or exceptional job performance include

monetary compensation or benefits, recognition, appreciation, privileges and promotion.

These non-financial rewards are usually more effective in improving employee‘s

motivation and performance level. If the employees feel they are not being

adequately, proportionately or timely rewarded for their efforts and sincerity, they are

likely to encounter stress.

• Interpersonal relations at work: Interpersonal relations among employees and

employee-employer have consistent links with job stress (Payne 1980). Quality of

occupational relationship plays a dominant role in determining employee‘s job

behaviour and job strains. (Kets de Vries 1984) had studied three types of interpersonal

relationships viz., relationship with co-workers, relationship within work groups and

relationship with superiors and subordinates. As the social support from the co-workers

and work groups, and supervisors buffers the job stress and consequent strains, the poor

or strained interpersonal relationships at work is associated with the feeling of threat for

the employees. When employees have poor relationship with co-workers, they blame the

job stress they experience on their co-workers. Conversely, those workers who report a

greater amount of group cohesion are more able to cope with stress on the job.

Relationship with superior or leaders are equally important in determining the amount of

job stress. Another potentially stressful relationship within the job place is observed in

interactions with customers or clients. One group of employees who have been identified

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as being at risk for experiencing job stress are those who are involved in providing

service to others (Schuler 1984). Medical personnel having more contact with patients

report high level of emotional exhaustion (Maslach and Jackson 1981).

• Organization structure and climate: Besides the job role and job

characteristics, certain features of the structure, climate and culture of the organization

also cause severe psychological stress to its employees. There are two kinds of

organizational structures depending upon the degree of involvement of employees in

decision making and direction of work. They are centralized and decentralized

organizational structures. It is often studied that organizations welcoming or allowing

participation of employees in the workplace are less stressful. (Ivancevich and Donnely

1975) reported that employees in decentralized organizations experience less stress and

more job satisfaction. Through these differential effects it may be concluded that decision

making enhances the meaningfulness an employee finds in work and provides the

employees with a greater sense of autonomy, responsibility, certainty, control and

ownership (Cooper 1987). Climate and culture of the organization has also been found to

be the source of satisfaction and stress. Organizational culture refers to the beliefs and

expectations shared by the members of the organization. An important stress that results

from organizational culture is the existence of competition. Many workers feel stress due

to power struggles or office politics prevailing in the organization. (Matteson and

Ivancevich 1987)

in a study established that superiors or managers engaging in power games and political

alliances can place stressful expectations and demands on subordinates. Poor

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organizational climate may also cause employee stress.

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• Organizational change: Organizations in the global market place are

continuously changing. These consistent changes in organizational structure and

its functioning are the results of advancements in technology, economic

constraints and rational competitions. Although most of these changes are necessary, it

carries the risk of huge cost in terms of increased health care expenses, lost productivity

and lower level of job satisfaction. This cost may be directly attributed to distress that

envelops when employees in an organization encounter consistent changes.

These changes at organizational level cause stress at individual level.

• Organizational change occurs when there is a shift in the activities of business,

when the firm launches a new product line or enters in a new market. Whenever such

changes take place the employees find it cumbersome to adjust to the new working

methods, new market with dynamic characteristics and new product features. As such

changes in working patterns, insecurity, uncertainty and fear of failure results in

occupational stress (Lawler 1994). However, the relationship between organizational

change and occupational stress has not been extensively investigated. In a study (Mack,

Nelson and Quick 1998) have observed that the impact of organizational change on level

of employee stress is a subjective issue and differs from person to person. Each

employee evaluates the changes by filtering it through his or her own unique perceptual

process and the potential impact of the change is determined by this evaluation.

part of a project, a section, unit, division or department. Therefore the group can be a

potential source of stressor. The various group stressors can be:

• Lack of group cohesiveness: (Mayo 1933) through his famous Hawthorne

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Experiments established that togetherness or cohesiveness provides satisfaction to

employees. Lack of cohesiveness builds up an atmosphere of distrust, conflict and

anxiety which serves as potential stressor for the employees. Adjusting oneself with

other people in a work setting is one of the most stressful aspects of life. An employee

has to maintain three crucial relationships at work and they are relations with superiors,

subordinates and peers.

• Lack of social support system: Every human being seeks support in times of need

or difficulty. In an organization also, the employees look for support from other

colleagues in times of stress or difficulty. If he gets this social support he feels much

better and relieved. If such support is lacking for an individual employee, the same can

cause stress to the employee.

• Interpersonal and inter group conflict: Lack of understanding, mutual trust and

incompatibility in terms of needs and values between co-workers and colleagues usually

creates interpersonal conflicts. Moreover, whenever the objectives and goals of different

groups in an organization coincide it results in inter group conflict. Researches indicate

that such dysfunctional conflicts can lead to considerable stress for employees.

stressors, there are individual factors causing stress which are completely subjective and

vary from person to person. These are discussed below:

• Role conflict: Every person is playing varied roles in their day-to-day life.

Similarly, people play various roles in organizations. When people face

conflicting demands in discharging their roles, it is called role conflict. For

example, an employee has to play the role of a sincere employee, a good

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supervisor, a husband at home, a doting father, an

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understanding friend etc. Role conflict also arises when an employee receives

contradictory messages from different people about how to perform a job well. It is called

intrarole conflict.

• Role ambiguity: Role ambiguity occurs when employees are uncertain about

various aspects of their jobs. Such ambiguity tends to be experienced by

employees when they enter new job areas or taking a foreign assignment because they are

uncertain about task and social expectations. (Chand and Sethi 1997) observed significant

positive correlation between job related strain and work overload and role conflict.

• Workload: In today‘s competitive work environment where downsizing is

common, fewer employees are often required to work even more than ever before.

This causes stress. Work overload is quite a common problem in Japan that death

from overwork has its own name Karoshi (Efron 2000). Just like over work under

work can also be quite stressful. Work under load is a situation of receiving too

little work or performing tasks that donot sufficiently require employee‘s talent.

• Life events: Life events such as death of spouse, family, friend divorce, injury to

one‘s family members, unwanted frequency etc. have dramatic event on people. (Holmes

and Rahe 1967) reported that more the person experiences sudden life events like death

and divorce of spouse, the more is stress experienced and in turn, the poorer will be his

consequent health.

• Personality traits: Personality affects behaviour. Individual characteristics of

personality moderate the extent to which people experience stress. That is the

reason different people experience different levels of stress for the same stressors.

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There can be three reasons attributing to the causes: they are perception of the

employees towards the

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problem, personal resistance of the employee and the various strategies adopted.

(Aditya and Sen 1993)44 noted that in an organization, women cope up with stress

better than their male counterparts.

CONSEQUENCES OF STRESS

Stress has been generally denoted as undesirable and a negative force causing disruption

in psychological and physiological homeostasis of a person. In a situation of severe

stress, human constitution and capabilities are taxed severely and his overall effectiveness

is distorted. Stress, according to majority of researchers results in ill health, individual

adaptability and behavioural effectiveness. Severe and prolonged stress affects a person

psychologically and physiologically. (Hart 1982) mentioned and presented the detailed

list of stress consequences.

Job Behavioural Outcomes of Occupational Stress

• Job dissatisfaction: Job dissatisfaction is the most common and obvious outcome

of occupational stress. Severe or acute occupational stress builds up a negative attitude

about various aspects of the job which create the feeling of job dissatisfaction among

the employees. (Kahn 1973) reported that occupational stress arising from role

ambiguity, role conflict, and role overload result in a significant deterioration in the job

satisfaction of the employees. Later (Rizzo, House and Lirtzman 1970) observed similar

relationship between occupational stress and job satisfaction. Hence, it can be

established that more stress at job place distorts the general mental equilibrium of the

employees and they develop dissatisfaction towards their work and responsibilities at job.

• Occupational stress and performance: This is a general assumption that there exists

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a negative or adverse relationship between job stress and performance of employees.

However, this is a subjective issue as it depends upon degree of stress and the

personality type of the employees. This is because stress is not always undesirable or

harmful. It is argued that stress creates as well as promotes employee‘s inclination

towards jobs, thus enhances his capacity to work. (Hall and Lawler 1971) found that job

pressures involving time, financial responsibility and quality factors were related to

positive organizational outcomes. (Srivastava & Krishna 1997) reported that excess stress

places unattainable demand or constraints on a person, which results in lower

performance. Even moderate level of stress can have negative influence on performance

in the long run as the continued intensity of stress bears down the individual and saps his

energy resources. However, the nature of job is an important aspect that has a strong

bearing on the level of stress experienced by the employees.

• Occupational Stress and Absenteeism and Turnover: Occupational stress is also

seen to have a close association with the degree of absenteeism and turnover of

employees in an office or industry. (Schuler 1980) observed that absenteeism and

turnover are job related behaviours which are an outcome of excessive stress. However,

very few researches have been reported establishing the relationship between job

stress and such job behaviours. Both absenteeism and turnover are costly for the

organization in terms of reduced loyalty, recruitment and training time for new

employees, less experience, less productivity and the like.

• Occupational Stress and Accidents: Occupational stress is assumed to be

associated with accident and mortality rates. There is no definite evidence or

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demonstration that accidents in organization are outcomes of occupational stress. As

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such, this aspect of the study demands detailed investigation as to whether accidents at

work place are resultants of stressful conditions impinging upon dissatisfied employees.

Stress results in chances of accidents causing self harm and injury. This view was

supported by (Colquhoum 1976) who reported that occupational stress also may result

in accidents and breakdowns causing harm to others. Studies of suicide rates by

occupation and other demographic classifications have found that stress-like or strain-like

inferred variables of job life are weaknesses of social organizations and are significantly

associated with self-destructive acts or attempts.

• Occupational Stress and Job Involvement: Job involvement is a new concept

and many researchers viewed it to be a part of job satisfaction. That is whenever the

employees are motivated and satisfied in their jobs, they tend to be more and more

involved in their responsibilities and work.

(Hargopal 1980) found a positive relationship between job satisfaction and job

involvement. (Madhu and Hargopal 1980; Hargopal & Ravikumar 1979)

examined the relationship of stress stemming from role conflict and role ambiguity with

job involvement. The study showed significant negative relationship between role stress

and job involvement. (Srivastava 1990) studied on the nature of relationship between job

stress and job involvement with the help of Occupational Stress Index of

designed by (Srivastava & Singh 1981) and Job Involvement Scale by (Agarwala 1978).

The results indicated negative correlation between occupational stress and job

involvement of employees both in public sector and private sector organizations.

• Occupational stress and organizational effectiveness: Occupational stress results in

a noticeable deterioration in overall effectiveness of the organization. (Allen, Hitt and

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Greer 1982) in their study found a negative relationship between stress and perceived

organizational effectiveness. The results suggest that type of stress moderates the stress

effectiveness relationship. (Banerjee 1990) found negative significant relationship

between role stress and various dimensions of perceived organizational effectiveness.

The results were assessed by adopting (Organizational Effectiveness Scale of Srivastava

1997).

• Occupational Stress and Physical Health: It has been studied and observed

by stress researchers time and again that severe and consistent stress is unpleasant and

dysfunctional, and causes significant deterioration in physical and social well-being of

employees. (Rahe and his associates 1964) investigated the effects of stress; changes in

an individual‘s life and behavioural patterns on the health of a person. The studies

reported that stress evokes significant alterations in the functioning of most bodily

tissues, organs and systems. These changes reduce the resistance of the body to fight

against diseases thereby reducing the efficiency of the immune system. (Rahe 1968;

Insel & Moss 197466; Lai 1995) observed that greater is the magnitude of major life

events, higher is the risk of acquiring illness of a serious nature.

One of the most common and fatal resultants of occupational stress are coronary heart

diseases. In organizations, the relationship between stresses of job life and coronary heart

disease was initiated by (Caplan 1971)68. According to (French and Caplan 197280;

House 197281; Sherom et al. 197371; Eden et al. 197782), there exist a positive

relationship between severe occupational stress and coronary heart disease. It was also

revealed that the relationship between stress and risk for coronary heart disease is

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moderated by personality type, work motivation of the focal person and the social support

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perceived by him while in the situation of stress.

In a study (Srivastava 1997) noted that job stress was significantly associated with

psychosomatic health complaints and pathogenic health habits. Even cancer has been

reported to be associated with stress. Literature on stress and cancer provides evidence

suggesting that stressful events are associated with appearance of a variety of cancers,

including breast cancer, uterus cancer and lung cancer (Tache et al. 1979; Cooper 1984).

Stress appears to have a direct effect on decreasing the immune response which might

otherwise control a small cancer.

• Occupational Stress and Mortality: Voluminous researches indicate

towards various consequences of stress and different researchers have associated work

overload, job dissatisfaction, job insecurity, role conflict, interpersonal strains and variety

of other work stresses with physical and psychological symptoms of stress such as

headache, heart-burn and generalized fatigue (Quick and Quick 1984)86. There is a

growing body of empirical findings suggesting that job stress plays a role in hardening

the appearance of diseases A table is presented below which is a summary of the

information on top leading causes of mortality in USA in a year.

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE SEVERITY OF STRESS

The severity of stress is the amount or level of stress that is felt as a result of a stressor.

There are certain factors which influence the degree of stress experienced; these have an

impact on the person's wellbeing both physically and mentally. The characteristics of

the stressor that influence stress include the following:

Significance

How much changes will an event exert depends upon how much the event is important

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and critical to the individual. For example, the death of his/her beloved one, failing in

an examination, breakup with boy/girl friend, etc., may have adverse effect on the

individual. Similarly, a pass in an interview, winning a lottery, promotion to

higher position, etc, may have positive effect on the individual. The greater the

significance and change is, the higher the impact of the stressor is.

Time length

If a stressor continues over a long period of time, it will result in higher stress levels. For

example, insufficient sleep over an extended period of time will result in higher stress.

Cumulative Effect

This is when stressors are built up over a period of time and left unnoticed. It results in

cumulative effect. For example, a long series of little irritations and annoyances

could result in a massive blowout between two people.

Multiplicity

A number of stressors at one time will result in higher stress levels than their sum. For

example, a fight with one's parents, final exams around the corner and loss of a loved

one, etc., all this happening at a time will be more stressful than each of these events that

happened separately.

Approaching deadline

If a demand has been made a few weeks or months in advance of the deadline, the degree

of stress will increase as the due date approaches. For example, if a person is given a

project assignment two months in advance, it will probably seem too far away to get

worked up about. As the deadline approaches, his stress level will increase until he

does something about the project.

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DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS

PAY: The amount that is given to employee. No one works for free, nor should they.

While pursuing money based on negative motives can lead to a poorer psychological

well-being, this is not the same as pursuing money to provide security and comfort

for oneself and family. Obviously, Teachers want to earn fair wages and salaries, and

employers want their workers to feel that is what they are getting. To that end, it is

logical that Teachers and employers alike view money as the fundamental incentive for

satisfactory job performance. (James Houran & Keith Kefgen)

PROMOTION: Reward system is a key determinant of the employee‘s attitude towards

his organization and his work. The systems should be seen as incorporating procedural

justice (appraisal systems should be transparent and fair) and

distributive justice (appropriate, adequate and fair differentials in rewards). Teachers

must have promotion opportunity. (RADHA R. SHARMA, 1997)

COWORKERS: Is the work independently performed or is it team or group based. In

context of Team, the positive relation leads to performance.

SUPERVISION: How much the supervision Teachers want and prefer? Some Teachers

like to be controlled and others want the control. The power that an employee has to

influence his own work activities, either in terms of timing or in terms of methods or

both, so as to fulfill the super-ordinate objectives of the organization is referred to as

control at work. (RADHA R. SHARMA, 1997).

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

Job satisfaction factors are derived from the various theories and previously done

researches. The theoretical approach that was used in this study to examine job

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satisfaction is Hertzberg‘s two-factor theory of motivation (Freidrik Hertzberg (1966)),

Maslows hierarchy of needs theory (Abraham Maslows). Additionally to enhance

Hertzberg‘s theory regarding job satisfaction factors, different types of measurement-

evaluation theories have also explained job satisfaction (i.e., single-item, general, or

facet-specific). In the measurement evaluation theories, the Job Description Index

(JDI) developed by Smith et al. and the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ)

developed by Weiss et al. were used. (Cf. Smith, Kendall, and Hulin‘s (1969) (Cf.

Wallace D. Boeve, 2007)

The most important demographic variable that receives huge attention in job satisfaction

research is sex. A number of empirical studies on job satisfaction have suggested that

female workers have lower level of job satisfaction than their male counterparts because

male officials dominate most of the public organizations. Another common

demographic variable studied is educational level (Hameed & Soomro, 2014). Most of

the researches on the relationship between education level and job satisfaction yield

consistent findings (Iqbal, Hameed & Devi, 2012). Especially Griffin, Dunbar &

McGill (1978) found that workers with higher educational level would tend to be more

satisfied with their job than workers with lower educational level. The third commonly

identified variable in the research on demographic characteristics is age. Worker‘s age

has been found to have a negative impact on worker‘s job satisfaction (Buzawa, 1984).

This means that younger workers are more satisfied with their jobs than their senior

counterparts. For example, a recent study results showed that university graduates were

more satisfied with their jobs when these were consistent with their university majors

than when these fell outside their fields of interest (Vandenberg & Lance, 1992).

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Herzberg (1959; 1966) developed two-factor theory of job satisfaction: ―motivation‖ and

―hygiene‖. According to Herzberg‘s theory, if handled properly, hygiene issues

cannot motivate workers but can minimize dissatisfaction. Hygiene factors include

company policies, supervision, salary, interpersonal relations and working conditions.

They are variables related to the worker‘s environment. By contrast, a worker‘s job

satisfaction was influenced by factors associated with the work itself or by outcomes

directly derived from it such as the nature of their jobs, achievement in the work,

promotion opportunities, and chances for personal growth and recognition. Because

such factors were associated with high levels of job satisfaction, Herzberg referred them

as ‗motivation factors‖. Hackman and Oldham (1975) proposed five ―core‖

dimensions for evaluating the immediate work environment constituting

the Job Diagnostic Survey UDS (Iqbal, Hameed & Qadeer,

2012). These core dimensions turned out to be associated significantly with job

satisfaction and a high sense of workers‘ motivation. That is, the work environment

source consisted of five dimensions, namely those of skill variety, task identity, task

significance, autonomy and feedback (Reiner, & Zhao, 1999).

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory:

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs theory identifies five levels of needs, which are best seen

as a hierarchy with the most basic need emerging first and the most sophisticated

need last. People move up the hierarchy one level at a time. Gratified needs lose their

strength and the next level of needs is activated. As basic or lower-level needs are

satisfied, higher- level needs become operative. A satisfied need is not a motivator. The

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most powerful employee need is the one that has not been satisfied.

Level I - Physiological needs are the most basic human needs. They include food, water,

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and comfort. The organization helps to satisfy Teachers' physiological needs by a

paycheck.

Level II - Safety needs are the desires for security and stability, to feel safe from harm.

The organization helps to satisfy Teachers' safety needs by benefits.

Level III - Social needs are the desires for affiliation. They include friendship and

belonging. The organization helps to satisfy Teachers' social needs through sports teams,

parties, and celebrations. The supervisor can help fulfill social needs by showing direct

care and concern for Teachers.

Level IV - Esteem needs are the desires for self-respect and respect or recognition from

others. The organization helps to satisfy Teachers' esteem needs by matching the skills

and abilities of the employee to the job (Soomro, Hameed, Butt & Shakoor, 2012). The

supervisor can help fulfill esteem needs by showing workers that their work is

appreciated.

Level V - Self-actualization needs are the desires for self- fulfillment and the realization

of the individual's full potential. The supervisor can help fulfill self-actualization needs

by assigning tasks that challenge Teachers' minds while drawing on their aptitude and

training. (Osborn and Hunt, 2002)

HERZBERG'S TWO-FACTOR THEORY

The study of job satisfaction became more advanced and sophisticated with the

introduction of Herzberg‘s (1966) Motivator- Hygiene Theory. This theory examines the

work itself as a principal source of job satisfaction as contrasted to Maslow‘s hierarchy of

needs. The motivator-hygiene theory describes the concept of job satisfaction with two

dimensions (intrinsic factors and extrinsic factors). Intrinsic factors are also known as

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motivators. Extrinsic factors are known as hygiene‘s. (Iqbal, Hameed & Ramzan, 2012).

The motivators pertain to job content or the work itself and include achievement,

recognition, work itself, responsibility, and advancement. The hygiene‘s relate to job

context or the work environment and involve company policy and administration,

supervision, salary, interpersonal relations, and working conditions. According to the

author, motivators are related to job satisfaction when present but not to

dissatisfaction when absent. Hygiene‘s are associated with job dissatisfaction when

absent but not with satisfaction when present (Soomro, Hameed & Kaimkhani,

2012; 2013). The Motivator-Hygiene Theory is a major foundational theory on the

study of job satisfaction. The intrinsic and extrinsic dimensions of job satisfaction based

on motivators and hygiene‘s allow for the conceptual understanding of work and how it

motivates and provide satisfaction for Teachers (Donald Gary Goff, 2004).

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CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF
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RELATED

LITERATURE

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REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

The survey of related literature is an important step in conducting educational research. It

enables the investigator to locate the gaps and find the trends in research in a particular

field. The information about the designs, samples and research tools employed by other

investigators help the future investigators to formulate their designs with more care. An

investigator must be aware of the new researches conducted in the past and only then he

/she is in a position to contribute something in original. (Cottrell and McKenzie 2011)

―Literature review is most important to identify the problem of the study, which can be

solved by collection of data. It is very important to know that the work done by

researcher should not be repeated again. It also helps to avoid the mistakes, which already

has been done by another one. So researcher can improve the research design and

instrumentation, which was not successful at the last time.‖

―Literature review exercises to analyze the area of the research, which has been

resolved in the study. It is the outline of the research. It shows the gap between the

researcher‘s curiosity and knowledge of the subject area‖

(Houser 2007) ―Literature review discloses appropriate theoretical structure of the study

that helps to understand easily. It verifies that it has not been already done. It is the best

way to establish the importance of the study‖.

The review of the literature serves as a guide post to judge the quantum of the work done

and perceive the gaps existing in the concerned field of research. A critical review of the

literature enables the researcher to go into greater details and wider applicability of the

problem in hand so as to provide new ideas, explanations or hypotheses.

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The review promotes a greater understanding of the problem and its allied aspects.

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Following are some important reviews of related literature for the proposed study:

Kumar and Giri (2009) studied on Effect of Age and experience on Job Satisfaction

and Organizational Commitment.

The study showed the impact of age and experience of employees on job satisfaction and

organizational commitment. Data was collected from 380 employees at junior, middle

and top level management from various public and private organizations in India.

Standardisation scales were used to measure job satisfaction and organizational

commitment. Results revealed that job satisfaction and organizational commitment

differed significantly across the different career stages of employees. It was further

observed that aged employees had higher job satisfaction and organizational

commitment. Job satisfaction and organizational commitment also differed significantly

based on work experience of employees. It was found that higher the work experience of

employees, higher was their job satisfaction and the organizational commitment.

Nobile (2008) studied on Organizational Communication and Job Satisfaction in

Australian Catholic Primary Schools.

Job satisfaction has been associated with a variety of behaviours relating to

communication. However, very little research has been conducted in primary schools

encompassing job satisfaction and a range of communication variables. This study

investigated the relationships between aspects of organizational communication and

facets of job satisfaction. The participants were 356 staff members from 52 primary

schools of six Catholic education systems in New South Wales, Australia. The

participants completed a survey consisting of the Organizational Communication in

Primary Schools Questionnaire and the Teacher Job Satisfaction Questionnaire (TJSQ).

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Ten organizational communication factors and nine job satisfaction factors were

identified. Multiple regression analyses identified several organizational communication

factors that were predictors of job satisfaction. The results suggest implications for policy

and practice with regard to communication in these schools.

Kochar and Khetarpal (2006) investigated on A Study of Stress, Job Satisfaction

and Locus of Control in Permanent and Temporary College Teachers.

In modem humans, stressful situations occur numerous times each day, and may produce

the same stress reaction, but there is rarely an opportunity for a physical outlet for the

stress response, such as 'fight' or 'flight'. At low levels of stress, individuals are not

activated or aroused enough for high performance. Similarly, at high levels of stress,

individuals expend their energy coping with stresses rather than directing efforts towards

enhancement of performance. Thus, performance is high when a moderate amount of

stress is present. Under conditions of moderate stress, individuals are not only activated

to perform, but devote substantial energy towards performance enhancement rather than

coping with stresses.

Lack of proper adjustment at work place and inability of a woman to carry the dual role,

leads to dissatisfaction, loss of energy and inefficiency in work. Stress and low job

satisfaction can be hazardous for any professional. Moreover a negative correlation was

found between stress and job satisfaction. It was further found that the negative

correlation between stress and work satisfaction was significant for individuals with a

high internal locus of control. Jobs characterized as "active" (i.e. high in decision latitude

with high job demands), are associated with higher degrees of satisfaction and reduced

depression. In contrast, "passive" jobs (i.e. low decision latitude and job demands), are

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associated with higher degrees of depression and dissatisfaction. Most of the research on

organizational stress has focused on its relationship with job satisfaction.

These studies generally indicate that job stress and satisfaction are inversely related job

satisfaction is one of the criteria of establishing a healthy organizational structure in an

organization. Job satisfaction is the reaction of the workers against the role they play in

their work. It is the total of the sentiments related with the job conducted. If the worker

perceives that her values are realized within the job, she improves a positive attitude

towards her job, acquires job satisfaction and has low stress levels.

Tasnim (2006) studied on Job Satisfaction among Female Teachers: A Study on

Primary Schools in Bangladesh.

This study is conducted to analyse the job satisfaction among the female teachers of

government run primary schools in Bangladesh. Though job satisfaction is considered as

a factor of social psychology but in this study job satisfaction is analysed from

organizational perspective. Two research questions are posed to identify the level of job

satisfaction of female teachers. The prime aim of this study is to find out the teachers'

perception of 'job satisfaction' and to identify the factors, which affect job satisfaction of

female teachers. To fulfil these aims fifty-seven teachers from seven governments run

primary schools in urban and rural areas have been selected. Among the selected teachers

twenty five are male and thirty two are female teachers. Both open ended and close ended

questionnaire are used to get the answer of the research questions.

The empirical study has found some factors, which affect job satisfaction of both male

and female teachers. The factors are salary, academic qualification, career prospects,

supervision, management, working environment, culture etc., few perceptions of job

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satisfaction and the factors those affect it are same to the male and female teachers. But

here are many perception as well as factors in which the male and female teachers are in

two opposite pole. These different opinions are mostly interpreted in masculinity-

femininity and power distance model of Hofstadter. It is found that both the male and

female teachers are dissatisfied but the female section is more dissatisfied than those of

the male teachers.

Sari (2005) studied on How Do Principals and Teachers in Special Schools in

Turkey Rate Themselves on Levels of Burnout, Job Satisfaction, and Locus of

Control?

This study explores issues of burnout, job satisfaction, and locus of control among special

school principals and teachers in Turkey. The purpose of the study was to determine

whether there are differences between principals and teachers in terms of work status,

sex, and work experiences. A quantitative approach was used: 295 participants (33

special school principals and 262 teachers) were selected and responded to the survey.

The Job Satisfaction Scale (JSS) and the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI) were used to

measure job satisfaction and burnout levels in terms of dimensions: emotional

exhaustion, depersonalization, and personal accomplishment. The Internal-External

Locus of Control Scale was used to measure the extent of participants' internal or external

locus of control. Results are reported in detail in the body of the article.

Ghali (2005) studied on Teacher Effectiveness and Job Satisfaction of Women

Teachers.

This study was carried out with the main objective of studying the relationship between

Teacher Effectiveness and Job satisfaction. Besides these the effect of locality,

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management and subject of teaching on Teacher Effectiveness and Job Satisfaction were

also studied. The subjects were 120 women teachers working in high schools of Chittoor

district of Andhra Pradesh selected by following random sampling techniques. The data

were collected by using three tools viz. Teacher Effectiveness Scale, Job Satisfaction

Scale and Biodata sheet. The findings showed low and positive correlation between

Teacher Effectiveness and Job Satisfaction. Only the management of the school has

significant impact both on Teacher Effectiveness and Job Satisfaction. The other

variables included in the study viz., locality and subject of teaching had no significant

impact on both Teacher Effectiveness and Job Satisfaction.

Butt and Lance (2005) studied on Secondary Teacher Workload and Job

Satisfaction. Do Successful Strategies for Change Exist?

This study analyses the views of secondary school teachers involved in the Transforming

the School Workforce: Pathfinder Project—a project designed to address issues of

teacher workload and job satisfaction. The initiative was launched in 2002 by the

Department for Education and Skills (DfES) to enable 32 pilot schools to explore ways in

which they might restructure their working practices and reduce teacher workload.

Funding was provided for schools to benefit from consultancy support, the training of

head teachers, the employment of additional teaching assistants, the provision of ICT

hardware and software, the training of bursars/school managers and for capital build

projects. Here we concentrate on the evaluation of the Pathfinder Project with particular

reference to possible changes in workload and job satisfaction of secondary teachers in

the 12 secondary schools involved in the project. The reported weekly and holiday hours

worked by secondary teachers are analysed across the duration of the project, as are

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patterns of evening and weekend work. Teachers' views on job satisfaction are also

analysed in conjunction with their perspectives on workload, culminating in a discussion

of their solutions to the problems of excessive workload. The relationship between

teacher workload, job satisfaction and work-life balance is explored within the context of

the fiiture modernization of the entire school workforce.

Zembylas (2004) studied Job Satisfaction among School Teachers in Cyprus.

Recent national and international studies carried out in a number of countries have drawn

attention to the degree of job satisfaction among teachers. In general, it has been found

that context seems to be the most powerful predictor of overall satisfaction. However,

given that most of the international studies on teacher satisfaction have been conducted in

developed countries, one realizes the need in the available literature for similar research

in developing countries as well.

This research examined job satisfaction and motivation among teachers in Cyprus - a

small developing country in the Eastern Mediterranean. An adapted version of the

questionnaire developed by the "Teacher 2000 Project" was translated into Greek and

used for the purposes of this study that had a sample of 461 K- 12 teachers and

administrators. The findings showed that, unlike other countries in which this

questionnaire was used, Cypriot teachers chose this career because of the salary, the

hours, and the holidays associated with this profession. The study analysed how these

motives influence the level of satisfaction held by the Cypriot teachers.

Ventatammal (2006) studied on Occupational Stress Among University Teachers

An attempt was made to know the stress experienced by the teachers of Annamalai

University. The hypotheses examined the existence of significant differences in the levels

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of stress among teachers of Arts faculties and the Teachers of Science faculties. In

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addition the variable like sex, different cadres such as Lecture, Reader and Professor, and

the level of job satisfaction were also studied. Sample studied were 58 teaching Staff.

Results show that teachers belonging to Arts faculties and Science faculties do not differ

significantly on occupational stress. Male teachers and female teachers are not differing

significantly on occupational stress. Lecturers, Readers and professors do not differ on

occupational stress. The teachers who are just satisfied with their job show more stress

than the teachers who are highly satisfied with their job.

Sanghavi (2004) studied on the Do the Government and Non-Government School

Principals Differ in their Job Satisfaction?

The objectives of the study were:

1. To study the degree of Job Satisfaction of the female principals working in

the government and non government secondary schools

2. To study the degree of Job Satisfaction of the male principals working in

the government and non-government secondary schools

3. To study the degree of Job Satisfaction of the principals working in the government

and non government secondary schools

The sample of the study consisted of 900 secondary school principals. The tool used was

the Job Satisfaction scale, which was constructed by the investigator.

The findings of the study were:

1. There was no significant difference on the level of Job Satisfaction between the female

and male principals working in the government secondary schools

2. There was no significant difference on the level of satisfaction between the female and

male principals working in the non government secondary schools

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3. There was no significant difference on the level of Job Satisfaction between

the principals working in the government and non government secondary schools.

Ritu, R. and (2012) A Comparative Study of Occupational Stress Ajmer, S. of

Secondary School Teachers in Relation to Their Gender, School and Locality.

This study has been carried out to find: i) the occupational stress of teachers on the basis

of gender, ii) the occupational stress of teachers on the basis of type of school and iii) the

occupational stress of teachers on the basis of locality.

Three hypothesis were designed for the present investigation: i) Gender does not make

any difference in occupational stress of teachers, ii) Type of school does not make any

impact in the occupational stress of teachers and residential dichotomy has no influence

in the occupational stress of teachers.

The data was collected with the help of Occupational Stress Index by A.K. Shrivastva. A

sample of 128 secondary school teachers was drawn randomly from various secondary

schools of Rothak district of the state of Haryana. The sample comprised of both

male and female teachers representing Government and private schools. It needs to be

mentioned that rural urban factor was also taken in consideration. The collected data was

put to statistical treatment by using Mean, SD, and test of significance.

The findings revealed that: i) gender could not differentiate teachers in occupational

stress, ii) Private and government school teachers were different in some of the factors on

occupational stress and iii) Locality had a significant influence in occupational stress of

teachers.

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Pabla, M.S (2013) Occupational Stress Amongst Teachers of Professional

Colleges in Punjab.

This study attempts to study i) the occupational stress of teachers of professional

colleges in Punjab to recommend suitable interventions to alleviate the occupational

stress level. A sample of two hundred teachers were selected randomly from various

professional colleges. The Occupational Stress Index, developed by A.K. Srivastava

and A.P. Singh was used to carry out the study. The analysis revealed no significant

difference between male and female teachers with respect to occupational stress level.

However a significant difference between teachers teaching in the professional colleges

located in rural and urban areas was reputed. To reduce the level of occupational

stress deliberate efforts were made to find greater job security, accountability, workload,

provisions for timely promotions, medical facilities and provisions of perks.

Lath, S.K.(2014) A Study of Occupational Stress among Teachers of Privately

Managed Schools and Government Schools in Relation to Age, Gender and

Experiences.

The study is an endeavour to find out the causes of stress among teachers. The

teachers of private and government schools were administered the Occupational Role

questionnaire, a part of Occupational stress inventory (OSI) by Osipow, S. H. & Spokane,

A. R. A sample of total 200 teachers was drawn and questionnaire was given to them.

The values of t-ratios obtained indicate that teachers from different types of schools

suffer stress in different ways.

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Borg and Riding (2011) investigated teachers’ – stress, job satisfaction, absenteeism,

career intention, career commitment and self-image.

A sample of 545 teachers was selected from the secondary schools in Maltese. The

analysis of the collected data using a questionnaire revealed that demographic

characteristics of the teachers were related to self-reported teacher stress, job satisfaction

and career commitment. Further it is evinced that teachers who believed having greater

stress - were less satisfied with their profession; reported greater frequency of absence

and were forced to shift their profession frequently.

Keung-Fai, J. W. (2013) in the study titled, ―Job Satisfaction of Hong Kong

Secondary School Teachers‖, surveyed 415 secondary school teachers – 233 male, 179

female, and 3 not reported – to assess their job satisfaction with respect to the five aspects

– Work, Pay, Opportunities, Supervision and Colleagues. It was initially planned to adopt

stratified random sampling, but finally it ended with informal procedures. The teachers

were reached through friends and at refresher and training programs. The sample

characteristics, in terms of age, sex, teacher training, school type, and post held, were

compared with the population

characteristics to bring down the possible error due to informal sampling procedure. It

was found that teachers had less satisfaction on promotional opportunities. It was

recorded that Government school teachers were highly satisfied about pay and

promotional opportunities. The study suggested that more opportunities for promotion

may be given by refining career ladder. It is also suggested that teachers could have been

given more power and responsibility. It is recorded that the consequences of the

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dissatisfaction of teachers not only affect the individual teachers‘ life but also adversely

affect the school and the public they serve.

Bishay (2014) measured the level of job satisfaction and motivation in the study

titled ―Teacher Motivation and Job Satisfaction: A Study Employing the

Experience Sampling Method‖. Two types of surveys were undertaken to do the

research. For experience sampling method is employed with 12 teachers who volunteered

for the participation. Teachers were randomly beeped by special pagers 5 times a day for

5 days and completed survey on mood and activity for each beep. Totally 190 reports of

teachers‘ daily experiences were recorded. The conventional surveys were done during

the faculty meetings. 51 surveys were successful out of 120 attempts. It is found that

responsibility level, gender, experience, age, and subject handled affect both job

satisfaction and motivation. It is recorded that gratification of higher-order needs are

more important for the teacher to get satisfied. It is suggested to further the research by

including effects of media reporting, outside perceptions, family circumstances, and

leisure activities into account.

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CHAPTER 3

RESEARCH

METHODOLOGY

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INTRODUCTION

A research design encompasses the methodology and procedures employed to conduct

any sort of research. The preparation of a research proposal or design is an important step

in the research process. This provides a basis for the elevation of the project and gives the

adviser a basis for assistance during the period of his or her direction. It also provides a

systematic plan of procedure for the research fellow. Research design is a road map for

researchers. It is a step by step approach. Any piece of research is incomplete without a

proper plan of action. A research is designed to enable the researcher to arrive at a valid,

objective and accurate solution of the given problem as possible.

Research design is thus, a detailed plan of how the goals of research is achieved.

The research design constitutes the blue-print for collection, measurement and analysis of

data. It aids the researcher in allocation of his limited resources by posing crucial choices:

Is the blueprint to include experiments, interviews, observations, the analysis of records,

simulation, or some combination of these? Are the method of data collection and research

situation to be highly structured? Is an intensive study of a small sample more effective

than a less intensive study of a large sample? Should the analysis be primarily qualitative

or quantitative? John W. Best (2007) Research is considered to be the more formal,

systematic, intensive process of carrying on the scientific methods of analysis. It involves

of more systematic structure of investigation, usually resulting in some sort of formal

record of procedures and a report of result or conclusions. According to Kothari

―Research Design stands for advance planning of the method to be adopted for collecting

the relevant data and the techniques to be used in their analysis, keeping in view the

objectives of the research to availability of staff, time and money.‖

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RATIONALE OF THE STUDY

Occupational stress is stress involving work. According to the current World Health

Organization‗s (WHO) definition, ―Occupation or work related stress‗s the response

people may have when presented with work demands and pressures that are not matched

to their knowledge and abilities and which challenge their ability to cope‖. Occupational

stress nearly every one agrees that occupational stress results from the interaction of the

worker and their conditions of work.

Job satisfaction is on attitude that employees have about their work and based on

numerous factors, both intrinsic and extrinsic to the individuals. Job satisfaction is

important from the retaining the appropriate employees within the organization: it is

about fitting the right person to the right job in the right culture and keeping them

satisfied.

L. NAHAR ET AL. (2013 investigated relationship of job satisfaction, job stress and

mental health on government and non-government employees. And found job satisfaction

among male employees was better than female employees but job stress and mental

health found equal in both sex. Non government employees found to feel more job stress

than government employees. But in job satisfaction and mental health both are equal.

And mental health for the Government employee is little bit higher than non-government

employee and also by sex job stress and mental health and sex was a negative

relationship, but not significant.

Dr. Beulah Viji Christiana. M, & Dr. Mahalakshmi, V. (2013) Role Stress and its Impact

on Public and Private Sector Managers in Chennai: An Empirical Study and found ,there

is no significant difference in the stress experienced by both the public and private sector

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managers certain individual stressors such as work experience and educational

qualifications yield differences D‗Aleo, Stebbins, Lowe, Lees, and Ham (2007) examine

a sample of 559 public and 105 private sector employees to assess their respective risk

profiles. They find that public sector employees face more stress than private sector

employees. Malik (2011) collects data on 200 bank employees in Quetta, Pakistan, of

which 100 work in public sector banks and the remaining 100 in private sector banks.

The author finds that there is a significant difference in the level of stress to which both

groups are subject, and that public sector bank employees face a high level of

occupational stress. Bushara Bano and Rajiv Kumar Jha (2012), The aim of this study is

to explore the differences in job-related stress, if any, between public and private sector

employees, based on ten role stressors .and found both public and private sector

employees face moderate levels of stress. While there is no significant difference overall

between public and private sector employees in terms of total stress levels, certain

individual stressors—such as work experience and educational qualifications—do yield

differences.

Abu Baker Almintisir, Abu Baker Akeel and Indra Devi Subramaniam (2012),

Comparison of Job Satisfaction of Employees in Public and Private Sector Organizations:

Evidence from Two Libyan Companies job satisfaction of private sector company

employees is significantly higher than that of government company employees. In

addition from the response of the employees from the two sector to the statement ― all

things considered I am very satisfied with my job‖ it can be seen that the private sector

employees are significantly more satisfied with their jobs compared to employees from

the government company (Χ2 = 92.95, p < 0.05)

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While going through the available literature with regard to the present investigation, the

present investigator found that no study has been conducted to compare the occupational

stress level & Job Satisfaction among male and female teacher from government and

private sector organizations. The present investigator feels that there is a need to conduct

a study on the occupational stress level & Job Satisfaction among male and female

teacher from government and private sector organizations. The present study is an

attempt in this direction.

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The following objectives are formulated for the proposed study:

 To find and compare the occupational stress among male and female teachers in

management colleges of private and government in Delhi.

 To find and compare the job satisfaction among male and female teachers in

management colleges of private and government in Delhi.

 To study the relationship between occupational stress and job satisfaction

HYPOTHESES OF THE STUDY

HYPOTHESIS 1: There exist a significant relationship between occupational stress and

job satisfaction of teachers.

HYPOTHESIS 2: There exist a significant difference in occupational stress of teachers in

government and private colleges in Delhi.

HYPOTHESIS 3: There exist a significant difference in job satisfaction of teachers in

government and private colleges in Delhi.

HYPOTHESIS 4: There exist a significant gender difference with regard to occupational

stress.

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HYPOTHESIS 5: There exist a significant gender difference with regard to job

satisfaction.

RESEARCH METHOD

Every study is distinguished on the basis of its different purposes and approaches.

Therefore, so many methods have been adopted. For the present study, Descriptive

Method was used. It describes the current status of the research work. It involves

interpretation, comparison, measurement, classification, evaluation and generalization all

directed towards an understanding and solution of significant occupational problems.

POPULATION

Male and female teaching staff from private and government management colleges in

Delhi were constituted the population of the study for the present investigation.

SAMPLING PROCEDURE

To conduct this study, the investigator selected a representative sample of total 60 male

and 60 female teaching staff of private and government colleges in Delhi. While

selecting the sample care was taken that equal number of male and female employees

were selected.

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LAYOUT OF SAMPLE

TOOL USED FOR DATA COLLECTION

Occupational Stress: A well developed and widely used Occupational Stress Index

(OSI) in the Indian context (Srivastava and Singh, 1981) was chosen to assess the

occupational stress of the sample. The questionnaire is consisted of 46 statements with

five alternative responses e.g., 5 for strongly agree, 4 for mildly agree 3 agree, 2 for

disagree and 1 for strongly disagree. Total score on this scale was considered for the

assessment of occupational stress. More the score on this scale indicates more stress.

Main features of the Tool

The scale consists of 46 items, each to be rated on the five- point scale. Out of 46 items,

28 are ‗true- keyed‘ and rest 18 are ‗false- keyed‘. The items relate to almost all relevant

components of the job life which causes stress in some way or the other, such as, role

over- load, role ambiguity, role conflict, group and political pressures, responsibility for

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persons, under participation, powerlessness, poor peer relations, intrinsic

impoverishment, low status, strenuous working conditions, and unprofitability.

The following Table gives an account of the items constituting various sub- scales of the

O. S. I. along with their indices of internal consistency.

Sub- Scales (Occupa琀椀onal Stressors) Serial number of the items Range of rabis
in the schedule
Role overload 1, 13, 25, 36, 44, 46 .30 - .46
Role ambiguity 2, 14*, 26, 37 .20 - .48
Role con昀氀ict 3, 15*, 27, 38, 45 .36 - .53
Unreasonable group & Poli琀椀cal pressures 4, 16, 28, 39 .21 - .52
Responsibility for Persons 5, 17, 29 .30 - .57
Under par琀椀cipa琀椀on 6*, 18*, 30*, 40* .55 - .73
Powerlessness 7*, 19*, 31* .44 - .62
Poor peer rela琀椀ons 8*, 20*, 32*, 41* .24 - .49
Intrinsic Impoverishment 9, 21*, 33*, 42 .32 - .64
Low status 10*, 22*, 34 .48 - .63
Strenuous working Condi琀椀ons 12, 24, 35, 43* .40 - .62
Unpro昀椀tability 11, 23 .48 - .51

Reliability

The reliability index ascertained by split half (odd-even) method and Cronbach‘s alpha-

coefficient for the scale as a whole were found to be .935 and .90 respectively. The

reliability indices of the 12 sub-scales were also computed through the split half method.

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Sub Scales Reliability Index

1. Role overload .684

2. Role ambiguity .554

3. Role con昀氀ict .696

4. Unreasonable group. & pol. pressure .454

5. Responsibility for persons .840

6. Under par琀椀cipa琀椀on .630

7. Powerlessness .809

8. Poor peer rela琀椀ons .549

9. Intrinsic Impoverishment .556

10. Low status .789

11. Strenuous Working condi琀椀ons .733

12. Unpro昀椀tability .767

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Validity

The validity of the O.S.I. was determined by computing co-efficient of correlation

between the scales on the O.S.I. and the various measures of job attitudes and job

behaviour. The Teachers‘ scores on the O.S.I. is likely to positively correlate with the

scores on the measures of such work-manifest attitudinal and motivational and

personality variables which have proved lowering or moderating the level of occupational

stress. The co-efficient of correlation between the scores on the O.S.I. and the measures

of job involvement (Lodhal & Kejner, 1965), Work motivation (Srivastava, 1980), Ego-

strength (Hasan, 1970), and Job satisfaction (Pestonjee, 1973) were found to be -.56

(N=225) -.44 (N=200) -.40 (N=205) and -51 (N=500), respectively. The correlation

between the scores on the O.S.I. and the measure of Job Anxiety (Srivastava, 1974)

was found to be 0.59 (N=400).

The Teachers‘ scores on the O.S.I. have been found to be positively correlated with

their scores on the measures of mental ill Health, standardized by Dr. A.K.

Srivastava (Prof. of Psychiatry). The following Table presents the indices of ill

mental health of the high and low occupational stress groups of the Teachers:

HOS Group
Symptoms of ill LOS (N=97)
Mean S.D Mean S.D.
C.R.
Mental health
Free 昀氀oa琀椀ng Anxiety 6.17 3.46 4.12 3.55 4.1*
Obsessive traits & symptoms 7.86 3.09 7.69 3.24 0.47
Phobic Anxiety 6.13 3.62 4.43 3.15 3.54**
Soma琀椀c Con-comitent Anxiety 6.50 3.77 4.35 3.39 4.23**

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Neuro琀椀c Suppression 5.35 3.30 4.29 3.60 4.90**

Hysterical Traits 5.24 2.88 4.44 2.78 2.00*
**P < .1; *P < .05

Scoring

Since the questionnaire consists of both true keyed and false- keyed items. Two different

patterns of scoring have to be adopted for two types of items. The following table

provides guide line to score the responses given to two categories of items:

Scores

Categories of response For true- keyed For false- keyed

Never / Strongly disagree 1 5

Seldom / Disagree 2 4
Some琀椀mes / Undecided
Mostly / Agree 3 3

Always / Strongly agree

4 2

5 1

Job Descriptive Index (Smith and Kendal, 1966) developed and widely used in Indian

and internationally used questionnaire was used to assess the job satisfaction of the

sample. The job descriptive index contains a series of statements for each of these five

area and individuals are asked to mark yes(Y) or no (N) or doubtful (?) as related to the

job.

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Positive statements gets a score of 2 for yes, doubtful gets 1 and 0 for no. Negative

statements get a 2 for no, 1 for doubtful and 0 for yes. Only the total score obtained for

the five areas will be considered as a measure of job satisfaction. High score indicate high

job satisfaction.

Instrument Reliability

Reliability was tested because our results were an average of the total opinions of the

whole sample plus the data collected through the samples was measured for its internal

consistency through a probing technique using SPSS version 13.

Instrument Validity

The instrument used in our research is worlds recognize questionnaire and measures all

the criterias of our research. Some questions have been added under supervision of

experts.

Instrument administering /intervention:

The researchers were in close touch with the respondents in order to answer any

queries. Questionnaire itself had guidelines but even though respondents were

provided with specific guidelines in order to reduce errors. Any assistance required

by the respondents was also provided. Researchers need to realize that the research

process itself is an unrewarded intervention beyond any intentional treatment effects or

secondary effects on the research participants or other stakeholders.

61 | P a g
e

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STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

The following statistical tools were used for the analysis of research data. Percentage

analysis, Mean, Standard Deviation, Correlations and T- test.

62 | P a g e

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CHAPTER 4

RESULT AND

DISCUSSION

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DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATIONS

The analysis and interpretation of the data is of great significance. The data as such has

no meaning, if it is not analyzed and interpreted properly. It may be fair to say that

research consists in general of two large steps, the collection of data and the analysis of

the data. Interpretation calls for a critical examination of the results of analysis in the

light of all the limitations of that gathered data. However, valid, reliable and adequate

data may be, it does not serve any worthwhile purpose unless it is intelligently analyzed,

systematically classified, scientifically tabulated, carefully edited, and rationally

concluded.

For every researcher, it is crucially important to know that not only precision in the

collection of data or selection of tools can guarantee the accomplishment of objectives,

but adequate knowledge in the application of statistical analysis is equally important.

Data analysis is the act of transforming data with the aim of extracting useful information

and facilitating conclusion. Data analysis is the process of systematically applying

statistical and or logical techniques to describe and illustrate, condense, recap and

evaluate data.

The organization, analysis and interpretation of data and formulation of conclusions and

generalization are necessary steps to get a meaningful picture out of raw information

collected. The analysis and interpretation of data involves the objective material in the

possession of the researcher as well as objective reactions to derive inherent meanings

from the data in their relation to the problem. Interpretation refers to the task of drawing

inferences from the collected facts after an analytical and experimental study. In fact, it is

a search for broader meaning of research findings. The task of interpretation has two

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major aspects viz. (1) the efforts to establish continuity in research through linking the

results of a given study with another, (2) the establishment of some explanatory concepts

in one sense.

In the present endeavour, the investigator has made an attempt to analyze and interpret

the data of the present study by using different statistical techniques.

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GENDER COMPARISON

Table 4.1: Mean, SD & t-test of Teachers (Gender wise) on Twelve Areas of

Occupational Stress Scale

Gender Statistical OL RA RC GP
Sign
Male Mean 18.460 11.073 15.213 12.833
(N=60) SD 3.978 2.732 3.011 2.789
Female Mean 17.000 10.900 15.840 11.700
(N= 60) SD 4.018 3.314 3.101 2.267
t-value 2.002 0.312 1.123 2.447

Result NS NS NS S

Statistical
Gender Sign RS UP PL PPR

Male Mean 9.226 12.580 9.686 11.913

(N=60) SD 2.195 3.035 2.063 2.443
Female Mean 9.100 12.190 10.060 11.110
(N= 60) SD 1.972 3.177 2.019 2.313
t-value 0.331 0.688 2.694 1.854

Result NS NS S NS

Statistical
Gender II LS SWC UPR
Sign
Male Mean 11.933 8.866 9.673 6.273
(N= 60) SD 3.106 2.646 2.515 1.913
Female Mean 10.950 7.530 9.480 6.000
(N=60) SD 2.633 1.976 2.249 1.550
t-value 0.844 1.526 0.443 0.861

Result NS NS NS NS

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Index

OL- Over Load, RA- Role Ambiguity, RC- Role Conflict, GP-Group Pressure,

RS-Responsibility, UP-Under participation, PL- Powerlessness, PPR- Poor Peer

Relationship, II-Intrinsic Impoverishment, LS- Low Status, SWC- Strenuous Working

Conditions, UPR-Unprofitability, S- Significant at 0.01 level, NS- Not Significant at 0.01

level.

INTERPRETATION

A perusal of table 4.1 gives as the information about mean, SD scores, & t-test of male

and female teachers on various areas of occupational stress.

These scores in case of male teachers are: Over-Load 18.460 and 3.978; Role- Ambiguity

11.073 and 2.732; Role Conflict 15.213 and 3.011; Group Pressure 12.833 and 2.789;

Responsibility 9.227 and 2.196; Under Participation 12.580 and 3.036; Powerlessness

9.686 and 2.063; Poor Peer Relationship 11.913 and 2.443; Intrinsic Impoverishment

11.393 and 3.106; Low Status 8.866 and 2.646; Strenuous Working Conditions 9.673

and 2.515; Unprofitability 6.273 and 1.913. In case of female teachers the results are:

Over-Load 17.000 and 4.018; Role Ambiguity 10.900 and 3.314; Role conflict

15.840 and 3.101; Group Pressure 11.700 and 2.268; Responsibility 9.100 and 1.973;

Under Participation 12.190 and 3.177; Powerlessness 10.060 and 2.019; Poor Peer

Relationship 11.110 and 2.313; Intrinsic Impoverishment 10.950 and 2.633; Low

Status 7.530 and 1.976; Strenuous Working Conditions 9.480 and 2.249; Unprofitability

6.1 and 1.550. The data on occupational stress has further been analyzed by way of

computing ‗t‘ values between male and female teachers on each of the twelve

occupational stress index.

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Area: Over-Load

 The mean score of male teachers is reported to be higher (M=18.460) than female

teachers (M= 17.000). The obtained ‗t‘ value has been found to be 2.002 which is

not significant at 0.01 level of confidence (P>0.01). On the basis of results it can

be inferred that both teachers experience high work load.

Area: Role- Ambiguity

 The male teachers obtained a higher mean value (M=11.073) as compared to female

teachers (M=10.900). But this mean difference is reported to be statistically

insignificant (‗t‘ = 0.312). This mean difference neither favours male teachers nor

female teachers. Therefore, it can be inferred that both male and female teachers

exhibit role ambiguity to an equal extent. The results further reveal that both the

groups of teachers adequately plan their work with clear understanding.

Area: Role Conflict

 The mean score of male teachers came out to be 15.213 whereas female teachers

are reported to have a higher mean value (M= 15.840). The obtained ‗t‘ value

came out to be 1.123 which is not significant. This can be said that both the

groups of teachers (male and female) show similarity in role conflict. This can be

said that both the group of teachers under investigation expressed their

unhappiness with their superiors.

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Area: Group Pressure

 The obtained mean score of male teachers is reported to be higher (M = 12.833)

than the mean score of female teachers (M = 11.700). The obtained ‗t‘ value has

been found to be 2.447 which is significant at 0.01 level of confidence. On the

basis of these results it can be inferred that male teachers seem to be able to

maintain group- conformity as they have unreasonable group and political

pressures.

Area: Responsibility

 Male teachers from government schools scored higher mean value (M = 9.226) as

compared to female teachers who are reported to have low mean score (M =

9.100). The obtained ‗t‘ value came out to be 0.331 which is not significant. It

can be inferred that both male and female teachers show similarity in this

dimension of responsibility. The results further reveal that both the groups seem

to share great responsibility for the progress of the organization.

Area: Under Participation

 The mean score in case of male teachers is reported to be 12.580 whereas in case

of female teachers it has been found to be 12.190. The obtained ‗t‘ value has been

found to be 0.688 which is statistically insignificant. On the basis of the results it

can be inferred that both male as well as female teachers are observed to offer

their valuable suggestions to frame new policies in the working system. The

findings further reveal that the suggestions offered by both the groups of teachers

are taken in right direction and their opinion to solve administrative problems is

always solicited as and when required.

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Area: Powerlessness

 Male teachers have obtained a mean score of 9.686 on powerlessness, whereas

female teachers are reported to have obtained a mean score of 10.060 on the same

dimension. The calculated ‗t‘ value came out to be 2.694 which is statistically not

significant. It can be inferred that the groups under investigation have similar

tendency to express their opinion, instructions and decisions regarding the

training programmes of the employees.

Area: Poor Peer Relationship

 Male teachers obtained higher mean score (M = 11.913) than female teachers (M

= 11.110) in this area. The calculated ‗t‘ value is reported to be 1.854 which is

statistically insignificant at 0.01 level (P<0.1). It can be inferred both the groups

of teachers are same in the area of Poor Peer relationship.

Area: Intrinsic Impoverishment

 No significant difference between the mean scores of male and female teachers was

observed on the dimension of Intrinsic Impoverishment. On the basis of the results it

is observed that male teachers scored higher mean value (M = 11.393) as

compared to female teachers who are reported to have low mean score (M = 10.950).

The obtained ‗t‘ value came out to be 0.844 which is not significant. It can be

inferred both the groups (male and female teachers) get ample opportunities to utilize

their abilities and experiences independently.

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Area: Low Status

 Male teachers obtained higher mean value (M = 7.530) as compared to female

teachers (M =8. 860) in this area. The calculated ‗t‘ value is reported to be 1.526

which is not significant at 0.01 level of confidence. It can be inferred that the

social status of both teachers are not satisfactory.

Area: Strenuous Working Conditions

 The mean score in case of male teacher is reported to be 9.673 and in case of

female teachers it has been found to be 9.480. The obtained ‗t‘ value came out to

be 0.443 which has failed to arrive at any level of confidence (P < 0.01). It can be

inferred that the job performed by both the groups of teachers has made their life

complicated, and cumbersome. The table further reveals that male and female

teachers perform their duties under extreme tense circumstances.

Area: Unprofitability

 Male teachers are seen with a mean score of 6.273 on this dimension, whereas

female teachers are reported to have obtained a mean score of 6.000. The obtained

‗t‘ value came out to be 0.861 which has failed to arrive at any level of

confidence. On the basis of the results, it can be inferred that male as well as

female teachers rarely get reward for hard labour. Both the groups of teachers

expressed their opinion that the quantum of amount is not paid to them according

to the work they perform.

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Table 4.2: Mean, SD & t-test of Teachers (Gender wise) on Five areas of Job

Satisfaction Scale

Statistical WK
Gender N SV CW PY PR
Sign
Mean 59.900 19.700 10.146 14.433 10.093
Male 60
SD 5.154 2.314 1.229 2.280 1.887

Mean 59.140 19.460 10.130 14.400 10.020

Female 60
SD 5.634 2.758 1.643 2.800 2.000

t-value 0.771 0.517 0.064 0.0708 0.0397

Result NS NS NS NS NS

Index

WK- Work, SV- Supervision, CW- Co-workers, PY-Pay, PR- Promotion, NS- Not

Significant at 0.01 level.

INTERPRETATION

A perusal of Table 4.2 gives the details about the mean, SD scores, & t-test of male and

female teachers on various areas of Job Satisfaction Scale. The mean scores in case of

male teachers Job Satisfaction are: On Work (M = 59.900, SD = 5.154); Supervision (M

= 19.700, SD = 2.314); Co-workers (M = 10.147, SD = 1.229); Pay (M = 14.433, SD =

2.280); Promotion (M = 10.093, SD = 1.887). However, in case of female teachers the

results are: On Work (M = 59.140, SD = 5.634); Supervision (M = 19.460, SD = 2.758),

Co-workers (M = 10.130, SD = 1.643), Pay (M = 14.400, SD = 2.800), Promotion (M =

10.020, SD = 2.000).

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Area: Work

 Male teachers obtained higher mean value (M = 59.900) as compared to female

teachers (M =59.140) in this area. The calculated ‗t‘ value is reported to be 0.771

which is not significant at 0.01 level of confidence. It can be inferred that the

work status of both teachers are not satisfactory.

Area: Supervision

 Male teachers obtained higher mean value (M = 19.700) as compared to female

teachers (M =19.460) in this area. The calculated ‗t‘ value is reported to be 0.517

which is not significant at 0.01 level of confidence. It can be inferred that the

supervision status of both teachers are not satisfactory.

Area: Co-workers

 Male teachers obtained higher mean value (M = 10.147) as compared to female

teachers (M =10.130) in this area. The calculated ‗t‘ value is reported to be 0.064

which is not significant at 0.01 level of confidence. It can be inferred that the co-

workers status of both teachers are not satisfactory.

Area: Pay

 Male teachers obtained higher mean value (M = 14.433) as compared to female

teachers (M =14.400) in this area. The calculated ‗t‘ value is reported to be 0.0708

which is not significant at 0.01 level of confidence. It can be inferred that the pay

status of both teachers are not satisfactory.

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Area: Promotion

 Male teachers obtained higher mean value (M = 10.093) as compared to female

teachers (M =10.020) in this area. The calculated ‗t‘ value is reported to be

0.0397 which is not significant at 0.01 level of confidence. It can be inferred that

the promotion status of both teachers are not satisfactory.

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GOVERNMENT AND PRIVATE COMPARISON

Table 4.3: Mean, SD, & t-test of Teachers (Government and Private) on

Twelve Areas of Occupational Stress Scale.

Statistical
Sector OL RA RC GP
Sign
Governm Mean 17.520 10.544 15.656 12.272
ent
SD 3.927 2.841 3.147 2.683
(N=60)
Private Mean 18.232 11.464 15.272 12.488
(N=60) SD 4.152 3.041 2.963 2.616
t-value 0.9651 1.712 0.688 0.447

Result NS NS NS NS

Statistical
Sector RS UP PL PPR
Sign
Governm Mean 9.128 12.512 10.080 11.224
ent
SD 2.047 2.919 1.869 2.351
(N=60)
Private Mean 9.224 12.336 9.592 11.960
(N=60) SD 2.169 3.265 2.196 2.440
t-value 0.249 0.311 1.312 1.682

Result NS NS NS NS

Statistical
Sector II LS SWC UPR
Sign
Governm Mean 11.424 8.080 9.552 5.920
ent
SD 2.569 2.388 2.431 1.794
(N=60)
Private Mean
11.008 8.584 9.640 6.408
(N=60) SD 3.246 2.562 2.397 1.737
t-value 0.779 1.115 0.200 1.515

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Result NS NS NS NS

Index

OL- Over Load, RA- Role Ambiguity, RC- Role Conflict, GP-Group Pressure,

RS-Responsibility, UP-Under participation, PL- Powerlessness, PPR- Poor Peer

Relationship, II-Intrinsic Impoverishment, LS- Low Status, SWC- Strenuous Working

Conditions, UPR-Unprofitability, NS- Not Significant at 0.01 level.

INTERPRETATION

A perusal of table 4.3 reflects the obtained mean, SD & t-test scores of Government and

Private teachers on various areas of occupational stress. The details in case of

Government teachers are: Over-Load 17.520 and 3.927; Role-Ambiguity 10.544 and

2.841; Role Conflict 15.656 and 3.147; Group Pressure 12.272 and 2.683; Responsibility

9.128 and 2.047; Under Participation 12.512 and 2.919; Powerlessness 10.080 and

1.869; Poor Peer Relationship 11.224 and 2.351; Intrinsic Impoverishment 11.424 and

2.569; Low Status 8.080 and 2.388; Strenuous Working Conditions 9.552 and

2.431; Unprofitability 5.920 and 1.974. In case of Private teachers the results are: On

Over-Load 18.232 and 4.152; Role Ambiguity 11.464 and 3.041; Role conflict

15.272 and 2.963; Group Pressure 12.488 and 2.616; Responsibility 9.224 and 2.169;

Under Participation 12.336 and 3.265; Powerlessness 9.592 and 2.196; Poor Peer

Relationship 11.960 and 2.440; Intrinsic Impoverishment 11.008 and 3.246; Low

Status 8.584 and 2.562; Strenuous Working Conditions 9.640 and 2.397; Unprofitability

6.408 and 1.737.

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Area: Over-Load

 Government teachers scored lower mean value (M = 17.520) as compared to

Private teachers who are reported to have high mean value (M = 18.232). The

obtained ‗t‘ value came out to be 0.9651 which is not significant at any level of

confidence ( P < 0.01). On the basis of results it can be inferred that both

Government as well as Private teachers experience high work load. The results

further reveal that both the groups of teachers are seen to share heavy works in

their institutions.

Area: Role- Ambiguity

 The mean score in case of Government teachers is reported to be lower (M =

10.544) than the mean score of the Privat teachers from government schools (M =

11.464) who are seen to be higher in their mean value on this dimension. The

obtained ‗t‘ value has been found to be 1.712 which is statistically insignificant

at 0.01 level. The results reveal that both teachers exhibit role ambiguity.

Area: Role Conflict

 Government teachers are seen to have obtained a mean score of 15.656 on ‗Role

Conflict‘ dimension, whereas Private teachers are reported to have obtained a mean

score of 15.272 on the same area. The obtained ‗t‘ value came out to be 0.688 which

is statistically insignificant. This can be said that both the groups of teachers

(Government and Private) show similarity in role conflict. This can be said that both

the group of teachers expressed their unhappiness with their superiors.

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Area: Group Pressure

 The mean score in case of Government teachers is reported to be 12.272 and

in case of Private teachers it has been found to be12.488. The obtained ‗t‘ value

has been found to be 0.447. On the basis of these results it can be inferred that

Government as well as Private teachers seem to be able to maintain group-

conformity as they have unreasonable group and political pressures.

Area: Responsibility

 The mean score in case of Government teachers is reported to be lower (M =

9.128) than the mean score of Private teachers who are seen to be slightly higher

in their mean value on this dimension of Occupational Stress (M = 9.224). The

obtained ‗t‘ value has been found to be 0.249 which has failed to arrive at any

level of confidence ( P < 0.01). It can be inferred that both Government and

Private teachers show similarity in this dimension of responsibility. The results

further reveal that both the groups seem to share great responsibility for the

progress of the organization.

Area: Under Participation

 Government teachers obtained a mean value of 12.512 as compared to Private

teachers whose mean sore is reported to be 12.336. On the basis of the results

it can be inferred that both Government as well as Private teachers are seen to

offer their valuable suggestions to frame new policies in the working system.

The findings further reveal that the suggestions offered by both the groups of

teachers are taken in right direction and their opinion to solve administrative

problems is always solicited as and when required.

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Area: Powerlessness

 Government teachers seem to be higher on this dimension (M = 10.080) as

compared to Private teachers whose mean value is reported to be 9.592. It can be

inferred that both groups of teacher have similar tendency to express their

opinion, instructions, decisions regarding the training programmes of the

employees.

Area: Poor Peer Relationship

 The mean score in case of Government teachers is reported to be 11.224 as

compared to Private teachers who are seen to possess a mean score of 11.960 on

this dimension. The obtained ‗t‘ value has been found to be 1.682 which is

statistically insignificant at 0.01 level. It can be inferred that both teachers show

poor peer relationship.

Area: Intrinsic Impoverishment

 The mean score in case of Government teachers is reported to be higher (M =

11.424) than the mean score of Private teachers who are seen to be lower in their

mean value on this dimension of Occupational Stress Scale (M = 11.008). The

obtained ‗t‘ value has been found to be 0.779 which is not significant at any level

of confidence (P < 0.01). It can be inferred that both the groups (Government and

Private teachers) seem to have ample opportunities to utilize their abilities and

experiences independently.

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Area: Low Status

 On the basis of the results it is observed that Government teachers scored mean

value (M = 8.080) as compared to Private teachers who are reported to have mean

score (M = 8.584). The obtained ‗t‘ value came out to be 1.115 which is not

significant. It can be inferred that this job has enhanced the social status of

both the groups of teachers. Higher authorities also care for the self respect of

Government as well as Private teachers.

Area: Strenuous Working Conditions

 The mean score in case of Government teachers is reported to be lower (M =

9.552) than the mean score of Private teachers who are seen to be slightly higher

in their mean value on this dimension (M = 9.640). The obtained ‗t‘ value has

been found to be 0.200 which has failed to arrive at any level of confidence ( P <

0.01). It can be inferred that the job performed by both the groups of teachers has

made their life complicated, and cumbersome. The table further reveals that

Government and Private teachers perform their duties under extreme tense

circumstances.

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Area: Unprofitability

 The mean score in case of Government teacher is reported to be 5.920 and in case

of Private teachers it has been found to be 6.408. The obtained ‗t‘ value is

reported to be 1.515 which is statistically insignificant at 0.01 level. On the basis

of the results, it can be inferred that both teachers rarely considered to get

rewards for any hard labour. The results further reveal that both teachers

expressed their opinion about the quantum of amount is not paid to them

according to the work they perform.

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Table 4.4: Mean SD & t-test of Teachers (Government and Private) on Five

areas of Job Satisfaction Scale.

Group N Statistical ST SC PR SO NN
Sign

Mean 58.784 19.408 9.968 14.048 10.112

Govern 60
ment SD 5.541 2.700 1.496 2.478 1.700

Mean 60.408 19.800 10.312 14.792 10.016

Private 60
SD 5.049 2.271 1.291 2.466 2.140

t-value 1.679 0.861 1.351 1.968 0.272

Result NS NS NS NS NS

Index

WK- Work, SV- Supervision, CW- Co-workers, PY-Pay, PR- Promotion, NS- Not

Significant at 0.01 level.

INTERPRETATION

A perusal of Table 4.4 gives details about the mean SD & t-test scores of Government

and Private teachers on areas of Job Satisfaction scale. The mean scores in case of

Government teachers towards Job Satisfaction are: Work (M = 58.784, SD = 5.541);

Supervision (M = 19.408, SD = 2.700); Co-workers (M = 9.968, SD = 1.496); Pay (M =

14.048, SD = 2.478); Promotion (M = 10.112, SD = 1.700). However, in case of Private

teachers the results towards Job Satisfaction are: Work (M = 60.408, SD = 5.049);

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Supervision (M = 19.800, SD = 2.271), Co-workers (M = 10.312, SD = 1.291), Pay (M =

14.792, SD = 2.466), Promotion (M = 10.016, SD = 2.140).

Area: Work

 It is observed that private teachers obtained higher mean value (M = 60.408) as

compared to government teachers (M =58.784) in this area. The calculated ‗t‘ value

is reported to be 1.679 which is not significant at 0.01 level of confidence. It can be

inferred that the work status of both teachers are not satisfactory.

Area: Supervision

 It is observed that Private teachers obtained higher mean value (M = 19.800) as

compared to government teachers (M =19.408) in this area. The calculated ‗t‘

value is reported to be 0.861 which is not significant at 0.01 level of confidence. It

can be inferred that the supervision status of both teachers are not satisfactory.

Area: Co-workers

 It is observed that Private teachers obtained higher mean value (M = 10.312) as

compared to government teachers (M =9.968) in this area. The calculated ‗t‘

value is reported to be 1.351 which is not significant at 0.01 level of confidence. It

can be inferred that the co-workers status of both teachers are not satisfactory.

Area: Pay

 It is observed that private teachers obtained higher mean value (M = 14.792) as

compared to government teachers (M =14.048) in this area. The calculated ‗t‘ value

is reported to be 1968 which is not significant at 0.01 level of confidence. It can be

inferred that the pay status of both teachers are not satisfactory.

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Area: Promotion

 It is observed that private teachers obtained higher mean value (M = 10.016) as

compared to government teachers (M =10.112) in this area. The calculated ‗t‘

value is reported to be 0.272 which is not significant at 0.01 level of confidence. It

can be inferred that the promotion status of both teachers are not satisfactory.

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Table 4.5: Correlation between Total Job Satisfaction and Total Occupational

Stress

Total Job Satisfaction

Total Occupational Pearson Correlation -0.389*

Sig. (2-tailed) 0.000

INTERPRETATION

In overall, job satisfaction and occupational stress are negatively correlated (-0.389,

0.000) at 0.01 level of significance (2-tailed), signifying that the more the job satisfaction

the less is the occupational stress experienced and vice versa.

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TESTING OF HYPOTHESIS

HYPOTHESIS 1: There exist a significant relationship between occupational stress and

job satisfaction of teachers.

RESULT

―There exist a significant relationship between occupational stress and job satisfaction of

teachers‖ stands accepted.

HYPOTHESIS 2: There exist a significant difference in occupational stress of teachers

in government and private colleges in Delhi.

RESULT

―There exist a significant difference in occupational stress of teachers in government and

private colleges in Delhi‖ stands rejected.

HYPOTHESIS 3: There exist a significant difference in job satisfaction of teachers in

government and private colleges in Delhi.

RESULT

―There exist a significant difference in job satisfaction of teachers in government

and private colleges in Delhi‖ stands rejected.

HYPOTHESIS 4: There exist a significant gender difference with regard to occupational

stress.

RESULT

―There exist a significant gender difference with regard to occupational stress‖

stands partially retained.

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HYPOTHESIS 5: There exist a significant gender difference with regard to job

ssatisfaction.

RESULT

―There exist a significant gender difference with regard to job satisfaction‖ stands

rejected.

DISCUSSION

Comparison of Male Female Teachers on Occupational Stress

The results are substantiated by Pabla (2013) who found that job security reduces the

level of occupational stress. Besides, provisions for timely promotions, medical facilities

and other perks have also been found as the contributory factors towards lesser job stress.

Ventatammal (2006) who found that teachers belonging to Arts faculties and Science

faculties do not differ significantly on occupational stress. Male teachers and female

teachers are not differing significantly on occupational stress. Lecturers, Readers and

professors do not differ on occupational stress. The teachers who are just satisfied with

their job show more stress than the teachers who are highly satisfied with their job.

Ritu, R. (2012) who found that gender could not differentiate teachers in occupational

stress.

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Comparison of Male and Female Teachers on Job Satisfaction

The results are substantiated by Tasnim (2006) who found some factors, which affect job

satisfaction of both male and female teachers. The factors are salary, academic

qualification, career prospects, supervision, management, working environment, culture

etc., few perceptions of job satisfaction and the factors those affect it are same to the male

and female teachers. But here are many perception as well as factors in which the male

and female teachers are in two opposite pole. These different opinions are mostly

interpreted in masculinity-femininity and power distance model of Hofstadter. It is found

that both the male and female teachers are dissatisfied but the female section is more

dissatisfied than those of the male teachers.

Ghali (2005) whose findings showed low and positive correlation between Teacher

Effectiveness and Job Satisfaction. Only the management of the school has significant

impact both on Teacher Effectiveness and Job Satisfaction. The other variables included

in the study viz., locality and subject of teaching had no significant impact on both

Teacher Effectiveness and Job Satisfaction.

Bishay (2014) who found that responsibility level, gender, experience, age, and subject

handled affect both job satisfaction and motivation. It is recorded that gratification of

higher-order needs are more important for the teacher to get satisfied. It is suggested to

further the research by including effects of media reporting, outside perceptions, family

circumstances, and leisure activities into account.

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Comparison of Government and Private teachers findings on Occupational Stress

The results are substantiated by Ritu, R. (2012) who found that: Private and government

school teachers were different in some of the factors on occupational stress and Locality

had a significant influence in occupational stress of teachers.

Lath, S.K.(2014) who found that teachers from different types of schools suffer stress in

different ways.

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Comparison of Government and Private teachers findings on Job satisfaction

The results are substantiated by Sanghavi (2004) whose findings of the study were:

1. There was no significant difference on the level of Job Satisfaction between

the female and male principals working in the government secondary schools

2. There was no significant difference on the level of satisfaction between the female and

male principals working in the non government secondary schools

3. There was no significant difference on the level of Job Satisfaction between the

principals working in the government and non government secondary schools.

Borg and Riding (2011) who found that teachers who believed having greater stress -

were less satisfied with their profession; reported greater frequency of absence and were

forced to shift their profession frequently.

Malik (2010) found that the satisfaction with work-itself, quality of supervision and

pay satisfaction had significant positive influence on job satisfaction of faculty

members. They had high degree of job satisfaction with work-itself, supervision,

salary, co-workers and opportunities for promotion.

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CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSIONS,
995894706
0 &
DELIMITATIONS

SUGGESTIONS

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CONCLUSION

Teachers are satisfied with the recognition they got from their good work but are

indifferent with the hours of their work. Job satisfaction is inversely correlated with

occupational stress for the sampled teachers.

With regard to the government and private comparison of job satisfaction and

occupational stress, there were no differences were found among male and female

teachers in management colleges in Delhi.

With regard to the gender comparison of job satisfaction and occupational stress, there

were no differences were found among male and female teachers in management colleges

of private and government in Delhi.

DELIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

 The study is based on the data collected from male and female teachers in

government and private colleges in Delhi.

 The study is further delimited to 60 male and 60 female teaching staff of private

and government colleges in Delhi.

SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

1. The present investigation was carried out on male and female teachers of state

Delhi. Therefore, the present investigator suggests to carry out a similar study in the other

districts for result confirmation.

2. It is suggested to carry an investigation on similar variables on the basis of rural urban

dichotomy

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3. A comprehensive research is recommended to be carried out in other districts of

the country in order to get a comprehensive data base about the occupational stress and

job satisfaction of male and female teachers.

4. The present investigation studied the male and female teachers group only similar

study may be conducted on manager, seniors etc.

5. The future researchers should take a large sample in order to increase the

generalization of the results.

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REFERENCES

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REFERENCES

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 Cooper, C.L., and Kelly, M. (1993). Occupational stress in Head teachers‘: A

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 Hrebiniak, L.G and Alutto, J.A. (1972). Personal and role related factors in the

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 Kumar, P.B. and Giri, V.N. (2009) Effect of Age and Experience on Job

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 Kochar, G.K. and Khetarpal, A (2006) A Study of Stress, Job Satisfaction and

Locus of Control in Permanent and Temporary College Teachers. Journal of All

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 Lath, S.K. (2014). A study of Occupational Stress among Teachers of Privately

managed schools and Government schools in relation to age, gender and

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67-80.

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 L. NAHAR ET AL. (2013, A investigated relationship of job satisfaction, job

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of work stress on Job Performance A Study on Textile Sector of Faisalabad‖,

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 Ongori, H. and Agolla J.E. (2008). Occupational stress in organizations and its

effects on organizational performance. Journal of Management Research. Vol.

8, No. 3. South Asia Publications.

 Pabla, M.S. (2012). Occupational Stress amongst teachers of professional colleges in

Punjab. Indian Journal of Research, Paripex. Vol. 1.

 Pathak Deepti (2012) ― Role of Perceived Organizational Support on Stress-

Satisfaction Relationship: An Empirical Study‖ Asian Journal of Management

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 Rehman Md. Hasebur (2013) ―Job Stress-Employees Performance and health: A

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 Ritu, R. and Ajmer, S. (2012). A Comparative Study of Occupational Stress of

Secondary School Teachers in Relation to Their Gender, School and Locality.

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No.12, pp.192-203.

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 Singh Hamanpreet, Singh Lakhwinder Pal, MongaVikas (2012) ―An Investigation

into Satisfaction Level of Female Employees of Insurance Industry‖, International

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 Ventatammal, P. (2006) Occupational Stress Among University Teachers. Journal

of Psychological Researches. Vol 42 No. 1 P 73-76.

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APPENDIX

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QUESTIONNAIRE

OCCUPATIONAL STRESS INDEX

Name………………………………………… Sex ……………… Age…………..

Occupation……………………………..

Designation……………………………………….

Experience……………………………..

Date…………………………………………….

[ NOTE : - Please check on a 5 points scale of agreement of all the following

statements i.e. Strongly Agree (SA), Mildly Agree (MA), Agree (A), Disagree (D),

Strongly Disagree (SD).]

S.NO. STATEMENT SA MA A D SD

1 I have to do a lot of work in this job.

2. The available information relating to my

job role and is outcomes are vague and

insufficient.

3. My different officers often give

contradictory instructions regarding my

work.

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4. Sometimes it becomes complex problem

for me to make adjustment between

political/group pressures and formal rules

and instructions.

5. The responsibility for the efficiency and

productivity of many employs is trust

upon me

6. Most of suggestions are headed

and implemented here.

7. My decisions and instructions concerning

distribution of assignment among

employees are properly followed.

8. I have to work with persons whom I like

9. My assignments are of monotonous nature

10. Higher authorities do care for my self-

respect

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11. I get less salary in comparison to the

quantum of20.
my labour/work
Some of my colleagues and subordinates

try to defame and malign me as

12. I do my work under tense

unsuccessful.

in circumstances
21. I get sample opportunity to utilize my

abilities and experience independently.

13. Owing to excessive

22. work
This jobload, I have tomy social status.
has enhanced

manage with
23. insufficient
I am seldomnumber
rewarded for my hard labour

of employees and recourses.

and efficient performance.

14. The objectives

24. of my wok
Some of role are quite
my assignments’ are quite risky

clear and adequately

andplanned.
complicated.

15. Officials do
25. notI have
interface with offmymy work hurriedly
to dispose

jurisdiction and working

owing methods.
to excessive work load.

16. I have to some

26. work unwillingly
I am unable to owing to my duties smoothly owing
perform

do certain group/political pressures.

to uncertainty and ambiguity of the scope of my

17. I am responsible jurisdiction

for the future of a

number of employees.
and authorities.

18. Co-operation
27. is Ifrequently sought with clear instructions and
am not provided

in solving the facilities regarding the new

sufficient

administrative or industrial
assignments trusted to me

problems at28.
higher In
level.
order to maintain group conformity
19. My suggestions regarding the training
sometimes, I have to do/produce more than the
programmers of the employees are
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given due significance.
29. I bear the great responsibility for the

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progress and prosperity of this

organization/department company.

30. My opinions are sought in forming

important policies of the organization and

department.

31. Our interests and opinion are duly

considered in making appointments for

important posts………….

32. My colleagues do co-operate with me voluntarily in

solving administrative and

industrial problem…………..

33. I got ample opportunity to

develop………………….

34. My higher authorities do not give

significance to my posts and work

35. I often feel that job has made

36. Being too busy with official work, I am not able to

devote sufficient and personal

problems

37. It is not clear that what type of work and

behavior my higher authorities and

colleagues expect from me

38. Employee attach due importance to the

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official instruction and formal working

procedures.

39. I am compelled to violate the formal and

administrative procedures and policies owing to

group/political pressures

40. My opinion is sought in changing or modify the

working system implements

and conditions

41. There exists sufficient mutual co- operation and team

spirit among the employees of this organization

42. My suggestions co- operations are not sought in solving

even those problems for which, I am quite competent.

43. Working conditions are satisfactory here from the

point of view of view of our

welfare and convenience.

44. I have to do such work are ought to be done by

others

45. It becomes difficult to implement all of a

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sudden new dealing procedures and

policies in place of those already in

practice

46. I am unable to carry out my assignments

to my assignments to my satisfaction on

account of excessive load of work and lack

of time

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QUESTIONNAIRE — II

JOB DESCRIPTIVE INDEX

(All the information provided will be treated strictly confidential; your identity will not

be disclosed at any stage)

Kindly give your opinion by (√) in the appropriate box below statement.

Scale Statement Option

This organization is a pretty good place to work. Y N ?

The organization provides you with flexible working Y N ?

hours.

The organization provides safe and sound working Y N ?

conditions to its Teachers.

The wage rates of this organization are competitive with Y N ?

those of other institutions.

If given an opportunity to earn more money, you leave Y N ?

this job for money.

The organization provides you with adequate job Y N ?

benefits.

The rewards in the organization are, equal for all of the Y N ?

Teachers.

You are satisfied with the present promotion Y N ?

opportunities.

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The authority is fair in giving promotions. Y N ?

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Your job is secure as compared to any other Govt. / Y N ?

Private job.

This job is according to your qualification. Y N ?

This job is matching with your interests and skills. Y N ?

Your job is mentally challenging. Y N ?

You are given special assignments. Y N ?

You feel that you are not being used to your full Y N ?

capability.

Your job is repetitive and boring. Y N ?

You are satisfied with the resources and opportunities Y N ?

provided by the organization to help you develop

professionally.

Your supervisor's behavior is supportive for you. Y N ?

You have good interaction with your coworkers. Y N ?

You have enough participation in decisions regarding Y N ?

your job.

The organization willingly accepts the ideas of its Y N ?

members for change.

The organization encourages Teachers to exercise their Y N ?

own initiatives.

The management is always willing to listen and solve Y N ?

problems faced by the Teachers.

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The organizational rules and regulations hinder your Y N ?

performance.

The organization takes active interest in the progress of Y N ?

its members.

The organization recognizes that its life depends on its Y N ?

members.

You are satisfied with your job. Y N ?

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