eee aw @ i > y o 3 > ® 2° 2 2 2 2 ° + > > ° > ° > 2 = 9 = OP latino ‘PSYCHOLOGY AND LAW COURSE DESCRIPTION Psychology, as we all know is the scientific study of human behaviour. For the community at large, it is important to. recognize that ctiminal science is larger than criminal law. As @ one semester elective course, this module’ will specifically’ focus on understanding the criminal behaviour and what causes such behavior from a psychological perspective, Deception and lying behaviour are asually a trademark of most criminals. In order to escape from imprisonment, most criminals try to mask their deeds. It is essential to recognize the various methods that can be helpful in detecting the pretense of the eriminal. This course imparts an understanding of what makes an individual a ‘criminal’ end how these criminals can be identified, through psychological profiling, detection of deceit and eye witness testimony. Treating the offenders is as important as prevention. The objective of Psychology & Law course is not just dealing with ‘the mental state of criminals but also mental state of judges, experts, victims, witnesses, etc. Criminal profiling has been a recent development and involved a sketch of a criminal. It has helped the investigative teams in characterizing the criminals and has also expanded the field of research in studying criminal behaviour. Various aspects of the criminal's personality makeup are inal determined from his or her choices before, during, and after the crime. Offender! profiling would help develop skills to identify the perpetrator of a crime based on an analysis of the nature of the offense and the manner in which it was committed. This course briefly examines mental disorder as one of the causes of criminal behaviour. It has introduced the various types of mental disorders especially those associated with criminal behaviour and their diagnosis and how these various forms of mental disorders are interpreted in the context of legal systems; the law with specific reference to the defense under criminal law of ‘insanity’ ‘The course discusses how components of psychology provide an understanding into criminal tendencies, es well as into verious aspects of tactical procedures and the interrogation of suspects. It also educates the students about the various scientific methods of detecting deceit ©and the value of psychological methods in criminel justice through field study. It certainly imparts various methods and approaches of how law practitioners can win a case in their favour. While new types of crime have grown more prevalent, or at least more visible to the public eye from spousal abuse to school shootings; little has changed in terms of our approach to dealing with crime, Crime continues to invade every aspect of our lives, criminal court dockets and prisons are oppressively overcrowded and expensive, and recidivism rates continue to escalate. Thus, Psychology & Law course explains several approaches towards crime prevention and treatment of offenders to ensure lower rate of re-offense, which is an essential part towards the development of a coherent society where law enforcement plays 2 significant role in achieving the Wishes of the state to be a crime free city, It moves beyond the concept that criminal behaviour is a consequence of factors such as poverty, divorce, and media violence rather, all criminals share a particular mindset often evident in childhood that is disturbingly different from that of @ responsible citizen, ‘As popularly known that juveniles tum out to be criminals, thus studying juveniles, its prevention, and treatment of them is an imperative issue in today's times. Gauging such delinquent behaviout at an early stage can help integrate a juvenile into the society. It further focuses on its causes, prevention and treatment. ‘The state of victims and their psychologicel impact of different types of crime faced is an integral part of the course. There can be several victim assistance programs that need to be introduced especially in India, ensuring that victims lead a healthy life and not guilty of shame prone life. Psychology and Law course will help the budding lawyers in understanding how he/she can improve the chances of winning a case by applying certain psychological principles, This subject provides the Law students an opportunity to comprehend and analyze the principles of psychology i.e. scientific study of human behaviour and its relationship to criminal justice system. This also facilitates the understanding of psychological skills such as rapport formation with clients to win @ case. Overall this course intends to. develop student's critical and self- reflexive analytical skills and ability to critique the criminal justice system from a psychological perspective. It provides students with the knowledge of various types of offending psychological -o. &PITTTSS TST idee eheviour assisting them to discover how psychological research works within legal institutions, eg Courts and Tribunals. It has explanatory notes on psychological testing and other methods of, criminal profiling. The basic reading material along with prescribed textbooks and research papers wil explain the module in detail. All essential reeding materials, articles and research papers are included inthe course pack and students will be provided with a list of specific reference books. They are expected o read the assigned materials, artiles, esearch papers and prescribed reference books. Films, quizzes, group discussions and practical wil also from an integral part of the course COURSE AIM 1) Introduces students to Psychology and Law, provides an opportunity 10 ‘comprehend and analyze the principles of criminal psychology and its relationship to Justice. 2) Provides students withthe knowledge of various types of offending psychologies! behavior, assistance in discovering how psychological research works within legal institutions such as courts and tribunals. 3) Familiarizes students with theories of criminal psychology ~ psychological processes, consequences of crime, profiling of offenders, and courtroom psychology 4) Helps to understand the behavior of the accused, vietim, and the convict, and providing an insight into how Criminal Justice Functionaries should deal with them. 5) Use of various Psychological techniques for aésessiment of offenders and victims. 6) Understanding of the relevance of various Psychological skills wseful to Lawyers to deal with their clients either offender or ‘victim. 7) Examines methods of profiling deviant bebe; value of psychological methods in Criminal Justice through field study. §) Emphasizes the role of psychology in juvenile delinquency, crime prevention, vietimology c, methods of detection of deceit and the and treatment of offenders and victims. 4) Intends to develop students critical and self-reflexive analytical skills, and ability ro suBgest improvements inthe the criminal justice system from psychologies! perspective, 0)Develop the understanding of how psychology can help in crime prevention and rehabilitation. 2. 8 | | | | |ewe w © eg & boue ’ wee OBJECTIVES OF THE COURSE 1) Articulate the concept of Psychology and Law. 2) Approaches to understanding crime and explanations leading to criminal behavior. 3) Use of psychological processes in understanding the complexities of crime and mental disorder and discover ways to lessen its complexities. 4) Profiling of offenders with special emphasis on psychological assessment. 5) What is psychology of testimony and its use in the courtroom? 6) Relevanee of objective psychological methods in the detection of deceit. 7) Facilitating the understanding of modem tools and techniques in the prevention and control of crime, and future offending behavior. 8) Role of psychology in the rehabilitation and reintegration of the victim to the society. 9) Calculating the severity of the problem pertaining to Juvenile Delinquency, its future consequences, and psychological interventions to sought solutions to alleviate the harms and prevent future delinquency. COURSE OUTLINE ‘COURSE INTENDING LEARNING | TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT Outcomes LEARNING TasKs/ACTIVIIES By the end of the course students ACTIVITIES | should be able to: | T Closed-Book written > Clearly articulate the | 20% || Lectures, Assigned ‘concept of psychology, | weight applied psychology and criminal psychology; state and analyze theories of criminology and of crime, and Readings, Group Activities, Presentations, Research and Writing Students will be examination (50% of the final grade) Research Project, GTEFSAETISPISIAIGIVIKGLHS | ( ( { ( Attendance, Class | | n ‘engaged using @ Participation through 1 behav i criminal behavior. combination of group activities, quizzes readings, group veriting nt sativa and writing assignments : a { {é . 2 = presentations to (50% of the final grade) 4 understand key s concepts of | i psychology, criminal aa behaviour and crime. oe a _ > Critically assess the 20% | Lectures, Assigned Closed-Book Written s processes in psychology, } Weight ) Readings, Group Examination i mental disorder, crime “Activities, Films, | a f i ” 7 Attendance, Class a and juvenile delinquency Research and Writing) participation through } S . ® Students will be group activities, quizzes | oe engaged using a and writing assignments { combination of 4 Ss readings, group if c activities and films to i Ss understand key . rf g | concepts in criminal : q a stratification, and | | at ‘other related issues. { oe ii ce. > Investigate and Engage | 40% | Lectures, As igned Closed-Book Written | critically in criminal and | weight | Readings, Group Examination ad offender profiling, Activities, Films, i courtroom psychology Restarch and Writing | tendance, Class i and use psychological Participation through i methods in criminal. > Students will be group activities, quizzes 4 justice and assessment of engaged using a and writing assignments |* crime combination of j a | > Evaluate crime acti prevention procedure, understand key ; processés and - criminal psychology techniques; and concepts relating to understand victimology topics of discussion. and provision for 20% 7 treatment of offenders & | eight victims GIT GIF tt iCIE ITATITIIT IVT ACCC CEE ECE ELE EEE STUDENT ASSESSMENT Following is the tentative assessment plan for this course. I may change it with prior notice, however. Student Performance : Weight Quizzes 5 ‘| Case Studies 10 | | Case Discussion and Class Participation] 10 Final project 20 tos Attendance 5 Final Exam 50 Total 100 ath eh, in toenail i i ak dt ii6Eb665 CUBE FSS PEER ECEREC EO RE ERR f TABLE OF CONTENTS NO. OF cuasses | al. INTRODUCTION TO 13 7-54 PSYCHOLOGY 1 INTRODUCTION Ti, WHAT 15 CRIMINAL 4 55-59 A PSYCHOLOGY? } [ Ill, PSYCHOLOGICAL | : [APPROACHES TO 5 60-66 CAUSES OF UNDERSTANDING CRIME, 2. CRIMINAL IW. THEORIES OF CRIME 7 67-84 BEHAVIOUR ‘V. MENTAL DISORDER & . B12 a5-114 fF CRIME CRIMINAL PROFIUNG 24 13-16 116135 | 3. ‘ASSESSMENTS: | WE DETECTION OF oecet| 1720 136-144 PSYCHOLOGY & Vill PSYCHOLOGY & Ce - 21-22 146-166 couRTROOM courtroom JUVENILE (DC JUVENILE DELINQUEN 23.28 : e aa DELINQUENCY’ CAUSES & TREAT 7 C7 EYEWITNESS. Ss 3 “a “Ss 2 s 3 * ~ ig > = —) i] "> "2 => “= “ => fog “9 oe) ~ ~> 18 Proximity e@@ @6 66 @2@ Similarity @@€@oo0e6o00 nad C1010) 0) < ‘Good continisation a Common region ED Psychoanalysis was founded during the late 1800's and early 1900's by. the Austrian doctor ‘Sigmund Freud, Psychoanalysis was based on the theory that behavior is determined by powerful inner forces, most of which are buried in the unconscious mind. According to Freud and other psychoanalysts, from early childhood people repress (force out of conscious awareness) any desires or needs that are unacceptable to themselves or to society. The repressed feelings can cause personality disturbances, self-destructive behavior, or even physical symptoms. Freud developed several techniques to bring repressed feelings to the level, of conscious awareness. In a method called free association, the patient relaxes and talks about anything that comes to mind while the therapist listens for clues to the person's inner feelings. Psychoanalysts also try to interpret dreams, which they regard as a reflection of unconscious drives and conflicts. The goal is to help the patient understand and accept repressed feelings and find ways to deal with-them. Freud believed that personality has three structures: the id, the ego, and the superego. The id is the, Freudian structure of personality that consists of instincts, which are-an individual's reservoir of psychic energy. In Freud’s view, the id is totally unconscious; it has no contact with reality. As children experience the demands and constraints of reality, a new structure of personality emerges: the eg0, the Freudian structure of personality that deals with the-demands of reality. The ego is called the executive branch of personality because it uses reasoning to make decisions. The id and the ego have rio morality. The superego is the Freudian structure of personality that is the moral branch of personality. The superego takes ito account whether something is right or wrong. Think of the a &19 superego as what we often refer to as our “conscience.” You probably are beginning to sense that both the id and the superego make life rough for the ego. Your ego might say, “I will have sex only occasionally and be sure to take the proper precautions because I don’t want the intrusion of a child in the development of my career.” However, your id is saying, “I want to be satisfied; sex is pleasurable.” Your superego is at work, too: “T feel guilty about having sex before I'm married.” Freud considered personality to be like an iceberg; most of personality exists below our level of awareness, just as the massive part of an iceberg is beneath the surface of the water. Above this boundary is the realm of conscious. This includes our current thoughts: whatever we are thinking about or experiencing at a given moment. Beneath this conscious realm is the much larger preconscious which contains memories that are not part of current thought but can readily be brought back to mind if the need arises. Finally, beneath the preconscious, and forming the bulk of the human mind, is the unconscious: the thoughts, desires and impulses of which we remain largely unaware. Freud believed that most of the important personality processes occur below the level of conscious awareness i.e, unconscious level. In examining people’s conscious thoughts about their behaviors, we can see some reflections of the ego and the superego. Whereas the ego and superego are partly conscious and partly unconscious, the primitive id is the unconscious, the totally submerged part of the iceberg. It is the Ego that resolves the conflict among its demand for reality, the wishes of the Id and the constraints of the Superego through defense mechanisms, the psychoanalytic term for unconscious methods the ego uses to distort reality, thereby: protecting it from anxiety. In Freud’s view, the conflicting demands of the personality structures produce anxiety. For example, when the ego blocks the pleasurable pursuits of the id, inner anxiety is felt. This diffuse, distressed state develops when the ego senses that the id is going to cause harm to the individual. The anxiety alerts the ego to resolve the conflict by means of defense mechanisms. Repression is the most powerful and pervasive defense mechanism, according to Freud; it works to push unacceptable id impulses out of awareness and back into the unconscious mind. It is the foundation from which all other defense mechanisms work; the goal of every defense mechanism ® LéL La sk ad a Bb ab ad Eee ee 2 fp RVTWVVVTD a a 19 &4 © bestww ee wv bb SS dd es ~w 20 is to repress, or push Yareatening impulses out of awareness. Freud said that our early childhood experiences, many of which he believed are sexvelly laden, are too threatening and stressful for us to deal with consciously. We reduce the anxiety of this conflict through the defense mechanism of repression. Freud introduced concepts such as Freudian slip which is an error in speech, memory, or physical action that is interpreted as occurring due to the interference of some unconscious wish, desire, and conflict. Freud called dreams as the "royal road to the unconscious". This meant that dreams illustrate the sjogic" of the unconscious mind. He proposed that the unconscious exists. He became interested in dreams when dealing with his patients because they were telling dreams spontaneously. He soon systematically itcluded interpretation of dreams in psychoanalysis right beside hypnosis and free association, In the end of 19th century he eventually researched the mechanism of dreaming and claimed that there exists two types of dreams. Latent dream and manifest dreams. Moder psychology has incorporated many teachings of the earlier schools. For example, though many psychologists disagree with certain of Froud’s ideas, most accept his concept that the ‘unconscious plays a major role in shaping behavior. Similarly, most psychologists agree with the behaviorists that environment influences behavior and that they should study chiefly observable actions. However, many psychologists objet to pure behaviorism. They believe that it pays too little attention to such processes as reasoning and personality development. ‘Another group of psychologists, who are known as the Cognitive school, believe there is more to human nature than a series of stimulus-response connections or the unconscious. These psychologists concentrate on such mental processes as thinking, reasoning, and self-awareness. ‘They investigate how a person gathers information about the world, processes the information, and plans responses. Ulric Neisser coined the term “cognitive psychology”. Cognitive psychology is radically different from previous psychological approaches in two key ways. + It accepts the use of the scientific method, and generally rejects introspection as a valid method of investigation. 2)21 + Itexplicitly acknowledges the existence of internal mental states (such 2s belief, desire and motivation) unlike behaviorist psychology. Major research areas in cognitive psychology include perception, attention, memory, language and thinking. The core focus of cognitive psychology is on how people acquire, process and store information, There are numerous practical applications for cognitive research, such a5 ways to improve memory, how to increase decision-making accuracy, and how to structure educational curricula to enhance leaming. Some cognitive psychologists view the human mind as an information processing system like a computer and receive processes, transforms and stores and retrieve the information. However modem cognitive psychology views human beings as actively constructing their minds through their exploration into the physical and social world. This view is termed as constructivism. ‘A school called Humanistic psychology developed as an alternative to behaviorism and psychoanalysis. Humanistic psychologists believe individuals are controlled by their own values and choices and not entirely by the environment, as behaviorists think, or by unconscious drives, as psychoanalysts believe. The goal of humanistic psychology is to help people function effectively and fulfill their own unique potential. The supporters of this approach include the ‘American psychologists Abraham H. Maslow and Carl R. Rogers. it adopts a holistic approach to human existence through investigations of meaning, values, freedom, tragedy, personal responsibility, buman potential, spirituality, and self-actualization. One school of thought running parallel to the humanistic approach is Existential psychology. It is an approach to psychology that is based on several premises, including: understanding that a “whole” person is more then the sum of his or her parts; understanding people by examining their interpersonal relationships, understanding thet people have many levels of self-awareness thet can be neither ignored nor put into an abstract context, understanding that people have free will and are participants rather than observers in their own lives, and understanding that people's lives have purpose, values, and meaning. This is a view that seeks meaning within the whole of the person's existence. ‘Many psychologists do not associate themselves with a particular school or theory. Instead, they select and use what seems best from a wide variety of sources. This approach is called eclecticism. © RRR Ad hail RAIDED! |2 SUB FIELDS OF PSYCHOLOGY Fig. 6 subfields of Psychology ) CEES PELL ELEC PELPE OOOO YYP OOO « 8... &23 CONCEPTS IN PSYCHOLOGY Psychology is a very vast and a complex subject. It consists of several fields that deal with the different facets of the mind, The different fields in psychology attempt to solve complex questions associated with the structure and functioning of the human mind. This makes psychology a fascinating field for research. It involves how we perceive objects eround us, followed by how we Jeam and further the realm of psychology includes memory and forgetting. This vast ocean of a diversified psychology can be studied under various sub-components that are displayed below Fig. 7 Concepts of psychology widely studied METHODSIN Greets MOTIVATION XVeuent PUFFFFFIVINN NAD 199te te & | > S id a 7 . * > 2 er « CIS ddI IIIT Gas 24 Knowledge of our intemal and external world becomes possible with the help of senses. The sense organs receive various stimuli and send them in the form of neural impulses to specialized areas of ~ prain for interpretation. Attention is a process of through which we select certain information by filtering outsmany others shat: appear to be imelevant at a given moment of time. Activation, concentration and search are important properties of attention. Factors affecting attention include intensity, size, contrast, repetition, motion, novelty and familierity, situations. The two major types of attention is selective and sustained ‘attention, Divided attention is evident in the case of highly practiced tasks in Which there ig much automaticity of information processing. The span of attention varies from seven pls mimus two. ‘ After one pays attention to a stimulus, it follows thie most important process i, Perception which can be defined as the processes of interpretation and informed construction received from sensory organs, Human beings perceive their world in terms of their motivations, expectations, cognitive styles, and cultural background. Perception is studied with reference to space, depth and distance. ‘The visual field in which’ things exist; move or can be called is called space which can be orgenized in three dimensions- size, shape and direction. The process of viewing the world in three dimensions is called distance or depth perception. Depth perception is important in our daily lives. For example, when we drive, we use depth to assess the distance of an approaching automobile. In perceiving depth one depends on cues which can be studied as binocular and monocular cues. Binocular requires both eyes for perception of depth while monocular cues require perceiving depth with just one eye.FUUFOTIGIPIITOTO DO CLULULLLILLULL LLL INTERPOSITION LINEAR PERSPECTIVE Fig. 8 Monocular Cues RELATIVE SIZE Linear perspectiveEI OT ITT TOS OV LOLOO DEO VYUVYYOYX 26 AERIAL PERSPECTIVE, BINOCULAR CUES (PHYSIOLOGICAL CUES) Some important cues to depth perception in three dimerisional spaces aré provided by both the eyes. Three of them have been found to be particularly interesting namely, 1. Retinal/ Binocular Disparity 2. Convergence 3. AccommodationTLLUSONS Our perceptions are not always veridical. Sometimes we fail to interpret the sensory information correctly which results in a mismatch between the physical stimuli and its perception. These misperceptions resulting from misinterpretation of information received by our sense organs are known as ILLUSIONS and are experienced by more or less all. There are perceptual illusions that are universal and found among all individuals called as universal illusions. Fig. 9 Geometrical Husions a B ©28 Fig, 10 Apparent Movement Ilusion a5 tes uy ee & J Us Once the information is processed it is important to identify whether the information processed has lead to change in behavior. > = 7 7 = “~ ~28 ‘Thus, Learning is any relatively permanent change in behavior produced by experience or practice. It is an inferred process and differs from performance which is the observed behavior! response/ action. ‘The main types of leaning are: classical and operant conditioning, observational learning, cognitive learning, verbal learning, concept learning and skill learning. Classical end operant conditioning have been discussed in the last few pages. Pavlov first investigated classical conditioning in the course of studies of digestion in dogs. In this kind of learning an organism comes to associate stimuli. A neutral stimulus (CS) that signals an unconditioned stimulus (US) begins to produce a response (CR) that anticipates and prepares the organism for US. Skinner first investigated Operant/ Instrumental Conditioning. An Operant is any response voluntarily emitted by an organism. It is a type of leaming in which response is strengthened if followed by reinforcement. A reinforce can be any event that increases the frequency of preceding response. Thus, the consequence of a response is crucial. The rate of operant conditioning is influenced by the type, number, schedule, and delay of reinforcement. Observational leaming is the acquisition of new information, concepts, or forms of behavior through exposure to others. and the consequences they experience. In order for observational learning to be effective, one must pay attention to those modeling the behavior, remember the modeled speech or action, and possess the ability to act on their memory and motivation to do so. The performance depends on whether the model's bebavior is rewarded or punished. This is « result of famous experiment by Albert Bandura (1961). This is the result of a famous experiment by Albert Bandura and his colleagues (1961) knowm as “Bobo doll” experiment. In these studies ne group of nursery schoo! children saw an edult engage in aggressive behavior against a large inflated Bobo doll. While another group of children were exposed to a model who behaved in a quiet, nonaggressive manner, Later, it was observed that when the two groups were placed in a room with a Bobo doll, the group of children who observed the aggressive bebavior engaged in violent behavior with the doll more than the group who was not exposed to the aggressive bebavior. Thus, children leamed through observation. / > we ae dd Ad a9 ad ak ablyy UUUeEbwLUC EH OVO OY bs ded Dd ddd VG 30 Fig. 12 Bandura’s Experiment on Observational Learning (Bobo doll) Once the information is paid attention to, perceived and processed and leamt it is important to retain the information as well. Thus it is important to study the concept of memory which is studied widely studied among Psychologists. Memory is an organism's ability to store, retain, and recall information. Traditional studies of memory began in the fields of philosophy, including techniques of artificially enhancing the memory. The late nineteenth and early twentieth century put memory within the paradigms of cognitive psychology. In'recent decades, it has become one of the principal pillais of a branch of science called cognitive neuroscience, an interdisciplinary link between cognitive psychology and neuroscience, From an Information Processing (Atkinson é& Shiffrin, 1968) perspective there are three main stages in the formation and retrieval of memory: © Encoding or registration (eceiving, processing and combining of received information) + Storage (creation of a permanent record of the encoded information) «Retrieval, recall or recollection (calling back the stored information in response to some cue for use in a process or activity) ‘They suggested that we possess three distinct systems for storing information. 1. Sensory Memory: A memory system that retains representations of sensory input for brief periods of time. 2. Short term Memory: A memory system that holds relatively small amounts of information for brief periods of time, usually thirty seconds or less5 | 3a i 3, Long term Memory: A memory system for the retention of large amounts of information ' over long periods of time. | | Fig. 13 Information Processing Model a Information from Environment ‘Another renowned mode! of memory is levels of processing model proposed by Craik and ti Lockhart (1972). This theory contends that the information can be encoded at any of the three { levels, namely the structural, the phonetic and the semantic. If information is analyzed and encoded semantically, which is the deepest level of processing then it leads to better retention. ' Forgetting is on important aspect of memory and studied widely. Tt oceurs when information entered into the long-term memory fades or decays with the passage of time. However many studies indicate that the amount of forgetting is not simply a function of how much time has lapsed; rather a more crucial espect is what happens during that period of time. There have been ‘many reasons attributed to forgetting. One possibility is that jt stems mainly from interference between items of information stored in memory. Such interference can take two forms: retrospective interference and proactive interference.« ey, euedgoae a OG BIS SS SIS SI I IDS Sd GT HY 32 ‘There have been many reasons attributed to forgetting. Retroactive interference claims thet interference with retention of information already present in memory by new information being entered into memory, Proactive interference refers to interference with the learning or storage of current information by information previously entered into the memory. Information is either stored permanently, or it is forgotten. A growing body of research states that that a third possibility is that information entered into memory is often altered in various ways over time. Memory distortion is alterations in what is retained and later recalled, and memory construction is the addition of information that was not actually present. Memory is a reproductive process and not a constructive process. ‘Mnemonics help improve one’s memory. Some of them involve use of images whereas others ‘emphasize self-induced organization of learned information. Some of them include: Fig. 14 Techniques of Improving Memory gies Technique ~&.. &33 Keyword Method involves combining substitute words with visualization (a two-step process). First you convert the sound of the word into smaller, simpler concepts. Then you associate those concepts with an image representing the actual meaning of the word. Clrunking involves grouping together bits of information that are somehow related and can be put together into meaningfil'tnity known as chunks. Method of Loci actually uses spatial associations between the content one needs to memorize and a femiliar location. First letter technique is @ common mnemonic for remembering lists and involves an easily remembered acronym, or phrase with an acronym that is associated with the Hist items. For examplé, to remember the colors ofthe rainbow, use the mnemonic "Richard Of York Gave Bate In Vain". Retrieval Cues refer to any stimulus that helps us recall information in long-term memory. Parts of the Brain involved in Memory are: Hippocampus: it is the memory control center. The hippocampus is involved in transferring memories from short term to long term memory. Some of this process is thought to occur while the person is sleeping, The hippocampus, in combination with the thalamus, is also thought to be involved in spatial memories, such as recognizing a road route, ‘Thalamus: In combination with the Amygdala, itis thought to be involved in emotional memories. Italso may be involved in actually forming the original memory before encoding takes place. ‘Amygdala: The emygdala is in charge of strong emotions. Because of this, itis also closely ted to memory. The degree and type of emotional impact of an event has a great influence on an event being stored in memory. If a person experiences something extremely emotional, the smygdala will activate connections with the hippocampus so that the event will be more memorable. Behavior is a result of attitude which is a result of thought processes. The way one thinks is reflected in their behavior and attitude as well. Thinking is a complex mental process through which we manipulate information (either acquired or stored). It is an {internal process that ean be inferred from the behavior. & PILE ee 2s 4RITIIT IIIT ITI TITHS ELH KRCEVERCU CUES 34 ‘Thinking is mostly organized and goal directed. The building blocks of thinking involve mental representations that are mental imageé/ words or concepts. An image is a mental representation of a sensory experience; it can be used to think about things, places, end events. A concept is @ mental representation of.a.categgry. It refers to a clasé of objects, ideas, or events that share common properties. Complex thought processes are prpblém solving, reasoning, decision making, judgment and creative thinking and it helps in organizing our knowledge so that whenever we need to access our knowledge one can do it with less time and effort, The most appli¢ation of thinking is during Problem solving. Problem solving is thinking directed towards the solution of a specific problem. Mental set, fimctional fixedness, lack of tiotivation and persistence ‘are some of the hindrances for effective problem solving. Reasoning, like problem solving is goal directed, involves inference and can be either deductive or inductive. The kind of reasoning that begins with an assuimption is called deductive reasoning. While reasoning that is based on specific facts and observation js called Inductive reasoning. Analogy is another form of reasoning, It is this inductive and deductive reasoning that helps to make judgments. In making judgment, we draw conclusions, form opinions, and make evaluations about objects ot events. In decision making'one must choose aimong several available elternatives. Judgment and decision making are intenelated processes. In decision making process the problem before us is to choose among alternatives by evaluating the cost and benefit associated with each alternative. Decision making differs. from other types of problem solving. There are certain steps involved in decision ‘making and problem solving. Creative thinking involves the production of something new and original- it may be an idea, object or solution to a problem, Developing creative thinking requires overcoming ‘blocks to creative expression and using strategies to enhance creative skills and abilities. Researchers tend to agree that thinking is said to be creative when it is teality-oriented, appropriate, constructive, and socially desirable. Creativity requires two types of thinking namely, divergent and convergent. Process of creative thinking includes stages of preparation, incubation, illumination and verification. “There are certain baiers to creative thinking namely habitual, perceptual, motivational, emotional and cultural: There are: popular strategies to enhance one’s creative thinking. ‘The most basic and the essential aspect of human behavior is motivation and emotion. In the end it is the motivation that drives a particular behavior. The process of persistent behavior directed ©towards a specific goal, which results from certain driving forces is called motivation. There are two types of motivation, namely physiological and psychosocial motivation. Physiological motivation focuses on the innate, biological causes of motivation like hormones, neurotransmitters, brain structures (hypothalamus, limbic system) etc. examples of biological motivation are hunger, ‘thirst and sex. Psychosocial motivation explains motives resulting mainly from the interaction of the individual with his social environment. It includes need for affiliation, achievement, curiosity and exploration, and the need for power. ‘Maslow arranged various human needs in an ascending hierarchical order, beginning with the most basic physiological needs and then safety needs, love and belongingness needs, esteem needs and finally on the top of the hierarchy is self-actualization needs. Other concepts related to motivation are frustration and conflicts. Emotion is a complex pattern of arousal that involves physiological activation and conscious awareness of feelings and e specific cognitive label that describes the process. Certain emotions are basic i joy, anger, sorrow, fear, surprise. Other emotions are ax experienced as 2 result of combinations of these emotions. CNS and ANS play a major role in regulating emotions. Culture also strongly influences the expression of the emotions. Emotion is expressed through verbal and non-verbal channels. It is important to manage emotions effectively in order to ensure physical and psychological well-being. Personality has been @ topic of interest to psychologists past many decades. However whether personality is real - whether individuals show enough consistency in their behavior overtime and across situations to make studying personality worthwhile. The research trend however bas shown that individuals show considerable consistency in this respect and such consistency in tum becomes a kind of behavioral signature of their personalities. There is much rest upon the Interactionist approach i.e. behavior is a result of personality (Felatively stable internal factors that ‘makes us unique individuals) and situational factors in the world around. Thus personality can be defined as an individual's relatively stable patterns of behavior, thoughts, and feelings. There have been several theories of personality one of them being Freud's theory of personality which has been discussed. Freud elso introduced the Psycho-sexual stages of personality evelopment, In Freudian psychology, psychosexual development is a central element of the psychoanalytic sexual drive theory, that human beings, from birth, possess an instinctual libidoLe SOR a 0 ee hE A OM a 36 (sexual appetite) that develops in five stages. Esch stage — the oral, the anal, the phallic, the latent, and the genital — is characterized by the erogenous zone that is the source of the libidinal drive, Freud's Psychosexual Stages ‘Stage Focus ae ern rat Bieasire centers co the mouth (048 mont -sscking,titing, chening a (eawirefocises On bona sna bl (18.36 rronths) iminatory coping with demands for a SM nen * Bale Pleasure sone isthegentas coping with Gsyeers incestuous seme! fedings itney Dorrant soca fecings 7 Gtopwbaty Catan rao ot Sam eS Gouderty on) Carl Jung (1907) was a Neo-Freudian and elaborated on the concept of personality and gave a new dimension to it. Jung shared Freud's view conceming the importance of the unconscious, but contended that there is another part to this aspect of personality: the collective unconscious. This holds the experiences shared by all human beings- experiences that are, in « sense, our biological heritage, The collective unconscious finds expression in several ways but archetypes are the most central, These are manifestations of the collective unconscious that express themselves when our conscious mind is distracted or inactive; for example during sleep, in dreams or fantasies. Two especially important archetypes in Jung’s theory are known as anima (feminine side of males) and animus (masculine side of females). He developed the analytical psychology and introduced the concept of introversion and extroversion. The two attitudes work as opposing. For Jung there were 4 functions that, when combined with one of his two attitudes, formed the cight different personality types. The first fonction — feeling- is 2 method by which a person understands the value of conscious activity. “Another fonction is ~thinking- allows a person to understand the meanings of things. This process relies on logic and careful mental activity.‘The final two functions — sensation and intuition - may seem similar but there is an important distinction. Sensation refers to the means by which a person knows something without conscious understanding of where that knowledge comes from. He thus described 8 different types of personality. They are as follows: 1. Extroverted thinking 2. Introverted Thinking 3. Extroverted Feeling 4, Introverted Feeling 5. Bxtroverted Sensing 6. Introverted Sensing 7. Extroverted Intuitive A Paychological test is based on this theory of personality, named MBTI- Myers and Briggs Type Indicator developed by Isabel Briggs Myers and her mother, Katharine Cook Briggs. The word association test was first developed invented by Francis Galton, which Jung developed through extensive research applying the test to a wide range of psychiatric patients. This test involved a procedure which Jung adapted to compile a series of stimulus words that were reed to patients who were required to respond as quickly as possible with the first word that came to mind. ‘Their response word and the time taken to respond were recorded. Alfred Adler's theory of personality was popular too where he proposed tht, each of us is bom into the world with a sense of inferiority. We start as a weak and helpless child and strive to overcome these deficiencies by become superior to those around us. He called this struggle a striving for superiority and he saw this as the driving force behind all human thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. For those who strive to be accomplished writers, powerful business people, or influential politicians, it is because of feelings of inferiority and a strong need to overcome this negative part « a ~ i o ~ 9SSS EIITTITITIT IIS T TT TH TEKH VEC E HEE EEED® 38 of us according to Adler. This excessive’ feeling of inferiority can also have the opposite effect As it becomes overwhelming and without the needed successes, one can develop an inferiority complex. This belief leaves with a feeling of incredibly less important and deserving than others, helpless, hopeless, and.ummotivated to strive for the superiority that would make us coniplete. He identified two parental styles that he ergued will cause almost certain problems in adulthood. The first was pampering, referring to a parent overprotecting a child, giving him too much attention, and sheltering him from the negative realities of life. On the other extreme is what ‘Adler called neglect. A neglected child is one who is not protected at all from the world and is forced to face life's struggles alone. Adler believed that the order in which you are bom to a family inherently affects your personality (Birth Order) The focus of personality theories shifted from theories to traits. One of the first to identify key hhuman traits was the work of Gordon Allport. He concluded that personality traits can be divided into several categories that varied in their importance. The least important are secondary traits; these are traits that exert relatively weak and limited effects on behavior. More important are cardinal traits- five to ten traits that together account for the uniqueness of an individual's personality. Such traits are stronger and more resistant to situational forces. Allport noted that 2 few people are dominated by ¢ single all important cardinal trait Next, Raymond Cattell rated a large sample of individuals for these 171 different traits, Then, using a statistical technique known as fector analysis, he identified 16 key personality traits According to Cattell, these 16 traits are the source of all human personality. He also developed one of the most widely used personality assessments known as the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF). : British psychologist Hans Eysenck developed a model of personality based upon just three universal traits: 1. Introversion/Extraversion: Introversion involves directing attention on inner experiences, while extraversion relates to focusing attention outward on other people and the environment. So, a person high in2 3. 39 introversion might be quiet and reserved, while an individual high in extraversion might be sociable and outgoing. Neuroticism/Emotional Stability: ‘This dimension of Eysenck’s trait theory is related to moodiness versus even-temperedness. Neuroticism refers to an individual’s tendency to become upset or emotional, while stability refers to the tendency to remain emotionally constant. Psychoticism: » Later, after studying individuals suffering from mental illness, Eysenck added a personality dimension he called psychoticism to his trait theory. Individuals who are high on this trait tend to have difficulty dealing with reality and may be antisocial, hostile, non-empathetic and manipulative. Both Cattell’s and Eysenck’s theory have been the subject of considerable research, which has led some theorists to believe that Cattell focused on too many traits, while Eysenck focused on too few. As a result, a new trait theory often referred to as the "Big Five" theory emerged. This five- factor model of personality represents five core traits that interact to form human personality. “While researchers often disagree about the exact labels for each dimension, the following are described most commonly: 1. Extraversion 2. Agreeableness 3. 4 5. Conseientiousness . Neuroticism . Openness ‘Another important: dimension of personality includes the study of Intelligence, The term intelligence refers to individual's abilities to understand complex ideas, to adapt effectively to the environment, to lear from experience, to engage in various forms of reasoning, to overcome obstacles by careful thought. 1Q stands for intelligence quotient and a quotient is precisely what ‘the scores represent. € © & c ¢. c ce e & eo « e ¢ }PUVIITIT IIIT asa asso ecu eveuyevowe 40 IQ is the division’ of mental age by the chronological age and thea multiplied by 100. If an individual’s mental and chronological ages are equal, an IQ of 100 would be obtained, which is considered as an average score. In contrast, scores below 100 indicated that the individual is less intelligent while an IQ scare-of above 100 indicates that individual is more intelligent es compared to other individual of the same age. ‘The term mental retardation refers to intellectual functioning that is considerably below average combined with varying degrees of difficulty in meeting with everyday demands of life. Intelligence tests have also been used to identify intellectually gifted- persons whose intelligence is far above average. Table 15| 41 Like any scientific research, psychological enquiry has the following goals: DESCRIPTION | PREDICTION EXPLANATION) CONTROL OF BEHAVIOUR (APPLICATIO! Description: In a psychological study, we attempt to describe behaviour or a phenomenon as accurately as possible. This helps in distinguishing a particular behaviour from other behaviours. For example, the researcher may be interested in observing study habits among students. Study habits may consist of diverse range of behaviours, such as attending all your classes regularly, submitting essiguments on time, planning your study schedule, studying according to the set schedule, revising your work on a daily basis etc. Within a particular category there may be further minute descriptions. The researcher needs to describe her/his meaning of study habits. The description requires recording of @ particular behaviour which helps in its proper understanding, Prediction: The second goal of scientific enquiry is prediction of behaviour, If you are able to understand and describe the behaviour accurately, you come to know the relationship of a particular behaviour with other types of behaviours, events, or phenomena. You can then forecast that under certain conditions this particular behaviour may occur within a certain margin of error. For example, on the basis of study, a researcher is able to establish a positive relationship between the amount of study time and achievement in different subjects. Later, if you come to know that a particular child devotes more time for study, you can predict that the child is likely to get good ‘marks in the examination. Prediction becomes more accurate with the increase in the number of persons observed. Explanation: The third goal of psychological enquiry is to know the causal factors or determinants of behaviour, Psychologists are primarily interested in knowing the factors that make behaviour occur. Also, what are the conditions under which a particular behaviour does not occur? For example, what makes some children more attentive in the class? Why some children devote less time for study as compared to others? Thus, this goal is concemed with identifying the determinants or antecedent conditions (ie. conditions that led to the particular behaviour) of the behaviour being studied so that cause-effect relationship between two variables (objects) or events could be established. : ew “es a Dhak Dh li lit ° 9 yoo LULEREELELELEDE© CIIIGSIS SIS TS SS OTT Pee eer weve res az Control: If you are able to explain why © particular behaviour occurs, you can control thet beheviour by making changes in its antecedent conditions. Control refers to three things: making @ particular behaviour happen, reducing it, or enhancing it. For example, you can allow the number of hours devoted to study to be:the sme, or you can reduce them or there inay be an increase in the study Hours. The change brought about in behaviour by psychological treatment in terms of therapy in persons, is a good example of control. Application: The final goal of the scientific enquiry is to bring out positive changes in the lives of people. Psychological research is conducted to solve problems in various settings. Becanse of these efforts the quality of life of people is a major concer of psychologists. For example, applications of youa end meditation help to reduce stress and increase efficiency. Scientific enquiry is also conducted to develop new theories or constructs, which leads to further research. Paychologists use a variety of methoiis like observation, experimental, correlation, survey and case study. Observational Method Observation is a very powerful tool of psychological enquiry. It is an effective method of describing behaviour. In our daily life, we remain busy with observing numerous things ‘throughout ‘the day. Many times, we do not take notice of what we are seeing or what we have seen. We see but we do not observe. We ete eer! i 7 aiff tem remain aware of only # few things that we see daily. Have you crates fs . Sait ey | cePeenead such = thing? You may also have experienced that PE if You carefully observe a person or event for some time, you Sere m e come to know many interesting things about the person or the event, A scientific observation differs. from day-to-day observation in many respects. These ere: (@ Selection: Psychologists do not observe all the behaviour that they encounter. Rather, they select a particular behaviourt a for observation. For example, you may be interested to know how children studying in Class XI spend their time in school, Two things are possible at this stage. As a researcher, you might think that you have a fairly good idea about what happens in school. You might prepare a list of activities and go fo the school with @ view to finding out their occurences. Altematively, you might think that you do not know what happens in the school and, by your observation you would like to discover it (b) Recording: While observing, a researcher records the selected behaviour using different means, such as marking tallies for the already identified behaviour whenever they occur, taking notes, describing each activity in greater detail using short hand or symbols, photographs, video recording, etc. (©) Analysis of Data: After the observations have been made, psychologists analyse whatever they have recorded with a view to derive some meaning out of it. It is important to know that making good observations is a Skill. A good observer knows what s/he is looking for, whom s/be wants to observe, when and where the observation needs to be made, in ‘what form the observation will be recorded, and what methods will be used to analyse the observed behaviour. ‘Types of Observation Observation can be of the following types: (@) Naturalistic vs Controlled Observation: When observations are done in 2 natural or real-life settings (in the above example, it was a school in which observation was made), it js called naturalistic observation. In this case the observer makes no effort to control or manipulate the situation for making an observation. This type of observation is conducted in hospitals, homes, schools, day care centers, ete. However, many a times you might need to control certain factors ‘that determine behaviour as they are not the focus of your study. For this reason, many of the studies in psychology are conducted in the laboratory. AO9OOAPQNONannnnn ? 9SSSISI TIS b dd KUCC CCL EVELOOLOEEEE 44 (©) Non-Participant vs Participant Observation: Observation can be done in two ways. One, you may decide to observe the person or event from a distance. Two, the observer may become part of the group being observed. In the first ease, the person being observed may not be aware that s/he is being observed. For example, you want to observe the pattern of interaction between teachers and students in a particular class. There are many ways of achieving this goal. You can install a video camera to record the classroom activities, which you can see later and analyse. Alternatively, you may decide to sit in a comer of the class without interfering or participating in their everyday activities. This type of observation is called non-participant observation. The danger in this type of setup is that the very fact that someone (an outsider) is sitting and observing may bring a change in the behaviour of students and the teacher. In participant observation, the observer becomes a part of the school or the group of people being observed. In participant observation, the observer takes some time to establish a rapport with the group so that they start accepting her/him as one of the group members. However, the degree of involvement of the observer with the group being observed would vary depending upon the focus of the study. The advantage of the observation method is that it enables the researcher to study people and their behaviour in a naturalistic situation, as it occurs. However, the observation method is labour intensive, time consuming, and is susceptible to the observer's bias. Our observation is influenced by our values and beliefs about the person or the event. You are familiar with the popular saying: "We see things as we are and not as things are". Because of our biases we may interpret things in a different way than what the participants may actually mean. Therefore, the observer should record the bebaviour as it happens and should not interpret the behaviour at the time of observation itself. Psychological Testing ‘The most interesting and extensively preached aspect of psychology used in every realm of life is Psychological testing. It is assessment of individual differences such as aptitude, personality, interest, attitudes, values and educational achievement etc. these tests are used for various purposes45 such 2 personnel selection, placement, training, guidance clinics, diagnosis, defence, educational institutions, and so forth. Every test contains some questions which are technically called the items, Often a test is meant for a particular age. It may or may not have a fixed time limit for answering the questions. A Psychological Test is a standardized and objective instrument which is used to assess an individual’s standing in relation to others in some mental or behavioral characteristics. Objectivity refers to the fact that if two or more researchers administer a psychological test on the same group of people, both of them would come up with more or less the same values for each person in the group. A good test is one which has had an established Reliability, Validity and Norms. ‘There are different types of tests. Verbal tests are “A. verbal (or symbol) test poses questions to which the subject supplies symbolic answers (ia words or in other symbols, such as numbers)”. Non- verbal tests are items are made of symbols or pictures. Performance tests require movernent of objects from their respective places in particular order. Depending on the mode of administration, psychological tests can be divided into individual or group tests. Psychological tests can also be classified as speed and power test. In a speed test, there i @ time limit to complete the test, the items (questions) however are of the same difficulty level to answer but the number of questions are usually more or time for the testis less Power test assesses the underlying ability of the individuals by allowing them sufficient time i.e. tests do not have a time limit. Majority of the tests are a combination of both speed and power.CIE LPPA PTA S ITI GS 6 46 Many tests show a bias towards the culture they were developed in. They sample items from the experience of a particular culture, These are known as culture-biased tests. Majority of the early tests favored urban, middle class, white European and American people. The items were written with these cultures in view.and.the,intent or activities in many of these items do not find place in other cultures, particularly Advican and Asian cultures. To overcome these problems, non-verbal and performance tests were developed. These tests are considered culture-fuir tests because people of any culture could take them. Projective technique is an interesting part of testing. They comprise of uastructured task that is a task that permits an almost unlimited variety of possible responses. While responding to the unstructured situation, an individual projects his/her own feelings, needs, motives, which ere latent and unconscious. They are characterized by a global approach to the assessmeat of personality. Table 16 Widely used Psychological Tests ‘NAME OF THE TEST 7 WHAT If MEASURES Sandford and Binet Intelligence Scale | Intelligence Raven Progressive Matrices Tntelligence ‘Weschler adult intelligence scale Intelligence. Differential aptitude test | Aptitude ‘Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory ‘Personality 16 PF Personality ‘Myers-Briges Type Indicator | Personality ‘Edwards personal preference schedule | Need assessment ‘Draw a man test cs Personality ‘Rorschach Inkblot test Personality Thematic Apperception test Personality7 ‘Experimental Method There are several research methods that are used in the realm of psychology. Tke more common and one of the first methods introduced in psychology was the experimental method. An experiment is a methodical procedure carried out with the goal of verifying, falsifying, or establishing the accuracy of a hypothesis. Experiments vary greatly in their goal and scale, but always rely on repeatable procedure and logical analysis of the results. By definition, all experiments involve manipulation of one or more independent variables, and observing the effect, on some outcome (dependent variable). Experiments can be done in the field or in a laboratory. They can involve human or animal subjects. What distinguishes the type of experiment is ‘the degree to which the experimenter can assign subjects to conditions. A laboratory experiment maybe defined as the study of the problem in a situation in which some variables are manipulated and some are controlled ih order to have an effect on the dependent variable. An experiment to study the effect of exposure to violence on children’s aggressive behavior, where the experimenter assigns subjects in the two groups—the one exposed to violence and the one not, would be en example of « laboratory experiment. A field experiment is a study carried out in a more or less realistic situation or field where the experimenter successfully manipulates one or more independent variables under maximum possible controlled conditions, Studying the effect of a new policy on the employees of a company may qualify as a field study. Quasi- experiments are sometimes called natural experiments because membership in the treatment level is determined by conditions beyond the control of the experimenter. If the subjects have not been randomly assigned to the treatment condition, the experiment is a quasi- experiment. Experiments that take advantage of namrel occurrences are quasi- experiments, for example, comparing achievement of first-bom children with that of later born children. Case Study Method Acase study is aresearch method common inssociel science. It is based on an in-depth investigation of a single individual, group, or event. Case studies may be descriptive or explanatory. The latter type is used to explore causation in order to find underlying principles They may be prospective, in which criteria are established and cases fitting the criteria are Q2IRDIDDIDII DAN ee eeeee oe eeoarenndCUTITIITLETTTTT Tee evVveveVvarrrr>- 4g sncluded af they Become available, 6 vtiosnectve, in which erteria are established for selecting cases from historical records for inclusion in the study. Rather than using samples and following a rigid protocol (strict set of roles) to examine limited number of variables, case study methods, involve an in-depth, Jongiidinal (over a long period of time) examination of a single instance or event: a ease. They provide @ systematic way of looking at events, collecting data, analyzing information, and reporting ‘the results. As a result the vesearcher raj gain a sharpened understanding of why the instance happened as it did) and what right becomne ‘iiportant to" Took’ at more exlensvely in fture research, Case studies lend ‘themselves to both generating end testing hypotheses. ‘A case study is mdst often used in clinical settings when @ patient with a mental disturbance is ‘being sucied or undergoing teatment. An averaye, or typical, case is ofen not the richest in fnformation’ In clarifying lines of history and eausation i is more useful o select subjects that offer an interesting, unusal or particularly revesling set of eivcumstances, A case selection that is ‘based on iveness will seldom be able to produce these kinds of insights. When selecting ‘a subject for a case study, researchers will therefore use jhformation-oriented sampling, as opposed to random sampling. Outlier cases (tht is, those which are extreme, deviant oF atypical) reveal more information than the putatively representative case. Alternatively, a case may be selected as @ ey case, chosen because of the inherent interest of the ease or the circumstaness ‘surrounding it. Os it may be chosen because of researchers’ in-depth local knowledges where researchers have this Iocal katowledge they are in a position to “Soak ind poker’ and thereby to offer reasoned lines of explanation based oa this rich knowledge of setting and circumstances. Interview Method & Survey Methods Tn addition to these, psychologists also make extensive use of self- report measures. ‘These involve interview and survey. methods. ‘An interview is lke a conversation but different. Like a conversation, an interview involves (Wo people talking to one another about something they are interested in. But an interview is more ‘one-sided than a conversation beoause one person, the interviewee, talks more and offers more explanations, while the other person, the interviewer, has to listen very carefully to what is being said and esk follow-up questions. Interviews can mainly be of two types: cena| | | | | | i | a9, A structured interview is when the interviewer has a series of questions written down on a piece of paper, and the process involves asking those questions verbatim and then noting the answers given, ‘Whereas, an unstructured interview is one where there are no predetermined questions are asked in order to remain as open and adeptable as possible to the interviewee’s nature and priorities; ducing the interview the interviewer “goes with the flow.” A semi-structured interview takes the middle road. Here the guide approach is intended to ensure thst the same general areas of information are collected from each interviewee; this provides more focus than the unstructured approach but still allows 2 degree of freedom and adaptability in getting the information from the interviewee. ‘The second selfeport measure used time and again is the survey method. The survey is a non- experimental, descriptive research method. Surveys can be useful when a researcher wants to collect data on phenomena that cannot be directly observed (such es opinions on library services). Surveys are used extensively to assess attitudes and characteristics of a wide range of subjects, from eating habits to attitude towards racial disparity. In a survey, researchers sample a population. Basha and Harter (1980) state that "apopulation is any set of persons or objects that possesses at Jeast one common characteristic.” Since populations can be quite large, researchers directly question only a sample (ie. @ small proportion) of the population, Data are usually collected through the use of questionnaires, although sometimes researchers directly interview subjects. Surveys can use qualitative (eg. ask open-ended questions) or quantitative (e.g. use forced-choice questions) measures. There are two basic types of surveys: cross-sectional surveys and longitudinal surveys. Cross-sectional surveys are used to gather information on a population at a single point in time. An example of a cross sectional survey would be @ questionnaire that collects data on how parents feel ebout Intemet filtering, as of March of 2010. A different cross-sectional survey questionnaire might try to determine the relationship between ‘two factors, like religiousness of parents and views on Intemet filtering, Longitudinal surveys gather data over a period of time. The researcher may then analyze changes in the population and ~™ NAMM Ae PAAR AR ROH HO annan o AAR ARAR ARAMA APOPew OwWnv o > CLINI IS EIST 5558 50 attempt to describe and/or explain them. An example of such a study would be to record the developmental milestones of children who attend school and those who do not. The three main types of longitudinal surveys are trend studies, cohor studies, and panel studies. Data is analyzed’ using-either quaitititive techniques or qualitetive techniques. Quantitative ‘methods involve’ comelations, T-test, Z-test, Anove, Regression analysis etc. for which certain statistical software is available like SPSS, SAS, etc. ‘OF P: yCHOLOGY IN EV Psychology is a very broad subject which purely deals with human behavior, thoughts, reasoning and perceptions. It is very interesting for people who are always eager to work more for improving their existence. One can use psychology in several matters that constitute everyday life, most important of which is exploring your inner-self and eobancing your interpersonal skills to deal with your life in a much better and efficient manner. Jt is the subject that is the most important part cof our daily lives, disregarding the fact that whether we are aware of it oF not Because psychology is both an applied and a theoretical subject, it can be utilized in a number of ways. While research studies aren't exactly light reading material for the average person, the results of these experiments and studies can have important applications in daily life. The followitig are some of the top 10 practical uses for psychology in everyday life. Get Motivated Whether your goal is to quit smoking, lose weight or lear a new language, some lessons from psychology offer tips for getting motivated, In order to increase your motivational levels when approaching @ task, utilize some of the following tips derived from research in cognitive and educational psychology: + Introduce new cr novel elements to keep your interest high. +. Vary the sequence to help stave off boredom. + Learn new things that build on your existing knowledge. + Set clear goals thet are directly related to the task. + Reward yourself for a job well done. ©i | | | i i | | 54. Improve Your Leadership Skills It doesn't matter if you're an office manager or 2 volunteer at @ local youth group, having good leadership skills will probably be essential at some point in your life, ‘Not everyone is bom leader, but a few simple tips gleaned from psychological research can help your improve your leadership skills. One of the most famous studies on this topic looked at three distinct leadership styles: Based on the findings of this study and subsequent research, practice some of the following when you are in a leadership position: Offer clear guidance, but allow group members to voice opinions. © ’ Talk about possible solutions to problems with members of the group. + Focus on stimulating ideas and be willing to reward creativity. Become a Better Communicator Communication involves much more than how you speak or waite, Research suggests that nonverbal signals make up a huge portion of our interpersonal communications. In order to communicate your message effectively, you need to lean how to express yourself nonverbally and to read the nonverbal cues of those around you. A few key strategies include the following: + Use good eye contact, + Start noticing nonverbal signals in others. + Leam to use your tone of voice to reinforce your message. Learn to Better Understand Others Much like nonverbal communication, your ability to understand your emotions and the emotions of those around you plays an important role in your relationships and professional life. The term emotional intelligence refers to your ability to understand both your own emotions as well as those of other people. Your EQ is a measure of this ability According to psychologist Daniel Goleman, your EQ may actually be more importent than your 1Q (1995). What can - 9DAPFRADANROEA DO OH52 you do to become more emotionally intelligent? Consider some of the following strategies: + Carefully assess your own emotional reactions. + Record your experience and emotions in a journal. + Try to see situations from the perspective of another person. Make More Accurate Decisions Research in cognitive psychology has provided a wealth of information about decision making, By applying these strategies to your own life, you can Jeam to make wiser choices. The next time you need to make a big decision, try using some of the following techniques: + Try using the “six thinking hats” approach by looking at the situation from multiple points of view, including rational, emotional, intuitive, creative, positive and negative perspectives. + Consider the potential costs and benefits of a decision © Employ a grid analysis technique that gives a score for how a particular decision will satisfy specific requirements you may have. Improve Your Memory Have you ever wondered why you can remember exact details from childhood events yot forget the name of the new client you met yesterday? Research on how we form new memories as well as how and why we forget has led to a number of findings that can be applied directly in your daily Jif. What are Some ways you can increase your memory power? Foous on the i information. + Rehearse what you have leamed. + Eliminate distractions. Make Wiser Financial Decisions53 ‘Nobel Prize winning psychologists Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky conducted a series of studies that looked at how people manage uncertainty and risk when making decisions. Subsequent research in this area known as behavior economies has yielded some key findings that you can use to make wiser money management choices. One study (2004) found that workers could more than triple their savings by utilizing some of the following strategies: + Don’t procrastinate! Start investing in savings now. ‘+ Commit in advance to devote portions of your future earings to your retirement savings. «Try to be aware of personal biases that may lead to poor money choices. Get Better Grades ‘The next time you're tempted to complain about pop quizzes, midterms or final exams, consider this—research has demonstrated that taking tests actually helps you better remember what you've Jeamed, even if it wasn't covered on the test (Chan et al., 2006). ‘Another study found that repeated test-taking may be a better memory aid ae than, studying (Roediger & Karpicke, 2006). Students who were tested & repeatedly were able to recall 61 percent of the material while those in the study group recalled only 40 percent. How can you apply these findings to your own life? When trying to leam new information, self-test frequently in order to cement what you have learned into your memory. Become More Productive ‘Sometimes it seems like there are thousands of books, blogs and magazine articles telling us how to get more done in a day, but how much of this advice is founded on actual research? For example, think about the number of times have you heard that multitasking can help you become ‘more productive. In reality, research has found that trying to perform more than one task at the same time seriously impairs speed, accuracy and productivity. So what lessons from psychology can you use to increase your productivity? Consider some of the following: Avoid multitasking when working on complex or dangerous tasks.CEE LETITIA OOO STO COV OK CUVV VV wwe + Focus on the task at hand. » Eliminate distractions. Be Healthier Psychology can also be @ useful tool for improving your overall heaith. From ways to encourage exercise and better nutrition to new treatments for depression, the field of Health Psychology offers a wealth of beneficial strategies that can help you to be healthier and happier. Some examples that you can apply directly to your own life: + Studies have shown that both sunlight and artificial light can reduce the symptoms of seasonal affective disorder. Research has demonstrated that exercise can be an effective treatment for depression as well as other mental disorders. Studies have found that helping people understand the risks of unhealthy behaviors can lead to healthier choices.CHAPTER 2 WHAT IS CRIMINAL PSYCHOLOGY ] @} i 2OOGOOOOOR9P PP PP PPP KReHPe PPE PP PPPELLS56 I. WHAT IS CRIMINAL PSYCHOLOGY? In the early years of the 20" century, Psychologists began to offer Psychological Perspectives on criminal behavior and to,speculate about the causes of crime, ‘The term ‘Criminal Psychology’ has been defined in number of different ways, There has been no accepted definition. Some ten years ago, two leading criminal psychologists in UK defined it as a “branch of applied psychology that is concemed with the collection, examination and presentation of evidence for judicial purposes (Gudjonsson & Haward, 1998). ‘Wrightsman, 2001 describes Criminal Psychology as ‘any application of psychological knowledge or methods to a task faced by the legal system’. Criminological psychology: is the application of psychology to the study of criminal conduct Hollin 1989; Andrews & Bonta, 2003). The prime area of interest is the explanation and understanding of offending behavior, entailing direct research with offender populations in prison, probation, juvenile justice and allied settings. The field has typically, not exclusively, focused on some types of offending behavior more than others, with particular emphasis on violence, sexual offending and substance abuse, A major part of criminal psychology, offender profiling, began in the 1940's when the US Office of Strategic Services asked Walter L. Lange, a famous Psychoanalyst (1899-1981), to draw up a profile of Adolf Hitler. Lionel Haward, a British Psychologist, while working for the Royal Air force Police, drew up a list of characteristics which high ranking Nazi wer criminals might display, to be able to spot them amongst ordinary captured soldiers and airmen. The interface between psychology, law and criminology is curently an area of considerable and dynamic development. There are several types of interconnections, and the focus on studying crime is only one of them. The following three tens sometimes used interchangeably, though there are certain subtle differences. eSLELSEEETIAEVRAUBHYYeS 57 ‘The field of criminal psychology has attained immense attention. Criminal psychology, involves the application of psychology to procedure of law and crime investigations. Criminal psychology can thus comprehensively be defined os the study of the wills, thoughts, intentions and reactions of criminals. ‘The study goes deeply into what makes someone commit crime, but also the reactions after the crime, on the run or in the court. Criminal Psychologists are often called ‘up as witnesses in court cases to help the jury understand the mind of the criminal In 1981, Professor Lionel Haward, one of UK’s founding fathers of criminal psychology, described the four roles that Psychologists perform when they become professionally involved in criminal proceedings. These are: Clinical: in this situation the psychologist will usually be involved in the assessment of an individual “in order to provide a clinical judgment. The psychologist could use interviews, assessment tools/psychometric tests, to aid his/her assessment. ‘These assessments could be used to inform the police, the courts, of the prison and probation services about the psychological functioning of an individual and can therefore influence how the different sections of the erisinal justice system process the individual in question. Experimental: this can involve the psychologist performing research in ordér to inform @ case. ‘This can involve carrying out experimental tesis in order to illustrate a point or provide further information to the courts, Altematively, it can involve psychologists providing the court with a - summary of current research findings which may be relevant to the case in question, this instance the word ‘actuarial’ relates to the-use of statistics in order to inform a Actuari case, For example: a court may wish to know how likely an offender is to reoffend before the sentence is decided. In such a case, a Psychologist could be called upon in order to inform the presentence report to the court. ‘Advisory: in this role the psychologist may provide advice to the police ebout how to proceed with an investigation. For example; an offenders profile could inform the investigation, or advice could be provided about how best to interview a particular suspect. Alternatively, a prosecution or58 defense lawyer may ask for advice on how best to cross examine a vulnerable witness, or another expert witness. This role involves the use of psychologist’s expertise in order to advise the police, services. courts or prison and prob: One of the major roles of a criminal psychologist is criminal investigation which can take a variety of forms, Professor‘Laiwrénce, University of Liverpool suggests that criminal psychologist is an essential aid to the police and support the work they do. Crime analysis is another domain of expertise on the part of the criminal psychologist. Crime analysis elso called as intelligence analysis draws upon criminal psychological methods. They are generally employed by the police. The most common roles of erime analyst is that of case linkage, ‘This process ‘involves the linkage of crimes this process involves the linkage of crimes based on the similarities in the behaviors of the offender as reported by the victim or as inferred from the ‘crime scene. Offender/criminal profiling has received a great deal of attention from the media in recent years. Criminal profiling uses information gleaned from the crime scene relating to offenders behavior during the crime. This is further pooled with other information, such as victim statements, in order to draw conclusions about the nature of the person who committed the crime. And the resulting information can be used to aid the police in investigations and in targeting resources, Interviewing, Detecting deception has also remained one of the important tasks during an investigation in collecting reliable evidence in order to put together a case of what happened during the event in question. One of the main sources of evidence is the people. who were eyewitnesses to the event. In order to gain information, an interview needs to be conducted by the investigating police officers with the aim of gaining as much information as possible. Hence the interview and the manner in which it can be (whether with suspect or witness) and the manner in which itis conducted can be crucial to a case. There are various methods and procedures employed by the psychologists to detect the deception. ‘When court cases involve complex issues including the presentation of information that is judged to be beyond the knowledge of the average who may sit on a jury, then the court permits the calling of an expert witness who, by definition, has an expertise relating to the issue in question.weeuuUuuuue wv bo Be * 59 The use of the Psychologists as an expert witness has, in the past, been constricted by the notion of the expert having to provide the information that is beyond the knowledge of the average person. However in recent years, the Psychologist’s expertise has been increasingly recognized and can now be called upon as evidence in relation to a wide variety of issues. Criminal psychologists, especially within Australia, Canada and UK, are heavily involved in work concerning the assessment. rehabilitation _and management of offenders, either in the ‘community or when held in incarceration. This role involves working with offenders to reduce their likelihood of reoffeoding in the future or a more clinical role addressing the psychological needs of the offenders. Criminal psychologists have been active in the use of Treatment programs with offenders contributing to the design, delivery and management of programs which attempt address the offender's thoughts, attitudes, and bebaviors that contribute to their offending behavior and prevent further offending. Criminal psychology is an area of continuing research where + psychologists are becoming more involved in the varied facets of crime and criminal justice process. ] hae anne | ,UNIT Il CAUSES OF CRIMINAL BEHAVIOUR 1 @ i 0999999099 FPP FP PEP OREO PEP PPP PPP LDN6| BIDHGEGGEHBGHEGEVDTEVOLKOGBE CHAPTER 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL APPROACHES TO UNDERSTANDING CRIME62 ERSTANDING CRIME Tf. PSYCHOLOGICAL APPROACHES TO UND HISTORICAL ROOTS Criminology and psychology exhibit some striking parallels in their histories. Both were a part ofa general process, continuous throughout the 18° & 19 centuries in European thought, through ‘which the study of social issues became emancipated from the study of philosophy. HM prea ates necks 2) Positivism: In its approach to the study of its subject matter, psychology is often considered to be primarily Positivist in its nature and orientation. The approach believes that criminal behavior is caused by internal and external factors outside of the individual’s control. Halfpenny (1982) has examined the history of the relationship between positivism and sociology and concluded that there ere more than twelve different senses of the word positivism, This word has been also used virtually as empiricism, the proposition that all knowledge is derived from information gained through sensory experience of the extemal world. However, very little of contemporary psychology can be described as positivistic in any meaningful sense. Most contemporary psychology can be more accurately described as adopting a critical realist perspective on the subject matter of psychology. ‘View of crime that prevailed before the disciplines came into being, the view that saw crime as a natural consequence of unrestrained human tendencies to seek pleasure and avoid pain. This view, known as positivism, has dominated criminology throughout the twentieth century. It deemphasizes the self-seeking model of human nature embodied in the classical school. b) Individualism: ‘This view of psychology, locates the causes of crime and criminality predominantly within the individuals, It thereby, neglects or ignores social factors. There is a tendency to take the existing society as a given and to see crime as the inability of deficient individuals to adjust to the society. ‘Some of the most influential theories propounded by psychologists to explain crime were based on the claim that there are differences in personality between offenders and non-offenders. VRALAULIIIILLILA LLaoe w BEFGECGITEIIVEGOUSE 63 ‘Hans Bysenck (1977) forwarded the theory of crime based on the idea of personality traits. Traits are hypothetical intrapsychic variables that differentiate individuals from each other and on which they can be compared. Traits are defined in quantifiable, dimensional terms and can be measured using self-report personality inventories designed, in the case of Eysencks theory, to assess such features as a tendency towards neuroticism, extraversion or psychoticism. Certain combinations of dimensional differences between individuals do receive empirical support, particularly with reference to those persons for whom a pattem of antisocial activity has become entrenched. Contemporary theories of personality within psychology are based on recognition that both personality and situational factors are crucial in influencing behavior- the things people actually do, The interaction between them provides a better account of human activity than either of them considered in isolation. This view is called as interactionism. ©) Biologist Cesare Lombroso (1835-1909), an Italian Physician who becante convinced that there is a strong relationship between bodily characteristics, proneness to disease and tendencies towards violence, or other forms of criminality, He was able to measure the body build, slope of the forehead, shape of the ears, presence of tattoos and other characteristics in 2 sample of more than 3000 soldiers. Lombroso is known as the founder of the anthropological school in criminology, and also unanimously regarded as a key exemplat of positivism. There was a focus on physiognomy, that there is an association between certain body shapes and tendencies towards criminality. This is a specific instence of a presumed association between body typology-and personality in general. Itis linked to the idea of heritability, the expectation that genetic factors play a large part in the development of criminal tendencies, and that the extent of this can be measured through population studies. Personality theorists such as Eysenck (1977) saw the origins of individual differences as being rooted in biology. It is scarcely surprising that an outsider looking at psychological approaches to crime should gain the impressiin that they are dominated by biological explanations. d6a 4) Determinism: Psychology relies on mechanical, deterministic models of human action. Much of psychological theories and research focuses on attempts to identify cause-effect relationships among the phenomena being investigated. There is a fundamental scientific assumption that the determinants of events canbe traced and eventually mapped out, even if they remain extraordinarily, and unpresumably, difficult in any instance. A teliance on any form of determinism is sometimes thought to represent a denial that human beings possess “free will” whereas in law, citizens are considered to exercise free will and are therefore held responsible for their own actions, including acts of crime. Much legal discourse and debate focuses on circumstances in which individuals may not have made wholly “free” choices- that at least is the substance of many defenses against criminal charges. From a psychological perspective, we can view human actions as falling along a continuum of relative influence of extemal, constraining factors and varying level of voluntary, self-directed decision and choice. Determinism is commonly interpreted as the notion that somehow everything must occur in fixed patterns in a mechanical, predetermined universe. ©) Reduetionism: Psychology is often cast as being over dependent on the'use of reductionist.explanations. This implies that the core of any good explanation is that it can be translated into a statement about events at a lower, more elemental level. Thoughts are reducible to brain processes such as the firing neurons, which are a function of the activity of sodium and potassium ions, which is a function of their atomic structure end energy levels in electron shells. It would be a mistake to depict reductionism as the view that events at higher levels of complexity in some causal chain are ‘nothing’ but manifestations of events at lower levels. ‘To suggest that reductionism consists of the view that complex phenomena are merely the product of their more rudimentary units is to ignore the point that such explanations are concemed not only with the components that meke up a higher-level structure, but also with understanding their interrelations.GU GE Ww GCUGG a OGE GET dé sF>EGTITATIIIGIIITS 65 THE RELATION BETWEEN LAW AND PSYCHOLOGY ‘The history of psychology applied to law is perhaps less well known. Although this field is now in a state of speedy development, the application of psychology to the study of crime and other areas commiected with the operation of law is by no means new. Legal psychology has a significant history in Europe, and across a number of European countries it is possible to trace the study of this area to works written in the middle and late 19" century. While carly applications were often devoted to exploring the ‘criminal mind’ and how this might yield an understanding of seemingly inexplicable acts, there were also studies on how conclusions might be drawn from psychological evidence presented in the courtroom. The, interface between psychology and law is currently an area of considerable and dynamic development. The following three terms are sometimes used interchangeably, though there are important yet subtle differences between them with regard to what they are commonly thought to dénote. » Criminal Psychology: It is the application of psychology to the study of criminal conduct. The prime area of interest is the explanation and understanding of offending behavior, entailing direct research with offender populations in prison, probation, juvenile justice and allied settings. However this may also draw con longitudinal studies of the development delinquency and related social problems, or the study of other antisocial acts such as bullying at school. A portion of this work also involves the study of relationships between crime and mental disorders. It focuses on types of offending behavior with perticular emphasis on violence, sexual offending and substance abuse. + Legal Psychology: It is devoted more broadly to psychological factors in the operation of the law itself. This has included, for example, the study of juries and legal decision -making, aspects of criminal responsibility, mistaken conviction, employment and discrimination, family law and child protection, and scientific and ethical aspects of communicating expert evidence in court. ®It is more narrowly concemed with the provision of evidence to facilitate legal decisions. Researchers in this area study such issues memory for the faces or events, witness reliability and credibility, processes of interviewing vulnerable witnesses, and the dependability of children’s testimony. Practitioners in this area may carry out direct forensic or clinical assessments of individual defendants and witnesses, for use in diverse settings. Forensic psychologists have also contributed to the training of negotiators in hostage taking situations. In recent years, the term ‘forensic psychology’ has been broadened to refer to the work of psychologists based in prison, probation and allied settings. Newer yet more specialized fields have also been established, most notably investigative i psychology, in which psychologists work alongside the police in helping to solve fairly serious crimes. This involves @ range of techniques for analyzing patterns among what is left behind after criminal acts (crime scene analysis), and which may reveal psychological characteristics of crime perpetrators and assist the detection process.o7 ba | CHAPTER 4 THEORIES OF CRIME ® AesaAnnohoreoeerroePperpereePereP Pe PPPIV. THEORIES OF CRIME 1 1 | i i The front page of every national or regional newspaper will have a crime report. From rape to ; abduction, murder to robbery, honor killing, and other such crimes. What makes these crimes happen? How do ordinary human beings become criminals? Is it an uncontrollable’ biological phenomena or should society be blamed for it? Let’s have a look at the possible causes of crime. This chapter will focus on Tw eke meray aKoe sans 1), The born criminal: Lombroso’s theory: Influenced by Darwin's theory of evolution , Lombroso suggested that criminals form a separate species which is more primitive form of hunian being that has not evolved fully as homo sapiens ‘and is genetically somewhere between modem humans and their primitive ancestors. This retarded : species, which he called homo delinquents, displayed certain physical characteristics which ' ‘showed how primitive they were: ‘A narrow sloping brow (low in intellect) ‘A prominent jaw (strong passion) High cheekbones, large eats Extra toes and fingers product of a genetic constitution unlike that found in non-criminal population. | Lombroso, 19" century Italian physician and criminal anthropologist, argued that criminals were a | He and his followers retreated from the assertion that all criminals were evolutionary fhrowbacks to the view that this theory accounted for about a third of criminal population. He acknowledged the fact that environmental factors made a significant contribution to the causes of some types of criminal behavior. Lombroso originally thought that female criminals had the same biological features as their male counterparts. However he later modified this view, stating that the criminal LLLLLLLLILLLLLe eee || ( if { ( { ( f 69 Barrens fom Cries’ ia women did not show these ere Mito veo east . . eich coir hanes be physical anomalies but were psychologically even worse than male criminals: jealous, vengeful and capable of monstrous cruelty, This theory was criticized on several grounds, Nevertheless, this theory, especially in its later formulation, had certein positive features. It was one of the first not to attribute criminal behavior entirely to wickedness caused by lack of will power and therefore it acknowledged the role of the environment as a contributor to shaping criminal behavior. In addition, by stressing the importance of data and theory, Lombroso played a significant part in shifting methodology and away from purely religious and philosophical debate. ¥ B 9 > 3 Jn an attempt to develop a scientific theory, William Sheldon drew up his own classification system in which he related physique to characteristics that included delinquency. According to Sheldon’s system, there are three basic body types: 1. Endomorphs- who are fat and soft 2, Ectomorphs- who are thin and fragile 3. Mesomorphs-. who. are muscular and hard ‘Temperaments that correspond to endomorphs are’ relaxed and pleasure loving, and enjoy food and company of _—_ others, etomorphs are solitary, restrained and self-conscious. Mesomorphs are the ones associated with Endomorph Mesomorph Ectomerph ee