1 What are the advantages of electrical drives?

Ans: They have flexible control operation.

● In drives automatic fault detection systems can be provided.
● PLC (Programmable logic controller) and computers can be employed for
automatic operation in a desired sequence.
● They are available in wide range variation of torque, speed and power.
● It is almost suitable for any operating conditions such as explosive and radioactive
environments.
● It can operate in all the four quadrants of speed – torque mode of operation.
● Drives can be started instantly and can immediately be fully loaded.
● Control gear requirement for speed control, is usually simple and easy to operate
for starting and braking.

2 State the essential parts of electrical drives.

Ans: The main parts of the electrical drives are power modulator, motor, controlling unit and
sensing units.
3 What are the functions of a power modulator?
Ans: Power Modulator:
· Modulates the flow of power from the source to the motor in such a manner that the motor
will modulate the speed – torque characteristics required by the load.
· During transient operation , such as starting , breaking and speed reversal , it restricts source
and motor currents within permissible values.

· Converts electrical energy of the source in the form of suitable to the motor.
· Select the mode of operation of the motor (i.e) Motoring or Braking.
4 What are the motors employed for variable speed drive?
Ans: AC motor. The AC electric motor used in a VFD system is usually a three-phase
induction motor. Some types of single-phase motors or synchronous motors can be
advantageous in some situations, but generally three-phase induction motors are preferred as
the most economical.
5 State the functions of various converters.
Ans: Depending on the type of function, converters can be divided into 5 types –
1. AC to DC converters
2. AC regulators
3. Choppers or DC-DC converters (i.e. a DC Chopper)
4. Inverters
5. Cycloconverters

AC to DC converters are used to obtain fixed DC supply from the AC supply of fixed
voltage. The very basic diagram of AC to DC converters is like.
AC Regulators are used to obtain the regulated AC voltage, mainly autotransformers or tap
changer transformers are used in this regulators.

Choppers or DC-DC converters are used to get a variable DC voltage. Power transistors,
IGBT’s, GPO’s, power MOSFETs are mainly used for this purpose.

Inverters are used to get AC from DC, the operation is just opposite to that of AC to DC
converters. PWM semiconductors are used to invert the current.

Cycloconverters are used to convert the fixed frequency and fixed voltage AC into variable
frequency and variable voltage AC. Thyristors are used in these converters to control the
firing signals.

6 What are the main factors which decide the choice of electrical drive for a given
application?
Ans: Choice of an electric drive depends on the following important factors are,
● Nature of speed regulation, speed range, efficiency, duty cycle, quadrants of
operation, speed fluctuations, speed torque characteristics and rating etc.
● Transient operation requirements as Values of acceleration and deceleration,
starting, braking and reversing performance.
● Types of source and its capacity, magnitude of voltage, fluctuations, power factor,
harmonics and their effect on other loads etc.
● Space and weight restriction if any.
● Environment and location.
● Reliability.

7 What do you understand by constant torque drive?

Ans: The region below base speed where armature voltage control may be applied is called
the constant torque region. Above base speed, the flux is reduced and the motor enters the
"field weakening region".This region is also sometimes known as the constant power region.

Constant torque/constant power curve is the basic characteristic of electrical machines.

Similar to the synchronous speed for the synchronous machines, base speed is employed for
the switched reluctance motor, which is the maximum speed while the rated torque is kept.
8 What do you understand by constant power drive?
Ans: Same as above

9 What is the closed loop control of a drive?

Ans: In closed loop system, the output of the system is feedback to the input. The closed loop
system controls the electrical drive, and the system is self-adjusted. Feedback loops in an
electrical drive may be provided to satisfy the following requirements.
1. Enhancement of speed of torque
2. To improve steady-state accuracy.
3. Protection

The main parts of the closed-loop system are the controller, converter, current limiter, current
sensor, etc.

The different types of closed loop configuration are explained below.

Current Limit Control

This scheme is used to limit the converter and motor current below a safe limit during the
transient operation. The system has a current feedback loop with a threshold logic circuit.

The logic circuit protects the system from a maximum current. If the current is raised above
maximum set value due to a transient operation, the feedback circuit becomes active and
force the current to remains below the maximum value. When the current become normal, the
feedback loop remains inactive.

Closed-Loop Torque Control

Such types of loop are used in battery powered vehicles, rails, and electric trains. The
reference torque T* is set through the accelerator, and this T* follows by the loop controller
and the motor. The speed of the drive is controlled by putting pressure on the accelerator.
The block diagram of the closed loop speed control system is shown in the figure below. This
system used an inner control loop within an outer speed loop. The inner control loop controls
the motor current and motor torque below a safe limit.

10 Why current sensing is required in electrical drives?

Ans: Current Sensing of Electrical Drives is required for the implementation of current limit
control, inner current control loop of closed-loop speed control, closed-loop torque control of
a dc drive, for sensing fault conditions, and for sensing speed in dc drives by back emf
sensing method. In order to avoid interaction between control circuit, carrying low voltage
and current, and power circuit involving high voltage and current and sometimes harmonics
and voltage spikes, isolation must be provided between the two circuits.
Current in three-phase ac circuits can be sensed using the circuit shown in Fig. 3.10. Current
transformers (CT) are used to provide isolation. The current transformer output is rectified,
applied across resistor R and then filtered. Voltage drop V0 is proportional to the current in ac
lines. When used in variable frequency inverters care should be taken to avoid saturation at
low frequencies. Major limitation of this method is that it cannot sense the phase of currents.

It case of fully-controlled rectifiers, dc link current is proportional to ac line currents.

Therefore, in dc and ac drives fed from fully-controlled rectifier, dc link current can be
sensed indirectly by sensing ac line currents of rectifier by the method of Fig. 3.10.
A number of methods are available for sensing dc current. Two commonly used methods are:

(i) This involves the use of a current sensor employing Hall-effect. It has the ability to sense
current direction and is commercially available for a wide range of currents (few amperes to
several hundred amperes) with a typical accuracy of 1% up to 400 Hz:

(ii) It involves the use of a non-inductive resistance shunt in conjunction with an isolation
amplifier which has an arrangement for amplification and isolation between power and
control circuits.

11 What are the advantages of squirrel cage induction motor over dc motor?
Ans: Some advantages of squirrel cage induction motors are:
● They are low cost
● Require less maintenance (as there are no slip rings or brushes)
● Good speed regulation (they are able to maintain a constant speed)
● High efficiency in converting electrical energy to mechanical energy (while
running, not during startup)
● Have better heat regulation (i.e. don’t get as hot)
● Small and lightweight
● Explosion proof (as there are no brushes which eliminate the risks of sparking)

12 What is single-phasing of 3 phase induction motor?

Ans: The loss of current through one phase of a 3 phase supply is described as single phasing
in three phase induction motors.
● During single phasing no current passes through one line while other two lines
carry excess current depending on the load.
● As shown in figure other two lines carry 2.4 times normal line current for the
load.
 ● Also phase current distribution also will be altered.
● Coil ‘B’ and ‘C’ carries 1.3 times normal phase current while coil ‘A’ carries 2.9
times normal phase current. Reason is clear from the diagram itself ( Since
current from one phase finds coil ‘A’ as low resistance path )

Causes of Single Phasing

1. Line fuse blown off

2. Terminal contacts broken due to vibration or ageing
3. Terminal contacts become loose
4. Line wire broken
5. In contactor relay, one of the contactor is not making proper contact
6. Relay contact spring may be damage or weak
7. Contact joints covered with oxidation product, hence not conducting

Effects of Single Phasing

1. Uneven distribution of current in the motor winding which may damage them
2. Motor will keep on running with noise and vibration but once stopped, it will not
start
3. Due to uneven distribution of phase current, there will be fluctuation in torque
produced
4. Motor will vibrate vigorously
5. Fluctuation in motor rpm
6. Cause humming noise

13 What are the different types of braking schemes employed in 3 phase induction
motors?
Ans: The braking is the process of reducing the speed of an induction motor. In braking, the
motor works as a generator developing a negative torque which opposes the motion of a
motor. The braking of an induction motor is mainly classified into three types. They are
1. Regenerative Braking
2. Plugging or reverse voltage braking
3. Dynamic Braking
○ AC dynamic braking
○ Self-dynamic braking
○ DC dynamic braking
○ Zero sequence braking

14 Draw the load torque speed curve for a traction load.

Ans:

15 Draw the load torque speed curve for constant power loads.
Ans:

16 What is the multiquadrant operation of a motor driving a hoist load? Explain with
proper diagram.
Ans: Multiquadrant Operation
* A motor operate in 2 modes – Motoring and braking
* Motoring - electrical energy to mechanical energy, support its motion.

* (generator) braking – mech energy to electrical energy, oppose the motion.

* Motor can provide motoring & braking for both forward & reverse direction.

Power developed by a motor is given by the product of speed & torque.

Direction of motor & load torques and direction of speed are marked by arrows.

* A hoist consists of a rope wound on a drum coupled to a motor shaft. One end of a rope is
tied to a cage which is used for transporting material. Other end of the rope has a counter
weight.

* Weight of the counter weight chosen higher than the weight of an empty case but lower
than a fully loaded cage.

* Load torque TL2 in quadrants I & IV represent speed torque charal of the loaded hoist. This
torque is the diff. of torques due to loaded hoist & counter weight.

* Load torque TL2 in quadrants II & III is the speed-torque charal of an empty hoist. This
torque is due to the diff in torque of counter weight & empty hoist. This is –ve because the
counter weight is always higher than the empty cage.

* The quadrant I operation – hoist requires the movement of the cage upward, which
corresponds to the +ve motor speed which is in CCW (counter clockwise) direction. It will be
obtained if motor produce +ve torque in CCW direction equal to TL. Since developed power
is +ve, this is forward motoring operation.
* Quadrant IV operation is obtained when a loaded cage is lowered. Since the weight of the
loaded cage is > the counter weight. In order to limit the speed of the cage within a safe
value, motor must produce a +ve torque T = TL2 in anti clockwise direction. Both power &
speed are –ve, drive is in reverse braking.

* Quadrant II is obtained when an empty cage is moved up since a counter weight is heavier
than a empty cage, it is able to pull it up. In order to limit the speed to safety value, motor
must produce braking torque = TL2 in clockwise direction. Since speed is +ve, developed
power is, -ve. It is forward breaking operation.

Quadrant III – empty cage is lowered since empty cage weight is < counter weight motor
produce a torque in clockwise direction. Since speed is –ve & developed power is +ve, this is
reverse motoring operation.

17 State and explain the components of load torque.

Ans: Components of Load Torques:
Components of Load Torques Tl can be further divided into following components:

i) Friction torque TF :

Friction will be present at the motor shaft and also in various parts of the load. TF is
equivalent value of various friction torques referred to the motor shaft.

(ii) Windage torque, Tw :

When a motor runs, wind generates a torque opposing the motion. This is known as windage
torque.

(iii) Torque required to do the useful mechanical work, TL:

Nature of this Components of Load Torques depends on particular application. It may be

constant and independent of speed; it may be some function of speed; it may depend on the
position or path followed by load; it may be time invariant or time-variant; it may vary
cyclically and its nature may also change with the load’s mode of operation.
Variation of friction torque with speed is shown in Fig. 2.6(a). Its value at standstill is much
higher than its value slightly above zero speed. Friction at zero speed is called stiction or
static friction. In order for drive to start, the motor torque should at least exceed stiction.
Friction torque can be resolved into three components (see Fig. 2.6(b)). Component Tv which
varies linearly with speed is called viscous friction .
18 Derive the expression for the motor torque for rotational motion load.
Ans: Various notations used are:
J = Polar moment of inertia of motor-load system referred to the motor shaft, kg-m2.

ωm = Instantaneous angular velocity of motor shaft, rad/sec.

T = Instantaneous value of developed motor torque, N-m.

T1 = Instantaneous value of load (resisting) torque, referred to motor shaft, N-m.

Load torque includes friction and windage torque of motor.

Torque Equation of Motor Load System of Fig. 2.1 can be described by the following
fundamental torque equation:

Equation (2.1) is applicable to variable inertia drives such as mine winders, reel drives,
industrial robots. For drives with constant inertia, (dJ/dt) = 0. Therefore
Equation (2.2) shows that torque developed by motor is counter balanced by a load torque T1
and a dynamic torque J(dωm/dt). Torque component J(dωm/dt) is called the dynamic torque
because it is present only during the transient operations.

Drive accelerates or decelerates depending on whether T is greater or less than T1. During
acceleration, motor should supply not only the load torque but an additional torque
component J(dωm/dt) in order to overcome the drive inertia. In drives with large inertia, such
as electric trains, motor torque must exceed the load torque by a large amount in order to get
adequate acceleration. In drives requiring fast transient response, motor torque should be
maintained at the highest value and Torque Equation of Motor Load System should be
designed with a lowest possible inertia. Energy associated with dynamic torque J(dωm/dt) is
stored in the form of kinetic energy given by (Jω2m/2). During deceleration, dynamic torque
J(dωm/dt) has a negative sign. Therefore, it assists the motor developed torque T and
maintains drive motion by extracting energy from stored kinetic energy.

19 Classify load torques on the basis of torque speed characteristics.

Ans: Most of the industrial loads can be classified into the following 4 general categories:
● Constant torque type load.
● Torque proportional to speed (generator type load)
● Torque proportional to square of the speed (fan type load)
● Torque inversely proportional to speed (const power type load)

20 Explain the steady state stability for the motor load system.
Ans: Steady State Stability: Equilibrium speed of motor-load system can be obtained when
motor torque equals the load torque. Electric drive system will operate in steady state at this
speed, provided it is the speed of stable state equilibrium. Concept of steady state stability has
been developed to readily evaluate the stability of an equilibrium point from the steady state
speed torque curves of the motor and load system. In most of the electrical drives, the
electrical time constant of the motor is negligible compared with the mechanical time
constant. During transient condition, electrical motor can be assumed to be in electrical
equilibrium implying that steady state speed torque curves are also applicable to the transient
state operation.Now, consider the steady state equilibrium point A shown in figure below
Now consider equilibrium point B which is obtained when the same motor drives another
load as shown in the figure. A decrease in speed causes the load torque to become greater
than the motor torque, electric drive decelerates and operating point moves away from point
B. Similarly when working at point B and increase in speed will make motor torque greater
than the load torque, which will move the operating point away from point B.

21 Write a brief note on the sources employed in electric drive.

Ans:
The electrical drive uses any of the prime movers like diesel or a petrol engine, gas or steam
turbines, steam engines, hydraulic motors and electrical motors as a primary source of energy.
This prime mover supplies the mechanical energy to the drive for motion control.

22 Derive the torque equation for a 3 phase induction motor.

Ans:

23 Derive the torque equation for a 3 phase induction motor operating under
unbalanced conditions.
Ans:
24 Explain the operation of a high slip induction motor.
Ans:

25 Explain the operation of a Deep bar squirrel cage rotor induction motor.
Ans:
26 What are the different methods employed for starting of 3 phase induction motor?
Explain
Ans: There are two types of three phase induction motors viz. squirrel cage motor and slip
ring motor. Both have different methods of starting, let see each of these one by one.

Squirrel Cage Induction Motor Starting Methods

The following four methods are available for starting squirrel cage motors −

Direct On-Line (D.O.L.) Starting

As the name suggests, the induction motor is started by connecting it directly to three-phase
supply. In this method, the motor draws a high starting current (about 4 to 7 times of the
rated current) and at low power factor. Therefore, DOL starting is suitable for relatively
small motors (up to 10 kW).
Stator Resistance Starting
In this method, external resistance is connected in series with each phase of the stator
winding during starting. The external resistance causes voltage to drop across it so that
reduced voltage available across the motor terminals. Hence, the starting current is reduced.
The starting external resistances are gradually cut out in steps from the stator circuit, as the
motor accelerates. When the motor attains the rated speed, the starting resistances are
completely cut out and full line voltage is applied across the motor terminals.

This method has two drawbacks. First, the reduced voltage during starting reduces the
starting torque and hence increases acceleration time. Secondly, a lot power is wasted in the
starting resistances.

Autotransformer Starting
In this method, an autotransformer is used to reduce the starting voltage of the induction
motor. The tapings of the autotransformer is so set that when it is in the circuit, 60 to 80 %
of the line voltage is applied to motor during starting and then connecting it to the full-line
voltage as the motor attains a sufficient speed.

At the instant of starting, the change-over switch is connected to ‘Start’. This supplies the
reduced voltage to the motor through the autotransformer. Consequently, the starting current
is limited to safe value. When the motor attains about 80% of rated-speed, the change-over
switch is now thrown to ‘Run’. This removes the autotransformer from the circuit and full
line voltage is applied across the motor terminals.

The autotransformer starting has many advantages such as low power loss, low starting
current etc. This method is used for large motors over 25 hp.

Star-Delta Starting
In star-delta starting method of squirrel cage induction motor, the motor started in star and
run in delta, i.e. the stator winding of the motor is designed for delta operation and is
connected in star during starting. When the motor attains sufficient speed, the connections
are changed to delta.

The six leads of stator winding of the motor are connected to a change-over switch. At the
time of starting, the change-over switch is switched to ‘Star’ which connects the stator
windings in star. Thus, each phase gets V/√3 volts, where V is the three phase line voltage.
This reduces the starting current. When the motor attains 80% of rated speed, the
changeover switch is switched to ‘Delta’ which connects the stator windings in delta. Now,
each phase gets full line voltage.
The principle disadvantage of this method is large reduction in stating torque due to reduced
voltage in the star connection at the instant of starting. The star-delta starting is used for
medium size motors up to 25 hp.

Slip Ring Induction Motor Starting Methods

The following four methods are used to start a slip ring induction motor −

● Direct On-Line (D.O.L.) Starting

● Stator-Resistance Starting
● Autotransformer Starting
● Rotor-Resistance Starting

The DOL starting, Stator-Resistance starting and Autotransformer starting are same as for
the squirrel cage induction motor (as discussed above)

In industrial applications, the slip ring induction motor are mainly started using
rotor-resistance method.

Rotor Resistance Starting

In this method, a star connected variable resistance is connected in the rotor circuit through
slip-rings. The full voltage is applied to the stator windings.

At the instant of starting, the handle of variable resistance (rheostat) is set to ‘OFF’ position.
This inserts maximum resistance in series with the each phase of the rotor circuit. This
reduces the starting current and at the same time starting torque is increased due to external
rotor resistance.
27 Explain how the regenerative braking of a 3 phase induction is done. What are the
advantages?
Ans: The input power of the induction motor drive is given by the formula shown below

Where φs is the phase angle between stator phase voltage and the stator phase current Is. For
motoring operation, the phase angle is always less than the 90º. If the rotor speed becomes
greater than synchronous speed, then the relative speed between the rotor conductor and air
gap rotating field reverse.

This reverse the rotor induces emf, rotor current and component of stator current which
balances the rotor ampere turns. When the φs is greater than the 90º, then the power flow to
reverse and gives the regenerative braking. The magnetising current produced the air gap
flux.

The nature of the speed torque curve is shown in the figure above. When the supply
frequency is fixed, the regenerative braking is possible only for speeds greater than
synchronous speed. With a variable frequency speed, it cannot be obtained for speed below
synchronous speed.

The main advantage of regenerative braking is that the generated power is fully used. And the
main drawback is that when fed from a constant frequency source the motor can not employ
below synchronous speed.

28 Explain the plugging of a 3 phase induction motor.

Ans:Plugging is the method of inducing negative torque in the rotor of an induction motor to
rapidly bring its speed of rotation to zero. This is done by reversing the supply connection at
the stator terminals. The reversal of terminal connection of a motor running at a certain RPM,
reverses the current flow and the magnetic field in the armature which tends to generate a
torque in the reverse direction thereby slowing the motor down, stopping it and forcing it to
rotate in the reverse direction.

29 Explain the ac dynamic braking of a 3 phase induction motor.

Ans: AC Dynamic Braking – The dynamic braking is obtained when the motor is run on the
single phase supply by disconnecting the one phase from the source and either leaving it open
or connecting it with another phase. The two connections are respectively known as two and
three lead connection.

When connected to a one phase supply the motor can be considered as to be fed by positive
and negative sequence three phase set of voltage. The total torque produced by the machine is
the sum of torque due to positive and negative sequence voltage. When the rotor has high
resistance, then the net torque is negative, and the braking operation is obtained.
Assume the phase A of the star connected motor is open circuited. Then the current flow
through the phase A becomes zero, i.e., Ia = 0 and current through the other two phases is IB
= – IC.

The positive and negative sequence component Ip and In are represented by the equation.

Where α = ej20°

30 Explain the dc dynamic braking of a 3 phase induction motor.

Ans: DC Dynamic Braking – In this method, the stator of induction is connected across the
DC supply. The method for getting DC supply with the help of a diode bridge is shown in the
figure below.
The direct current flow through the stator produces a stationary magnetic field, and the
motion of the rotor in this field produces induces voltage in the stationary windings. The
machine therefore works as a generator and the generated energy is dissipated in the rotor
circuit resistance, thus giving the dynamic winding.

31 Derive the expression for energy losses during the plugging operation.
Ans: