HEALTH IMPLICATIONS OF FOOD SPICES

A SEMINAR PRESENTATION

BY

MLS. AKA IRENE ONYINYECHI

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL PATHOLOGY,

NNAMDI AZIKIWE UNIVERSITY TEACHING
HOSPITAL,
NNEWI.

SUPERVISOR: DR. NNADOZIE O. J.

16TH AUGUST, 2022

1
 OUTLINE

INTRODUCTION
DEFINITION
ORIGIN
USES AND ADVERSE EFFECT OF FOOD SPICES
HEALTH IMPLICATIONS
BENEFICIAL HEALTH IMPLICATIONS
ADVERSE HEALTH IMPLICATIONS
ASSESSMENT OF THE HEALTH IMPLICATIONS
CONCLUSION
RECOMMENDATION
REFERENCES

2
 CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that this work HEALTH IMPLICATIONS OF FOOD SPICES

was carried out by MLS AKA IRENE ONYINYECHI under the supervision of
DR. NNADOZIE O. J. Chemical Pathology Department, NNAMDI AZIKIWE
UNIVERSITY TEACHING HOSPITAL, NNEWI, ANAMBRA STATE.

…............................... …...........................
SUPERVISOR DATE

3
 INTRODUCTION

The Geneva-based International Standards Organisation (ISO) defines spices as

Vegetable products or mixtures thereof, free from extraneous matter, used for
flavouring, seasoning and imparting aroma in foods (Kaefer and Milner, 2011).

Webster describes spices as any of various aromatic vegetable productions as

pepper, cinnamon, nutmeg, mace, allspice, ginger, cloves, etc., used in cookery to
season and to flavour sauces, pickles, a vegetable condiment or relish, usually in
the form of a powder; also, as condiments collectively. (Newman and Cragg,
2012).

Herbs and spices are plant-derived seasonings used for culinary purposes. The
terms ‘herbs’ and ‘spices’ are often used interchangeably, but they have specific
definitions in botany. Herbs store flavor component in their leaves, whereas spices
store theirs in seeds, bark, and root. A spice may be the bud (clove), bark
(cinnamon), root (ginger), aromatic seed (cumin), and flower stigma (saffron) of a
plant. (Kaefer and Milner, 2011).

In addition to making food taste good, culinary spices have been used as food
preservatives and for their health-enhancing properties for centuries (Kaefer and
Milner, 2013). Moreover, for people of the world, spices stimulate appetite and
create visual appeals to food (Opara and Chohan, 2014).

Spices occur in a variety of flavor, color, and aroma contributing a wide range of
nutrients to foods (Mann, 2016). They enhance and complement flavor in foods
with no detrimental effect on the organoleptic quality of the food (Kaefer and
Milner, 2013). Herbs and spices elaborate secondary metabolites that form part of
the plants’ chemical defense. They make food taste good but may not be delicious

4
themselves, and many of them possess marked pharmacological and medicinal
properties (Newman and Cragg, 2012).

Spices and herbs always have been used for centuries for cooking and medical
requirements. Spices improve the taste, smell a colour of the food and beverages; it
also helps to protect human health from severe, long-lasting disease. It has been
proven that spices and various plants have antioxidant, anti-inflammatory,
antitumorigenic, anticarcinogenic, glucose and cholesterol-lowering objects and
activities, and favourable aspects that influence human thoughts, understanding
and temper (Embuscado, 2015).

ORIGIN OF FOOD SPICES

Spices have consistently been recognized as a part of the culinary essentials (Jiang,
2019). In the culinary industry, it has been a history from its beginning that the
flavouring and colouring have been used to preserve food and used for medical
purposes (Williams, 2021).

Cloves were used in Mesopotamia by 1700 BCE. The Romans had cloves in the
1st century CE, as Pliny the Elder wrote about them (Duke, 2012).The earliest
written records of spices come from ancient Egyptian, Chinese, and Indian
cultures. The Ebers Papyrus from early Egypt dating from 1550 B.C.E. describes
some eight hundred different medicinal remedies and numerous medicinal
procedures (Henry and Emery, 2016).

Historians believe that nutmeg, which originates from the Banda Islands in
Southeast Asia, was introduced to Europe in the 6th century BCE (Woodward,
2003). Indonesian merchants traveled around China, India, the Middle East, and
the east coast of Africa. Arab merchants facilitated the routes through the Middle
5
East and India. This resulted in the Egyptian port city of Alexandria being the main
trading center for spices (Murdock, 2015).

The use of spices in culinary predates recorded history and is said to have been an
integral part of local dishes in South Asia and the Middle East as far back as 2000
BCE (Tapsell, 2006). The legendary Christopher Columbus’ explorations in 1492
were in search of herbs and spices (Kaefer and Milner, 2013). In Mesopotamia, the
cradle of civilization where agriculture began, there is evidence that humans were
using thyme for their health properties as early as 5000 BC and were growing
garlic as early as 3000 BC (Singletary, 2016).

Spices were among the most demanded and expensive products available in
Europe in the Middle Ages, (Daniel, 2018) the most common being black pepper,
cinnamon (and the cheaper alternative cassia), cumin, nutmeg, ginger and cloves.
Given medieval medicine's main theory of humorism, spices and herbs were
indispensable to balance "humors" in food a daily basis for good health at a time of
recurrent pandemics (Bucellati et al., 2013).

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Fig. 1: Some Spices (Ball, 2021)

USES AND ADVERSE EFFECT

A number of studies have come up with exciting results about spices; for example,
antioxidants from spices, such as curcumin (turmeric), eugenol (clove), and
capsaicin (red pepper), were experimentally shown to control oxidative stress in
cells due to their antioxidant properties and their capacity to block the production
of oxygen radicals in aerobic metabolism and interfering with signal transduction
pathways (Rubió et al., 2013; Srinivasan, 2014). Polyphenols from ginger
(Zingiber officinale) and turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) have also been shown to
display radical scavenging properties (Scalbert and Williamson, 2020).They
sometimes contain allelochemicals, used by certain plants (such as Thymus

7
vulgaris) to inhibit the growth of other plant species around them (Linhartet al.,
2015).

Piper guineense (Schum and Thonn) is commonly known as African black pepper,
‘uziza’ in Igbo South East, and ‘iyeree’ in Yoruba south Western Nigeria. The
plant is used for culinary, medicinal, cosmetics, and insecticidal purposes (Anyawu
and Nwosu, 2014).

Fig. 2: Piper guineense (Anyawu and Nwosu, 2014).

The plant is used as a spice for its pungent and flavorful characteristic for soup
preparation for post-parturient women (Chiwendu et al., 2016). In the South
Eastern parts of Nigeria, the seeds are prescribed for women after childbirth to
enhance uterine contraction enabling expulsion of the placenta and other remains
from the womb (Ekanem et al., 2010). It is also used locally in treating rheumatic
pains, as an anti-asthmatic agent (Sofowora, 2012) and also in weight control
(Mba, 2016). The leaves are used to regulate menstrual cycle and as an ingredient
in remedies for female infertility (Iwu, 2014).

Aframomum melegueta (Alligator pepper) belongs to the ginger family

(Zingiberaceae) and is colloquially called grains of paradise or alligator pepper

8
(Nwaehujoret al., 2014). It is variously known locally as oseoji in Igbo, ataare in
Yoruba, and cittáá in Hausa of Nigeria (Odugbemi, 2018). The seeds are employed
as a local remedy for stomach ache, snakebite, diarrhea, cardiovascular diseases,
diabetes, and inflammation (Ilic et al., 2010). The seeds are also used in preparing
yam pottage for new mothers to enhance appetite and reduce the risk of puerperal
infections in most parts of Southern Nigeria (Dike and Ahamefula, 2012).

Fig. 3: Aframomum melegueta, Alligator pepper (Alabi, 2017).

9
HEALTH IMPLICATIONS OF FOOD SPICES

Beneficial Health Implications of Food Spices:

 Pharmacological benefits

Recent advances in our understanding at the cellular and molecular levels of

carcinogenesis have led to the development of a promising new strategy for cancer
prevention called chemoprevention. It is defined as the use of specific chemical
substances – natural or synthetic, or their mixtures to suppress, retard or reverse the
process of carcinogenesis. It is one of the novel approaches of controlling cancer
alternative to therapy (Bush et al., 2011). Tamarind is used traditionally as an
astringent antiflammatory and antidiuretic agent, a laxative, carminative and
digestive agent (Siddhuraju, 2017).

 Convenience

Herbs and spices such as thyme, basil and ginger are convenient to use in everyday
cooking, available all year round in either fresh or dried forms; inexpensive, varied
and highly palatable. Herbs and spices not only provide variety, flavour, colour and
aroma to the everyday diet but can reduce the need to use other less healthy
flavourings such as salt, fat or sugar (Corda et al, 2011).

 Antioxidant Capacity

One of the benefits of culinary herbs and spices are primarily due to their
antioxidant properties. Free radical and related species are generated in the body as
a result of metabolic reactions. Accumulation of free radicals causes damages in
living systems resulting in oxidative stress. The curcumin of turmeric has the
potential to prevent, delay or ameliorate many of human chronic and ageing
diseases such as cancer, diabetes, heart disease, stroke, malaria and rheumatoid

10
arthritis (Mariutti et al., 2018). The multiple roles of traditional vegetables as both
food and medicinal sources have been widely documented (William, 2021).

 Culinary Benefits

One of the major barriers to increasing the consumption of vegetables is taste. The
addition of herbs and spices to other vegetables, salads or even fruits, can help
overcome this obstacle. Herbs and spices such as coriander and black pepper can
be used with other vegetables and fruits or with other foods, to replace other less
desirable taste promoters such as salt, sugar and fat (Odugbemi., 2018)

It has been proposed that the additive and synergistic effects of the complex
mixture of phytochemicals in fruits and vegetables, herbs and spices such asgarlic
has been demonstrated to reduce hypertension in human subjects and to reduce the
level of cholesterol in circulating blood ((Sudjaroen et al., 2015), promote good
health by assisting in preventing cancer and high blood pressure, stimulating the
immune system, improving drug metabolism and tissue regeneration. Garlic has
been shown to be of therapeutic use in treating the neurological effects of leprosy,
perhaps by assisting in the transport of the B vitamin thiamine, across cell
membranes (Sudjaroen et al., 2015).

 Visual and Olfactory Stimulation

Herbs and spices such as curry and turmeric can add to the visual and olfactory
attractiveness of a range of foods adding both colour and an attractive aroma to a
range of otherwise brand foods. Certain phytochemicals give fruits and vegetables,
herbs and spices their colours and also indicate their unique physiological roles.
Colours have been used to promote food choices and contrasting colours have been
shown to be one of the key factors in food selection (Karioti et al., 2014).
11
  Antimicrobial Activity

There are many phytochemicals such as carotenoids, phenolics and organosulphur

compounds, which possess bioactivity beyond antioxidation. For example,
diallylsulphides in garlic are associated with reductions in total cholesterol, LDL
cholesterol and triglycerides, while geraniol, and other monoterpenes, exhibit
antiproliferative properties in human colon cancer cell lines (Ray and Strivastava,
2016). Clove bud oil has various biological activities, such as antibacterial,
antifungal, antioxidant and insecticidal properties. The high level of eugenol
present in the essential oil impacts strong biological and antimicrobial activity
(Raghavenra et al., 2016).

 Anti-inflammatory properties

Spices such as garlic and onions generally have anti-inflammatory properties

which is why they are often recommended in cases regarding inflammation of
certain nerves and tissues. These Spices have been known to help reduce cancer, as
they serve as inhibitors of carcinogen bioactivation, suppress cell division and
promotes apoptosis in cancerous cells (Bordia et al., 2015).

 Helpful in Boosting Immunity System

Curcumin and capsaicin are extremely low in calories and are very useful in
helping the body’s natural immune system. Ginger does not only boost the immune
system, but it also help in strengthening blood vessels and reducing blood clotting.
It is also a remedy for cough and cold. Tumeric contains a lipopolysaccharide, a
substance with anti-bacterial, anti-viral and anti-fungal properties that help
stimulate human immune system. (Karioti et al., 2014).

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  Role in Digestive Health

Some spices (cardamon, tumeric) have been known to aid in reducing problems
related to the digestive system, such as indigestion and constipation. Turmeric
volatile oil markedly reduces the secretion of hydrochloric acid in the stomach.
Cardamon is a spice for boosting digestive health. Its antioxidant, diuretics, and
anti-inflammatory effect acts as a remedy for poor digestion, it eases gas and
cramps. (Bordia et al., 2015).

 Helps Control Diabetes

Many spices (cinnamon) contain a compound called cinnamaldehyde, which is

very effective in controlling blood sugar levels. By slowing down the rate of
carbohydrate breakdown in the digestive tract, spices help improve insulin
sensitivity. Reports have shown that certain spices such as cinnamon are capable of
lowering blood sugar by around 25% in patients suffering from diabetes (Abolaji et
al., 2017).

Cinnamon as a spice is sweet but low in calories and sugar-free. It is an easy

finding and inexpensive spice that can be added to everything, including tea and
coffee. Cinnamon helps with irritation and it helps fight against bacteria.
Cinnamon helps to reduce diabetic disease and has the potential to become a
healthy diet (Bashan et al., 2019).

 Improves Memory and Brain Function

Spices such as tumeric are very effective to help improve brain and memory
function, especially in people suffering from Alzheimer’s disease. Alzheimer’s
disease is a result of the rapid drop in levels of acetylcholine in the brain, and

13
spices (turmeric) help inhibit the breakdown of this compound, thus helping
combat Alzheimer’s disease. The curcunin in the turmeric helps boost
docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) content in the brain. DHA is a form of omega-3 fatty
acid that is essential for protecting the brain. (Siddharaju, 2017).

Certain other spices can also improve memory function in people who are
otherwise healthy. Rosemary is a herb that helps to protect against cell damage due
to the mixture of antioxidants. According to research, the mixture of 1,8-cineole
with rosemary will help to boost brains activity. Onions whether raw, boiled or
fried, increase the blood fibrinolytic activity (Nicholas et al., 2014).

ADVERSE EFFECTS OF FOOD SPICES

 Allergic Reactions

Generally, spices have no known side effects. However, depending from person to
person, allergic reactions can occur in people as a result of consumption of certain
spices. These allergic reactions include, but are not limited to, occupational contact
dermatitis, bronchial asthma, rhinitis and anaphylactic shock. Additionally, certain
spices can react with certain medications and cause complications such as thinning
of the blood, and formation of hemorrhoids (Paleaz, 2014).

 Salmonella contamination

A study by the Food and Drug Administration of shipments of spices to the United
States during fiscal years 2007-2009 showed about 7% of the shipments were
contaminated by Salmonella bacteria, some of it antibiotic-resistant (Van Dorena et
al.,2013). As most spices are cooked before being served salmonella contamination
often has no effect, but some spices, particularly pepper, are often eaten raw and
present at table for convenient use (Gottardi et al., 2016).
14
  Excitotoxicity

Excitotoxicity is a process of overstimulation of glutamate receptors which can

lead to neuronal damage and neurodegeneration. This process is carried out by
excitotoxins. Excitotoxins are amino acids such as glutamate, aspartate and
cysteine which when applied to neurons will cause them to be over stimulated and
die (Geha, 2020). Glutamate, the main component of MSG which is a spice
following the definition given by The Geneva-based International Standards
Organisation (spices are vegetable products or mixtures thereof, used for
flavouring, seasoning and imparting aroma in foods), is the primary excitatory
neurotransmitter in the brain, and it has been linked to neurological symptoms
when taken in excess (Nicholas et al., 2014). Neurotransmitters, such as glutamate,
are important for chemical communication in the brain, where they are very
carefully balanced and managed. Excessive quantities of a neurotransmitter,
however, can cause it to become an excitotoxin, a substance that over-excites cells
to the point of damage. When the balance of glutamate is upset, this substance can
become neurotoxic, leading to enzymatic cascades resulting in cell death (Palaez,
2014). Neurological conditions that some researchers claim may be associated with
MSG include migraines, seizures, autism, attention deficit disorder, hyperactivity,
Alzheimer's disease, Lou Gehrig's disease, multiple sclerosis and Parkinson's
disease (Rivera et al., 2014).

Adverse Health Implications

 Xylopia aethiopica (African pepper)

15
The plant (X. aethiopica) contains anonaceine, an alkaloid and rutin, volatile
aromatic oil, diterpenic, xylopic acid and a fixed oil. The plant contains also high
amounts of copper, manganese, and zinc (Nnodim et al., 2020) reported that the
extracts of X. aethiopica decreased the plasma levels of glucose in an experiment
he conducted.X. aethiopica decreases the plasma cholesterol and triglyceride levels
and this is attributable to the presence of hypolipidemic agent in the extracts. Two
liver enzymes Alanine amino transferase (ALT) and Aspartate amino transferase
(AST) plasma levels are also significantly reduced (Nwaichi and Igbinobaro,
2012).

Fig. 5:Xylopiaaethiopica (Nnodim et al., 2020)

 Nephrotoxicity

16
Animal studies suggest that chronic monosodium glutamate intake induces kidney
damage by oxidative stress (Sharma, 2015). Oxidative stress is caused by the
excessive production or a decreased elimination of free radicals in cells, the
majority of which are oxygen radicals and other reactive oxygen species (ROS)
(Bashan et al., 2019). However, the underlying mechanisms are still unclear,
despite the growing evidence and consensus that α-ketogluterate dehydrogenase,
glutamate receptors and cysteine-glutamate antiporter play an important role in up-
regulation of oxidative stress in MSG induced renal toxicity (Bashan et al., 2019).
Nutrition metabolism and several extracellular and intracellular factors such as
hormones, cytokines, and detoxification processes contribute to oxidative stress
(Corda et al., 2011). Therefore, excessive renal metabolism of glutamate in chronic
MSG intake can be a source of ROS (Stankiewicz et al., 2012).

 Piper guineense

P. guineense has been demonstrated to possess significant antioxidant and anti

atherogenic effect against atherogenic diet intoxication (Abolaji et al., 2017) but
Alanine amino transferase and Aspartate amino transferase have been proven to be
significantly reduced as a result of excess consumption of this spice.

ASSESSMENT OF THE HEALTH IMPLICATIONS

A. RENAL FUNCTION TEST

The renal function test is a panel of tests comprising of – urea estimation,

creatinine estimation and electrolytes analysis. This is done to check if the kidney
has been affected by the continuous use of some of these spices.

The electrolytes are measured automatically using an ISO Analyser.

17
Test: Urea Estimation

Method: DiacetylMonoxime Urea Method

Principle of test: Urea reacts with diacetylmonoxime at high temperature in an

acid medium in the presence of calcium ions and thiosemicarbazide. The
absorbance of the red colour produced is measured in a spectrophotometer at
530nm wavelength.

Reference range: Adults: 3.3–7.7 mmol/l (20–46 mg%) Infants: 1.3–5.8 mmol/l
(8–35 mg%) (Cheesbrough, 2009).

Clinical significance: as a test of renal function, the measurement of urea is

important in determining the healthy state of the kidney.

Interpretation of serum or plasma urea results: A marked and prolonged

increase in serum or plasma urea is indicative of damaged renal function. Low urea
levels may be found in: Malnutrition, Severe liver disease, Water overload etc.

Test: Creatinine Estimation

Method: Jaffe-Slot Alkaline Picrate Creatinine method

Principle of test: Creatinine reacts with picric acid in an alkaline medium. The
absorbance of the yellow-red colour produced is measured in a spectrophotometer
at 490nm wavelength.

Reference range: Adults: 3.3–7.7 mmol/l (20–46 mg%) Infants: 1.3–5.8 mmol/l
(8–35 mg%) (Cheesbrough, 2009).

Interpretation of result: increase in values above the normal range indicates

moderate or severe renal damage depending on the value gotten.

B. LIVER FUNCTION TEST

18
The liver enzymes aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alanine aminotransferase
(ALT) are very important in the list of panel tests to check liver function. The most
important cause of raised ALT activity is hepatocelluar injury. With acute
hepatocellular injury, AST levels are usually higher than ALT levels. As damage
continues, ALT activity becomes higher. In viral hepatitis, both enzymes are
usually raised before the patient becomes jaundiced. In cirrhosis, ALT levels fall
below AST levels. Both ALT and AST are raised in hepatitis caused by
hepatotoxic antiretroviral drugs and some toxins.

Test: Measurement of serum or plasma alanine aminotransferase (ALT) activity

Method: Reitman-Frankel ALT method

Principle: ALT is incubated at 37 °C for exactly 30 minutes in a pH 7.4 buffered

substrate containing alanine and -ketoglutarate. ALT catalyzes the transfer of the
amino group from alanine to ketoglutarate, forming pyruvate and glutamate. The
pyruvate reacts with 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine (DNPH) to form 2,4-
dinitrophenylhydrazone which in an alkaline medium gives a red-brown colour.
The absorbance of the colour produced is measured in a spectrophotometer at 505
nm wavelength.

Reference range: 5–35 IU/l (Reitman Frankel method) (Cheesbrough, 2009).

Value of test: Measurement of ALT activity is mainly performed to investigate

liver [Link] is more specific for detecting liver cell damage.

Test: BilirubinEstimation

Method: Jendrassik and Grof bilirubin method

Principle: Sulphanilic acid is diazotized by the nitrous acid produced from the
reaction between sodium nitrite and hydrochloric acid. Bilirubin reacts with the

19
diazotized sulphanilic acid (diazo reagent) to form azobilirubin. Caffeine is an
accelerator and gives a rapid and complete conversion to azobilirubin. The pink
acid azobilirubin is converted to blue azobilirubin by an alkaline tartrate reagent
and the absorbance of the blue-green solution is read in a spectrophotometer at
wavelength 600 nm.

Value of test:The measurement of serum or plasma bilirubin is usually performed

to investigate the causes of liver disease and jaundice, and to monitor a
patient’sprogress.

Reference range: Adults: 3–21mol/l (0.2–1.3 mg%). Newborns: 8–67mol/l (0.5–

4.0mg%) (Cheesbrough, 2009).

Interpretation of serum or plasma bilirubin results:A rise in the level of

bilirubin in the blood isLiver cell damage in which there is usually an increase in
both conjugated and unconjugated bilirubin (hepatocellular jaundice).

20
CONCLUSION

The health benefits of spices are varied. They help make up for nutritional
supplements, help strengthen the immune system and help control blood sugar and
blood cholesterol levels. Spices also have antiinflammatory and antioxidant
properties and they help prevent various diseases. Spices have the capability to
eliminate nutritional deficiencies thus helping restore correct functioning of the
system. Spices contain many vitamins and minerals, which provide some of the
most necessary elements for leading a healthy life.

Even with all the benefits of spices mentioned, there still are some health
implications associated with them hence they should be taken in moderation.

21
RECOMMENDATIONS

I recommend that;

 More natural spices should be incorporated in preparing food for

consumption
 The spices and herbs with healing effects should be taken more seriously
that the orthodox medicines.
 Intake of other harmful spices should be regulated.

22
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