AIRPORT ENGINEERING First edition : 1992 Second edition : 1996 Third edition : 2001 Fourth edition : 2003 Fifth edition : 2004 Sixth — edition : 2006 Seventh edition : 2007 Eighth edition : 2008 Ninth edition : 2009 ISBN: 978-81-85594-97-2 wn All rights reserved by the Publishers. This book, or parts thereof, may not be reproduced in any form or translated without the permission of the Publishers. Published by: B. R. Patel LOMAUM) PUBLISHING HOUSE PVT. LTD. Publishers of Engineering Text-Books Opposite Amul Dairy, Old Civil Court Road, Post Box 65 ANAND 388 001 Gujarat, India Phone: (02692) 256237 Fax: (02692) 240089 E-mail: charotar@[Link] Website: [Link] Laserset by: Charotar Associates, Anand Printed by: Fr. Agnelo Vaz S. J. at Anand Press, Gamdi, AnandPREFACE The subject of Airport Engineering is being include as well as Diploma courses of almost all the Indian and other Technical Institutions. The air transport at present has assumed great significance because of the various advancements in the technology of the airport engineering. As we are proceeding towards the twenty-first century, the importance of this speedy mode of transport cannot be overlooked. It is in this context that this subject has found a limited space in the over-crowded syllabi of most of the universities and technical institutions. The subject-matter has been subdivided into eleven chapters and the various complicated topics are explained in simple and lucid language assisted by self-explanatory and neatly drawn sketches. The illustrative problems and tables are also suitably accommodated in the book to increase its utility. Typical questions are also mentioned at the end of each chapter. It is hoped that the contents of the book will provide a sound footing in the mind of the student preparing for this subject. We have kept in mind the established fact that the secret of education lies in respecting the limitations of the pupils. We take this opportunity to express our sincere thanks to all good friends who have helped us in writing this book. We are indeed highly grateful to Balfour Beatty Ltd., Surrey (U.K) for providing, and for their kind permission (PP19/BDW/JK of 7th April 1989) to make use of the nice photograph of the Heathrow Airport-Terminal 4, London, printed on the jacket-cover of the book. We are specially grateful to Shri R. C. Patel of Charotar Publishing House, Mr. Bhavin R. Patel and Mr. Pradeep R. Patel of Pradeep Publications for taking keen interest in all the aspects of publishing this book. We are also thankful to Rev. Br. S. Abril and his good staff of the Anand Press, Anand for such decent printing and get-up of the book. Suggestions to improve the utility of the book will be gratefully received and incorporated in the subsequent editions. Ahmedabad 380 015 Ss. C. Rangwala December 12, 1991 P. S. RangwalaSECOND EDITION It is indeed a privilege to present this Second revised and enlarged edition of this unique and comprehensive book. This edition includes new concepts and provides an up-to-date and latest information on the subject-matter. The substantial new material alongwith a few new figures is also accommodated in various chapters of the book. We express our hearty appreciation and sincere thanks to the teachers for their valuable suggestions and also the students for their magnificent response to this book. Any suggestions to improve the utility of this book will be gratefully received and will be incorporated in the subsequent editions after scrutiny. Ahmedabad 380 015 S. C. Rangwala July 11, 1996 P. S. Rangwala NINTH EDITION It is indeed a privilege to present this ninth revised and enlarged edition reflecting the latest FAA, ICAO, IATA and AAl recommendations and guidelines. All the chapters have been carefully reviewed and substantial new material is added at the appropriate places. Latest technique of GPS air traffic control has been highlighted in detail. Modern concept of free flight is also added. All the articles have been given the numbers to enhance the readability and convenience of the reader. We express our hearty appreciation and sincere thanks to the teachers for their valuable suggestions and also the students for their magnificent response to this book. We shall feel obliged to receive comments, suggestions and opinions from the readers and students to boost the utility of the book. Ahmedabad 380 015 S. C. Rangwala July 11, 2009 K. S. Rangwala P, S. RangwalaChapter 1 1-1. 1-2. 1-3. 1-4, 1-5. 1-6. 1-7. 1-8. 1-9. 1-10. 1-11. * (13) Tyre pressure and contact area .. 1-13. . Aircraft characteristics .. CONTENTS INTRODUCTION ......eseeeeeeeeeeeeeeee General (1) Collective demand . (2) Efficient and adequate supply . (3) Power of discrimination .. Significance of transport .. (1) Economic significance of transport . (2) Political significance of transport ... (3) Social significance of transport . Modes of transport . History of aviation .. Air transportation in India . (1) Indian Airlines Corporation . : (2) Air India International Corporation ..... International airport authority of india (IAAI) . Civil aviation department .. Airport Authority of India (AAI) Open sky policy .. Airport terminology . Component parts of aeroplane (1) Engine .........6 (2) Flaps, (3) Fuselage . (4) Propeller, (5) Three controls (6) Tricycle undercarriage .. (7) Wings .... (1) Aircraft capacity, (2) Aircraft speed . (3) Aircraft weight and wheel arrangement - (4) Fuel spilling, (5) Jet blast . . (6) Minimum circling radius . (7) Minimum turning radius . (8) Noise (9) Range, (10) Size of aircraft ... (11) Take off and landing distances . (12) Type of propulsion Characteristics of the jet aircraft ..... (1) Channelization, (2) Fuel spilling ..viii Airport Engineering (3) High-pressure tyres and small contact areas 45 (4) High velocities, (5) Hot blasts, (6) Noise 45 (7) Porpoising effect, (8) Pumping of the joints 45 (9) Sucking effect 46 1-14, Civil and military aircrafts 46 1-15. Classification of aerodromes .. 46 1-16. Classification of airports . 47 1-17. Flying activities ........ 48 (1) Military operational flights .. 48 (2) Non-scheduled commercial flights . 48 (3) Personal flights 48 (4) Scheduled commercial flights . 48 QUESTIONS 1 48 Chapter 2 AIRPORT SURVEYS ...........00eeeeeeee eee 51-62 2-1. General 51 2-2. Objects of surveys . 51 52 2-3. Types of surveys . (1) Approach zone survey, (2) Drainage survey 52 (3) Meteorological survey ... 53 (4) Natural resources survey 53 54 (5) Soil survey . (6) Topographical survey, (7) Traffic survey . 58 2-4, Drawings to be prepared (1) Drainage plan, (2) Grading plan . 59 (3) Lighting plan, (4) Master plan ... 60 (5) Obstruction plan, (6) Paving plan . 61 (7) Topographic plan .....+++++++ st QUESTIONS 2 ....s-e cere ere e rete Chapter 3 AIRPORT PLANNING ... 3-1, General .........-.-0000 3-2. Improvement of existing airport . (1) Capacity of existing airport .. (2) Improving the existing capacity .. (3) Traffic forecast ........ (4) Planning a new airport . 3-3. Airport site selection 65 (1) Atmospheric and meteorological conditions 65 (2) Availability of land for expansion ....... 653-4, 3-5. 3-6. 3-7. 3-8. 3-9. 3-10. 3-11. . Environmental considerations Contents (3) Availability of utilities ............e00+ (4) Development of the surrounding area . (5) Economy of construction (6) Ground accessibility .... (7) Presence of other airports . 5 (8) Regional plan, (9) Soil characteristics ... (10) Surrounding obstructions (11) Topography, (12) Use of airport. Airport size .....ee esses eee renee (1) Elevation of the airport site (2) Meteorological conditions .. 5 (3) Performance characteristics of aircrafts . (4) Volume of traffic .. Forecasting in aviation . . Airport obstructions .... (1) Imaginary surfaces . (2) Objects with actual heights Clear zone ... Turning zone . Zoning laws . (1) Height zoning, (2) Land-use zoning Regional planning ....-.+++++++++ (1) Air traffic, (2) Existing airports . (3) Population, (4) Topographical features Airport architecture ...+++++seeereetserets 66 66 66 66 67 67 68 68 68 69 69 69 69 69 7” 72 i) 76 77 77 78 79 79 79 79 (1) Features of building, (2) International airport 80 (3) Materials of construction, (4) Plants .... (5) Seating arrangements, (6) Utilization of space (1) Environmental impact assessment (EIA) . (2) Environmental impact statement (EIS) .. . (3) Environmental management plan (EMP) . Factors influenced by airport activity .....--- (1) Ecological factors (2) Engineering and economic factors .. (3) Pollution factors . (4) Social factors ... wee QUESTIONS 3 .....e ses e seen ence ees 80 80 80 81 BRRBBSRKRSx Airport Engineering Chapter 4 RUNWAY DESIGN + 87-116 4-1. General .. 87 4-2. Runway orientation . 87 (1) Preliminary information required .. 87 (2) Head wind, (3) Cross wind component .. 88 (4) Wind coverage . (5) Wind rose 4-3. Change in direction of runway .........+... 94 (1) Excessive grading, (2) Noise nuisance 94 (3) Obstructions .. 94 4-4, Basic runway length .. 94 (1) Normal landing, (2) Normal take off .... 95 (3) Stopping in emergency 96 4-5. Corrections to basic runway length . 97 (1) Correction for elevation 97 (2) Correction for gradient 97 (3) Correction for temperature 97 4-6. Geometric design of runways ... 103 (1) Length 103 (2) Longitudinal and effective gradient . + 103 (3) Rate of change of longitudinal gradient .. 103 (4) Safety area oo... cece cece eee eee eee 105 (5) Sight distance, (6) Transverse gradient ... 106 (7) Width ..... cece eee . 107 4-7. Balanced field concept 107 4-8. Airport capacity .. vee 109 4-9. Runway patterns ........ 0. cece eee eee eee 110 (1) Single runway, (2) Parallel runways » 111 (3) Intersecting runways .......... » 112 (4) Divergent or open V-runways 113 4-10. Comparison of runway patterns ... vee 113 4-11. Geometric design of runway intersection .... 114 QUESTIONS 4 200... cece eece eee ee ee 114 Chapter 5 TAXIWAY DESIGN ..............05 teeeee 117-136 5-1. General .. 117 5-2. Layout of taxiways .. 117 (1) Arrangement, (2) Busy airports .. 117 (3) Crossing, (4) Higher turn-off speeds 118 (5) Route besdettteusssesuteueeesaeeecee. 1185-3. 5-4, 5-5. 5-6. 5-7. 5-8. 5-10. 5-11, + (8) Width of taxiway . Contents Geometric standards for taxiway .......-++- (1) Length of taxiway .... (2) Longitudinal gradient . (3) Rate of change of longitudinal gradient .. (4) Sight distance (5) Transverse gradient (6) Turning radius ...... (7) Width of safety area . Exit taxiways ....-- (1) Air traffic control . (2) Exit speed ...--+- (3) Location of runways . (4) Number of exits ..... (5) Pilot variability .....+ (6) Topographical features (7) Types of aircraft ....... (8) Weather conditions .....+--+ Optimum location of exit taxiways Design of exit taxiways (1) Angle of turn ... (2) Compound curve .. (3) Exit speed .....--+ (4) Lengths L, and Ly . (5) Occupancy time . (6) Shape of taxiway (7) Stopping distance . - (8) Turning radius Loading aprons . Holding aprons (1) Configuration ...--+- (2) Entry to the runway - (3) Facility of bypass (4) Holding bays . (5) Location ...-++ (6) Peak demands .. Fillets ....+-eeee Separation clearance . Bypass or turnaround taxiway - QUESTIONS 5 xixii Airport Engineering Chapter 6 PLANNING AND DESIGN OF TERMINAL AREA 6-1. 6-2. 6-3, 6-5. 6-6, 6-7, 6-8, 6-9, 6-10. 7-1. 7-2. 7-3. General Terminal building . (1) Design objectives (2) Facilities to be provided ... (3) Noise control ............ (4) Planning considerations .... (5) Site selection (6) Space requirements . Passenger flow . (1) Arrival (2) Check-in, (3) Waiting ................. (4) Security screening, (5) Departure (6) Deplaning Parking of vehicles f (1) Short-term, (2) Long-term, (3) Remote vee Size of apron .............. (1) Gate position .... (2) Number of gates . (3) Systems of aircraft parking : Apron turntable Hangars ........ (1) Nose hangars . (2) T-hangars Protection from jet blast .. (1) Blast fences .... (2) Erosion control Typical airport layouts . Layout of military airports . QUESTIONS 6 General Types of pavements . (1) Flexible pavements . (2) Rigid pavements . Design factors (1) Characteristics of construction materials | (2) Subgrade soil . (3) Wheel load ... 137-168 137 137 138 138 140 140 142 143 144 144 145 145 145 146 147 148 148 150 155 159 159 160 160 162 162 164 164 166 166 169-198 169 169 170 170 171 171 171 1717-4. 7-5. 7-6. 7-7. 7-8. 7-9. 7-10. 7-11. 7-12. 7-13. 7-14, 7-15. 7-16. Contents Design of flexible pavements . 171 Design of rigid pavements 173 (1) FAA method 174 (2) Method based on Westergaard’s analysis . 174 (3) PCA method 174 LCN method of pavement design 175 (1) LCN for flexible pavement 177 (2) LCN for rigid pavement .... 178 Causes of failure of pavements 179 (1) Failures in flexible pavements 179 (2) Failures in rigid pavements .. Typical flexible pavement failures (1) Alligator or map cracking ..... (2) Consolidation of pavement layers (3) Formation of waves, (4) Frost heaving ... (5) Lack of binding with the lower course... 183 (6) Longitudinal cracking .. see (7) Reflection cracking .... : (8) Shear failure ..........+ - 185 Typical rigid pavement failures 185 (1) Mud pumping . . 185 (2) Scaling of cement concrete 186 (3) Shrinkage cracks 186 186 (4) Spalling of joints 7 (5) Structural cracks, (6) Warping cracks ...- 186 Maintenance and evaluation of airport pavements 186 Aircraft-pavement classification number system 187 Joints in cement concrete pavements . . 189 (1) Expansion joints ....-++++ 189 (2) Contraction joints, (3) Warping joints . 190 (4) Construction joints 190 Joint fillers and sealers . 191 Pumping 191 Design of overlay pavements. 192 (1) Design of flexible overlay . 193 (2) Design of rigid overlay . 193 195 Pavements for light aircraft . (1) Flexible pavement, (2) Rigid pavement .... 195 QUESTIONS 7 .. cece eee eee e eee e eee 196 xiiixiv Airport Engineering Chapter 8 AIRPORT GRADING AND DRAINAGE ..... 8-1. General 8-2. Importance of grading .. 8-3. General requirements of grading (1) Cuts and fills, (2) Drainage, (3) Equipment (4) Grade lines, (5) Grading plans . oer (6) Ground near landing strips (7) Intersection, (8) Subgrade soils . 8-4. Operations of grading .. 8-5. Earthwork computations (1) Cross-sectional method (2) Mass-haul curve method 8-6. Aims of airport drainage ... 8-7. Functions of airport drainage . 8-8. Special characteristics of airport drainage .... 8-9. Basic requirements of airport drainage system (1) Capacity, (2) Future expansion . (3) Rapid drainage, (4) Strength ... 8-10. Surface drainage + (1) Objectives of surface drainage . (2) Time of concentration (3) Estimating runoff ... (4) Design procedure . (5) Layout of surface drainage 8-11. Ponding eye (1) Meaning of the term, (2) Necessity ..... 199-218 199 199 200 200 200 200 200 201 201 201 201 202 202 203 203 203 203 204 204 204 206 207 208 208 208 (3) Importance, (4) Location, (5) Design process 209 8-12. Sub-surface drainage ...............04 (1) Functions of sub-surface drainage . (2) Changes in moisture content (3) Base course and subgrade drainage .... . (4) Intercepting drainage, (5) Drainability of soils (6) Methods of sub-surface drainage . 8-13. Types of pipes (1) Bell and spigot pipes, (2) Perforated pipes (3) Porous concrete pipes .. (4) Skip pipes ... 8-14, Filter materials QUESTIONS 8 .. 209 210 210 210 211 211 215 215 215 216 216 217Chapter 9 VISUAL AIDS 9-1, 9-2. 9-3. 9-7. 9-8. Chapter 10 AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL 10-1. 10-2. 10-3. 10-5. . Air traffic control network .. Contents General ....... sete e eee cece eee ee Requirements of pilots for visual aids (1) Daytime with clear weather er (2) Night and daytime with bad weather .... Airport markings (1) Apron marking, (2) Landing direction indicator (3) Runway marking .. aa (4) Shoulder marking (5) Taxiway marking .. (6) Wind direction indicator . Guidance to pilots during landing . (1) Alignment guidance, (2) Height information (3) Visual parameters I Factors affecting airport lighting .. Elements of airport lighting (1) Airport beacon, (2) Approach lighting (3) Apron and hangar lighting (4) Boundary lighting (5) Lighting of landing direction indicator (6) Lighting of wind direction indicator . (7) Runway lighting . D (8) Taxiway lighting . (9) Threshold lighting . Other associated visual aids . Visibility ........ QUESTIONS 9 .. General .........eceeeeeeeee Importance of air traffic control Flight rules . a (1) Meaning, (2) Principle, (3) Responsibility 5 (4) Type of control aeerert (1) Control centres, (2) Control towers . (3) Flight service stations Air traffic control aids (1) En route aids or airway aids . (2) Landing aids or terminal aids xv 219-242 219 220 220 220 221 221 222 225 226 228 229 229 230 231 232 232 234 234 235 235 235 236 238 238 239 240 243-262 243 244 245 245 245 246 246 248 248 248 251xvi Airport Engineering 10-6. Automation in air traffic control aids 257 10-7, GPS Air Traffic Control 257 10-8. Free flight air traffic control . 258 (1) General ........ 258 (2) Free flight types . 259 (3) Different approaches of free flight +. 260 QUESTIONS 10 ........ eee eee eee eee 261 Chapter 11 HELIPORTS AND STOLPORTS .......... 263-278 11-1. General .. 263 11-2, Advantages of helicopters . 264 (1) Bad weather, (2) Future prospects . 264 (3) Military operation, (4) Saving in time 264 (5) Utility 2.0... eee . 264 11-3, Characteristics of helicopter . 265 (1) Flight characteristics ... 265 (2) Physical characteristics 265 11-4, Planning of heliports 265 (1) Selection of site .... 266 (2) Size of landing area . 267 (3) Orientation of landing area, (4) Terminal area 267 (5) Obstruction clearance requirements . 267 (6) Marking of heliports .. 268 (7) Lighting of heliports 269 11-5. Elevated heliports ... 270 11-6. Heliports at airports . 271 11-7. Characteristics of STOL aircraft . 272 11-8. Advantages of STOL aircraft .... 273 (1) Intercity transportation; (2) Noise, 273 (3) Operation, (4) Runway length .. . 273 (5) Useofairspace .... . 273 11-9. Planning of stolports .. 273 (1) Obstruction clearance requirements . 274 (2) Runway length 274 (3) Runway width, (4) Taxiway width ....... 275 (5) Marking of stolports (6) Lighting of stolports .. 276 QUESTIONS 11 .... 277 Appendix I Abbreviated Terms . 279-280 Index 281-286INTRODUCTION 1-1. GENERAL | | | | | L | The term transport is derived from Latin word transportare i.e., trans over and portare means to carry and thus, transport means to carry from one place to another. The term transportation indicates a means or system of conveyance and it is thus, an act of transporting or being transported. It is difficult to imagine those old days when small communities were inhabiting in distant tracts of land and were economically self-sufficient with respect to the production of all the vast range of goods. The introduction of transport facilities in the modern age has narrowed down the distance between various parts of the nation or world. The transport as such has helped human beings in removal of unwarranted barriers of physical separation and the concept of a self-sufficient society has more or less become inconceivable in the modern age of specialization. Just like other public utility services such as water supply, sanitation, electricity, etc., the transport has also been recognised as a great public utility service because it satisfies the following main three characteristics which a public utility service should possess: (1) Collective demand: An organised society with a high standard of living will have substantial collective demand for transport. It is clear that if the transport service is not adequate, the people would suffer. (2) Efficient and adequate supply: As demand rises, there should also be adequate supply of transport facilities. The improvement in the technique of modern transport has considerably increased the wealth of society through the development of trade, industry and commerce.A Airport Engineering Ich. 1 (3) Power of discrimination: A public utility service must possess the ability to exercise the power of discrimination. At present, a transport service is either nationalised in the interests of the public or controlled by the State. The improvements in transportation were not given much importance in the past because the people generally believed that only manufacturing industries, banking and agriculture could develop national economy. But the time has changed now. Much more attention is being given to the transport facilities with an idea to improve them as far as possible. 9 It is not an exaggeration to state that we have entered into an era of air transport. In the chapters to follow, the subject of airport engineering will be suitably subdivided into various topics and each topic will then be discussed in detail. 41-2, SIGNIFICANCE OF TRANSPORT Just like the demand for essential commodities like air, water and shelter, the demand of transport as such is not so much fundamental in nature. But in the modern age, it has served as an useful instrument to carry the ideas and inventions to the peoples of different countries and has thereby contributed considerably to the evolution of civilization. The transport industries undertake nothing more than the mere movement of persons and goods from one place to another. But in doing so in an excellent manner in present times, they have transformed the entire world into one organised unit. The significance of transport in relation to the following three aspects is worth noting: (1) Economic significance of transport (2) Political significance of transport (3) Social significance of transport. (1) Economic significance of transport: As far as the economic activities are concerned, the significance of transport is very great and it can be mentioned as follows: (i) Agriculture: The transport services have increased the productivity of agricultural lands which had exhausted on account of long and unwise uses through the application of improved manures and fertilizers. They have also considerably helped in the marketing of products of agriculture.Art, 1-2] (iv) wv) (vi) (vii) (ix) Introduction 3 Competition: The improved system of transport affects competition to an appreciable extent either due to the expanded market or due to the competition among carriers or transporters. The competition among transport agencies themselves will result in improved transport facilities with reduction in the cost of transport and thereby bringing down the cost of production of the commodity. Consumption: It is observed that transport exercises its powerful influence on human wants, mode of consumption and the quantity of consumable goods also. The reduction in cost of transport permits even distribution of commodities among all the communities of the world. Distribution: The transport has a great impact on distribution because it increases the demand for and supply of capital in a country. Thus, it helps in raising the level of productivity and real wages of labour. Exchange: The transport plays a dominant role in the exchange of wealth which is the major function of marketing. The different industries have come up in the different parts of the world because transport facilitates exchange of goods and promotes competition. Industrial development: The industries depend upon transport and transport creates new industries. If there were no transport facilities, the industrial development would not have taken place to a giant extent as we see today. Land utilization: \f cheap transport is available for long distance, the land can be utilized to the maximum possible advantage by the community. Thus, the lands enjoying better transport facilities will appreciate considerably in their values. Price stabilization: \f adequate transport facilities exist, the surplus commodities can easily be moved to the deficit areas. Thus, the shooting up of prices due to reduction in supply can be prevented and more or less steady prices can be maintained in the local market. Thus, the transport plays an important role in price mechanism also i.e. price equalization and stabilization. Production: At several stages in the production of a commodity, the transport is required. If a commodity is to be produced on a large scale, it is necessary to see that it reaches the far away markets through improved low transport cost so as to accelerate its demand.4 Airport Engineering Ich. 1 (x) Scale of production: The medium and large-sized industries bring raw materials from distant places and their finished products enjoy national and international markets. If transport services are adequate, regular and cheap, the scale of production of big industries can suitably be adjusted. (xi) Territorial division of labour: The transport facilitates the territorial division of labour or regional specialization. It Promotes division of labour by widening the market of a commodity. For the localization of industries, several factors such as climate, technical skill, availability of raw materials, etc. are responsible. But the major factor of transport should not be ignored. (xii) Utility: The transport is a public utility service which creates time and place utilities. It makes commodities available for Consumption at a time when they are most needed. Similarly, a commodity which has no usefulness or only a little utility at the place where it has been produced, must be transported to the place where it is demanded. ___ (2) Political significance of transport: Following are the two important political advantages granted by the transport: () National defence ii) National unity. (i) National defence: In the event of an invasion or during the Period of a war, the transport proves to be an important agency for the mobilization of the entire resources of a Country. Hence, the defence of the country necessitates the adequacy of improved transport facilities. The transport policies of big countries have generally been influenced by the military considerations. (ii) National unity: The big countries like India, U.S.A., Russia or China cannot be held together without an adequately developed system of transport. It thus promotes homogeneity among the people of a country and this sense of oneness strengthens the political unity. (3) Social significance of transport: The social significance of transport should not be also underestimated as seen from the following illustrations: (i) __ It has enabled people to create and maintain personal contacts over wide areas. (ii) It has helped considerably in broadening the outlook of people.Art. 1-2] (iii) (iv) (v) (wi) (vii) (viii) (ix) (i) (iv) (vy) Introduction 5 It has made immigration possible. It has promoted culture and intelligence. It has raised the standard of living of the different peoples of the world. It is the main cause of education by widely distributing mails and books. The development of internal air transport has unified the distant areas of a vast country like India and it has thus created similarity in social customs, manner of living, language, etc. The introduction of public buses has virtually destroyed the feeling of isolation among the people of adjacent areas. The persons possessing bicycles, motor cycles, scooters and cars enjoy complete freedom of the frequency of movement. As discussed above, an improved and efficient transport grants various advantages. But even then, it suffers from the following serious drawbacks: Concentration of population: Due to the availability of transport facilities, there is concentration of population in big cities and it has created new problems of health, housing, etc. in urban areas. The growth of urbanization has taken away the charm of rural life. Elimination of cottage scale production: The cottage industries which cannot afford high cost of advertisement and standardization have virtually been pushed back. Loss of inguishing characteristics: The customs and modes of living of different communities are different. But when they come nearer to each other, they begin to adopt the common practices and lose their own. Mass destruction: During war, the use is made of the fastest means of transport i.e. aircraft for sending troops and bombarding military weapons. It results in the killing of thousands of innocent people and destruction of hospitals, bridges, buildings, aerodromes, railway stations, etc. Restrictions on international transport: The international transport facilities have not developed satisfactorily and hence, all countries have not come close enough so as to eliminate tension and conflict.6 Airport Engineering Ich. 1 1-3. MODES OF TRANSPORT For the purpose of convenience, the transport has been divided in the following three categories: (1) Land transport (2) Water transport (3) Air transport. (1) Land transport: Apart from the human porters and transport by the animals like horses, mules, donkeys, camels, etc., the two major important means of land transport are roads and railways. For road transport, several kinds of carriages such as buses, autorickshaws, bullock carts, trucks, etc. are used. The trucks have come to occupy a prominent place in the modern transport system and for short distances, they successfully compete with railways. The first public railway for traffic was opened on 27th February, 1825 in England by the most famous pioneer of railways, George Stephenson (1781-1848). Very shortly the idea of laying railway lines for public travel spread throughout the world. The first railway line was opened for traffic in India on 16th April, 1853 between Bombay and Thana, a distance of 33 km. The railways play a significant role in transporting men and materials over long distances. (2) Water transport: The water transport possesses historical importance for making the cultural relations and growth of civilization. It can be subdivided into two categories: (i) Inland water transportation: \t is either in the form of river transportation or canal transportation. It is significant to note that river transportation became popular in our country since 1855 and many commercial towns came into existence on the banks of impértant rivers like Ganges. In inland water transportation, certain restrictions and guidance is necessary. (ii) Ocean water transportation: It is adopted for trade and commerce. It is estimated that about 75 per cent of international trade is carried out by shipping. The development of navy force is intended for national-defence. The ocean water transportation has no limitation and it possesses high flexibility. With the introduction of railways as a mode of transport in 1853, the water transportation got some set back. But it is still considered as an important agency for the transport of men and materials by our country.Art. 1-3] Introduction 7 (3) Air transport: There has been considerable improvement and progress in the mode of transport by air. This is the fastest mode * of transport flying at more than 300 km p.h, to a modern speed which is nearly 3 times the speed of sound. Following are the advantages of air transport: (i) Accessibility: The air transport can reach the otherwise inaccessible areas with other modes of transport and such areas can therefore be economically developed with air transport only. (ii) Continuous journey: The aeroplanes can fly over both, namely, land and water. They also do not require any artificial track as in case of railways and roadways. Thus, it grants the facility of a continuous journey over long distances. (iii), Demand for technical skill: The manufacture of aeroplanes and their maintenance as well as development, design and construction of airports have opened up new opportunities for highly technical man-power. The air aviation industry can therefore claim to be the principal employer of highly skilled professionals in the field. (iv) Emergency use: The air service can be used for destroying the pests by aerial spray of the chemicals. It is also extremely useful in case of floods for dropping food packets to the affected people and for observing the area to access the gravity of situation. . (vy) Engineering use: The air service is finding at present an increasing engineering use in the preparation of maps by the aerial photography. The helicopters have been used in the construction of some high rise buildings. (vi) Saving in time: It has resulted in a tremendous saving in travel time because of high speeds of aeroplanes. Following are, however, the disadvantages of air transport: (i) Flight rules: There are certain rules which are framed by the concerned authorities and these rules are to be strictly observed for the smooth working of air transport. (ii) Operating expenses: This mode of transport proves to be most expensive because heavy investments are required for the construction of aeroplanes, airports, repair shops, meteorological stations, etc. and special training is to be given to the pilots. The number of passengers travelling by air as well as the quantity of cargo that can be accommodated8 Airport Engineering Ich. 1 is the smallest as compared to other means of transport and hence, the fares are the highest. Safety: The accidents of aeroplanes are peculiar and alarming in nature. It has led to the psychological fear among the passengers about the safety in air travel. It has therefore become difficult to encourage the general public to travel by air and to make them air-minded, especially in less advanced countries, (iv) Weather conditions: This mode of transport can operate only under favourable climatic conditions. For instance, the landing and taking off operations of aircraft will be totally inconvenient during foggy days. 1-4. HISTORY OF AVIATION In several ancient countries, there exist traditional stories of unknown authorship relating to flying boats and airships. Even in Ramayana, the. great popular Hindu epic, it is mentioned that Lord Ram. returned to Ayodhya from Lanka in "Pushpak Viman" after defeating and killing Ravana. In the middle ages, the transport by air was considered as impious and hence, there is no mention of this mode of transport during this period. Mr. Roger Bacon studied the flight of birds and he predicted in 1256 that the motive power required for flying would be derived from fire. In 1505, Mr. Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) wrote a book in which he successfully incorporated the mechanical principles of wing movement of birds. He studied bird’s motion, air resistance to a body moving in air and airflow. He designed a parachute. He sketched many flying machines using human muscle. It is understood that two French brothers took flight in a balloon in 1763 and Sir John Cayley made an unsuccessful attempt in 1842 at applying steam-power to such flights. During the American Civil War, Mr. Count Zeppelin, a young German army officer, made observations in an anchored balloon and after returning to Germany, he constructed a plane lighter than air. This plane was fitted with all necessary apparatus and Propelling machinery. He improved his airship and was able to make successful flights over the Alps. The flights in his airship were full of dangers of fire and storm. It was also not provided with sufficient lighting power and there were many mechanical drawbacks.Art, 1-4] Introduction 9 On December 17, 1903, a bicycle repairman by the name of Orville Wright propelled himself through the air a distance of 35 m in the first powered flight in a heavier-than-air craft known to man. The incident occurred at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, U.S.A. The two brothers, Mr. William Wright and Mr. Orville Wright, were the pioneers in the construction and use of heavier-than-air flying airships. In 1909, Mr. Bleriot, a French aviator, crossed the English Channel for the first time in a monoplane i.e. an aeroplane with a single supporting wing or plane surface. The progress in air was very slow upto 1914. The Zeppelin aeroplanes were freely used during First World War (1914-18) by Germany for carrying the passengers from one German city to another. As a matter of fact, the gigantic strides were taken to produce efficient machines to suit the needs of war. There was however no consideration for the cost of production. But after the end of war, attention was diverted in reducing the cost of production and improving the design of aircraft. Following are some of the events worth noting with respect to progress in aviation after the First World War: (i) In 1918, the first international air service was started in France between Toulouse and Barcelona. (ii) In May 1918, the long distance air mail service was first introduced in U.S.A. between Washington and New York. (iii) In 1924, the night flying on trans-continental routes were commenced. (iv) In 1926, the North Pole was air-conquered when Admiral Byrd of U.S. Navy with pilot Bennet flew from Amsterdam Island to the North Pole and back, a distance of 2575 km in about 16 hours. (v) In 1927, Mr. Charles Lindberg, an American aviator, made the first solo flight i.e. a flight in which no other person participates, across the Atlantic from New York to Paris in monoplane. (vi) In 1929, the first plane-to-ground radio communication was established after which the air-travel became reasonably safe. (vii) In May 1930, Miss Anny Johnson reached Karachi from London in 6 days. (viii) In 1930, the round-the-world flight was made in just 9 days by Post of U.S.A. and Gatty of Australia.10 Airport Engineering Ich. 1 (x) The first jet flight was made on August 27, 1939 in Germany by the jet aircraft manufactured by Heinkel Aircraft Company. The Second World War (1939-45) made further impact on the development and improvement of air transport techniques. In one sense, it can be said that the development in aviation which took place during six years of war was nearly equal to the one which would have required nearly 25 to 30 years in normal peace time. A vast network of passenger and freight carriage was set by the nations at war with main aim of achieving more speed and minor emphasis on cost and economy of operation. The bombers used during the war were subsequently converted into commercial air lines. In 1944, the delegates from 52 countries met in Chicago, U.S.A. to consider the problems of International Civil Aviation. As per the recommendation of this convention, International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) was set up on April 4, 1947 with its head- quarters at Montreal, Canada. It is now a specialized agency of UNO and is mainly concerned with the airport development. Since then, the development in air navigation with respect to all its aspects such as speed, landing facilities, etc. is quite steady, The ICAO’s membership comprises of 151 sovereign States. The ICAO has two governing bodies, the Assembly and the Council. The Assembly is the sovereign body of ICAO and it meets every 3 years at place and time decided by the Council. The Council is the permanent working group of (33 members elected by the Assembly) the organization and is responsible to the Assembly for discharging duties and obligations as per ICAO charter. The Council elects its own President. The objectives of ICAO as stated in its charter are to develo; the principles and techniques of international air transportation so as to: (i) Insure the safe and orderly growth of the international civil aviation throughout the world. (i) Encourage the arts of aircraft design and operation for peaceful purposes. (iii) Encourage the development of airways, airports and air navigation facilities for the international aviation. (iv) Meet the needs of the peoples of the world for safe, regular, efficient and economical air transport.Art. 1-5] Introduction W (v) Prevent economic waste caused by unreasonable competition. (vi) Insure that the rights of contracting States are fully respected and that every contracting State has a fair opportunity to operate international airlines. (vii), Avoid discrimination between contracting States. (viii) Promote safety of flight in the international air navigation. (ix) Promote generally the development of all aspects of the international civil aeronautics. The ICAO works in close co-operation with other members of the United Nations such as the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), World Health Organization (WHO), etc. The ICAO Secretariat is headed by a Secretary General and it is divided into the following five divisions: (1) air nagivation bureau; (2) air transport bureau; (3) bureau of administration and services; (4) legal bureau; and (5) technical assistance bureau. In addition to the regular staff, the services of experts are taken by loan from member States as and when required. There are various other international organizations active in the field of airport engineering. The International Airport Transport Association (IATA) is such other organization. It has the strength of more than 100 scheduled international carrier members and its objectives are as follows: (1) to promote the interests of civil aviation; (2) to provide a forum for industry views; (3) to establish industry practices; etc. 1-5. AIR TRANSPORTATION IN INDIA The aviation developments in India took place rather late. The first recorded flight in India was performed by a Frenchiaan Henri Piquet when he carried mail from Allahabad to Naini in the year 1911. In the same year, Sir George Lloyd undertook the organization of air flying between Bombay and Karachi. The air service between these two cities was purely a government venture and it was established as a temporary and experimental measure during the winter season with the object of testing the extent to which air mail service was likely to be used by the public. As soon asASIN N) 12 Airport Engineering [Ch. 1 sufficient data regarding its running expenses had been collected, it was found quite expensive as a commercial concern and hence, it was closed down. During the next two decades or so, India observed more or less a complete dull period in the aviation activities. In 1927, the Civil Aviation Department was established and this organization helped in constructing a few aerodromes and forming of some flying clubs. On December 30, 1929 a regular air service between Karachi and Delhi was opened under the Imperial Airways Service. On October 15 in 1932, the internal services were started by the Tata Airways Ltd. It was an effective Indian enterprise which conducted air service between Karachi and Madras once a week with calls at Ahmedabad, Bombay and Hyderabad. In 1933, Indian Trans- continental Airways Ltd. was formed for conducting the foreign flights. The civil aviation in India made a great headway between 1933 and 1938. By the end of 1938, 153 aircrafts were registered with details as follows: 65 for private individual flying 43 for training at flying clubs 31 for regular scheduled air services 14 for miscellaneous commercial services. 153 Total The Second World War ave stimulus to air transport in India and during 1939 to 1945, a large number of technical personnel were trained and much experience was obtained in handling modern machines. For Fecruiting students in air force, a good deal of propaganda was also carried out in universities and colleges. To have control over th Licensing Board was est establishment of this Bo: activities was visible in granted licenses to elever '¢ air-operating companies, the Air Transport ‘ablished in October, 1946 and after the ard, an all-round development in aviation the country. Within two years, the Board Nn air-operating companies. India achieved political independence in 1947 and thereafter, the development of air transport took place on scientific footing. The Tata Airlines changed its name to Air India Limited. The Govt. established another company known as Air India International Ltd. for the external services. It inaugurated its first international service to London on June 8, 1948. The Air Transport Corporations Bill was introduced in the Lok Sabha on March 21, 1953 and in Rajya Sabha, on May 14, 1953.Art. 1-5] Introduction 13 Under the provision of the Bill, the two corporations were established — one for operating domestic services and other for operating international services. Thus, the airlines were nationalised and the two corporations began to function from August 1, 1953 with the set up of organization as follows: (1) Indian Airlines Corporation: It was organized for internal air services and was formed by the merger of eight companies, namely, Bharat Airways, Deccan Airways, Himalayan Aviation, Airways India, Air India, Air Services of India, Kalinga Airways and Indian National Airways. (2) Air India International Corporation: It was organized for conducting international air services from four international airports, namely, Santa Cruz (Mumbai), Dum Dum (Kolkata), Palam (Delhi), and Meenambakkam (Chennai). It may be noted that the airport of Trivandrum was updated on 2-1-1991 as an international airport, the first airport to attain this status after independence. The upgradation of the Trivandrum airport meant the fulfilment of a long-standing and pressing demand of Kerala and it would open up an entirely new vista for the overall development of the State. From 26-1-1991, the international flight has begun from the city of Ahmedabad, Gujarat State known as Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel International Airport. The airport of Anmedabad was however continued to remain domestic. The Air India was operating five times a week flights from Ahmedabad connecting passengers with international flights from Bombay and Delhi to London and New York. The construction work of the new terminal building for the Ahmedabad airport is nearly completed and attempts are made to provide it with modern navigational aids. The installation of radar facility at the airport would make the operations of domestic and international flights to be carried out more efficiently. The majority of international flights zipping across from West to East are flying over Ahmedabad after leaving Karachi and the airport could handle any emergency landing of these flights including that of advanced Boeing 747s. The airport is also provided with two most sophisticated Australian-made navigational aids — Daupler Very High Frequency Omni Range (DVOR) and Distance Measuring Equipment (DME). The DVOR with its 51 antenna, known as “counter-pois" provides the most accurate direction guidlines to the pilots between one airport and another within a radius of 300 km. The DME gives the exact distance between the aircraft and the airport to the pilot. The Ahmedabad city airport has also the most14 Airport Engineering Ich. 1 ind technologically advanced radar system, namely, the eee Rieoalee Secondary Surveillance Radar (MSSR) and the Airport Surveillance Radar (ASR). It enhances air safety within a range of 500 km encircling the city and thus, it has resulted in tightening vigil over the States’s airspace. At present, in 2009, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel International Airport is India’s eighth busiest airport with an average of 150 aircraft movements a day. It serves the metropolitan areas of two’ cities in the State of Gujarat, Ahmedabad and Gandhinagar, and is located 8 km from the Ahmedabad railway station. The airport is spread over an area of 1124 acres i.e., 4.55 km2 with the runway measuring 3600 m. The airport consists of the three terminals: (b) International and (c) Cargo. These terminals airside facilities but are physically separated on thi airport is currently under renovation. Once worl airport’s 15 parking bays will increase to 45 international and domestic terminals will have 4 aert At Domestic terminal, the d (a) Domestic use ‘the same e landside The k is complete, and both the ‘o-bridges each. eparture section has 20 check-in counters, four aerobridges and three boarding gates. It also has restaurants, book shops, retail outlets and a V.1.P, lounge. The arrivals section has three luggage belts, a snack counter, bureau de change, ground transport desks and a [Link]. lounge. At International terminal there are 15 check-in counters. The departure hall has a restaurant, a duty-free shop, a book-cum-gift shop and other basic amenities. The arrival hall consists of one entry gate, two luggage belts, a bureau de change and a snack stall. A new international terminal is under construction. Once complete, it will be double the size of the present terminal. The state government is also looking into a new international airport at Fedara, near the port town of Dholera in the Gulf of Khambhat, YY growth of the frequency of domestic al s ince the formation of these two corporations. The Indian Airlines (IA) is a full member of the International Airport Transport Association (IATA) and it also provides services to the neighbouring countries, namely Burma, Ceylon, Afghanistan and Nepal. In our country, the flying conditions are good and distances are vast. There has been stead The Indian Airlines possesses a vast fleet of Airbuses, Boeings, Caravelles, HS 748, Viscounts, Avros, Fokker Friendships and Dakotas. Rapid economic growth in India has made air travelArt, 1-5] Introduction 15 more affordable. Air India, India’s flag carrier, presently operates a fleet of 147 aircraft and plays a major role in connecting India with the rest of the world. Several other foreign airlines connect Indian cities with other major cities across the globe. India’s vast unutilized air transport network has attracted several investments in the Indian air industry in the past few years. More than half a dozen low-cost carriers entered the Indian market in 2004-05. Air Deccan, Jet Airways, Kingfisher Airlines, Spice Jet, Go Air, Paramount Airways, IndiGo Airlines and Air India are the most popular airlines in domestic air travel. Of these, Jet, Indian and Kingfisher also operate overseas routes after the liberalization of Indian Aviation. These airlines connect more than 80 cities across India. However, a large section of country’s air transport system remains untapped, even though the Mumbai-Delhi air corridor was ranked 6th by the Official Airline Guide in 2007 among the world’s busiest routes. There are more than 335 domestic airports in India, 250 with paved runways and 96 with unpaved runways and more than 20 international airports in the Republic of India. The Indira Gandhi International Airport in Delhi and the Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport in Mumbai handle more than half of the air traffic in South Asia. It is India’s busiest in terms of the number of daily flights. The Vayudoot was incorporated as a jointly owned company of IA and Al with an intention to provide low cost connections to the inaccessible parts of the North East region. The short haul services of the Vayudoot have also been introduced in other parts of the country. The expansion of Vayudoot is indeed rapid and depending upon the availability of aircrafts, infrastructural facilities, etc., it had about 100 stations in the country. Air India Limited is the national flag carrier airline of India, flying a worldwide network of passenger and cargo services. Air India is state-owned, and administered as part of the National Aviation Company of India Limited - which was created in 2007 to facilitate merger of Air India with Indian Airlines. The main bases of operation of the airline are Mumbai’s Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport and Delhi’s Indira Gandhi International Airport. Air India is the 16th largest airline in Asia, serving 28 destinations worldwide, and, with its affiliated carriers, serves over 100 cities. Air India was founded by J. R. D. Tata in 1932 as Tata Airlines, a division of Tata Sons Ltd. (now Tata Group). On 15 October 1932, J. R. D. Tata flew a single-engined De Havilland Puss Moth carrying air mail (postal mail of Imperial Airways) from Karachi’s Drigh Roada Airport Engineering Ich. 1 Aerodrome to Bombay’s Juhu Airstrip via Ahmedabad. The aircraft continued to Madras via Bellary piloted by former Royal Air Force pilot Nevill Vintcent. ' After the end of World War II, regular commercial service was restored in India and Tata Airlines became a public limited company on 29 July 1946 and known as Air India. In 1948, ‘after the Independence of India, 49% of the airline was acquired by the Government of India, with an option to purchase an additional 2%. In return, the airline was granted status to operate international services from India as the designated flag carrier under the name Air India International. On 8 June 1948, a Lockheed Constellation L-749A named Malabar Princess and registered VT-CQP’took off from Bombay for London via Cairo and Geneva. This marked the airline's first long-haul international flight, soon followed by service in 1950 to Nairobi via Aden. On 1 August 1953, the Government of India exercised its Option to purchase a majority stake in the carrier and Air India International Limited was born as one of the fruits of the Air Corporations Act that nationalised the air transportation industry. At the same time all domestic services were transferred to Indian Airlines. In 1954, the airline took delivery of its first L-1049 Super Constellations and inaugurated services to Bangkok, Hong Kong, Tokyo and Singapore, In 1960, Air India International entered the jet age when its , named. Nandadevi_ was delivered. On 8 ine’s name was officially truncated to Air India. Air India became the world’s first all-jet airline. Moved its offices to downtown Mumbai. ne took delivery of its first Boeing 747- palace in the sky. A distinctive Paintwork around each aircraft r 'yle of windows in Indian Palaces. lelivery of the Airbus A310-300; the airline On 11 June 1962, In 1970, Air India The next year, the airli 200B named Emperor Ashoka the feature of this air craft is the window, in'the cusped arch st In 1986 Air India took d had a golden sun on a red tail, Only applied to around a half of Air India’s fleet, the new livery did not Succeed, as the Indian flying public complained about the phasing out of the classic colours. The new livery was dropped after two years and the old scheme was returned. “ASArt. 1-5] Introduction 17 In 1993, Air India took delivery of the flagship of its fleet when the first Boeing 747-400 named Konark and made history by, operating the first non-stop flight between New York and Delhi. It was a part of major fleet renewal scheme and modernisation to prepare the country to attract the foreign tourists of 21st century. This‘ aircraft is controlled by the latest system of computers and it is designed in such a way that it can be loaded and unloaded in seven minutes only. The interiors of the aircraft are made to suit the Indian traditions and all types of comfort are offered to the passengers. The first Boeing 747-400 joined the Air Indian on August 14, 1993 at the cost of Rs. 500 crores. The peculiarity of this aircraft is that it is named as Boeing 747-400 because the sum total of all of its facilities comes to 747400 as shown below: Gross weight which can be carried in kg eed 377800 Fuel capacity in litre oe 216000 Maximum pay load in kg we 59900 Engine thrust in Ibs eed 56750 Maximum height in sky in m ae 13745 Non-stop distance in m aoa 13340 Baggage pieces in no. oO 3400 Distance in m for seat belt sign eae 3140 Capacity in litre of four tanks con 1600 Speed per hour in mile een 575 Capacity of passengers in no. wee 417 Switches in nos. in cockpit oa 365 Electric supply in watt we 115 Nos. of bottles stored in cabin ea 35 Seats in nos. for cabin crue eo 23 Audio entertainment channels in no. 0 18 Personal T.V. in nos. in first class pee 16 Intercoms in nos. pa 15 Toilets in nos. 5 Catering shelves in no. faa 13 Doors in no. aa 12 Exits in emergency in no. fad 12 Monitors to see Video in no. es 1" Basins in no. : 11 continue next page ..---18 Airport Engineering Ich. 1 Fire hydrants in no. Slide reflectors in no. Skyphones in no. [Link]. in no. for video programme Closets for keeping coats and hats in no. First aid kits in no. Engines in no. Radio beacons in no. for sending signals Water taps in no. Seats in no. for rest of crew members Toilets in no. for old and handicapped Crew brunks in no. Life ray fits in no. Wings in no. for take-off Megaphones in no. Kit for doctors in no. Cart for lifting food in no. Wheel chair in no. for old ai \.FS. to lead crew Total 7 747400 __ ln 1994 it was registered as Air India Ltd. In 1996, the airline inaugurated service to its second US gateway at O’Hare International Airport in Chicago. In 1999, the airline opened its dedicated Terminal 2-C at Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport in Mumbai. In 2000, Air India intro to Los Angeles and Newark, wholly-owned low cost airline 3 ind handicapped... AAA ANNNNWYHRE RREUHDAVNG routes to include non-stop flights from Ahmedabad and also Operations from Bangalore and Hyderabad. On International Women’s Day, 8th March 2004, operated an All Women Flight fro airline has seventeen female pilots, the airline m Mumbai to Singapore. The , including five trainee pilots. In 2007, the Government announced the merging of Air India with Indian Airlines and a new company called the National Aviation Company of India Limited (or NACIL) was established, After merging,Art. 1-7] Introduction 19 the airline, which will continue is known as Air India having headquarter at Mumbai. Air India will become a full Staf Alliance member in 2010. India has the world’s fastest growing airline industry. However, increasing fuel prices resulted in a 4% decline in air traffic in June 2008. Increasing competition of other major Indian airlines like Jet Airways and Kingfisher Airlines has pushed Air India to third place in India in terms of market share. On 1 March 2009 Air India made Frankfurt Airport its Global Aviation Hub for its North American Operations. 1-6. INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT AUTHORITY OF INDIA (IAAI) The International Airport Authority of India (IAAI) was set up in April, 1972 for the operation, management, planning and development of all international airports. However, the facilities of air traffic control, aeronautical communication and nevigation are provided to these international airports by the Civil Aviation Department. The IAAI has done appreciable modernization of four international airports in our country. It has been given construction work and consultancy services in foreign countries also. It was given first foreign project in 1976 for the construction of airport complex of Ghat Airport at Libya with a total cost of 70 million U.S. dollars. It carried out extensive construction activities at Hulule Airport, Maldives, P.D.R. Yemen and Malaysia involving millions of U.S. dollars. At Yemen it has successfully completed Riyan Airport project and Alghaidha Airport project during 1980 to 1986. It has also provided consultancy services to Plaissance Airport, Mauritius and Batna Airport and Setif Airport at Algeria for pavement design and other allied items of airport design. It has also carried out extension work of runway at Republic of Nauru and development of Mafia Arport at Tanzania during 1982 to 1986, The dynamic planners, aviation engineers and financial experts have given global fame to the IAAI with respect to the planning, design, construction, consultancy, management and various other aspects of Airport Engineering. On April 1, 1995 it is being merged with AAI. 1-7. CIVIL AVIATION DEPARTMENT The National Airport Authority (NAA) was established on June 1, 1986 through an Act of Parliament and it is managed by a20 Airport Engineering ICh. 1 board consisting of Chairman, four full-time members and eight part-time members. The main object of NAA is to ensure the highest standard of air traffic control by using modern sophisticated equipments and to maintain the international standards with respect to air traffic control, aeronautical communications, ground safety operations, etc. The major responsibilities of NAA can be enumerated as follows: (1) to ensure the safety of all the operations performed by the aircrafts; (2) to manage all domestic civil airports and civil enclaves; (3). to provide all the essential facilities like managing the runways, technical buildings, air traffic control services, airport environment, civil aviation training centres, navigational and radar services at domestic and international airports, visual aid ground safety service at domestic airports, etc, The regulatory functions such as airworthiness of aircraft, licensing of personnel, approval of tarrifs, preparation of schedules, etc. are looked after by the Director General of Civil Aviation (DGCA), The achievements of NAA are numerous and deserve to be appreciated. The NAA, with its future plans and well-managed vast network of airspace, is hopeful to meet the challenges to be faced by the civil aviation department in 21st century. 1-8. AIRPORT AUTHORITY oF INDIA (AAI) __ The AAI was formed on April 1, 1995 by merging the National Airports Authority (NAA) and the International Airports Authority of India (IAAI), to create a Centralized organization that could the international and domestic airports integrated development, expansion and erational, terminal and cargo facilities at try conforming to international standards. at Defence airfields. The Corporate head. Bhawan, Safdarjung Airport, New Delhi owned by the Government of India. AAI generates its revenue from landing or parking fees and fees collected by providing Air Traffic Control services to aircraft over the Indian airspace. Despite of many tragic occurrences like 9/11, Afghan war, Iraq war and quarters are at Rajiv Gandhi . Presently, it is completelyArt. 1-9] Introduction 21 SARS that struck the Civil Aviation sector the world over during the last few years and left it bleeding, Airports Authority of India (AAI) has persistently come up with good results, showing all around growth including increased revenue and higher level of profitability while building up the infrastructure. AAl’s successful implementation of Automatic Dependence Surveillance system, using indigenous technology, at Calcutta and Chennai Air Traffic Control Centres, gave India the distinction of being the first country to use this advanced technology in the South East Asian region enabling effective Air Traffic Control over oceanic areas using satellite mode of communication. Use of remote controlled VHF coverage, alongwith satellite communication links, has given added strength to our Air Traffic Management System. Following are the functions of AAI: (i) It controls and manages the Indian airspace extending beyond the territorial limits of the country, as accepted by ICAO. (ii) It provides services like design, development, operation and maintenance of International and Domestic Airports and Civil Enclaves. (iii) It carries out construction, modification and management of passenger terminals. (iv) It provides passenger facilities and information system at the passenger terminals. (v) It carries out expansion and strengthening works for runways, taxiways, aprons, hangars, etc. (vi) It provides visual aids at airports. (vii) It also provides communication and navigational aids like Radar, DVOR, DME, etc. 1-9. OPEN SKY POLICY January 29, 1994 marked an important day in the calendar of civil aviation of our country. The Air Transport Corporation Act of 1953 was repealed for introducing the open sky policy. The private airlines are now permitted to fly in air under the supervision of DGCA. Among the various private air operators, the currently largest is the East West with 11 planes. The other important operators are Damania Airways, Jet Airways, Modiluft, Sahara Airways, etc.22 Airport Engineering Ich. 1 The introduction of open sky policy will certainly improve the air travel conditions because of competition among Indian Airlines (IA) and the private operators. 1-10. AIRPORT TERMINOLOGY Following are some of the important terms and definitions, the meanings of which are explained at this stage, for the easy understanding of the subject of airport engineering: (1) Aerodrome: Any defined area on land or water (including any buildings, installations and equipment) intended to be used for the arrival and departure of an aircraft is called aerodrome. It may be provided with the facilities for shelter and repair of aircraft and also for processing of passengers, baggage, mail and cargo. It may not necessarily be used for all scheduled air flights. Sometimes the term aerodrome is used to mean an airport. _ (2) Aeroplane: An aeroplane is a power-driven heavier-than-air flying machine with fixed wings. It derives its lift in atmosphere chiefly from the aerodynamic reactions on its surfaces. (3) Aircraft: An aircraft is a general term which is used to Head any machine for navigating the air and deriving support aon the reactions of the air. It may or may not be power sine rt may be lighter or heavier than air. It thus includes peep aeror ane, qrelicopter, rocket, etc. An aircraft which ere ° ed less than the speed of sound is a subsonic the speed of See which travels with a speed greater than ee aero 'S a supersonic aircraft. The speed of sound Pp mperature and it increases with the increase 1730 le eh The average speed of sound may be taken as (4) Airfield: An airfield is an area which is used for landing and take off of an aircraft. It may or may not be provided with facilities for convenience of passen, . FI gers and for shel aA of aircraft. ter, repair and servicing (5) Airport: An airport is an aerodr intended for the use of commercial se custom facilities in addition to other nort international traffic. ome which is principally rvices. It is provided with ‘mal facilities, if it serves any (6) Airport capacity: The number of aircraft movements which an airport can process or handle within a specified period of time, usually an hour, is called the airport capacity. A landing or take off Operation is taken as one movement.Art, 1-10] Introduction 23 (7) Airport established elevation: It is the elevation above mean sea level of the highest point of the landing area. (8) Airships: A power driven lighter-than-air aircraft is known as an airship. (9) Approach area or approach zone: An aircraft neither gains or loses height all at once, but does so gradually along an inclined path. The approach area or approach zone indicates the wide area on either side of a particular runway upto a certain distance which is kept clear of any obstruction. The centre-line of approach area coincides with that of the runway. The area on ground is trapezoidal in shape with its width increasing from the runway-end outwards. The approach areas are measured on horizontal surfaces. (10) Approach surface: A line rising at a particular slope from the runway-end represents the obstruction clearance line and the imaginary inclined plane containing this line and directly above the approach area is known as approach surface. (11) Apron: It indicates a defined area of the airport to accommodate aircrafts for loading and unloading of cargo and passengers, parking, refueling, etc. It is usually paved and is located in front of the building or adjacent to hangars. (12) Balloon: A non-power-driven and lighter-than-air aircraft is known as balloon. TABLE 1-1 BEAUFORT SCALE Beaufort Description Velocity at a standard height of 10 m No, above flat open ground in km p.h. 0 Calm 1.60 1 Light 3.20 2 Slight breeze 8 3 Gentle breeze 16 4 Moderate breeze 24 5 Fresh breeze 34 6 Strong breeze 43 7 Moderate gale 56 8 Gale 67 9 Strong gale 80 10 Whole gale 95 1 Storm 110 12 Hurricane Greater than 12024 Airport Engineering [Ch. 1 (13) Beaufort scale: In 1805, Admiral Beaufort of the British Navy, devised a scale of wind force and it is widely known after his name. It Consists of numbers 0 to 12 and higher numerals are indicative of higher speeds. The International Meteorological Committee for wind velocities adopted the scale in 1874 as a part of the code employed in communicating the weather conditions. Table 1-1 gives the phrases along with the corresponding Beaufort numbers and approximate wind velocities. (15) Boundary lights: The a delineate or trace the ou: known as boundary light (16) Boundary marke: of a landing area are kn: eronautical ground lights which tline of the boundary of a landing area are rs: The markers used to indicate th own as boundary markers. (17) Calm period: The absence of appreciable wind, general considered as 6 km p.h. or less, is called the calm period, The knowledge of calm periods of a particular place throughout the year plays an important role in designing an airport. (18) Cargo: The term cargo is used to indicate the fi than passengers, baggage and mail, which is carried b aircraft. ie boundary reight, other ya transport (19) Clearway: It is defined as a rectangular area at the end of a strip or channel in the direction of take off over which the aircraft may make its initial climb. (20) Conical surface: of an imaginary hollow i outwards from the Periphe: of 1 in 20 measured in a (21) Control area: The airspace of defined dimension within which air traffic control is exercised is known as control area. (22) Control tower: A tower which is usually situated at the top of the terminal building with its walls enclosed in glass enabling the operator to have an unobstructed view of the entire airfield is known as control tower. It controls the air traffic at the airport by supervising an d directing the flight of the arriving and departing aircrafts within the airport control area, It is the internal surface of the frustum inverted cone extending upwards and Ty of the horizontal surface with a slope vertical plane.Art. 1-10] Introduction lS \ Of LIBRARY JO} (23) Control zone: The term control zone is (ey to indicate / an airspace of defined dimension within which rulds*dditionalto- those governing flight in control area apply for the Sélection. of air traffic. ~ (24) CTOL: The term CTOL is used to mean the conventional take off and landing. (25) Design landing weight: The maximum aeroplane weight for landing conditions at the maximum velocity of descent is known as design landing weight. ~ oy pm (26) Design take off weight: The maximum Ramo weight for flight load conditions is known as design take off weight and it is used for the structural design of the runways, taxiways and aprons. (27) Elevator: The movable part of the tail whose only purpose is to grant longitudinal control for achieving longitudinal stability is known as elevator. (28) Flight time: The total time from the moment an aircraft first moves under its own power for the purpose of taking off to the moment it comes to rest at the end of the flight is known as flight time. (29) Flight visibility: The term flight visibility is used to indicate the average range of visibility in forward direction from the cockpit of an aircraft in flight. (30) Fuselage: It indicates the main body of an aircraft to which wings and other parts are attached. (31) Gate position: The space allotted to an aircraft parking at a loading apron is known as gate position. (32) Hangar: The large shed erected at the airport for the purpose of housing, servicing and repairing of aircrafts is known as hangar. (33) Helicopter: It is a type of an aeroplane in which the machine is equipped with one or more lifting propellers rotating horizontally about an approximately vertical axis. (34) Heliport: The area for landing and taking off of helicopter is known as heliport. (35) Holding apron: It is the designated portion placed adjacent to the ends of runways for allowing to check aircraft instruments and engine operation prior to take off and also to wait till clearance for take off is given. (36) Horizontal surface: The imaginary horizontal surface which is circular in plan and which is located at a level of 45 m above the airport established elevation is known as horizontal surface.26 . Airport Engineering Ich. 1 (37) Instrument landing system (ILS): The aircraft, by this system of landing, is brought to rest upon the ground with the help, of radio beam facilities installed on the airport and the manipulation of the control instruments by the operator of the aircraft as directed by the radio beams. The ILS thus provides lateral and vertical guidance to the aircraft during landing and it is also popularly known as blind landing system. During bad weather conditions and poor visibility, the operator can make safe landing of aircraft without seeing the runway with the help of ILS. (38) Instrument runway: The runway which is adequately equipped with the radio beam facilities and on which landing can be made according to ILS rules is known as an instrument runway. (39) International airport: It is an airport which handles international air traffic and functions according to international aviation rules framed by ICAO. It serves as a place of entry and departure from the country and necessary facilities for customs, immigration and other procedures are also provided on such an airport. (40) International air service: The air service which passes or crosses the air space of the territory of more than one country is known as an international air service. (41) Landing area: The portion of airport, excluding the terminal area, which is used for landing and take off of the aircraft is known as landing area. (42) Landing strip: A long and narrow area which is suitable for the landing and take off of the aircrafts is known as landing strip, It forms part of an airport and it consists of a runway plus the shoulders on either side of the runway. __, (43) Mach number: The speed relative to the speed of sound is indicated by a number known as Mach number. Mach 1 means the speed which is equal to that of sound. (44) Missed approach: When landing is not effective after an instrument approach, it is known as missed approach. (45) Parachute: The device resembling an umbrella made of silk sheet with cords attached to it and Opening automatically on the pulling of a rip-cord is known as parachute. When in use, it breaks the speed of a falling person or object from a great height under gravitational force. The parachute jumping can be treated as a sport and it can be carried out from the aircrafts flying at great heights.Art. 1-10] Introduction 27 (46) Pressure altitude: The altitude at which the pressure corresponding to the standard atmosphere is obtainable is known as pressure altitude. (47) Rudder: It is one of the major controls while the aircraft is in flight. It helps the pilot to turn the nose of the aeroplane in any particular direction. It can move to and fro about a vertical axis through about 30°. It is usually hinged to the fin at the tail. (48) Runway: It is defined as a long and comparatively narrow strip of land which is selected or prepared for the landing and take off of aircraft along its length. It is usually paved except for small aerodromes. (49) Standard atmosphere: It is a fictitious atmosphere of dry air and it has been defined by the ICAO to have the following conditions: z i) The air is a perfect dry gas. The temperature at sea level is 15°C. (iii), The pressure at sea level is 760 mm of mercury. (iv) The temperature gradient from sea level to the altitude at which the temperature becomes -15.5°C is -0.0065°C per m and zero above. (50) STOL: It indicates short take off and landing. (51) Stolport: The area used for landing and take off of STOL aircrafts is known as stolport. (52) Stopway: It is defined as a rectangular area at the end of the runway in the direction of take off in which an aircraft can be stopped after an interrupted take off. Its width is equal to the width of runway and thickness sufficient to bear the weight of the aircraft. (53) Surveillance radar: The radar which provides an overall picture of the surrounding atmosphere within a radius of 50 km to 100 km is known as surveillance radar. It moves through 360° and the information about any aircraft within the range is received on a scope in the form of pip or dot having a luminous tail behind and thus indicating the path of its movement. (54) Taxiway: A defined path on a land aerodrome, selected or paved for the use of taxiing aircraft to and from the runway and loading apron is known as taxiway. (55) Terminal area: The portion of the airport other than the landing area is known as terminal area and it includes terminal building, aircraft apron, cargo storage building, hangars, automobile parking area, etc.28 Airport Engineering [ch. 1 (56) Terminal building: The building or buildings which are meant for providing facilities to all passengers, for serving as office for airport management and for carrying out other non-aeronautical functions are known as terminal buildings. They act as focal points of the terminal area. (57) Transition surface: The imaginary inclined plane with a slope of 1:7 measured upward and outward in a vertical plane at right angles to the centre-line of the runway is known as transition surface. (58) Visual flight rules (VFR): The rules which are observed for the landing of an aircraft by visual reference to the ground are known as VFR. When the weather conditions are good, the landing of an aircraft is made by making use of VFR. (59) Visibility: The greatest distance to which a prominent object of certain specified dimension is perceivable to the eye, the object being observed in the day light during day and properly lit during night under the existing atmospheric conditions is known as visibility. (60) Wind rose: The diagram showing direction, duration and intensity of wind over a certain period in a specified region is known as wind rose. Its shape resembles a rose. (61) Zero fuel weight: The term zero fuel weight is used to indicate the weight above which all additional weight must be in fuel. (62) Zoning: It pertains to the enactment of legislation for a restricted development of the area surrounding the airport so that no structure protrudes above the obstruction clearance line and thus cause hazard to safe air navigation, especially in the approach and turning areas. 1-11. COMPONENT PARTS OF AEROPLANE Following are the seven essential parts of an aeroplane: (1) Engine (2) Flaps (3) Fuselage (4) Propeller (5) Three controls (6) Tricycle undercarriage (7) Wings. Fig. 1-1 shows the component parts of an aeroplane. Each of the above component will now be described briefly.Art. 1 qd 11) Introduction 29 Vertical fin Rudder Yo Elevator Component parts of an aeroplane Fic. 1-1 ) Engine: The main purpose of providing an engine to the aircraft is to make available the force for propelling the aircraft through the air. According to the method of propulsion, the aircrafts can be classified in the following three categories: (i) Piston engine (ii) Jet engine (iii) Rocket engine. (i) Piston engine: These are the conventional types of aircraft engines which are suitable to operate at low altitudes with moderate speeds. The aircraft is provided with gasoline fed reciprocating engine which is driven by propeller or airscrew. The engine rotates a shaft with a huge torque and the torque so developed is absorbed by the propeller, mounted on the shaft. When the rated speed is attained by the propeller, large quantity of air is hurled rearward which pulls the aircraft forward and lifts the wings. (ii) Jet engine: The main advantage of the jet engine is that it eliminates propellers and thus, the aircrafts can move at high altitudes at high forward speeds. It thus eliminates the main drawback of piston engine and for the purpose of convenience, it can be grouped in the following three types: (a) Turbo jet: In case of turbo jet aircrafts, the hot exhaust gases having high velocity give a forward thrust to the engine. It is reported that the gases coming out with the speed of 1600 km p.h. may push the plane with the speed of about 800 km p.h. The efficiency of aircraft is greatly improved at high altitudes because of the following two reasons:Airport Engineering [Ch. 1 (1) There is drop in the atmospheric density and thus, the resistance to passage of aircraft is reduced. (2) There is great temperature difference through the turbine. Turbo propulsion: The performance of turbo propulsion aircraft is similar to that of turbo jet except that a propeller is provided in it. However, its performance is equally satisfactory in low as well as high altitudes as compared to the turbo jet which gives better performance at moderate altitudes. The speed of turbo propulsion is limited by the propeller efficiency. (c) Ram jet: It is a jet engine which does not have any moving parts. The fuel flow and combustion are continuous. The spark plug is used at the start only. The heated air expands and rushes out of the exhaust nozzle at high velocity which creates the jet. The main features of this aircraft are simplicity of design and high speeds of about 1280 to 2400 km p.h. However, the consumption of fuel is very high. It is used as pilotless aircraft for guided missiles. The jet engines have numerous attractive features over the conventional engines and they can be enumerated as follows: (1) No radiators or other cooling devices are required. (2) The chances of fire hazards are decreased. (3) The controls are simple. (4) The operation is noiseless. (5) The specific weight is low. (6) There are no vibrations. (b) (7) There is less consumption of lubricating oil. (8) There is no necessity of spark plugs or carburettors. The jet engine because of its man: universally recognised as Proper mos and the conventional aircrafts proy are replaced by jet aircrafts, Rocket engine: The manner of Production of thrust in case of rocket engine is the same as that of the ram jet except that it does not depend on the oxygen in the atmosphere for the combustion. It carries its own supply advantages has been de of aircraft propulsion pelled by piston enginesArt, 1-11] Introduction 31 of oxygen and hence, it can operate at high altitude or outside oxygen bearing atmosphere at extremely high speed of about 4600 km p.h. However, the rocket engine has the highest specific fuel consumption as compared to all other engines. An aeroplane may have one, two, three or four engines. The engine is placed in the nose of the aircraft for a single engined aeroplane. If engines are two or four in number, they are placed symmetrically about the nose of the aircraft. In case of aircraft with three engines, one is placed in the nose and one on each side of the two wings. The advantages of using more than one engine are as follows: (a) Chances of accidents: In case of multi-engined aircraft, it is possible to continue the flying even if one engine has failed or gone out of order till area for safe landing is reached. Thus, the chances of accidents are greatly reduced. (b) Increase in power: Depending upon the number of engines, the power and weight carrying capacity of the aircraft are increased proportionally. (c)_ Reliability: A single engine even of highly sophisticated nature cannot be relied upon for its performance for all the time. If a breakdown occurs during flying, it becomes difficult for the pilot to avoid crash unless satisfactory landing ground is available. Thus, the multi-engined aircrafts are more reliable. (2) Flaps: A flap is a hinged section of an airplane wing, used in landing or take off. The flaps, when projected into air, produce an immediate reduction in speed of the aircraft and thus, they are intended to serve as air brakes. They are fitted only to the inner portion of the wing and it is so arranged that the flaps on either side are pulled down together. They are somewhat similar to the ailerons and it is so arranged that they can be operated by the pilot from his cabin. The flaps provide necessary lift at low speed and hence, they are helpful for landing the aircraft satisfactorily. Thus, they serve as an important control during the landing operation of the aircraft. (3) Fuselage: It provides space for the accommodation of the plant, fuel, cockpit, cargo, passengers, mail, service tables, ovens, bathrooms, etc. It must possess the following characteristics:32 Airport Engineering Ich. 1 ()__ It is shaped to a fine point at the rear end and yet it should not be too fine so as to make it unable to resist twisting stresses due to the wind. (ii) It must be large enough to give sufficient tankage space. But at the same time, it should be as small as possible to reduce the wind resistance. (ii) It should have enough depth for strength. But it should not be very deep because in that case, the side area may become very large which is undesirable for safety and efficiency. (4) Propeller: The propeller is provided in the conventional piston engine as well as in the turbo propulsion engine. It has usually two or more blades which are driven round in a circular path. The blades deflect air backwards with an acceleration and thus, forward thrust is imparted to the aeroplane. When the engine and propeller are in front, the machine is described as a tractor type. When the engine and airscrew are behind the wing, it is known as a pusher installation. The latter type is generally not preferred. (5) Three controls: An aircraft in space can move in three principal axes, namely X-axis, Y-axis and Z-axis, as shown in fig. 1-2. a | axis a, : 4%, : Ry | ye os e Elevator Fic, 1-2 The movement of aircraft about the X-axis is called the /ateral or rolling movement. This axis passes through the centre-line of nose and tail of the aircraft.Art, 1-11] Introduction 33 A hinged flap, known as aileron, is fixed in the trailing edge of wing near the wing tip to serve as control of the aircraft along X-axis or longitudinal axis. The aileron is rigged in such a way that when in one wing is pulled up, that in other wing is pulled down. The net effect of doing these operations simultaneously is to give a very powerful rolling control to the aircraft about its X-axis. The function of aileron is to enable the pilot to balance the aeroplane when it is tilted by a gust of wind. It also permits to tilt the machine purposely, say when the aeroplane is describing a circle and it is desired to tilt it laterally. The movement of aircraft about the Y-axis is called the pitching. This axis passes through the centre-line of wings and it is perpendicular to the X-axis. The elevator in the form of two flaps is provided at the extreme rear end of fuselage to control the pitching or up and down movements of the aircraft. The elevator is capable of moving up and down through an angle of 50° to 60°. The flaps of elevator are hinged to a fixed horizontal surface known as stabilizer or tail plane. When the elevator flap is raised, there is increased air pressure on it which results in tail to go down and nose to point up. When the air pressures are equal at the top and bottom of the flaps, the elevator is in a neutral position and the aircraft flies along the normal line of flight. The movement of aircraft about the Z-axis is called the yawing. This axis passes at right angles through the meeting point of X-axis and Y-axis. The turning or yawing movement of the aircraft to the right or left of the vertical axis through an angle of about 30° is achieved by the rudder which consists of a stream-lined flap hinged to a vertical axis at the tail end of the fuselage. The rudder makes it possible to steer the aeroplane in the air along Z-axis. Thus, there are three devices in an aircraft to control the movements in three directions, namely, aileron, elevator and rudder. The combined assembly of elevator and rudder provided at the tail end of the fuselage is also known as the empennage. It is also so arranged that each control can be operated by the pilot from his cabin. (6) Tricycle undercarriage: The landing-gear system which is provided to support aircraft while it is in contact with the ground is known as tricycle undercarriage and it serves the following two main purposes: (i) To enable easy manoeuvring: The suitable assembly of wheels allows the aircraft to move on the runway carrying its entire weight.34 Airport Engineering [ch 1 | (ii) To permit smooth landing: The aircraft during landing touches the ground with certain vertical velocity. A certain amount of energy has therefore to be dissipated during the touch down operation. The undercarriage permits this phenomena to occur as smoothly as possible. Fig. 1-3 shows the basic wheel configurations or arrangements of the aircraft landing-gear system. L Tail wheel 4 Nose “ i L _ Main Za TS Main gear (Single wheel assembly) . __ Gingle wheel assembly) @) ) j Je Main gear ‘ ual wheel assembly) a Nose wheels Tf --- Gey i . a Twin tandem gear (©) @) Twin-Twin gear \ a Wing wheels Twin-Twin gear © Aircraft wheel arrangements Fic, 1-3 There are generally two main Sears which are provided in the fuselage or in the wings near the junction of fuselage and wings. The major portion of the load to the extent of about 90% is carried by these two main gears. The third wheel is provided either at the tail as shown in fig. 1-3(a) or at the nose as shown in fig. 1-3(b) and it carries only a very small portion of about 10% of total load,Art. 1-11] Introduction 35 The provision of third wheel at tail is not preferred because it keeps the nose up and the wings are at greater angle of incidence. If wind blowing is powerful, the aircraft may be lifted off the ground or pushed backwards even when it is stationary and the engine is not working. On the other hand, when the third wheel is kept at the nose, it keeps the nose in down position and the wing angle is reduced. However, such an arrangement is slightly inconvenient for the loading of the goods and passengers. If at each of the three points, there is one wheel only, the arrangement ‘is known as single wheel assembly, as shown in fig. 1-3(a) and fig. 1-3(b). If there are two wheels at each of the three points of support, as shown in fig. 1-3(c), the arrangement is known as dual wheel assembly. \f the nose point has two wheels and the main gear consists of four points of support, each point having two wheels, the assembly is known as twin tandem gear assembly, as shown in fig. 1-3(d). In this case, there are eight main gear wheels in two rows in tandem and each row has two points of support. Thus, there are two main gear wheels at each point as in the case of dual wheel assembly. When one of the main gears has more than one wheel, it is known as multi-wheel assembly and such an arrangement allows the aircraft load to be distributed over a large area of runway pavement and its thickness can be reduced. The two main gears along with nose or tail gear forms the tricycle arrangement. When the load is distributed on two gear assemblies placed along the axis of the fuselage without any nose or tail wheel, as shown in fig. 1-3(e), the system is known as twin-twin bicycle gear arrangement. (7) Wings: An aircraft is provided with wings to support the machine in the air. The term aerofoil is used to mean a winglike structure which may be flat or curved and is designed to obtain reactions upon its surface from the air through which it moves. The wings are slightly curved in section and are set at a small angle of incidence to the horizontal. Fig. 1-4 shows the various parts of a cambered aerofoil. It is easy to understand how a cambered aerofoil obtains the vertical lift from air pressure. As shown in fig. 1-5, the areas of reduced pressure and increased pressure are formed simultaneously on the top surface and bottom surface of the aerofoil because of its streamline shape. A cambered aerofoil receives a current of air in an upward direction and directs it downwards. Thus, a lift reaction is