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SITE ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT NOTES

Management principles
1.4 Definitions
Management is the art of getting things done through people [Mark Follett]. Management can
also be defined as the process of planning, organising, leading, and controlling the efforts of
organisation members and of using all organisational resources to achieve stated organisational
goals [Stoner et. al., 1985]. A process is a systematic way of doing things. PMBOK [2000]
defines general management to encompass planning, organising, staffing, executing, and
controlling the operations of an ongoing enterprise.

Site Management refers either to the study and practice of the managerial and technological
aspects of the construction industry (including construction, construction science, construction
management, and construction technology), or to a business model where one party to a
construction contract serves as a construction consultant, providing both design and construction
advice.

1.5 Objectives and principles/functions of management

1.5.1 Functions of management
 Planning
 Organizing
 Staffing
 Directing
 Controlling
 Coordinating
 Communicating

[Link] Planning – what to do, when to do it and how to do it? It looks at various alternative
methods of executing the work and take action. Planning also looks at each component regarding
the time of its inception (start) and completion, labour, materials, equipment and finance
involved and construction facilities required from time to time. It takes care of the likely
uncertainties to be encountered in execution of work due to various unpredictable factors such as

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weather, difficulties in procurement of materials, price fluctuations, non-availability of labour

due to festivities and illness.

[Link] Organising – This relates to the creation of an organizational set up capable for the
execution of the planned activity and defining the responsibility of each individual in the
organization. The type of organization would depend on the type and volume of work as well as
the method of its execution.

[Link] Staffing – relates to proper selection of staff and in required numbers i.e. selection of
right staff for right job. It also involves in-service training of staff to tackle challenging problems
and be able to shoulder greater responsibilities. Staffing function involves the following
activities:
a) Recruitment and selection,
b) Training and development,
c) Remuneration of employees and
d) Performance appraisal.

[Link] Directing – This function involves motivation, guidance, supervision, and delegating,
counselling and leading employees of the organization. This is achieved by establishing effective
communication between employees and management to develop awareness of the planned
programmes and the means and methods to be adopted to implement them. The object of
directing is to ensure that each employee knows what exactly he/she is supposed to do, how and
when to do it. Planned programmes can be in form of bar charts/network diagrams, estimates,
detailed specifications and other details of work. It can therefore be said that directing
subordinates embraces three essential activities: a) issuing orders and instructions, b) guiding and
counselling subordinates in their work to improve their performance and c) supervising the work
of subordinates to ensure that it conforms to plans.

[Link] Controlling – This is monitoring progress achieved in comparison with the planned
programme and identifying the areas of deficiency so that remedial measures may be taken to
remove this deficiency. It is a three step process of measuring progress towards an objective,

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evaluating what remains to be done and taking the necessary corrective action to achieve or
exceed the objectives (measuring, evaluating and correcting). In construction, the aims of
controlling are:-
 Keep watch over physical progress of each activity so that work is completed as per
schedule;
 Check quality of work as per specifications;
 Control the use of resources (machines, materials, labour etc) to avoid wastage;
 Control expenditure on each item of work to complete the work within estimated cost.
The manager is responsible for ensuring the accomplishment of group and organizational goals
and objectives. To effect this, he must have a thorough knowledge of standards and cost control
policies and procedures so that a comparison is possible between operating results and pre-
established standards.

[Link] Coordinating – This relates to harmonizing the action and approach of various groups of
employees to achieve a common objective. In construction, a large number of interrelated and
interdependent activities are carried out simultaneously and it is essential that the actions of
various groups involved do not cause hindrance in the progress of any other activity e.g mixing
concrete before completing the fixing of bars.

[Link] Communicating – Communication means the process of passing on information or ideas

or thoughts to others. According to Megginson, communication is the chain of understanding
that integrates the members of an organization from top to bottom, bottom to top and laterally.
While communicating, the subject matter of communication must be made very clear so as to
avoid confusion and ambiguity on the part of the receiver.

1.6 Importance of management

The need for management or its importance can be studied under the following headings:
a) Management meets the challenge of change: – In recent years the challenge of change
has become intense and critical. The complexities of modern business can be overcome
only by scientific management.

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b) Efficient utilization of the seven „M‟s:– There are seven ‗M‘s in industries:
Management, Materials, Machines, Men, Methods, Money, and Market. Management
stands at the top and determines and controls all other factors in industries. Just as the
mind directs and controls the body to fulfil its desires, management directs and controls
the organization to achieve desired goals.
c) Integrates various interests: – In the group efforts, there are various interest groups and
they put pressure over other groups for their maximum share in their total output.
Management balances these pressures and integrates the various interests.
d) Provides innovation: – Management provides new ideas in organizations and visions to
the organization and necessary life for better and grater performance.
e) Provides coordination and establishes team spirit – Management coordinates the activities
of the different departments of an enterprise and establishes team-spirit amongst
employees.
f) Tackles business problems: – Management serves as a friend, philosopher and guide in
tackling business problems. I t provides a tool for doing a task in the best way.
g) A tool of personality development: – Management is not in directing things but the
development of men. It makes the personality of the people and attempts to raise their
efficiency and productivity.
1.7 Functions of a construction manager
Construction Cost Management is a fee-based service in which the Construction Manager (C.M)
is responsible exclusively to the owner and acts in the owner's interests at every stage of the
project. The construction manager offers advice, uncolored by any conflicting interest, on
matters such as:

 Optimum use of available funds;

 Control of the scope of the work;
 Project scheduling;
 Optimum use of design and construction firms' skills and talents;
 Avoidance of delays, changes and disputes;
 Enhancing project design and construction quality;
 Optimum flexibility in contracting and procurement.

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 Cash flow Management.

Organisation Structures
2.0 Introduction
An organization can be defined as a large group of persons or associations of persons united to
achieve a common goal and defining the responsibilities and establishing the relationship with
each other employed in the organization. For any business, there are essential requirements such
as men, equipment, materials, money, time and management and therefore organization would be
the coordination of these resources in such a way that maximum output is achieved at ease with
efficiency and at minimum cost.
Though there are no specific rules for the evolution of an organizational structure, be it a client
or contracting company, there are certain basic principles which should always be observed such
as the dynamic goal of an enterprise, adequate decentralization, unity of command and
responsibility, proper channel of communication, legitimate span of control and delineation of
authority and responsibility.
An organization should aim at good team building and avoiding conflict amongst line
functionaries on one hand and between line functionaries and staff support on the other. In any
organization, organizational effectiveness (Oeff) can be described by the following simple model:
Oeff = [(I) (S) (S) (S)] E
Where, I- Individual in an organization
S1 – Organizational structure
S2 – Systems adopted in the organization
S3 – Strategies followed by the organization
E – Environment in which the individual has to work
Though the environment in which a manager has to work can indirectly affect the efficiency of
the organization, with proper training of the individuals concerned, with development of a proper
organizational structure, with the adoption of appropriate systems and suitable organization
strategies, it would be possible to contribute to improvement in effectiveness, in spite of the
environment not being so congenial.

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2.1 Structure of Organisation

The organizational structure is the network of relationships between the various positions in an
organization. Thus, a clear understanding of an organizational structure is helpful in making
more frequent detailed adjustments in the organizational arrangements. Most problems occur in
organizations due to defects in their structures. Thus to remove such defects and render
organization more effective, a systematic and thorough study of its structure must be made. The
efficient functioning of an organization is possible only when every member of the organization
knows the following facts:
 The goal of the organization
 His/her duties and responsibilities
 Delegation of authority
 To whom one is responsible
 Who is to work with whom?

2.2 Types of Organisation Structures

The distribution system of authority and responsibility in any undertaking amongst its members
depends upon the type and magnitude of the work involved. Depending upon the manner in
which the authority and responsibility in an undertaking are distributed, the organization setup or
structure can be divided into the following three types:
1. Line or military structure
2. Line and staff organization and
3. Functional organization

2.2.1 Line or military organization

This is the earliest, simplest and most important form of organization. In this type of
organization, authority descends from the top of the structure to its bottom level through a
downward delegation of authority. All major decisions are taken by the executives at the top and
passed on to their immediate subordinates for necessary action at their level. Thus a direct
relationship of authority and responsibility is established between the superiors and subordinates
as shown in figure 1.

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Advantages of line organization

 It‘s simple, economical and easily understood by the employees.
 Unity of authority and control
 Provides strong discipline
 Quick decisions
 Responsibility is fixed and everybody knows to whom he is answerable
 It provides effective coordination within each department

Site supervisor

Ass site supervisor

G/foreman

F/man brick F/man C&J F/man F/man

wk formwork concrete
works

Charge hands/gang leaders of each trade

Labourers of each trade

Figure 1: Line organisation

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Disadvantages
 The top executive tends to be overloaded with work as all decisions have to be taken by
him such that progress of work and its improvement may not be attended to.
 Generally, there is inadequacy of communication from lower levels upwards though there
is smooth communication from top to bottom. Thus the feedback is not received by top
executives and this affects the progress of the whole work.
 The loss of one or two capable men may affect badly the whole organization
 It‘s not possible to take advice from experts, hence all decisions have to be taken by the
person in charge himself
 As the executives have to deal with different types of problems, expertise is not attained
and
 Due to long channel of communication from top to bottom, there are chances of delay
and message distortion.

Applications
1. This organization structure is suitable for small and medium size factories in which
subordinate operational staff ratio is not high.
2. It is also suitable where continuous process is required such as in sugar and paper industries,
oil refineries, spinning and weaving mills.
3. Where automatic plants are used
4. Where labour problems are not difficult to solve.

2.2.2 Line and staff organization

The line organization is not suitable for large and complex enterprises, undertaking the large
constructional works and heavy projects where key men need advice from expert specialists in
different fields. These specialists are normally staff with long experience. They do not have
authority to command anybody. Their functions mainly are advisory and are not directly
involved in carrying out the major objectives of the enterprise. The ‗line‘ personnel execute the
work to fulfil the objectives of the enterprise and maintain discipline and stability while ‗staff‘
provides expert opinion based on long experience; carry out research, planning, scheduling and
recording of progress. Figure 2 shows the line and staff relationships.

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Advantages
1. The advice of specialists and experts is available at all levels i.e. it‘s a planned and
specialized system
2. Quality of products / service is better and wastage is less
3. It gives increased economy and efficiency though extra expenditure has to be incurred on
staff personnel [experts].
4. As staff personnel do considerable general work, line personnel get sufficient time to
devote to achieve objectives of the company.
5. It provides for large variety of jobs, hence better opportunities for the advancement of
employees.
6. Discipline problem is solved due to line relationship.

Board of directors

Legal Advisor General Manager Chief Accountant

Production Engineer Production manager Quality control inspector

Supervisors F/man Tool expert

Workers
Figure 2: Line and staff organization

The relation of each one of staff members is shown at one level. However, advice say from legal
advisor may be given not only to the General Manager but also to any other line officer.

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Disadvantages
 The ‗staff‘ may not succeed in getting their ideas implemented for lack of authority as
they are not vested with any authority.
 In this system, the duties and responsibilities are difficult to understand which may cause
confusion between line and staff personnel (charts and manuals are required to indicate
clearly duties and responsibilities).
 The expert advice available is conveyed to workers through line officers which is quite a
lengthy route; there is risk of misinterpretation and misunderstanding given advice.
 The overhead cost of the product may increase due to high salaries of staff personnel.
 The slackness of any section will affect the whole working system.
This system is preferred for medium and large scale industries depending upon the internal
structure and nature of production activities-most common in automobile industries.

2.2.3 Functional organization.

In this type of organization all similar and related workers are grouped together under the charge
of one person. The idea is to divide the work in such a manner that each person has to perform a
minimum number of functions and he is fully responsible for that aspect of the work. For
example a foreman in the materials section would be responsible for the procurement and supply
of all types of materials to the workers all sections. Thus in order to perform his functions
effectively, he may have to deal with all personnel in the various departments. Thus in a
functional organization, a subordinate anywhere in the organization will be commanded directly
by a number of supervisors, each having authority in his/her own field.

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Managing Director

Company secretary General Manager

Personnel Production Finance Materials Marketing

Manager Manager manager manager manager

Administration Prodn superitendant Accountant F/man

section
Foreman clerical staff workers
Workers
Figure 3: Functional organisation

Advantages.
1. Expert advice is available through specialists
2. It enables the division of labour on the basis of specialization of functions and in planned
manner.
3. It enables increased efficiency, as each person has to perform limited number of
functions.
4. Manual work is separated from mental work.
5. It maintains the functional efficiency of each person .
6. It helps in doing work as per specifications.

Disadvantages.
1. There is no clear cut line of authority.
2. As each subordinate has a number of bosses, it gives rise to disrespect and weakens the
discipline in the organization.
3. Due to overlapping of authority, it is likely to develop friction between different members
of staff.

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4. The system is too complicated and is unsuitable, particularly for the lower departments in
the management.

This organization is found in government and private sector where much complicated operations
are involved as in big chemical plants, steel plants etc.

2.3 Span of Control.

This is the dissemination of programmes/activities /instructions from top management to lower
levels of administration in order to provide effective supervision. Organizational structures exist
in all forms, the shape of which normally depends on the type and size. Each person generally
has a clear understanding of theirs and others responsibilities in a small firm, but in large firm,
employees tend to be unsure of exactly where they fit in and do not ready appreciate other
individuals positions regarding line ,lateral, functional or staff relationships.
For a sound organization, the span should be short in the number of subordinates over whom a
manager has to exercise control. In order to control, coordinate and execute his /her duties
efficiently and successfully, a manager is normally not expected to deal with more than eight
subordinates at higher level of management but it can be 15-20, at the lower level of
management
The span of control within an organization may be one of the two types;
 shallow line structure
 deep military line structure

Shallow line structure: this structure tends to be operated within a very small organization
where the entrepreneur (owners/bosses) directs the work and operations of all the employees.
The disadvantage of such a system is that the superior would find it burdensome where the
structure is not only shallow but also very wide, superior being directly responsible for too many
subordinates (figure 4)

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Entrepreneur/Boss

Secretary Clerk wages F/man driver Site engineer Estimator

Mason Electrician
Figure 4: shallow line structure

Small businesses use this structure but if the manager is absent, the subordinates may have
difficulty in getting some kind of decision on the problem although it is quick mode of
communication.

Deep military structure

The Managing Director in a company is the all powerful superior with managers; Supervisors etc
being in turn is the line managers to subordinates, the more the managers can direct their
energies to more important and pressing problems.

Managing Director

General Manager Chief Contracts Manager

Personnel Finance
Safety
Contracts manager A Contracts manager B Plant manager

Site engineer A Site engineer B F/man Transport officer

F/man A F/man B mechanics drivers

Workers
Figure 5: Deep military structure

2.4 Responsibilities, authority and accountability.

Managers delegate responsibility but remain responsible. They must either trust subordinates or
check the work. However, the more the checks the less the subordinates feel responsible for the
work. Managers must have authority over subordinates with in identified legitimate limits will do
what their managers instruct them to do (psychological contract).

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Authority comes from expert knowledge, formal position and charisma. More also, authority
depends on the ability to give or with hold rewards. Authority must be sufficient to allow a
supervisor to carry out his duties properly; otherwise it will lead to a build up of frustration. One
must be given the powers to act and the right to enforce obedience. Responsibility without
authority leads to a confused situation and breakdown in discipline. In other words,
responsibility and authority must therefore go hand in hand.
Accountability can never be delegated and there fore accountability to someone in higher
authority for decisions and actions of subordinates is a charge to which managers and supervisors
are subjected. Although organization chart are to illustrate each individuals standing in an
organization, details of each officers responsibilities, immediate supervisors, subordinates,
special duties, limitations and compulsory memberships of c committees must be drawn up.

In general however, the manager /supervisor remains accountable for the success or failure of his
allotted task and should receive the awards or penalties resulting from his actions.

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5.0 TECHNICAL CONTROL ON CONSTRUCTION SITES

 Cost control
 Progress (time) and schedule control
 Quality control
 Resource control
 Construction safety control
 Function and
 Conflict control

Understanding control
Effective management of a programme during the operating cycle requires that a well organised
project control system he designed, developed and implemented so that immediate feedback can
be obtained, whereby the up-to-date usage of resources can be compared to target objectives
during the planning stage. The requirements for an effective control system (for both cost and
schedule/performance) should include:
• Thorough planning of the work to be performed to complete the project

• Good estimating of time, labour, equipment and costs (capital involved)

• Clear communication of the scope of required tasks

 budget and authorisation of expenditures
 Periodic re-estimation of time and cost of complete remaining work.
 Frequent, periodic comparison of actual progress and expenditures to schedule and
budgets, both at the time of comparison and at project completion.

An effective control system monitors schedule and performance as well as costs by setting
budgets, measuring expenditures against budgets and identifying variances, assuring that the
expenditures are proper and taking corrective action when required.

The control systems required on construction projects fall into five categories of time, cost,
quality, function and conflict. Indeed, although this is a novel definition of control systems for
construction projects, the documentation found on most projects actually addresses all five
control needs. Time control is documented in programmes, cost in the bills or financial
statements, quality in the specifications or function in the brief and conflict in the contracts and
conditions of engagement, as shown in Table 2. Clearly, then, it is not the actual control systems
used in practice which are wrong, merely the established theories that surround them.

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Table 2: A framework for control of building projects

General env. Political Social Economic Physical Cultural
Task env. Policy Legal/Inst‘l Financial Technological Aesthetic
Control sys. Time Conflict Budget Function Quality
Document Programme Contracts Cost Brief Spec/drawings
plans/BQs

5.1 Elements of control

 Physical tolerances-dimensions (limits +/-; absolute values, roughness, thickness)

 Material standards (establish standard, manufacturer‘s certification, sample tests on
site, in mat. labs). Systems for site control of materials: contractor‘s testing engineer‘s
testing; comparison checks.
 Visual inspections/workmanship
 Documents (production standards, review/check, approval, records)

5.2 Cost Control:

Cost Control is an obvious objective in Construction Management and Construction Scheduling
It should be recognized that no amount of paperwork achieves this construction cost control the
actual control is achieved through the ultimate decision of the manager that something should be
done differently and the translation of that decision into practice. The paperwork provides
guidance on what control actions should be taken and therefore it is rather a cost information
system.

Cost control is the activity which compares cost performance against the cost plan, adjusting one
or the other dynamically by reference to the changing circumstances in the project‘s financial
environment

The elements of a cost control system are:

• Observation
• Comparison of observation with some desired standard
• Corrective action to take if necessary.

Cost control is the process of controlling the expenditure on a construction project throughout its
construction duration from its inception till its execution and final payment. The main aim of

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p1anning, scheduling and supervising a project is to ensure the maximum benefits from the
expenditure incurred on the project. To achieve this objective, it is necessary to have estimates of
the cost of the proposed work, and be reasonably sure that it can be done within available
resources. During the construction stage, measures should be taken to ensure that the costs are
kept within the estimated cost.

A construction cost control system should enable a manager to observe current cost levels,
compare them with a standard plan or norm, and institute corrective action to keep cost within
acceptable bounds. Most construction cost control systems have an inordinately long response
time. Even the best cost control system would provide information on what was happening last
week or last month. Since, in construction projects some activities might finish in a week or a
month then nothing could be done if the performance of such activities was reported to overrun
estimates of respective costs.

Cost control is an important aspect of construction management, not only for the owner of the
work, but for the contractor also, who has to earn profit out of it. If he does not exercise
sufficient control on cost, the may not loose profit margin, but could incur heavy losses.

5.2.1 Purpose or aim of cost control

The following are the main aim or purposes for the cost control:
1) To determine the estimated profit.
2) To locate areas of inefficient functioning
3) To serve as a basis for future estimating

1) To determine the estimated profit. The cost control data provides the total expenditure
incurred on the work at regular interval or any given duration. The contractor can find out his
profit or loss by comparing the likely payments to him from the measurement of completed
portion of the work and actual expenditure incurred by him. This will provide him an opportunity
to take corrective measures if something is wrong somewhere.

2) To locate areas of inefficient functioning and provide data for reducing cost. Cost
control data indicates the day-to-day cost incurred on various items of work and provides
warning to the site engineers if expenditures are higher than the estimated costs being incurred.
The reasons for the inefficient working can be investigated and remedial measures taken at the
earliest.

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In case, cost control is not adopted, the profit or loss from the work executed only will be known
at the end of the completion of the work and it would not be possible to pin-point exact reason
for the loss. Thus cost control method is a useful tool to find out the inefficiency in the execution
of the work.

3) To serve as a basic for estimating. The cost control data of work provides feed back to
the estimator for up-dating the knowledge of output data of men, materials and machines .The
unit rates of cost for various items of work can be worked out after the completion of a job,
which would be helpful in preparing the realistic estimates for the future works, for which the
contractor may like to tender. However, the cost depends upon the local conditions as well as the
rates of labour. Thus at the time of comparing costs of two similar works, these factors should
also be kept in view.

Thus cost control on a project proves very useful when applied to labour and equipment as
inefficiency in these two areas predominant. Cost control of materials used at the site of work
also has been found very useful.

5.2.2 Classification of Cost control systems

The cost control system to be used for a particular work depends upon the degree of details
required to be exercised the cost of operating a cost control system varies linearly with the details
of work i.e. cost of operating cost-control measures increases with the increase in details of the
various operations to be recorded.

The following methods of cost control are commonly used:

• Overall profit or loss method
• Profit or loss with reference to part payment
• Unit costing
• Comparison with standard costs
• Combination with other functions

1. Overall profit or loss method: In this method, the contractor waits till the work is
completed and then he compares the amount he receives for the work completed with the amount
spent on it. Such a system is useful for small contracts of short duration. This system hardly has
any control on the construction as the result is available at the end of the work. However the
experience gained by this information can be utilized in future for the execution of similar works.

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2. Profit or loss with reference to part payment. In this method, the contraction is paid on
running bill basis at regular intervals for the portion of the work completed by him. Then he can
know the profit or loss by comparing the amount he receives for the work done with the
expenditure incurred by him for executing that portion of the work.

3. Unit cost method. In this method, the rate of cost of each item of work is calculated by
dividing the expenditure on the item by the quantity of work done. The comparison of the rate of
cost with the rates in the cost estimates, gives the idea of the efficiency of the work. This method
gives a clear picture of the items which are going on uneconomically and need attention.
Although limited details of cost records will not give clear idea whether the poor performance is
due to labour, materials or equipment, yet for most purposes, it is sufficient indication of the
items which need attention to avoid losses.

4. Comparison with standard costs. In this method, the cost records of the details of the
rate of cost of labour, materials and equipment are prepared separately and compared with the
rates of these items known as standard costs. This comparison of rates of costs gives an idea of
the areas of inefficient works and the scope of improvement. Although this method is ideal, it is
laborious and costly as great details pertaining to labour, materials and equipment costs
separately for each item of work are required to be maintained.

5. Combination with other administrative functions. To effect economy, sometimes cost

control system is combined with some other necessary operations such as with the organization
of an incentive scheme or bonus scheme. As in profit sharing type of incentive scheme, it is
essential to know the cost efficiency of the work before the bonus is announced.

5.2.3 Stages of cost control

Following are the stages at which cost control is found useful:
 Pre-contract stage or at the design stage
 Pre-contract stage or at the design stage
 Procurement stage at the construction stage
 Post construction (DLP)

1. Pre-contract stage.
a) The cost of a project depends to a great extent upon its design and specifications.
Hence at the design stage or pretender stage, various alternative designs should be

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conscious and out of them, the most economical as well as consistent with the
requirements should be chosen.
b) The specifications should be decided judiciously, and such specifications which
increase the cost without producing commensurate benefits should be rejected.
c) As far as possible local construction materials should be specified, as their use
will reduce the transportation and storage cost along with some other minor costs.
d) The estimates should be prepared accurately from the detailed drawings, using
standard specifications and approved rates.

3. Construction stage cost control

During construction stage, costs consist of expenditures on: labour, materials,
machines/equipment and overhead charges.

Labour - In order to have cost control, there should be effective supervision of labour. The
workmen to be engaged should be selected carefully to suit the job and should be appointed as
per minimum requirements, overstaffing leads to inefficiency. The output should be evaluated
regularly.

Materials - Construction materials form the biggest component of any construction job. Hence
cost control must be exercised at its purchasing stage. Required quantity and quality materials
should be purchased at the most competitive rates from proper sources. Surplus materials should
not be purchased as it deteriorates in storage.

Equipment - Cost control on equipment and machinery may be exercised in the following
manner:

• The right type of equipment as per requirement should be arranged well in advance of the
commencement of the work.
• The equipment should not be allowed to stand idle either due to shortage of materials or
due to oiling or minor repairs. Thus their servicing should be ensured timely and
sufficient material must be available for the work as per requirement of the equipment.
• For carrying out repairs. Workshop having proper equipment must be set up near the site
of work, so that much time may not be wasted in cartage of equipment to the workshop.
• order to safe guard against loss of due to frequent break down, some extra equipment
may be hired.

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Over head charges - By reducing the duration of completion of the job, the over head charges
can be reduced to a minimum.

Safety and security measures - The safety measures reduce accidents, resulting in saving time
and money paid as compensation. Security measures also check pilferage of materials resulting
in overall saving. Thus for efficient and economical completion of any job. proper safety and
security measures are essential.

5.3 Time control

The policy environment of the project is the major influence around the timing of the project.
Timing is influenced by many environmental factors, but the client‘s attitude to the timing of the
project is an issue of policy. Therefore, when considering time, the policy of the client needs to
be unambiguous.

Control of progress
Progress may be defined as the achievement at regular interval of time in comparison with the
estimated work. All planning of any job will fail if progress is not checked at regular intervals.

Purpose of control of progress

Construction works are full of a number of uncertainties and bottlenecks, due to which the
achievements or progress will be less than planned. If the timely corrective action could not be
taken, the work will not be completed in the planned period and its overall cost will increase
many fold than the estimated cost. The record of progress is also useful in case of dispute with
the contractor. Sometimes contractor may demand extra time to complete a certain job on the
grounds that the work was delayed due to the reasons beyond his control such a delay in supply
of materials by the department. In such cases factual progress date is useful to settle the matter.
In summary:

 The of progress gives an idea of payments to be made

 It gives information to the planner whether the work is going as per schedule or behind
schedule
 It gives an idea to the owner, whether he will have some profit or not
 It helps to take corrective measures well in time to bring back the work to schedule if‘ it
has lagged behind.

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Methods of recording progress

The methods of recording progress depend upon the type and size of the work as well as manner
in which it is executed. Generally the following methods of recording progress can be adopted:
 Maintaining job diary (attendance, receipt and issue of materials, number of workers
inspection record, progress of work done weather conditions etc.)
 Maintaining register of instructions/instruction book (communication between the
engineer in charge and contractor). The site engineer/consultant records his observations
regarding quality and progress of the work and if any change in the design of the work is
required, then he records the necessary changes to be done by the contractor.
 Maintaining progress report record (prepared at site by supervisor and sent to head
office at regular interval as decided, weekly or monthly)
 Construction report (report about materials used and progress is daily entered in a
prescribed form).Test results of specimens tested, inspection notes about the work are
a1so recorded. The aim of construction report is to record time, quality, quantity of work
and general conditions of the work to ensure satisfactory progress as per specifications.

 Abstract of quantities and cost. The quantities of various items of works executed are
recorded in the measurement books. Payments to contractors are made on the basis of
these measurements entered into the measurement book. From the quantities of work
executed as entered into the master bill, the work abstract is prepared, which indicates the
up-to-date physical progress of each item of work sub-head wise. The works abstracts
also indicate the expenditure of work including the supplies of materials.

Taking corrective measures. The analysis of progress of work pin-points the important causes
and drawbacks for lower progress. The engineer in charge should take corrective measures
immediately to improve the progress. The following corrective steps may act as a guide to site
engineers:

• Procurement of materials well in advance-right quality and quantity at time when

required;
• Arrangement of equipment and machinery- to be arranged in time or alternative source to
be arranged, no defective plant to be allowed on site;
• Proper watch and ward arrangements- to eliminate chances of pilferage of materials and
equipment;
• Provision of incentive- to achieve a higher output and better efficiency, some incentive
schemes for workers must be announced.
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5.4 Functional control

The physical environment dictates the technology which is available. Technology includes the
physical resource being utilized in the provisions of the built facility. This also ties in the
ecological issues about the effect that the construction project has upon the physical environment
in terms of a control system, it is functional control which forms the strongest link here. The
function of the building, and its parts, is a direct result of the technological task environment.
This environmental factor is concerned not only with the technology of construction, but also the
technology of the client‘s organization. Therefore, the function of the building, and the way in
which the client‘s requirements are achieved, are essential elements of functional control.

5.5 Conflict control

The legal environment influences the development, or avoidance, of conflict. The control of
conflict is an essential part of project management, but is often neglected. There seems to be
unwillingness by many people to even consider conflict; almost as if they were being asked to
contemplate divorce when planning a marriage! However, construction projects are not
marriages, and the purpose of contracts and conditions of engagement is to make clear and
unambiguous enforceable promises. A certain amount of conflict between the members of the
team is a healthy source of new ideas. Therefore, just like cost, it needs to be controlled, not
eliminated.

5.6 Quality Control

Quality is defined as ‗fitness to purpose‘, i.e. providing a product (a building) which provides an
appropriate quality for the purpose for which it is intended. The price to be paid for a building is
a reflection of the expectations of quality. A cheaper building probably uses inferior materials
and is likely to be less attractive and less durable. The quality is also related to the timing of
when it is delivered.

The aim of quality control is to ensure the production of items for their intended use v 11 defects
and variations from their prescribed standards within limits prescribed. Quality control also aims
to avoid wastage of time, materials and money by highlighting the point at which a production
process is becoming defective.

Quality control in the construction industry can be looked at as having three elements:
• To produce a building which satisfies the clients‘ needs

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• To produce a building where quality is related to the price.

• To produce a building in which sufficient time is allowed to obtain the desired quality.

Like most other aspects of construction management quality control has to be planned. Planning
seeks ‗order‘ and a quality control system for a construction project reflects this sense of order.
It may be seen to be in five basic stages:

 Setting the quality standard or quality of design required by client.

 Planning how to achieve the required quality, construction methods, equipments,
materials and personnel to be employed.
 Construct the building right first time.
 Correct any quality deficiencies.
 Provide for long term quality control through establishing systems and developing a
quality culture.

The costs of quality

It is obvious that quality is proportional to costs associated with the construction process. Costs
associated with quality need to be identified for management decisions. The costs of quality can
be broken down as follows: -
Failure costs: The costs of demolishing and rebuilding, the cost of production time, delays to
other gangs
Appraisal costs: The cost of inspection and testing.
Prevention costs: The costs of providing better designs, more training to reduce failure costs,
more maintenance.

Quality Assurance QA
Quality assurance is a mechanism for ensuring that the construction process takes place within
the framework of a quality management system. This suggests that quality assurance defines the
orgnisation structure, tasks and duties for implementing quality management. In ~ Building
Research Establishment surveyed the quality problems on Britain‘s construction sites. They
found that half of the faults were design related, and 40% of the problems arose from faulty
construction and 10% were products failing.

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Design faults
 Misunderstanding the client‘s brief to develop the design
 Using information which is incorrect or out of date
 Misunderstanding of the Client‘s expectations of quality standards
 Lack of coordination between the designers.
 Loose or inappropriate specifications.
Construction faults
 Not building to drawings or specifications
 Poor supervision leading to bad workmanship
 Insufficient management of the quality of construction.
 In order to eliminate those potential problems many clients have looked to quality
assurance to reassure them that they will get the right building without undue quality
problems.

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6.0 SITE ORGANISATION

6.1 Site Lay Out:

Construction work can be considered as a product being produced in a temporary factory. The
site being a temporary factory in which the contractor will make the product involve some form
of organisation and tradition. This is because the builder requires men, materials and plant all of
which have to be carefully controlled so that the men have the right machines and materials in
the most advantageous position and not interfering with the general site circulation and adequate
storage space and site accommodation. Construction-site layout is an important construction
planning activity. The optimal arrangement of different site activities, temporary structures and
services with the aim of achieving maximum efficiency, effectiveness, safety and productivity is
what is referred to as a site layout plan. Site layout planning has significant impacts on
productivity, costs, and duration of construction. Construction site lay out planning involves
identifying, sizing, and positioning temporary and permanent facilities within the boundary of
the construction site. Site layout planning can be viewed as a complex optimization problem.
Although construction site layout planning is a critical process, systematically analysis of this
problem is always difficult because of the existence of a vast number of trades and interrelated
planning constraints. Site space is a resource that is as important as money. time, material,
labour, and equipment. Despite its importance, site planning is often neglected, and the attitude
of engineers has been that it will be done as the project progresses. Good site layout, however, is
important to promote safe and efficient operations, minimize travel time, decrease material
handling, and avoid obstructing material and equipment movements, especially in the case of
large projects. In addition, such a problem becomes far from trivial if a construction site is
confined due to the lack of available space, or if the site is very large, then travelling between
facilities can be considerably time consuming.
The Aim of Construction Site Layout planning is to find convenient and feasible locations for
different temporary faci1ities.
When temporary site level facilities are required to be located on a construction site the locations
of buildings to be constructed are assumed to be known. These locations are used to define
available sites for temporary facilities. Then the problem can be defined as allocation of
predetermined facilities like warehouses, job offices, workshops and batch plants so as to
optimize an objective subject to layout constraints and requirements.

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The contractor‘s planning officer attempts to find the general site lay out in consultation with the
estimator, contracts manager and plant manager before work actually commences.
A neatly and efficiently site layout convey to all concerned including the general public, the
sound standards by which an efficiently organised contractor operates.

To obtain maximum efficiency there is an optimum way of laying out the site and also a correct
amount of expenditure to support the proposed site layout. Any planned layout shou1d be
reviewed periodically and adjusted to suit the changing needs of the site activities. If this is
carefully considered, planned and controlled, it will be reflected in the progress and profitability
of the contract.

The following should be given consideration when preparing site layout plans:

6.1.1 Existing services:

The positions of each utility service must be established and should be shown on the site layout
plan or be marked out immediately on site with pegs or other suitable means to prevent damages
occurring during construction work. These utility services are:
i) Existing sewers/drains and any manholes/inspection chambers cesspits, septic
tanks, catch-pits, soak-away pits etc.
ii) Water mains or distribution pipes including any control valves or hydrant
connections.
iii) Electricity cables above or below ground
iv) Gas mains
v) Telecommunication cables above or below ground.

6.1.2 Hoardings (Fences):- to secure site, prevent noise and dust to adjoining properties.

6.1.3 Access and Exits:

The size of access would depend on how restricted the site is or the constrainment of the locality
of the site. It also depends on the probable sizes of the delivery vehicles and the type of plant to
be used on site.
Under ―access and exits‖ the following must inevitably be taken into consideration:-

i) Number of access-to-site points allowed by the highways authority so as to interrupt the

general public traffic minimally.

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ii) Access and exit road sizes for vehicles and plant movement, and the thickness of the base
depending whether it is permanent or temporary,
iii) Ramps which are necessary for delivery of materials where access would otherwise be
difficult.
iv) Traffic flow directions should be shown to prevent congestion and afford satisfactory
flow of vehicles.

6.1.4 Signs and notices:

The position of important signs and notices should be displayed on site. Other signs can be
erected at the discretion of the site supervisor for the following reasons:-
i) to direct plant materials deliveries
ii) for security and to act as warnings to the public and employees
iii) for ease of location of administration, safety, and welfare facilities,
iv) to show the names and organisations which are party to the contract.

6.1.5 Administration and Other Accommodation:-

Accommodation is considered for each individual site but certain factors will be common to all
sites.

Accommodation for staff is covered by the Construction (Health and Welfare) Regulations 1966.
This document sets out the minimum amount and type of accommodation, which must legally be
provided for the no. of persons employed on site and the anticipated duration of the contract.
Maximum and minimum labour and site staff numbers must be accessed so that the optimum
facilities can be provided to satisfy the safety, health and Welfare Acts and Regulations and to
conform to the agreements incorporated in the appropriate Working Rule Agreements.

 Mess huts - for preparing, heating and consuming food and should be serviced with
drainage, hot and cold water supply. To provide a reasonable degree of comfort, a floor
area of 2.0-2.5m2 per person should be allowed. They should be sited such that they do
not interfere with the site development but in such positions that travel time is kept to a
minimum.

 Drying rooms - Used for depositing and drying wet clothes. A floor area of 0.6m2 per
person should be allowed to provide sufficient space for equipment and circulation. They
should be sited near or adjacent to the mess room.

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 Toilets- Contractors are required to provide at least the necessary minimum washing and
sanitary facilities as set out in Regulations nos. 12, 13 and 14. Sizing of toilet units is
governed by the facilities being provided and if male staffs are employed, separate toilet
facilities must be provided. Toilets should be located in a position that is convenient to
both offices and mess rooms, which may mean providing more than one location on large
sites. Recommended: Up to 100 people inconvenience for every 25 persons. More than
100 people 1 convenience for every 35 persons.

6.1.6 First-Aid rooms:-

Any contractor who has more than 40 persons on site must provide this facility in accordance
with requirements of regulation no.9. It should be sited in a position which is conveniently
accessible from the working areas and must be of such a size as to allow for the necessary
equipment and adequate circulation which would indicate a minimum floor area of 6m2

6.1.7 Contractor‟s office/Clerk of works: - An area of 3.7rn2 for each supervisory staff is
recommended and should be located in a position which is easily and quickly found by visitors to
the site and yet at the same time will give a good view of site operations.

6.1.8 Car parking: - Assume space per car 2.3m widex5.5m long and some allowance for
reversing

6.1.9 Stores, storage facilities and compound: - The location and sizes of space to be
allocated for any particular material should be planned by calculating the areas required and by
taking ml account all the relevant factors before selecting the most appropriate position on site in
terms of handling, storage and convenience. The following should be designated on a site lay out
plan:-

 Hard stands for bulk, heavy materials

 Stores sheds
 Curing shed for concrete test cubes I
 Cement and other essential sheds for petroleum, oil and explosives.

6.1.10 Workshops:- Positions should be indicated to enable the site supervisor to arrange for
the erection of the following types of workshops:-

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 Fitters shops and work area

 Joinery shop and machinery area
 Reinforcement and bar bending area
 Concrete mixing area

6.1.11 Temporary Services:- these are; water supply, electricity, gas, telephone lines and
drainage. These services have to be indicated on the site lay out plan.

6.1.12 Plant and equipment positions:-

Depending on the complexity, size of site and the rate of output expected one would consider the
positions of plant and equipment under two headings:-

STATIC & MOVEABLE

Static Include;
 Mixers and weight batching points
 Tower cranes
 Woodworking machines
 Hoists
 Weigh bridges

Moveable Include;
 Vehicles- lorries, forklift trucks, dumpers
 Compressors
 Pumps
 Cranes (tracked or rubber tyred)

6.1.13 Other Considerations;

 Parking yards for staff and operatives vehicles
 Security lighting positions
 Viewing platforms
 Temporary benchmark position and other control points
 Spoil heaps or dumps
 Protective measures for existing trees, gardens, pavement and other features, which are
not to be disturbed.

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6.2 HANDLING AND STORAGE OF MATERIALS

Materials storage is a very important function since materials wastage can increase substantially
if care is not exercised in the selection of suitable storage points. Pre-planning is essential, and
the site supervisor who fails to store materials when they have already arrived on site is not
operating in the way in which he was employed.

Requisitioning and ordering

The purchasing officer has a number of duties to perform before orders are placed for materials.
When schedules have been prepared, or requisitions have been received from various
departments or site supervisors, enquiries are made to ~suppliers to enable the most competitive
prices to be accepted. Purchase order then follow the enquiries stage to the successful suppliers
whose quotations come up to expectations. Materials should always be ordered for in time to
give the suppliers ample time to prepare for the delivery. Care should be taken where materials
have been delivered too early as there is chance of damages loss arising due to vehicle and other
mechanical damage, damage due to weather, pilfering and theft.

Receipt and Checking of deliveries from suppliers or contractor‟s own yard

Notification from suppliers of impending deliveries should be made to enable the storage area be
prepared and to allow the technical team inspect the materials from the suppliers yard. Delivery
notes should accompany delivered goods and must be presented by the delivery drivers as proof
of the consignment‘s quantity and quality. The delivery notes should not be signed until goods
are checked, and if damages have arisen during transit or there are discrepancies between the
deliveries, the amounts should be indicated on both copies.

Offloading and handling.

Careless off-loading and handling of materials adds to wastage on site and each supervisor is
advised to pay sufficient attention to the methods used depending on the materials being dealt
with. Prior discussions with the supplier with, perhaps an agreement on methods of delivery and
off loading could save the site supervisor time and effort in dealing with each consignment.
At commencement of a contract, a site layout plan should be drawn up to outline the construction
working areas and to show all the site facilities and material storage areas which are codified for
the various key bulk or valuable materials. A storage compound layout would also serve to
highlight to everyone concerned where the various delivered materials are to be kept so that if
the site supervisor is occupied when there is delivery, other supervisors, store men etc may be
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able to direct the delivery drivers to appropriate unloading points by referring to the layout
retained in the main site office. The following are a few pointers regarding storage.

1. Hardstands for heavy materials should be provided.

2. Provide concrete blinded area for loose, materials such as sands and gravels with separate
bays for different grades.
3. Show clear marks and laid out areas for different materials, such as reinforcement bars
and mesh, concrete products, blocks, tiles, timber etc.
4. Provide huts for bags of cement, plaster and lime, taking care to stack materials ‗~ that
the earliest deliveries are used first. (FIFO-First In. First Out)
5. Ensure there are level beds for bricks, etc with covering provided (polythene or tarpaulin)
until materials are require
6. Be sure that stacked materials should not have to be moved to allow operations to be
completed, such roads, services and building works.
7. Lay drainage pipes on their sides in neat stacks, using wooden wedges to prevent
movement.
8. Stack steelwork, reinforcement bars and fabric flat on timber runners off the ground, with
polythene covers to prevent undue rusting and to keep them clean especially if not
required for some time.
9. Move the residue of any discontinued pile of material, especially bricks, along to an
existing or new work area to prevent burials, breakages or misuse.
10. Store windows and door frames in a covered compound area, or stack them perfectly flat
oil the ground on sleepers/runners and covered to protect. If standing vertically care
should be taken to prevent twisting.
11. Put valuable small items in the charge of a store keeper or supervisor. Individuals should
be made to sign for them when required.
12. Store scaffolding fittings in strong bins and not sacks, although the later facilitates ease of
handling at the work place. Scaffold poles when not in use should be stored in racks in
compound area.
Definition of terms
(1) “Block” means a masonry unit having 1 dimension exceeding 15 inches (375mm), and 1
of its other 2 dimensions exceeding 7 inches (175mm)
(2) “Brick” means a masonry unit which is not a block.
(3) “Chain” means a series of metal links connected to. or fitted into, one another. (4) ―Lay‖
means the lengthwise distance required by a single strand to make 1 complete spiral
around the rope

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(5) “Rigging equipment” means chain, wire rope, fibre rope, synthetic rope, sling, and their
accessories and includes hoisting lines
(6) “Rope” means and or series of strands of fibre, synthetic or wire braided woven or
twisted together.

General provisions; storage

(1) All material shall be stacked, racked, blocked, interlocked, or otherwise secured to
prevent sliding, falling, or collapse during storage or transit
(a) Structural steel, poles, pipe, bar stock, and other cylindrical materials, unless racked, shall
be stacked and blocked so as to prevent spreading or tilting
(2) Before material is unloaded from a railcar or vehicle or removed from storage, the load or
pile shall be examined to ascertain if the material has shifted, binders or stakes have
broken, or the load or pile is otherwise hazardous to an employee. If a hazardous
condition is found, an attempt shall not be made to remove the load until corrective
measures are taken that will ensure the safety of the employee who is exposed to the
hazardous condition
(3) The maximum safe load limit in pounds or kg per square metre of a floor or roof of a
building shall be conspicuously posted in all storage areas, except a slab on grade. The
maximum safe load limit shall not be exceeded

(4) Except for masonry and mortar, material shall not be stored within 4 feet (1 .2 m) of a
working edge during overhand bricklaying or related work
(5) Gravel, sand, and crushed stone shall be withdrawn from a pile or barrow area in a
manner that prevents overhangs and vertical faces
(6) Storage areas, aisles and passageways shall be kept free of the accumulation of materials
that constitutes a hazard to the movement of material-handling equipment and employees.
Such areas shall he kept in good repair.
(7) Difference in road or work levels exists. Ramps, grading, or blocking shall be provided to
ensure the safe movement of material-handling equipment
(8) A railcar, truck, or semitrailer shall be chocked or otherwise secured during loading and
unloading if the movement of a railcar, truck, or trailer could create a hazard for the
employee
(9) A load line shall not be wrapped around the material being lifted
(10) A material shall not be stored with any other material with which it could react and cause
a hazardous condition

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(11) While roofing work is being performed, materials and equipment shall not be stored
within 6 feet (1.8 m) roof edge, unless guardrails are erected at the roof edge
(12) Materials that are piled, grouped. or stacked near a roof edge shall be stable and self-
supporting
(13) Material stored inside buildings under construction shall not be placed within 6 feet of
any hoist way or inside floor openings, nor within 3metres of an exterior wall that does
not extend above the top of the material stored
(14) Non-compatible materials shall be segregated in storage
(15) Storage areas shall be kept free from accumulation of materials that constitute hazards
from tripping, fire, explosion, or pest harbourage. Vegetation control shall be exercised
when necessary.
(16) Materials shall not be stored on scaffolds or runways in excess of supplies needed for
immediate operations
(17) Portable and powered dock boards shall be strong enough to carry the load
imposed on them
(18) Portable dock boards shall be secured in position by being anchored and equipped with
devices that will prevent slipping
(19) Handholds, or other effective means, shall be provided on portable dock boards to permit
safe handling.
(20) Positive protection shall be provided to prevent railroad cars from being moved while
dock boards or bridge plates are in position.

1. Storage of bagged material, brick, and block

(1) The height of a manually stacked pile of bagged material weighing more than 13.6kg per
bag, shall not exceed 5 feet.

(2) Bagged material on a pallet shall be all of the following:

(a) Not more than 36 inches in height.
(b) Secured to prevent displacement from the pallet before moving.
(c) Stacked not more than 2 pallets high.
(d) Stacked by stepping back the layers and cross-keying the bags at least every 10 bags
high.
(3) A loose brick or tile stack shall be all of the following:
(a) Tapered back 2 inches in every foot of height above 4 feet.
(b) Not exceed 6 feet in height.
(c) Cross-keyed at each 2-foot level.
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(4) A loose block ~4k shall be all of the following:

(a) Not exceed 6 feet in height.
(b) Cross-keyed at each 3-foot level.
(5) Brick on a pallet shall be all of the following:
(a) Not more than 30 inches in height.
(b) Secured to prevent displacement from the pallet before moving.
(c) Stacked not more than 2 pallets high.
(6) Block on a pallet shall be all of the following:
(a) Not more than 46 inches in height.
(b) Cross-keyed every course or secured to pallet.
(c) Stacked not more than 2 pallets high
(7) Brick or block in a banded cube shall not be stacked more than 2 cubes high.

2. Storage of lumber
(1) Lumber shall be stacked on level and solidly supported sills so as to be self-supporting
and stable.
(2) The width of a pile of lumber shall be no less than 1/2 the height
(3) A pile of lumber manually stacked, and a pile of lumber to be manually un-stacked shall
not exceed 6 feet in height
(4) Lumber which is mechanically stacked shall not exceed 10 feet in height. This lumber
shall not be re-handled manually.
(5) Used lumber shall have all protruding nails removed or bent into the lumber before
stacking.

3. Storage of material in bins or hoppers

(1) A bin or hopper that has a bottom discharge shall have sloped sides to allow material to
flow freely.
(2) A hopper shall have a top opening that is 42 inches or less above the ground or working
surface and shall be equipped with grillwork over the opening which is capable of
supporting any intended load and which has a mesh that is not more than 6 by 6 inches to
prevent employee entry.
(3) An employee required entering or working on stored material in a silo, hopper. bin, tank,
or similar storage area shall be provided with a personal fall arrest system for working in
hazardous spaces and Confined or enclosed spaces; testing; and neutralizing hazard.

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4. Clearances.
(1) Material stored an electrical distribution or transmission line shall maintain the following
clearances:
(a) Line rated 50 kV or less--10 feet plus length of material stored
(b) Lines rated 50 kV or more-- 10 feet plus 0.4 inch for each 1 kV over 50 kV plus length of
material stored or 10 feet plus 4 inches for each 10 kV over 50 kV plus length of material
stored
(2) All equipment used to store material near energized electrical lines shall conform to Part
10 Lifting and Digging Equipment. and Part 13 Mobile Equipment
(3) An employee shall be designated to observe the clearance and give timely warning if it is
difficult for the operator to maintain the prescribed clearance by visual means.
(4) An employee storing or handling material shall not come closer than the prescribed
clearances of subrule (1) of this rule.

5. Disposal of waste materials

(1) The area onto and through which material is to be dropped shall be completely enclosed
with barricades not less than 36 inches or more than 42 inches high and not less than 6
feet back from the opening and area receiving the material. Signs warning of the hazard
of falling materials shall be posted on the barricades at each level containing the
barricades. Removal of signs shall not be permitted in this lower area until debris
handling ceases above
(2) If material is dropped through more than 1 level, the opening shall be enclosed between
the upper and lower levels, or an enclosed chute provided, or the intermediate levels
barricaded as prescribed in subrule (1) of this rule. If the drop is more than 40 feet inside
a building, then only an enclosed opening or chute shall be used. The chute or enclosure
shall extend through the ceiling of the receiving level
(3) A material chute shall be constructed to withstand any impact load imposed on it without
failure.
(4) A material chute, or section of a material chute. at an angle of more than 45 degrees from
the horizontal shall be entirely enclosed, except an opening may be provided at or about
each floor level for insertion of materials. The opening shall not exceed 48 inches in
height measured along the wall of the chute. At all stories below the top floor, the
openings shall be kept closed if not in use
(5) A material chute shall fit a floor or wall opening, or the space between the chute and the
floor or wall opening shall be covered

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(6) If material is dumped from mechanical equipment or a wheelbarrow, then a toe board or
bumper not less than 4 thick x 6 inches high nominal size shall be secured to the floor at
each material chute opening
(7) A gate capable of withstanding the load imposed on it shall be installed at or near the
discharge end of a material chute. A trained employee shall be in charge of opening the
gate and loading of trucks
(8) If the drop is more than 20 feet outside the exterior of the building, then a chute as
prescribed in subrules (3) to (6) of this rule shall be used, and extend to within 8 feet of
the lower level
(9) Material, barricades, and chutes shall not be removed until material handling ceases
above. (10) All scrap lumber, waste materials, or rubbish shall be removed from the
immediate work area as the work progresses
(11) Disposal of waste material or debris by burning shall comply with local fire
regulations.
(12) All solvent waste, oily rags, and flammable liquids shall be kept in fire resistant covered
containers until removed from the worksite.

6. Rigging equipment
(1) Rigging equipment for material handling shall be inspected at the time of installation,
before each job, and at the beginning of each shift if in use, by an employee qualified to
perform this inspection. Defective rigging equipment shall be removed from service
(2) If not in use, rigging equipment shall be stored in a manner which is not hazardous for an
employee.
(3) Rigging equipment, other than a sling, hoisting line, and alloy steel chain, shall not be
loaded in ‗excess of its recommended safe working load.

7. Natural and synthetic fibre rope; specifics

(1) A natural or synthetic fibre rope used for hoisting, lowering, or pulling shall consist of I
continuous piece without a knot or splice, except an eye splice at the end of the rope.
(2) An eye splice for manila rope shall contain not less than 3 full tucks, and short splices
shall contain not less than 6 full tucks, 3 on each side of the splice centre line.
(3) An eye splice for stranded synthetic fibre rope shall contain not less than 4 full tucks, and
short splices shall contain not less than 8 full tucks, 4 on each side of the splice centre
line. An eve splice for other types of synthetic fibre rope shall be made as prescribed by
the rope manufacturer.

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(4) An eye sp1iced or natural or synthetic fibre rope shall be of a size to provide an interior
angle at the splice of not more than 60 degrees when the eye is placed over the load or
support.
(5) A natural or synthetic fibre rope eye shall be equipped with a thimble if the eye is placed
over or around an object with a sharp corner
(6) Strand end tails from an eye splice shall not be trimmed flush with the surface of the rope
immediately adjacent to the full tucks. This applies to both eye and short splices and all
types of fibre rope.
(a) Tails from an eye splice for a fibre rope less than 1-inch in diameter shall project not less
than 6 rope diameters beyond the last full tuck
(b) Tails from the eye splice for fibre rope 1-inch or more in diameter shall project not less
than 6 inches beyond the last full tuck
(c) Projecting tails may be tapered and spliced into the body of the rope using not less than 2
additional tucks, which shall require a tail length of approximately 6 rope diameters
beyond the last full tuck or they may be taped or wired down
(7) A natural or synthetic rope shall not be used for load carrying service if any of the
following apply:
(a) It is frozen or has been subjected to corrosive chemicals or extreme temperature (b) It has
begun to unravel
(c) It has external abrasions, cuts, or broken fibres, decay, burns, softness, or variation in size
roundness.
(d) It has internal presence of grit, broken fibres, mildew or mold, color change, powdering,
or lose fibres.
(8) Natural or synthetic rope shall not be used if there is exposure to corrosive substances,
chemicals. or heat.
8. Hooks, shackles, and other accessories
(1) A hook, ring, oblong link, pear-shaped link, welded or mechanical coupling link, or other
attachment, when used with alloy steel chain, shall have a rated capacity equal to the
chain or rope to which it is attached, and the load shall not exceed the rated load.
Shackles and other accessories shall have a rated capacity equal to or greater than the load
to which it is attached
(2) A hook shall be discarded if either of the following applies:
(a) The throat opening is more than 15% greater than the manufactured size

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(b) The hook has more than 10 degrees twist from a vertical centre line drawn through the
hook centre.
(3) A closed hook shall be used if there is a probability of the load becoming disengaged.
(4) Special custom designed grabs, hooks, clamps, and other lifting accessories, for such
units as modular panels. prefabricated structures and similar materials, shall be marked to
indicate the safe working loads and shall be proof tested to 125% of their rated load
(5) A job or shop hook and link, or a makeshift fastener, formed from a bolt, rod, or other
such accessories, shall not be used, unless tested in accordance to subrule (4) of this rule.
(6) A shackle and connecting pin, and other accessories, shall be discarded if the diameter
is reduced by more than 10%.

Chains.
(1) Chains used for material handling shall be made of alloy steel
(2) A welded alloy steel chain shall have a permanently affixed tag showing the size, grade,
rated capacity, and manufacturer‘s name
(3) If wear at any point of any chain link is more than that shown in table 2, then the chain
shall be repaired or replaced. The repair shall return the chain to its rated capacity
(4) A load-carrying chain shall be repaired only by the manufacturer.

Shackles and hooks safe working loads

(I) Determine the safe working loads of various sizes of shackles from the catalogue, except
that higher safe working loads are permissible if recommended by the manufacturer for
specific identifiable products, provided that a safety factor of not less than 5 is maintained
.
(2) The manufacturer‘s recommendations shall be followed in determining the safe working
loads of the various sizes and types of specific and identifiable hooks. All hooks for
which manufacturer‘s recommendations are not available shall be tested to twice the
intended safe working load before they are initially put into use. The employer shall
maintain a record of the dates and results of such tests.

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9. Synthetic webbing (nylon, polyester, and polypropylene).

(1) The employer shall have each synthetic web sling marked or coded to show all of the
following:
(a) Name or trademark of manufacturer.
(b) Rated capacities4 the type of hitch.
(c) Type of material.
(2) Rated capacity shall not be exceeded.
(3) Synthetic webbing shall be of uniform thickness and width and selvage edges shall not be
split from the webbing‘s width.

6.3 MINIMISING WASTE ON-SITE

It is recognised that wastage of materials will result on a construction site due to many reasons,
therefore estimators, when pricing for work, allow within their "unit-rate" (cost to do a unit of
work i.e. cost per square metre of brickwork, cubic metre of concrete) a wastage percentage
ranging from as little as 1% to 15% which may or may not be necessary, but which is neither an
advantage to the contractor nor the client and which unfortunately increases prices generally for
both parties.

Contractors who are able to reduce wastage through being well organised on-site can estimate
more competitively than others who are not conscious to the benefits of sound supervision
regarding material handling and increase their chances of bidding successfully for work and
create more wealth for shareholders and employees alike.

Wastage of materials can result from either the head office or site staff's inability to schedule
materials accurately with delivery rates inconsistent with requirements leading to possible
storage difficulties because of inadequate space on confined sites, and the inability of site
supervisors to control the whole aspect of materials receipt, storage, distribution and correct
storage. However, if a contract is large enough and costs allow it, suitable handling facilities,
access and storage space or accommodation will generally result in an overall improvement
regarding reduction of material breakages and its misuse.

The most common problems relating to material supply, usage etc. constitute the following:

1. Taking-off and scheduling

2. Requisitioning and ordering

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3. Receipt and checking of deliveries from supplier's or contractor's own yard.

4. Off-loading and handling
5. Storing and protecting
6. Issuing/distributing
7. Use of materials
8. Quality control and supervision

1. Taking-off and scheduling

The buyer/purchasing officer can have the responsibility to take-off and schedule materials from
the bills of quantities or from the production/working drawings. Where the site supervisor is
given this role he/she must be careful to ensure that correct quantities and details of quality of
materials are extracted from drawings and specifications. It is emphasised that it is necessary to
make allowances for material wastage, and adherence to a realistic percentage from correctly
recorded estimator's or purchaser's figures obtained through previous experience must be made.

2. Requisitioning and ordering

The purchasing officer has a number of duties to perform before orders are placed for materials.
When schedules have been prepared or requisitions have been received from various departments
or site supervisors, enquiries are made to suppliers to enable the most competitive prices to be
accepted. Purchase orders then follow the enquiry's stage to the successful suppliers whose
quotations come up to expectations.

Where bulk orders have been previously placed with the suppliers by purchasing department in a
centralised purchasing set-up and supervisors are given the responsibility to call forward these
materials when required, care must be exercised in calling forward sufficient for the storage
areas available and sufficient to maintain the levels of production without the need to load.
Where materials arrive too early on-site before they are required, there is more chance of
damages and loss arising due to vehicle and other mechanical damage, damages due to the
weather, pilfering and theft.

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3. Receipt and checking of deliveries from supplier's or contractor's own yard.

Site Supervisors should expect some notification from the supplier or sender of materials of
impending deliveries. This can be by a posted advice note or by a telephone call, unless when an
order was made originally, phased delivery dates had been agreed between the parties. If
forwarded of eminent deliveries, the site supervisor can make arrangements for safe storage and
labour and plant can be provided to facilitate off-loading and other essential handling procedures
to prevent undue damages.

Delivery notes should accompany delivered goods and must be presented by the delivery drivers
as proof of the consignments' quantity and quality. Delivery notes should not be signed until the
goods are checked, and if damages have arisen during transit, or there are discrepancies between
the delivery notes and deliveries, the amounts should be indicated on both copies of the delivery
notes and records should be made for future reference.

Material transfers from other sites should be accompanied by a copy of a Materials Transfer
Sheet. A check should again be made to ensure that the materials agree with the Transfer Sheet
before a signature is added.

In all cases when there is a receipt of materials/goods on an entry should be made on

Material/Goods Received Form for the eventual despatch to the head office, or an entry could be
made in the Daily/Weekly Report.

Name of Contractor: A.K Builders

MATERIALS/GOODS RECEIVED
Contract: Name of Building
Contract No:
Prepared by: NO: 12

Date Delivery Supplier Materials/goods and Rate Total

Note No. quantity Value

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- rate and value to be filled by head office

- the rest by Site Supervisor

Name of Contractor
TRANSFER OF MATERIALS NO:
Date:

From Site To Site

Description Quantity

Issued by: Received by: Drivers Signature:

This document is made out in triplicate: Top copy to the head office, Second to Site receiving
materials, third copy retained.

4. Off-loading and handling

Careless off-loading and handling of material adds to wastage on-site an each supervisor is
advised to pay sufficient attention to the methods applied depending on the material being dealt
with. Facing bricks may be delivered on packets which, unless the delivery lorry is self-loading,
fork-light trucks should be on hand. The alternative is to unload manually, which is time
consuming and, hence useful.

Tipper lories for the delivery of certain bricks may be acceptable on some contracts, but
generally palleted or bundled bricks have a few cost saving features e.g. ease of handling with
correct plant; ease of storing in neat stacks, and less breakages and waste because the bricks are
man handled very little. The banding keeps the bricks together until the work for which they
were ordered commences.

The lifting of small loose materials are facilitated better if the suppliers pack their goods in
boxes, cases, bags, tins or baskets which helps to prevent breakages and reduce waste.

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5. Storing and Protecting

This is a more important element where material wastage can increase substantially if care is not
exercised in the selection of suitable storage points. At commencement of a contract, a site
layout plan should be drawn up to outline the construction working areas, and are codified for
the various key buck or valuable materials. A storage compound layout would also serve to
highlight to everyone concerned where the various delivered materials are to be placed for safe
keeping, so that if the site supervisor is occupied when there is a delivery, other supervisors,
store men etc. may be able to direct the delivery drivers to appropriate unloading points by
referring to the site layout plan retained in the main site office.

The following points must be noted regarding storage:

1. Hardstands for heavy materials should be provided.

2. Provide concrete blinded areas for loose materials such as sands and gravels, with
separate bags for different grades.

3. Show clear marks and laid-out areas for different materials such as reinforcement bars
and mesh, concrete products, blocks, tiles, timber etc..

4. Provide units for bags of cement, 15-20cm2 above shed floor, 30cm between wall and
gags of cement, plaster and lime taking care to stack materials so that the earliest
deliveries are used first.

5. Ensure there are level beds for bricks etc with covering provided (polythene) until
materials are required.

6. Be sure that stacked materials should not have to be moved to allow operations to be
completed, such as road, services and building works.

7. Stack steel work, reinforcement bars flat on timber runners off the ground, with
polythene covers to prevent undue rusting.

8. Store windows and doorframes in a covered compound area or stack them perfectly
flat off the ground on sleepers/runners and covered to protect. If standing vertically,
care should be taken to prevent twisting.

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9. Put valuable small items (nails, screws, locks, paint) in the charge of a storekeeper
and only the quantity for immediate usage should be issued and signed for.

10. Heavy items must be kept near the crane or hoist for ease of handling.

6. Issuing and distributing

An efficient storekeeping system needs to be set up on site as soon as possible to ensure the
workers are issued when required, with the correct quantity and quality of materials. A booking
out system of special operatives in using the materials should be operated so that carelessness by
operatives in using the materials issued can be pinpointed which although damages or loss
cannot be charged to operatives puts the issued operatives in an awkward position making them
more careful in the future and further contributes to reducing material loses.

7. Quality control and supervision

Materials used should confirm to the types and standards laid down in the specification. If un
specified materials were used and were rejected later by the clerk of works, it would be
expensive to cut out and provide with the proper type. Stricter control by the supervisors would
prevent this kind of inconvenience and expensive rejection occurring.

Where the architect designs and supervises the works, he/she expects specimen materials to be
submitted by the main contractor so that they can be used as a guide to everyone, particularly the
quality expected. A typical sample usually takes the form of a brick panel being built as a
display to show the bonding, mortar thickness, and the standard of pointing and straightness of
the courses.

Supervisors, site engineers or other designated employees may have the responsibility to ensure
that tests on materials received or about to be used are checked and they should have some
knowledge of the tests and check to be made to each type. One should never allow materials to
be unloaded if there is doubt about their standard.

8. Use of Materials

Most operatives appreciate the value of materials with which they work and act responsibly
when using them (Bricklayer using half bricks, breakages, concrete-mixes sufficient material,
short ends of timber retained by a conscious carpenter).

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There will always be the careless and irrespective operatives who have little or no regard for
others property particularly the contractor‘ operatives. These individuals need controlling and
where necessary approached to highlight the materials value.

Some of the misuses of materials are shown as follows:

- insufficient care in the use of off-cuts

- Operatives‘ inability to measure lengths of wood to obtain the most economical cuts
which result in waste.

- Longer controls being used where shorter ones are available.

- Small cutting off full plywood sheet when there are off-cuts already in existence.

- Plasterers allowing too much plaster to fall to waste on floor.

9. Security

On most sites, security of materials poses the biggest problem to site supervisors. Theft,
filtering, vandalism and other losses add to the value of materials to be written of as a loss or
waste. To reduce/minimise the serious problem of waste, a suitable system of materials control
should be adopted using specially designed forms to show; present stock, deliveries, amounts
used and % waste. This monitors material used and hence material wastage.

6.4 ORGANISATION AND CONTROL OF SITE PLANT AND EQUIPMENT

6.4.1 Location of machinery and equipment on sites
A large variety of equipment is used on construction projects and their location should be
properly done to maximize their output. When preparing equipment layout. the following points
should be considered:
 Equipment should be placed near the place of‘ its use as well as near materials it is
supposed to utilize.
 Provide shelter for costly equipment
 Repairs, maintenance should be done at site
 Layout should be such that safety can be ensured by security staff

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 Sufficient space should be available for scaffolding erection and for removal and shifting
of the equipment to places ~~here it can be fully utilized
 There should be adequate space for parking transport vehicles
 Adequate safety measures and fire prevention equipment should be provided in the lay
out.

6.4.2 Maintenance of Plant and Equipment

Plant whether mechanical or non-mechanical should be maintained in a sound condition if
economic levels of utilization are to be obtained. This is the responsibility of the plant
department but the site supervisor cannot stand idly by if plant brakes down on site; is being
operated in a dangerous state; or the efficiency is below the standard expected according to the
contract programme and progress chart. Not only will the site supervisor be accountable for the
progress made on site, but also would be answerable particularly where dangerous, unworthy -
road vehicles are being used.
Maintenance of all plant is essential for the following reasons:
 It contributes towards the safety of employees and third parties. Any accidents, no matter
how they are caused, are expensive and unnecessary.
 It ensures efficiency of the mechanical plant because there are fewer breakdowns, which
can reduce output.
 It prevents frustration in operatives, particularly if their earnings are affected by plant
breakdowns and poor outputs.
 Site supervisors are kept happy where the plant department offers efficient servicing of
mechanical plant. Plant with a poor performance record should not be issued but should
be got rid of by the plant department.
 It enhances the value of plant and hence depreciation is slowed down.
 It is generally a guarantee that operatives take more care when using the plant.
Dilapidated plant is more misused and abused because operatives treat it with contempt.
 Well-kept plant is a good public relations exercise. Those from outside tend to recognize
the firm as an efficient, well managed unit where the vehicles, plant and equipment are
clean and well loe4I after.

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 Major breakdowns of mechanical plant are reduced if a sound maintenance scheme is in

operation.
 The work and responsibility of the firm‘s safety officer is simplified and management is
pleased.
 Little or no trouble is experienced with the police as far as the firm‘s vehicles are
concerned.
If maintenance is to be effective the supervisor should understand that most plant managers insist
on the following divisions as far as mechanical plant is concerned:
a) Servicing and cleaning
b) Preventative maintenance
c) Planned maintenance.

a) Servicing and cleaning

The responsibility for servicing is the site supervisors‘ who then generally delegates the
responsibility to the charge hands, foremen or gangers who have plant within their control. Each
should ensure that their machines are regularly SERVICED BY:
 Topping up engines and other working parts, oil levels.
 Greasing the points recommended by the manufacturer‘s catalogue.
 Filling fuel tanks.
 Providing water for the cooling system
 Maintain anti-freeze levels in winter or draining off water at the end of a working day.
 Inspecting for fuel, oil or water leaks
 Tightening loose screws and bolts where the services of a trained mechanic/fitter are not
required.

b) Preventative maintenance
This is the responsibility of the plant manager or plant hire firm. Naturally the site based
engineer/fitter/mechanic acts on behalf of the plant department or plant hire firm ensuring
breakdowns are kept to a minimum. A regular servicing arrangement is provided to prevent
deterioration and breakdown of plant and the typical areas in which maintenance is carried out
relate to the following:

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i) Engine oil change

ii) Replacing oil and air filters
iii) Flushing of coolant systems
iv) Sparkplugs adjustments or replacement carrying out tests
vi) Thorough body checking.
vii) Exchanging other parts of the plant which are worn or have broken
viii) Carrying out tests to ensure machines etc are working correctly.

c) Planned maintenance
It is obvious that sound servicing and preventative maintenance reduces breakdowns and
excessive wear and provides safe machinery. However, there comes a time where mechanical
plant ceases to work efficiently, it is therefore the plant manager‘s responsibility to assess from
experience, and records at what time vital parts require to be adjusted or changed. This prevents
expensive and inconvenient breakdowns occurring which could seriously affect output on site
and lead to further additional damage to plant.

The plant department keeps records on each piece of mechanical plant so that when the time is
right for temporary withdrawal of plant for planned maintenance, it can be conducted with
minimal disruption. Withdraw from circulation would take place when one site has returned the
plant to the yard; the planned maintenance would take place before redistributing to another site.

6.4.3 Plant and Equipment Record

The plant manager opens up a file on each piece of plant purchased and all relevant details are
recorded regarding the plant history. Details recorded include: manufacturer‘s handbook, date of
purchase and cost. Supplier‘s name and address, modifications, fuel consumption, maintenance,
expected life, depreciations. worked hours etc. Some forms associated with the use of plants are:

 Plant Utilization Sheets

 Plant Transfer Sheets
 Plant in and out Charts
 Plant hire charges

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 Inspection Records and Maintenance Sheets Driver‘s log book

 Inspection records and testing results forms.

Site managers are advised, when requisitioning or ordering plant not relies entirely on phone call
but to verify the order in writing to ensure that the correct type of equipment and size are
received. This reduces disputes between plant department and site supervisors. Also charging out
of plant is more accurately predicted as the date of requirement is shown on the requisition form.

6.4.4 Plant and Equipment Schedule.

This schedule is prepared before the start of the project to decide the type, number and dates on
which particular equipment is needed, so that it is well arranged in advance and brought to site as
and when needed. The aim of this schedule is to take maximum advantage of this equipment
when on site and remove it immediately as soon as it is not required in order to gain some
savings financially.

TIMTEK CONSTRUCTION SERVICES LTD

Plant and Equipment Schedule/Requisition
Contact No………………………………. No……………………
Job No…………………………………… Date……………………
Prepared by………………………………
Plant type and Dates required
Equipment Date on site Date off site Plant hire Remarks
Firm/Supplier

[Link] Monitoring of Maintenance.

In order that the maintenance policy be executed efficiently, it is necessary to install a recording
and costing system, which shall include:
 An Asset Register comprising an inventory of each plant item in the fleet, with
information on the date of purchase, registration number, purchase price etc.

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 A maintenance Schedule indicating the type of maintenance and servicing required on

each plant together with the time intervals between each plant maintenance operation.
 Job cards to be filled out by the fitter each time maintenance work is performed and
which should include a description of the work done, materials used, time taken,
recurring defects etc.
 History Record Cards: The information on the job cards is transferred for each
individual machine to its history card together with the hours operated and fuel used. The
monthly records are then abstracted to prepare costs for comparison with budgeted
values. The variances are subsequently used in controlling maintenance, adjusting the
hire rate and ultimately in making decisions with respect to replacement or sale of the
plant.

6.5 IMPORTANT SITE DOCUMENTS

Communication Within and Outside Site
A two way communication should exist between head office and site supervisor to show how
work is progressing, what problems have developed, what information is required to ensure
continuity of flow of work, what materials and equipment are required to maintain process etc.
Most of the information flows from site because of the need to meet deadlines, while the
remainder is to keep management informed of every reasonable detail so that they are as well
placed to deal with any emergency as reports the supervisor.
Communication in the construction industry generally takes one of the three forms:
 Oral instructions
 Written instructions
 Drawn details

There are standard which are used within an organization to help reduce thinking time an‘
simplify thinking time and simplify clerical/administrative work. Well designed standard forms
are used to inform, notify, request, instruct, advice and report. Whichever method is adopted they
should:
 Allow information to be easily illustrated
 Simplify typing or clerical duties

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 Be designated to allow as much as vital and relevant information to be presented as is

necessary
 Allow for ease of reading and extraction of information
 Be designed to eliminate the unnecessary.
6.5.1 Oral Instructions
These should be given in a manner that reflects efficiency and enthusiasm. The verbal instruction
should be given to the person concerned; otherwise the message could become distorted in the
process of passing it on. The face-to-face talk will generally have far more success than the
written word; it will also enable questions to be asked and queries raised without delay.
Oral messages or instructions are often given and received on telephone. The correct use of this
instrument is important as it often reflects an image to the person receiving the call, who may
have never met the caller. The person using the phone should speak clearly and should give the
listener time to reply to any matters arising. It is also a good idea, before using the phone, to
think about the information required. A few notes can be made of relevant details as this prevents
points being missed and saves the necessity of phoning again.

6.5.2 Written Instructions

The written word comes into many forms of communication found in the building industry-
letters, reports, minutes of meetings, and general documentation. Paperwork has increased a
great deal in modem industry , mainly due to the much more careful control required to run a
successful and efficient business, for documentation provides the necessary links in the chain of
administration. All members of an organization, large or small, should be made fully aware of
the importance of correct paperwork in all its aspects, from letter writing, which projects a firm‘s
image, to site documents that can be used for future reference and control.
The following are but a few documents that are used on sites:

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a) Memoranda (Memo)
These are printed forms used to convey written or typed messages within the organization‘s own
structure, e.g. planning department to estimator. A typical memo would be as follows:

A.K. CONTRACTORS LTD

MEMO 2
From……………………………… To…………………………….
Date:
Subject: Window openings
(space for message)
Name:……….…….……………..
Signature……………..………….

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6.5.3 Letters
There are many occasions and circumstances which require the writing of letters to convey
messages to people outside the structure of the company. A typical letter shown below illustrates
an example of layout:

A.K. CONTRACTORS LTD

Plot 5, Mackay road, Kampala
Tel 0414-287340
Our Ref: AK/J/09 Contract: ………………..
Your Ref: VH/N/08 Contract No……………..
13th December, 2008
Hardware Deals Ltd
Stone road, Kampala

Dear Sir,
RE: ORDER 1254/09
With reference to the above order, we have to advise you that four (4) of the plastic light fittings
were found broken upon receipt of the order on the l2th December, 2008.
We shall be pleased if you will replace these as soon as possible.
Yours faithfully,
Name: Okello Johnson Designation: Manager

Signature………………………..

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6.5.4 Reports
A report is used to relay to someone information regarding, say, an investigation, something
witnessed or something done. The main object of a report should be to disclose facts for
recommendation without adding personal views. Superfluous wording should be avoided, but
care must be taken to ensure readers fully understand what the report is meant to convey. A
report can be divided into five sections:
1) Heading
2) Introduction to report, its purpose
3) The body of the report- use of sub-headings and dividing information into sections should
be the aim

4) A conclusion or summary with any possible recommendations

5) Any data, drawings, tables, references etc.

6.5.6 Notice Boards

These are useful means of conveying information, if placed in convenient locations where
everyone can see e.g. canteen areas.

6.5.7 Handbooks and Regulations

Copies of such items as the construction regulations, building regulations and the Working Rule
Agreement should be kept on site in a position where they can be reached easily for point of
reference, not locked away in a drawer or buried under drawings.

6.5.8 Site Records

Many site records have to be made each week regarding labour, plant and materials. It is
important to remember that these documents have a specific use and must, therefore, always be
filled in accurately and when required, whether daily, weekly or monthly.

6.5.9 The Building Site Daily Diary and Daily Report

This has proved to be a most useful document and if well kept, with the right type of information
recorded in it, its value in matters of dispute later in the project cannot be over emphasized. Even

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long after project completion, it has often been of utmost importance in cases that have gone in
court. The main objective of the site diary should be to record events and information that do not
warrant special records being kept. Different supervisors will use the diary in different ways,
placing more importance on certain items than others. As a general rule items which might well
be recorded could be:
 Telephone promises from subcontractors, suppliers, etc.
 Verbal instructions from the architect
 Visits to site by building owner, architect, quantity surveyor, factory inspector, etc.
 Details of weather conditions
 Verbal instructions from head office or contracts manager
 Any matters of unusual occurrence, decisions or actions it is felt should be recorded.
A weekly report can be extracted from the site diary and daily report and be submitted to head
office for reference.

A.K. CONTRACTORS LTD

SITE DAILY DIARY

Contract: Warehouse Contract No:………… Week ending:……….

Weather:…………………. Temperature AM
PM
Labour on site
Own labour Subcontractor Nominated subcontractor
……………………….. ……………………….. ………………………….
……………………….. ……………………….. ………………………….
Overtime Reasons
Manhours:

Job stoppages
Manhours lost Reasons

Visitors on site: Telephone calls to………..………………

From:……………………

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Accidents: Were reports made?

Variation order or Instruction: Plant required ……………………….
……………………………... Plant received……………………….
……………………………..
Progress report and any difficulties:
…………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………..
Signed: …………………... ………………………………..
Site Manager Contracts Manager

6.5.10 Materials Requisitions

When materials are required on site, the site supervisor can call them forward by using the here
below form. A minimum of two copies would be required: one to be sent to the purchasing
department, the other to be retained on site. The head office purchasing department would extract
the details about the materials from the requisition form and would confirm the delivery dates
with the supplier.

A.K. CONTRACTORS LTD Date:……………….

MATERIALS REQUISITION No. ………………..
Contract: Warehouse No………………
B.O.Q, V.O or Description Quantity Unit Delivery dates
drawing ref.
BOQ 3A Reinforcement bars 18-Y 18 Pcs 20-01-09
BOQ 3/4C G.32 corrugated iron 30 Pcs 20-01-09
sheets

Signed: ……………………………....
Designation: …………………………

6.5.11 Drawings
These include the drawings and details by architects and engineers to enable the project to be
built. Great care is required to be practiced by the architect to present the drawings in such a
manner that it can not be misread or mistakes made, while on the other hand, the site staff should
have knowledge to understand drawings in order to interpret them correctly. A proper plan chest
should be used for storing these plans and details, to ensure that they don‘t get lost or damaged.

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Another useful form of communication is a sketch, and it will often be found to be far more
advantageous than long written documents. The art of sketching therefore is one which the
supervisor should practice regularly to properly convey his messages to his subordinates.

6.5.12 Advice of Variation

Standard form called Advice of variation should be issued to each site for use by the site
supervisor when he/she receives verbal instructions from either the architect or clerk of works. A
form is completed (in duplicate) by the site supervisor for each instruction received and the top
copy is sent to H/Office or is given to the contracts manager to enable written confirmation to be
sent to the architect within seven(7) days. The architect should then issue an official written
variation order within a further 7 days.

6.5.13 Variation Order for Subcontractor

If the main contractor is issued with a variation order from the architect to do work or supply
materials which differ from that which is laid in the contract documents, the order may also
affect the services of a subcontractor. If so, a variation order for subcontractors would be
completed and submitted to the appropriate sub contractor for action to be taken.

A.K. CONTRACTORS LTD

VARIATION ORDER NO.2
TO SUBCONTRACTOR:…………………………………..
CONTRACT: ……………………………………………….
Date………………………………………………………….

Please execute and omit the following items as variation order on your subcontractor.
Signed:
For Ak Builders

Cc subcontractor office VO no. Price

Main office site

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Reasons for variation:

1. Client‘s instruction 3. Site conditions

2. Increase in BOQ: 4. Omissions

5. Others, specify………………………
………………………………………
Form of payment:

1. Increase in cost: Decrease in cost:

2. Payment as per BOQ: Payment fixed price:
3. Payment – not agreed: Payment-agreed rate:

Variation cost:
Item description Unit Quantity Rate Amounts

Cost allocation:
Savings in BOQs:
Contingencies:
Transfer:
Signed:……………………. ………………………. ………………………
For: A.K. CONTRACTORS For: Engineer For: Employer

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7.0 SAFETY, HEALTH AND WELFARE AT CONSTRUCTION SITES

7.1 Definitions
Health - State of complete mental, physical, social, and spiritual well- being.

Safety - State of being safe and protected from danger or harm to the body either directly or
indirectly or state of freedom from danger.

Welfare - Health, comfort, happiness and general well-being of a person or group etc.
Construction, which is an occupation, involves building operations and works of engineering
construction, excavation, earthworks, transportation of materials by hand and vehicles,
movements within the site, etc. All these activities carried out at construction sites are associated
with problems, which include injury and death.

7.2 Construction Related Accidents.

An accident can be defined as an unplanned and unexpected occurrence, which upsets the
planned sequence of events and actions, resulting in the loss of production, injury to persons and
damage to plants and equipment. Civil engineers are responsible for infrastructure (buildings,
roads, bridges, and water and sewerage facilities) in planning, design, construction, operation,
and maintenance. Civil constructions, which normally range from medium to large scale, involve
the use of many trades (skilled and unskilled) along with machines and equipments, which have
to be selected with care. Serious accidents on sites result in personal injury or death of the
worker on one hand and they cause mental tension and financial burden to the employer on the
other hand.
Accidents don‘t just happen, 99% are caused by unsafe acts, unsafe conditions or both. Most
accidents result from a combination of contributing causes and one or more unsafe acts or unsafe
conditions.
The unsafe act is a violation of an accepted safe procedure which could permit the occurrence of
an accident. The unsafe condition is a hazardous physical condition or circumstances which
could directly permit the occurrence of an accident.

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7.3 Construction safety

Unfortunately the construction industry has become stereotyped as an accident prone industry, in
fact only mining and fishing industries have higher fatalities. Depressingly, the accident rates
experienced closely correlate to the level of activity within the industry, indicating that when
work load is high; safety tends to receive less attention.
It is argued that construction management must have a prime concern for safety and therefore
should have a moral, economic, and legal commitment to ensure workplace safety on sites.
However the responsibility for safety must commence upstream of the construction phase of a
project; architects and ,engineers must have the technical knowledge to design buildings which
can be safely constructed, as well as a commitment to safe working conditions for site workers.

7.3.1 Construction Safety policy

To generate safety consciousness within construction organizations, a firm lead must be taken by
top management. It is recognized that finance and lost production are convenient measurements
of accidents, but accidents should generate an emotional response, and if this emotion is genuine
it will carry conviction.
A safety policy which is founded upon compassion will more often succeed, since it will
impervious to shifts and changes in construction scheduling and fashion and, consequently, will
be less easily diluted. Contractors should give careful thought to the role of the full time safety
officer. Two basic concepts exist about this role:
 Safety officers should be advisers to site management
 Safety officers undertake the safety responsibility on behalf of sites.

In general the role of the safety officer shall consist of the following duties:
 Formulating the company‘s safety policy
 Advising management on legislation and safety matters
 Assisting in drafting of safe working procedures and codes of practice.
 Reporting and investigating accidents with the preparation and analysis of safety records.
 Safety training.
 Safety assessment of site management.

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 Inspection of sites to ensure compliance with safety measures (safe working methods,
proper use of construction equipments, protective clothing, and availability of First aid)
 Providing information to sites on accidents that have happened elsewhere on similar sites
to help generate safety consciousness within working sites.

7.4 Contractor safety responsibilities:

Section 2 of the Health and Safety at Work Act 1974 specifies that employers are to ensure the
health, safety and welfare of al employees. A part from the generalised duty, employers have
detailed responsibilities:

 To develop systems which are practicable, safe and have no risk to health;
 To provide plant to facilitate this duty, and this general requirement is to cover all plant
used at the work place;
 To provide training in the matter of health and safety; employers must provide the
instruction, training and supervision necessary to ensure a safe working environment;
 To provide a working environment which is conducive to health and safety;
 To prepare ~written statement of safety policy and to establish an organisational
framework for carrying out the policy; the policy must be brought directly to the attention
of all employees.

However, employees also have specific duties namely:

 To take care of their health and safety and that of other persons who would be affected by
acts or an omission at the work place;
 To cooperate with the employer to enable everyone to comply with the statutory
provisions.

The types of safety and health hazards experienced at construction sites include the following:
 Collapse of pits, shafts, tunnels and trenches;
 Collapse of buildings and structures;
 Flooding of excavations;
 Flying of materials due to use of explosives;

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 Generation of dust and fumes during building/demolition operations and similar works;
 Accumulation of fumes and gases in excavations and tunnels, from vehicles transporting
materials;
 Overloading of scaffolds with materials;
 Unfenced platforms, gangways, runs and stairs;

 Poor stability of lifting appliances;

 Unprotected excavations, pits shafts or opening in the ground;
 Poor ventilation in excavation, pits, holes, tunnels, shafts and in any other enclosed or
confined space at the site;
 Workers driving vehicles and trucks at site in insecure positions;

 Live electricity cables;

 Unguarded rotating parts of machinery;
 Lifting, carrying and moving excessive loads;
 Poorly constructed and maintained scaffolds, ladder and working platforms;
 Projecting nai1~id loose materials
 Falling materials, tools, objects or articles from height;
 Obstructed plat forms, gangways, runs or stairs with materials, rubbish and projecting
nails and;
 Working on or near fragile materials.

In view of the above hazards usually encountered on construction sites, some measures are put in
place to ensure safety and health of workers. The safety measures include:
 Enforcement of the Factories Act and Building Construction Rules which provide guide
lines on safe work practices during building operations and work of engineering
construction;
 Registration of construction sites, to enable regular visiting of the sites;

 Awareness by contactors that when undertaking building operations or work of‘

engineering, the department of Occupational Safety and Health (OSH) should be notified

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of the intention to commence work at the site for the purpose of registration and to enable
regular inspection of the site;
 All lifting equipment should be subjected to thorough inspections periodically and
examination certificates issued. All defects be attended to immediately and rectified;
 In addition to local authorities approving architectural building plans, the department of
OSH should also review and approve them i.e. plans of major buildings;

 Any workplace with excavation, pit, hole or enclosed space with fumes, dust that may be
dangerous or injurious to health must be rendered harmless and suitably tested before
workers enter herein;
 There must be adequate ventilation to prevent workers from inhaling dust or fumes.
 Materials should be stacked safely and correct quantities to reduce obstructions. Materials
for immediate use only should be evenly distributed around the scaffold to prevent
overloading
 Fix warning notices/posters to highlight hazardous points or areas on site for the benefit
of workers and visitors;
 There should be regular inspections of platforms, runs, gangway, stairs, guard-rails,
excavated tunnels by competent persons;
 There should be suitable safety nets or safety sheets well designed, constructed and
installed to prevent injury to persons falling on them;
 All excavations, pits, holes to be fenced to prevent people falling therein; and
 Well stocked First Aid Box should be in place.

7.5 Additional measures for Preventing Construction Accidents

Construction sites are dangerous places filled with heavy machinery, large structures, and
moving objects. These conditions mean that construction workers do not have control over every
circumstance at their worksite. Like any accident, a construction accident can occur
unexpectedly at any moment. There are, however, some ways to help prevent construction
accidents:
 Attend safety training sessions
 Double-check all harnesses and safety equipment before use

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 Get adequate rest in order to stay alert on the job

 Wear protective clothing and equipment
 Follow all rules posted at the construction site
 Remain aware of equipment conditions and report unsafe or damaged equipment
 Use extra caution when working with electrical equipment
 Follow OSHA regulations on the job
 Create a rescue plan when working in trenches
 Work with your employer to ensure that construction safety regulations are observed
 Report accidents that do occur to help prevent them from happening again

7.6 Construction Safety costs

To many managers who have been brought up to the importance of construction scheduling, and
controlling costs, the economic aspect of safety is the most forceful. In construction the costs
associated with an accident can be immense. For material losses in which no injury occurs the
accounting of loss can be easily assessed; but where human loss is concerned, the costing
becomes more difficult since life or a physical facility cannot crudely be financially evaluated,
yet it has been widely recognized that monetary compensation to either the injured party or
relatives in the event of fatality has to be paid. Most compensation payments are paid by the
contractor‘s insurance company. Insurance companies will base their premiums upon historical
evidence and a poor safety record will inevitably be reflected in insurance premiums.

However, the loss to a company by an accident can be broken into:

 Lost working hours of an injured employee.
 Cost of repair or replacement of property damage, whether it is equipment or an element
of the permanent construction.
 Insurance premiums increase.
 Rescheduling costs or even delay costs in some cases.

The following are general costs of construction related accidents on sites:

a) Economic cost;
 loss of wages
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 loss of production due to stoppage of work

 cost of labour replacement/training
 time loss in helping the injured; accident investigation and reporting
 accidents resulting in failed infrastructure mean loss of investment, retarded
economic growth and bad economic situation.
 Cost in establishment of safety programmes

b) Social cost;
 construction accidents usually result in injury or loss of life
 hardships brought about by reduced earnings
 human suffering and sorrow that no amount of compensation can wipe out
c) Political cost;
 an accident-prone economy is bad publicity for a company and country at large.
d) Environmental cost;
 failed infrastructure often lead environmental hazards

Causes of the common construction related accidents and possible remedies;

a) Work equipment and plant;
 inadequate mechanical safeguards to prevent contact with dangerous objects,
 lack of maintenance of work equipment and vehicles (defective plant and equipment,
 unsuitable machines for the job
 cuts and splinters from blades, corners, sheet metal, tool edges etc.
 electrical hazards (not properly insulated)
b) Workplace (environment);
 poor housekeeping (bad organization),
 poor visibility in areas where vehicles and lifting equipment are working,
 untidiness, poor stacking of materials,
 Mixing of people and vehicles especially at entrances and exits.
c) Workforce;
 Inadequate training of workers,

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 High labour turn- over,

 Monotony of work resulting in ignoring safety precautions,
 Lack of information, instruction, supervision,
 Poor communication of orders regarding safety.

d) Workplace transport;
 Uncontrolled movement of objects,
 People being struck or runover by moving vehicles/equipment or vehicles
overturning.
e) Careless handling of dangerous substances at work
f) Psychosocial factors such as stress, fear, worry, mental tension, emotional attitude,
impulsiveness (without proper thinking), overconfidence, carelessness.
g) Physiological causes; poor eye sight for workers handling machinery like cranes, vehicles
etc, overwork, poor health, old age, intoxication and physical handcup.

Accidents caused by the above hazards can be reduced through regulation and support of the
construction industry by the government as follows:
 Strict enforcement of existing laws;
 Urgent revision of relevant laws;
 Urgent consideration of the proposed Occupational Safety and Health Bill;
 Development and enforcement of standards;
 Operationalisation of the local construction industry policy;
 Education and training of technical managers and operatives;
 Strengthening of the insurance sector; and
 Building capacity to respond to national emergency situations of major accidents.

7.7 Construction Regulations

The construction industry falls within the scope of the Factories Act despite its nature of
operations being widely different to those pertaining in a factory. It was recognized that the
whole of the 1961 Act could not apply to construction, but it enabled specific regulations for

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construction to be incorporated i.e. the Construction Regulations of 1961 and 1966. They include
the following regulations:
 Construction (General Provisions) Regulations 1961
 Construction (Lifting Operations) Regulations 1961
 Construction (Working Places) Regulations 1966
 Construction (Health and Welfare) Regulations 1966

In any situation covered by the Regulations, an employer will owe duties under Health and
Safety at Work etc Act 1974, the Factories Act 1961 and the Regulations. The same breach of
duty could therefore, constitute an offence under all of these different provisions.
In the constriction industry statistics show that many accidents are caused by; falls from ladders;
scaffolds, roofs or materials falling, lighting equipment and machinery, employees striking
against objects, excavations and tunneling etc. To take account of these special notes there are
several sets of regulations in the construction industry:

7.7.1 General Provisions Regulations

These regulations apply whenever there are building operations or works of engineering
construction (well defined and Factories Act 1961). Building operations — construction,
structural alterations, repair, or maintenance of building, demolition of a building and
preparation for and laying the foundations of an intended building. Works of engineering
construction — construction of railway lines or sidings or the construction, structural alteration
or repair or demolition of things like docks, harbours, tunnels, reservoirs, sewers, or gasholders.
The Regulations principally cover:
 Excavations, shafts, and tunnels
 Cofferdams, caissons
 Use of explosives
 Work in dangerous or unhealthy atmospheres
 Dangers connected with transport
 Miscellaneous protection e.g. fencing, protection from falling materials, lifting excessive
weights.

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7.7.2 Lifting operations Regulations 1961

These rules cover:
 Lifting appliances — these must be of good mechanical construction, sound materials,
adequate strength, properly maintained.
 Chains; ropes and lifting gear
 Hoists
 Carrying people on lifting appliances
 Secureness of loads
 Keeping of records

7.7.3 The Working Places Regulations 1966

Scaffolding is one of the principal matters covered by the9e regulations. Their scope also
includes building operations and works of engineering construction. Among the duties imposed
are:
 Providing safe and suitable access to places of work so far as is reasonably practical,
 Providing scaffolds or ladders where work cannot be safely done from the ground or from
another part of the building,
 Erecting and dismantling scaffolding under the supervision of a competent person,
 Providing scaffolds of good construction, suitable and sound material and adequate
strength for their purpose,
 Properly maintaining scaffolds and ensuring that they are stable,
 Platforms, gangway and runs should be closely boarded, planked or plated with material
of specified thickness and width resting on sufficient supports and if the boarding
projects at one end, precautions should be taken to prevent tipping,
 Duties relating to working on sloping roofs, and
 Duties with regard to safety nets and belts.

7.7.4 The Health and Welfare Regulations 1966

The main duties under these regulations relate to such matters as:
 First aid equipment and training in first aid treatment
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 Shelters and accommodation for clothing and taking meals

 Washing facilities and sanitary conveniences
 Protective clothing for persons required to continue working in bad weather.

Welfare facilities on sites:

a) Sanitary conveniences (latrines and urinals):-
 separate for men and women ( 1 latrine for 25 people; if workers ?100; then 1 latrine
for 50 people). There should be consideration for the disabled.
 well ventilated and lit
 Clean and orderly

Washing facilities:
 Soap, towels or other means of drying
 Separate for men and women-
 hot and cold water

c) Drinking water- container clearly labelled ―drinking water‖

d) Facilities for clothes, rest rooms, rooms for preparing and serving meals at cheaper rates;
if work is to run for more than 1 80days and the number of workers is more than 100,
then a canteen should be provided.
e) Medical facilities; First aid room/equipment
f) Protective clothing, gumboots, jackets, eye goggles, helmets, ear muffles etc.
g) Educational facilities
h) Transportation arrangements
i) Recreational facilities (cinema, shows, indoor/outdoor games, library)

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