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Contents
Chapter 1 – Sources for the History of External Challenges .............................................. 19
Modern India .......................................... 12 Internal Challenges ............................................... 19
Central Govt. Archives ......................................... 12 Causes of Decline of Mughal Empire.............. 19
State Govt. Archives ............................................. 12 Rise of Regional States ........................................ 20
Judicial Records ..................................................... 12 Socio-Economic- Cultural Conditions............ 20
Published and Private Archives ...................... 12 Chapter 5 - Expansion and
Biographies, Memoir and Travel account .... 12 Consolidation of British Power in
Newspapers and Journals .................................. 12 India ........................................................... 22
Oral Evidences........................................................ 13 The British Imperial History ............................. 22
Creative literature ................................................ 13 When did the British Period Begin in India?
...................................................................................... 22
Paintings ................................................................... 13
Causes of British Success in India ................... 22
Chapter 2 – Major Approaches to the
British Conquest of Bengal ................................ 22
History of Modern India ...................... 14
Challenges Before Siraj-ud-daula .................................. 22
Colonial Approach ................................................ 14
The Battle of Plassey ............................................ 22
Nationalist Approach ........................................... 14
Mir Kasim and the Treaty of 1760 ................................ 23
Marxist Approach-Karl Marx ............................ 14
The Battle of Buxar ............................................... 23
Subaltern Approach ............................................. 14
The Treaty of Allahabad .................................................... 23
Communalist Approach ...................................... 14 Dual Government in Bengal (1765-72) ........ 23
Cambridge Approach ........................................... 14 Mysore’s Resistance to the Company ............ 24
Liberal/Neo-Liberal Approach ........................ 14 First Anglo-Mysore War (1767-69) ............................. 24
Feminist Approach ............................................... 14 Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780-84) ........................ 24

Chapter 3 - Advent of the Europeans in Third Anglo-Mysore War .................................................. 24

India ........................................................... 16 Fourth Anglo-Mysore War ............................................... 24

Anglo-Maratha Struggle for Supremacy ..................... 24
Portuguese ............................................................... 16
First Anglo-Maratha War (1775-82) ........................... 24
The Dutch ................................................................. 16
Second Anglo Maratha War (1803-1805) ................. 25
The English .............................................................. 16 Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817-19) ......................... 25
The French ............................................................... 17 Why the Marathas Lost ...................................................... 25
First Carnatic War (1740-48) ......................................... 17 Conquest of Sindh ................................................. 25
Second Carnatic War (1749-54) .................................... 17
Tripartite Treaty of 1838 ................................... 26
Third Carnatic War (1758-63) ....................................... 17
Conquest of Punjab............................................... 26
Causes for the English Success and the French
Failure ....................................................................................... 17 First Anglo-Sikh War (1845-46) .................................... 26
Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848-49) .............................. 27
The Danes................................................................. 18
Extension of British Paramountcy Through
Chapter 4 - India on the Eve of British
Administrative Policy .......................................... 27
Conquest ................................................... 19
The Policy of Ring-Fence ................................................... 27
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Subsidiary Alliance .............................................................. 27 Wahabi Movement ............................................................... 32

Doctrine of Lapse ................................................................. 27 Kuka Movement .................................................................... 33

Relations of British India with Neighbouring Peasant Movements with Religious

Countries .................................................................. 28 Overtones ................................................................. 33
Anglo-Bhutanese Relations.............................................. 28 Narkelberia Uprising .......................................................... 33
Anglo-Nepalese Relations................................................. 28 The Pagal Panthis ................................................................. 33
Anglo-Burmese Relations ................................................. 28 Faraizi Revolt ......................................................................... 33
Anglo-Tibetan Relations.................................................... 28 Moplah Uprisings ................................................................. 33
Anglo-Afghan Relations ..................................................... 28 Tribal Revolts ......................................................... 33
John Lawrence and the Policy of Masterly Inactivity Different Causes for Mainland and North-Eastern
...................................................................................................... 29 Tribal Revolts ......................................................................... 33
Lytton and the Policy of Proud Reserve ..................... 29 Characteristics of Tribal Revolts ................................... 33
British India and the North-West Frontier . 29 Chuar Uprising or Revolt of the Jungle Mahal ......... 34

Chapter 6 - People’s Resistance Kol Mutiny (1831)- Chotanagpur .................................. 34

Against British Before 1857 .............. 30 Ho and Munda Uprisings (1820-1837) ...................... 34
The Santhal Rebellion (1855-56) .................................. 34
Causative Factors for People’s Uprisings .................. 30
Khond Uprisings (1837-1856) ....................................... 34
Major Causes of Civil Uprisings...................................... 30
Koya Revolts ........................................................................... 34
Important Civil Uprisings .................................. 30
Bhil Revolts ............................................................................. 34
Sanyasi Revolt or Fakir Rebellion (1763-1800) ..... 30
Koli Risings.............................................................................. 34
Revolt in Midnapore and Dhalbhum (1766-74) ..... 30
Ramosi Risings ...................................................................... 34
Revolt of Moamarias (1769-99) .................................... 30
Tribal Movements of the North-East ........................... 34
Civil Uprisings in Gorakhpur, Basti and Bahraich
(1781)........................................................................................ 30 Sepoy Mutinies ....................................................... 35
Revolt of Raja of Vizianagaram (1794)....................... 31 Causes ........................................................................................ 35
Revolt of Dhundia in Bednur (1799-1800) .............. 31 Important Mutinies ............................................................. 35
Civil Rebellion in Awadh (1799) ................................... 31 Weaknesses of People’s Uprisings.................. 35
Uprisings in Ganjam and Gumsur (1800, 1835-37)
Chapter 7 - The Revolt of 1857 ......... 36
...................................................................................................... 31
Uprisings in Palamau (1800-02) ................................... 31 Major Causes ........................................................... 36
Poligars’ Revolt (1795-1805) ......................................... 31 Economic Causes .................................................................. 36

Uprising in Bhiwani (1809) ............................................. 31 Political Causes...................................................................... 36

Diwan Velu Thampi’s Revolt (1808-1809) ............... 31 Administrative Causes ....................................................... 36

Disturbances in Bundelkhand (1808-12).................. 31 Socio-Religious Causes....................................................... 36

Parlakimedi Outbreak (1813-34) ................................. 32 Influence of Outside Events ............................................. 36

Kutch or Cutch Rebellion (1816-1832) ...................... 32 Discontent Among Sepoys ................................................ 36

Rising at Bareilly (1816) ................................................... 32 Beginning and Spread of the Revolt ............... 36
Upsurge in Hathras (1817) .............................................. 32 Civilians Join ........................................................................... 37
Paika Rebellion (1817) ...................................................... 32 Storm Centres and Leaders of the Revolt .... 37
Waghera Rising (1818-1820) ......................................... 32 Suppression of the Revolt .................................. 37
Ahom Revolt (1828) ........................................................... 32
Why the Revolt Failed ......................................... 37
Surat Salt Agitations (1840s) .......................................... 32
Nature of the Revolt ............................................. 37
Kolhapur and Savantvadi Revolts ................................. 32
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Consequences ......................................................... 37 Dharma Sabha ........................................................ 45

Significance of the Revolt ................................... 38 Bharat Dharma Mahamandala ......................... 45
Chapter 8 - Socio-Religious Reform Radhaswami Movement ..................................... 45
Movements General Features ........... 39 The SNDP movement ........................................... 45
Factors Giving Rise to Desire for Reform .... 39 Vokkaliga Sangha .................................................. 45
Impact of British Rule ........................................................ 39 Justice Movement .................................................. 45
Religious and Social Ills ..................................................... 39 Self-Respect Movement ...................................... 45
Depressing Position of Women ...................................... 39
Temple Entry Movement ................................... 45
The Caste Problem ............................................................... 39
Indian Social Conference .................................... 45
Social and Ideological Bases of Reform ........ 39
Wahabi/Walliullah Movement......................... 45
Two Streams ........................................................................... 39
Faraizi Movement ................................................. 45
Fight for Betterment of Position of Women ............. 40
Struggle Against Caste-Based Exploitation............... 40 Ahmadiyya Movement ........................................ 46

Chapter 9 - A General Survey of Socio- Sir Syed Ahmed Khan and the Aligarh
Movement ................................................................ 46
Cultural Reform Movements ............. 42
The Deoband School (Darul Uloom) .............. 46
Raja Rammohan Roy and Brahmo Samaj .... 42
Parsi Reform Movements................................... 46
Social Reform ......................................................................... 42

Debendranath Tagore and Brahmo Samaj .. 42 Sikh Reform Movements .................................... 46

Keshab Chandra Sen and the Brahmo Samaj The Theosophical Movement ........................... 46
...................................................................................... 42 Significance of Reform Movements ................ 47
Prarthana Samaj .................................................... 42 Positive Aspects .................................................................... 47

Young Bengal Movement and Henry Vivian Negative Aspects .................................................................. 47

Derozio ...................................................................... 43 Chapter 10 - Beginning of Modern

Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar .............................. 43 Nationalism in India ............................. 48
Balshastri Jambhekar .......................................... 43 Political Associations Before Indian National
Paramahansa Mandali ......................................... 43 Congress ................................................................... 48

Satyashodhak Samaj and Jyotiba or Jyotirao Chapter 11 - Indian National Congress

Phule .......................................................................... 43 Foundation and the Moderate Phase
Gopalhari Deshmukh ‘Lokahitawadi’ ............ 43 ..................................................................... 50
Gopal Ganesh Agarkar ......................................... 43 Foundation of Indian National Congress ..... 50
The Servants of India Society ........................... 44 Safety Valve Theory.............................................. 50
Social Service League........................................... 44 Aims and Objectives of the Congress............. 50
The Ramakrishna Movement and Swami Era of Moderates (1885-1905) ........................ 50
Vivekananda............................................................ 44 Contributions of Moderate Nationalists ..................... 50

Swami Vivekananda ............................................. 44 Early Nationalists .................................................. 51

Dayananda Saraswati and Arya Samaj ......... 44 Role of Masses ........................................................ 51
Seva Sadan ............................................................... 44 Attitude of the Government .............................. 51
Dev Samaj ................................................................. 45
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Chapter 12 - Era of Militant Chapter 16 – Non-Cooperation

Nationalism (1905-1909) ................... 52 Movement and Khilafat Aandolan ... 65
Growth of Militant Nationalism ....................... 52 The Khilafat Issue ................................................................. 65

Why Militant Nationalism Grew .................................... 52 The Khalifat-Non-Cooperation Programme ............. 65

The Swadeshi and Boycott Movement.......... 52 The Non-Cooperation Khilafat Movement .. 65

Anti-Partition Campaign Under Moderates (1903- Spread of the Movement ................................................... 66
05) ............................................................................................... 53 People’s Response................................................................ 66
Evaluation of the Swadeshi Movement ...................... 53 Chauri Chaura Incident ...................................................... 66
The Surat Split ........................................................ 54 Why Gandhi Withdrew the Movement ....................... 67
Government Repression ................................................... 54 Evaluation of Khilafat Non-Cooperation Movement
...................................................................................................... 67
The Government Strategy ................................................ 54

Morley-Minto Reforms of 1909 or Indian Chapter 17 -Emergence of Swarajists,

Councils Act of 1909 ............................................ 54 Socialist Ideas, Revolutionary
The Reforms ........................................................................... 54 Activities and Other New Forces ...... 68
Chapter 13 - First Phase of Swarajists and No-Changers ............................. 68
Revolutionary Activities (1907-1917) Swarajists’ Arguments ....................................................... 68

..................................................................... 56 No-Changers’ Arguments .................................................. 68

The Swarajist Manifesto for Elections ........................ 68
Surge of Revolutionary Activities ................... 56
Achievements ......................................................................... 68
The Revolutionary Programme ....................... 56
Drawbacks ............................................................................... 69
Revolutionary Activities ..................................... 56
Constructive Work by No-Changers ............................ 69
Bengal ........................................................................................ 56
Emergence of New Forces: Socialistic Ideas,
Maharashtra ........................................................................... 56
Youth Power, Trade Unionism ......................... 69
Abroad ....................................................................................... 57
Marxist and Socialist Ideas............................................... 69
Chapter 14 - First World War and Trade Unionism .................................................................... 69
Nationalist Response............................ 58 Caste Movements ................................................................. 69

Chapter 15 - Emergence of Gandhi .. 60 Revolutionary Activity with a Turn towards

Post-War Economic Hardships ........................ 60 Socialism ................................................................... 70
Why Attraction for Revolutionary Activity ............... 70
Expectations of Political Gains ......................... 60
Major Influences ................................................................... 70
Government of India Act, 1919 ...................................... 60
Punjab-United Provinces-Bihar ..................................... 70
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi ...................... 61
Kakori Robbery (August 1925) ...................................... 70
Gandhi’s Experience in South Africa ............................ 61
The HSRA ................................................................................. 70
Gandhi in India ....................................................... 62 Saunders’ Murder (1928) ................................................. 70
Champaran Satyagraha (1917) First Civil Bomb in the Central Legislative Assembly (1929) 70
Disobedience .......................................................................... 62
Action against the Revolutionaries .............................. 70
Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918) First Hunger Strike
...................................................................................................... 62 Bengal ........................................................................................ 71

Kheda Satyagraha (1918) First Non-Cooperation . 62 Chittagong Armoury Raid (April 1930) ...................... 71

Rowlatt Act, Satyagraha, Jallianwala Bagh Massacre Ideological Rethinking ........................................ 71

...................................................................................................... 63
Redefining Revolution ......................................... 71
The Hunter Committee ...................................................... 64
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Chapter 18 - Simon Commission and Second Round Table Conference ................................... 79

the Nehru Report ................................... 72 Third Round Table Conference ...................................... 80

Appointment of the Indian Statutory Commission 72 Civil Disobedience Resumed ............................. 80

Indian Response ................................................................... 72 Changed Government Attitude After Second RTC . 80

Congress Response .............................................................. 72 Government Action ............................................................. 80

Public Response .................................................................... 72 Popular Response ................................................................ 80

Dr Ambedkar and the Simon Commission ................ 72 Communal Award and Poona Pact ................. 80
Impact of Appointment of Simon Commission on Main Provisions of the Communal Award ................. 80
the National Movement ..................................................... 72 Congress Stand ...................................................................... 81
The Simon Commission Recommendations- May Gandhi’s Response ............................................................... 81
1930 ........................................................................................... 73
Poona Pact ............................................................................... 81
Nehru Report .......................................................... 73
Impact of Poona Pact on Dalits....................................... 81
Main Recommendations ................................................... 73
Joint Electorates and Its Impact on Depressed
The Muslim and Hindu Communal Responses........ 73 Classes ....................................................................................... 81
Delhi Proposals of Muslim League ............................... 73 Gandhi’s Harijan Campaign ............................................. 81
Hindu Mahasabha Demands ............................................ 73 Impact of the Campaign..................................................... 82
Compromises ......................................................................... 73 Ideological Differences and Similarities
Amendments Proposed by Jinnah ................................ 73 between Gandhi and Ambedkar ...................... 82
Jinnah’s Fourteen Points ................................................... 74
Chapter 20 - Debates on the Future
Nehru Report Found Unsatisfactory............................ 74
Strategy after Civil Disobedience
Chapter 19 - Civil Disobedience Movement ................................................ 83
Movement and Round Table The First Stage Debate ........................................ 83
Conferences ............................................. 75 Nehru’s Vision........................................................................ 83
The Run-up to Civil Disobedience Movement ......... 75
Nehru’s Opposition to Struggle-Truce-Struggle
Political Activity during 1929 ......................................... 75 Strategy ..................................................................................... 83

Irwin’s Declaration ............................................... 75 Council Entry .......................................................................... 83

Delhi Manifesto ..................................................................... 75 Government of India Act, 1935 ........................ 83

Lahore Congress and Purna Swaraj ............... 75 An All India Federation ...................................................... 83

January 26, 1930: the Independence Pledge ........... 75 Federal Level .......................................................................... 83

Civil Disobedience Movement .......................... 76 Provincial Autonomy .......................................................... 84

Evaluation of the Act ........................................................... 84
Dandi March ............................................................ 76
The Long-Term British Strategy .................................... 84
Spread of Salt Law Disobedience .................... 76
Nationalists’ Response ....................................................... 84
Gandhi-Irwin Pact (Delhi Pact)........................ 78
The Second Stage Debate ................................... 84
Evaluation of Civil Disobedience Movement Divided Opinion .................................................................... 84
...................................................................................... 78
Congress Manifesto for Elections .................................. 85
Comparison to Non-Cooperation Movement ........... 78
Chapter 21 - Congress Rule in
Karachi Congress Session .................................. 78
Provinces.................................................. 86
Congress Resolutions at Karachi ................................... 78
Gandhi’s Advice ..................................................................... 86
The Round Table Conferences ......................... 79
Work under Congress Ministries .................... 86
First Round Table Conference ........................................ 79
Civil Liberties ......................................................................... 86
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Agrarian Reforms ................................................................. 86 Spread of the Movement ................................................... 93

Attitude Towards Labour ................................................. 86 Underground Activity ......................................................... 93
Social Welfare Reforms ..................................................... 86 Parallel Governments ......................................................... 93

Evaluation ................................................................ 86 Extent of Mass Participation ............................. 93

Chapter 22 - Nationalist Response in Estimate .................................................................... 93
the Wake of World War II ................... 88 Famine of 1943 ...................................................... 94
Haripura and Tripuri Sessions: Subhash Rajagopalachari Formula ................................... 94
Bose’s Views ............................................................ 88 Desai-Liaqat Pact ................................................... 94
Haripura ................................................................................... 88
Wavell Plan .............................................................. 94
Tripuri ....................................................................................... 88
Why the Government was keen on a Solution Now
Gandhi and Bose: Ideological Differences ... 88 ...................................................................................................... 94
Non-Violence versus Militant Approach .................... 88 The Indian National Army and Subhash Bose
Means and Ends .................................................................... 88 ...................................................................................... 94
Form of Government .......................................................... 89 Origin and First Phase ........................................................ 95
Militarism ................................................................................ 89 Chapter 24 - Post-War National
Ideas on Economy ................................................................ 89 Scenario .................................................... 96
Religion ..................................................................................... 89
Two Strands of National Upsurge ................... 96
Caste and Untouchability .................................................. 89
Government’s Attitude ........................................ 96
Women ...................................................................................... 89
Education ................................................................................. 90
Congress Election Campaign and INA trial . 96
Congress Support for INA Prisoners ............................ 96
Second World War and Nationalistic
Response .................................................................. 90 Three Upsurges—Winter of 1945-46 ........... 96
CWC Meeting at Wardha ................................................... 90 Three-Stage Pattern ............................................................ 96

Government Attitude and Congress Evaluation of Potential and Impact of the Three
Upsurges................................................................................... 97
Ministries’ Resignation ....................................... 90
Government’s Hidden Agenda ........................................ 90
Election Results ..................................................... 97
Performance of the Congress .......................................... 97
August Offer ............................................................ 91
Muslim League’s Performance ....................................... 97
Responses ................................................................................ 91
The Cabinet Mission 1946 ................................. 97
Individual Satyagraha ......................................... 91
Why British Withdrawal Seemed Imminent Now . 97
Gandhi Designates Nehru as his Successor . 91
On the Eve of Cabinet Mission Plan .............................. 97
Cripps Mission........................................................ 91
Cabinet Mission Plan—Main Points ............................. 97
Why Cripps Mission was Sent ......................................... 91
Different Interpretations of the Grouping Clause .. 98
Main Proposals ...................................................................... 92
Characteristic Features of Indian Communalism... 99
Why Cripps Mission Failed .............................................. 92
Reasons for Growth of Communalism ........................ 99
Chapter 23 - Quit India Movement, Evolution of the Two-Nation Theory .........................100
Demand for Pakistan, and the INA... 93 Chapter 25 - Independence with
Why Start a Struggle Now .................................. 93 Partition ................................................ 101
The ‘Quit India’ Resolution ................................ 93 Attlee’s Statement of February 20, 1947 ...101
Gandhi’s General Instructions to Different Why a Date Fixed by Government for Withdrawal
Sections ..................................................................... 93 ....................................................................................................101
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Congress Stand ....................................................................101 Later Developments ..........................................................106

Independence and Partition ........................... 101 Evaluation ..............................................................................107

Mountbatten as the Viceroy ..........................................101 Major Changes in Administrative Structure

Mountbatten Plan, June 3, 1947 ..................................101 after 1857 ...............................................................107
Indian Independence Act ................................................101 Central Government ..........................................................107

Problems of Early Withdrawal .....................................102 Provincial Government ....................................................107

Integration of States........................................... 102 Local Bodies ..........................................................................107

Inevitability of Partition ................................... 102 Chapter 27 - Survey of British Policies

Gandhi’s Helplessness ......................................................102 in India ................................................... 109
Chapter 26 - Constitutional, Administrative Policies .....................................109
Administrative and Judicial Hostility Towards Educated Indians .........................109

Developments ...................................... 103 Attitude Towards the Zamindars ................................109

Attitude Towards Social Reforms ...............................109
The Regulating Act of 1773............................................103
Underdeveloped Social Services..................................109
Pitt’s India Act of 1784.....................................................103
Labour Legislations ...........................................................109
The Act of 1786 ...................................................................103
Restrictions on Freedom of the Press .......................109
The Charter Act of 1793 ..................................................103
White Racism .......................................................................109
The Charter Act of 1813 ..................................................103
The Charter Act of 1833 ..................................................103 British Social and Cultural Policy in India .109
The Charter Act of 1853 ..................................................103 Characteristics of New Thought ..................................109

The Act for Better Government of India, 1858 ......104 Schools of Thought ............................................................109

Indian Councils Act, 1861 ...............................................104 Indian Renaissance ............................................................110

Indian Councils Act, 1892 ...............................................104 Role of Christian Missionaries ......................................110

Indian Councils Act, 1909/Morley-Minto Reforms British Policy Towards Princely States.......110
....................................................................................................104
British Foreign Policy in India .......................110
Government of India Act, 1919/ Montague-
Chelmsford Reforms .........................................................104 Chapter 28 - Economic Impact of
Simon Commission ............................................................104 British Rule in India .......................... 111
Government of India Act, 1935 ....................................104 Deindustrialisation .............................................111
Evolution of Civil Services in India............... 105 One-Way Free Trade .........................................................111
Indian Civil Service Act, 1861 .......................................105 No Modern Industrialisation .........................................111
Montford Reforms (1919) ..............................................105 Ruralisation ..........................................................................111
Lee Commission (1924) ..................................................105 Impoverishment of Peasantry........................111
Government of India Act, 1935 ....................................105 Emergence of Intermediaries .........................111
Evaluation of Civil Services under British Rule ....105
Stagnation and Deterioration of Agriculture
Evolution of Police System in Modern India ....................................................................................111
.................................................................................... 105
Famine and Poverty ...........................................111
Military Under the British................................ 106
Commercialisation of Indian Agriculture ..111
Development of Judiciary in British India . 106
Destruction of Industry ....................................111
Reforms under Warren Hastings ................................106
Nationalist Critique of Colonial Economy..112
Reforms under Cornwallis .............................................106
Growth of Trade and Railways .....................................112
Reforms under William Bentinck ................................106
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One-Way Free Trade and Tariff Policy .....................112 Later Movements ................................................119
Effect of Economic Drain.................................................112 The Kisan Sabha Movement ..........................................119
Economic Issue a Stimulant to National Eka Movement .....................................................................120
Unrest ...................................................................... 112 Mappila Revolt .....................................................................120
Stages of Colonialism in India ........................ 112 Bardoli Satyagraha ............................................................120
First Stage ..............................................................................112 The All India Kisan Congress/Sabha..........................120
Second Stage .........................................................................112 Peasant Activity in Provinces .........................120
Third Stage ............................................................................113 Kerala.......................................................................................120

Chapter 29 - Development of Indian Andhra.....................................................................................120

Press........................................................ 114 Bihar .........................................................................................120

Punjab......................................................................................120
Early Regulations ................................................ 114
Post-War Phase ....................................................120
Struggle by Early Nationalists ........................ 114
Tebhaga Movement ...........................................................120
During and After the World Wars ................ 115
Telangana Movement .......................................................120
Chapter 30 - Development of
Chapter 32 - The Movement of the
Education .............................................. 116
Working Class ...................................... 121
Under Company Rule ......................................... 116
Early Efforts ..........................................................121
Charter Act of 1813 ...........................................................116
During Swadeshi Upsurge ...............................121
Orientalist-Anglicist Controversy ...............................116
Lord Macaulay’s Minute (1835) ..................................116 During the First World War and After ........121
Wood’s Despatch (1854) ................................................116 The AITUC..............................................................................121
The Trade Union Act, 1926 ............................................121
After the Crown Took Over ............................. 116
Late 1920s .............................................................................121
Hunter Education Commission (1882-83) .............116
Meerut Conspiracy Case (1929) ..................................121
Indian Universities Act, 1904 .......................................116
Government Resolution on Education Policy—1913 During Second World War ...............................121
....................................................................................................117 After Independence ............................................121
Saddler University Commission (1917-19) ............117
Chapter 33 - Challenges Before the
Hartog Committee (1929) ..............................................117
New-born Nation ................................ 122
Sergeant Plan of Education ............................................117
First Government After Independence .....................122
Wardha Scheme of Basic Education (1937) ...........117
Challenges..............................................................................122
Development of Vernacular Education....... 117
Radcliffe’s Boundary Award and the
Development of Technical Education ......... 117 Communal Riots ..................................................122
Evaluation .............................................................. 117 Challenges before the Boundary Commission.......122

Chapter 31 - Peasant Movements Challenges Associated with Division of

1857-1947 ............................................ 119 Resources ...............................................................122
Division of Civil Government ........................................122
Peasantry Under Colonialism ......................... 119
Division of Finances ..........................................................122
Indigo Revolt (1859-60) .................................................119
Division of Defence Personnel and Equipment.....122
Pabna Agrarian Leagues..................................................119
Deccan Riots .........................................................................119 Assassination of Gandhi....................................122

Movements after 1857 ...................................... 119 Rehabilitation and Resettlement of Refugees

....................................................................................123
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East Punjab ...........................................................................123 Non-Alignment ....................................................................129

Bengal ......................................................................................123 Chapter 37 - First General Elections
Delhi Pact on Minorities (Liaquat-Nehru Pact) ....123 .................................................................. 130
Communists and Independence .................... 123 The Election Commission ...............................................130
Why Communists were Sceptical about Legislation for Polls ...........................................................130
Independence? ....................................................................123
Independent India Goes to the Polls for the
Shift from Antagonistic Strategy to Constitutional
Democracy.............................................................................123
First Time ...............................................................130
Challenges..............................................................................130
Chapter 34 - The Indian States ....... 124
Parties in the Fray for the Lok Sabha ........................130
I. The Company’s Struggle for Equality from a
Conduct of Elections .........................................................130
Position of Subordination (1740-1765)..... 124
Results .....................................................................................130
II. Policy of Ring Fence (1765-1813) ........... 124
Chapter 38 - Developments under
III. Policy of Subordinate Isolation (1813-
Nehru’s Leadership (1947-64) ...... 132
1857) ....................................................................... 124
Political Developments .....................................132
IV. Policy of Subordinate Union (1857-1935)
Debate Over National Language ..................................132
.................................................................................... 124
Linguistic Reorganisation of the States ....................132
Post-1905 ..............................................................................124
Growth of other Political Parties .................................132
V. Policy of Equal Federation (1935-1947): A
An Undemocratic Deed ....................................................133
Non-Starter............................................................ 124
Concept of Planning for Economic
VI. Integration and Merger .............................. 124
Development .........................................................133
Plebiscite and Army Action ............................................125
Progress of Science and Technology ...........134
Gradual Integration ...........................................................125
Social Developments .........................................................134
Chapter 35 - Making of the
Education ...............................................................................134
Constitution for India........................ 126
Social Change Under Nehru ...........................................134
Background ........................................................... 126
Foreign Policy .......................................................134
Constituent Assembly ....................................... 126
Relations with Neighbours ..............................134
Two Constituent Assemblies: India and Pakistan 126
India and Pakistan .............................................................134
Evaluation of the Assembly for India ........................126
India and China ...................................................................135
After Independence ...........................................................127
India and Nepal ...................................................................135
Work: Committees and Consensus .............................127
India and Bhutan ................................................................135
Chapter 36 - The Evolution of India and Sri Lanka ............................................................135
Nationalist Foreign Policy ............... 128 Chapter 39 - After Nehru… .............. 136
First World War: Anti-Imperialism and Pan-
The Lal Bahadur Shastri Years (June 1964 –
Asian Feeling......................................................... 128
January 1966) .......................................................136
World War I ........................................................... 128 Early Life ................................................................................136
1920s and 1930s: Identifying with Socialists Political Journey after Independence ........................136
.................................................................................... 128 Economic Ideas ...................................................................136
After 1936—Anti-Fascism ............................... 128 Foreign Relations ...............................................................137
After Independence............................................ 128 The Indo-Pak War ..............................................................137

Panchsheel ............................................................................128 Shastri’s Death .....................................................................137

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Indira Gandhi: the First Phase (January 1966 Africa ........................................................................................144

to March 1977) .................................................... 137 The Smiling Buddha ..........................................................144
Early Life ................................................................................138 The Janata Party Years (March 1977 –
The 1971 Elections: Indira Triumphant ..................138 January 1980) .......................................................144
State of Emergency (1975–1977) ...............................139 Morarji Desai the First Non-Congress Prime
A Historic Election (1977)..............................................139 Minister...................................................................................145
Fresh State Assembly Elections ...................................145
Developments in the Political System......... 140
New President of India ....................................................145
Changes in the Congress .................................................140
Downslide of the Janata and Rise of Congress (I) 145
Growth of Regional Interests ........................................140
Futile Commissions ...........................................................145
Annexation of Sikkim .......................................................140
Belchi and Indira’s Masterstroke ................................145
Language Policy to Curb the Anti-Hindi
Disturbances.........................................................................141 Indira makes Gains ............................................................145

Centralisation of Power and the Socialistic Path .141 Differences within the Janata Party and Fall of
Morarji’s Government ......................................................145
Clipping the Wings of the Judiciary ............................141
Charan Singh the Prime Minister who never Faced
The Forty-Second Amendment Act: A Mini
Parliament .............................................................................145
Constitution of Sorts (976) ............................................141
Fresh Lok Sabha Elections and End of Janata Party
Socio-Economic Policies ................................... 141 Rule ...........................................................................................145
Nationalisation of Banks and Other Sectors of Legacy of the Janata Rule ................................................146
Economy .................................................................................141
Restoration of Democratic Rights ...............................146
Abolition of Princely Privileges....................................141
Economic Contradictions ................................................146
MRTP Act ...............................................................................142
Foreign Relations ...............................................................146
Steps for Equity and Poverty Reduction ..................142
Social Changes and Movements ...................................146
Tackling Economic Problems ......................... 142
Indira Gandhi: the Second Phase (January
Devaluation of the Rupee ...............................................142
1980 to October 1984)......................................146
Fourth Five-Year Plan ......................................................142
Economy .................................................................................147
Green Revolution Success ..............................................142
Foreign Relations ...............................................................147
Fifth Five-Year Plan (1974-1979) ...............................142
Non-Aligned Movement ..................................................147
The Indo-Pak War of 1971 and the Birth of Unrest in States ...................................................................147
Bangladesh ............................................................ 142
Punjab Turmoil and Operation Blue Star ................147
The 1970 Polls in Pakistan .............................................142
Legacy......................................................................................148
Refugee Influx in India and Indian Response ........143
The Rajiv Years (October 1984 to December
War and Liberation of East Pakistan .........................143 1989)........................................................................148
The Simla Agreement, June 1972 ................................143
Problems at the Very Outset .........................................148
Text of the Simla Agreement .........................................143
Anti-Sikh Riots .....................................................................148
Foreign Policy and Relations with other The Bhopal Gas Tragedy .................................................148
Countries ................................................................ 144
The 1985 General Elections ...........................................148
Bangladesh ............................................................................144
Tackling the Tensions in States....................................148
Sri Lanka ................................................................................144
Positive Steps taken on the Domestic Front...........149
Soviet Union..........................................................................144
First Steps towards Liberalising the Economy .....149
United States ........................................................................144
Technology Missions ........................................................149
West Asia ...............................................................................144
Computerisation .................................................................149
Asia-Pacific ............................................................................144
Education Policy .................................................................150
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The Negative Side ...............................................................150 Lahore Declaration ............................................................155

Foreign Relations ...............................................................150 Kargil War..............................................................................155
The IPKF Misadventure ...................................................151 NDA: Second Stint (October 1999 to May
Indo-Sri Lanka Accord 1987 .........................................151 2004)........................................................................155
General Elections of 1989...............................................151 Economic and Social Steps .............................................156

The V.P. Singh Years (December 1989 to Terrorist Trouble and Relations with Pakistan ....156
November 1990) ................................................. 151 Kashmir Elections ..............................................................156
Kashmir Situation Worsens ...........................................151 The Downside ......................................................................156
Implementation of the Mandal Commission Report 2004 General Election ......................................................156
....................................................................................................151
The UPA Years (May 2004 to May 2009; May
Mandal to Mandir: the Rath Yatra and Fall of the 2009 to May 2014) .............................................156
Government ..........................................................................152
UPA Government: First Term .......................................156
The Chandra Shekhar Government
Social Welfare Measures .................................................156
(November 1990 to June 1991) .................... 152
Foreign Relations ...............................................................157
Troubled Economy ............................................................152
Terror Attacks......................................................................157
Elections of 1991 ................................................................152
Situation in States ..............................................................157
The Narasimha Rao Years (June 1991 to May
Trouble in Kashmir............................................................157
1996) ....................................................................... 152
2009 Election and UPA Back in Power .....................157
Economic Reform ...............................................................152
Telangana Issue ..................................................................157
Industrial Policy of 1991.................................................153
Social Welfare Measures and Legislations ..............157
Panchayati Raj and Nagarpalika Acts ........................153
Space Venture to Mars .....................................................158
Handling Security Issues and Space Tech ...............153
Corruption Charges and Lokpal Act ...........................158
Foreign Policy ......................................................................153
Conditions Before General Election ...........................158
Negative Aspects ................................................................153
The 2014 General Election .............................................158
The Babri Masjid Demolition ........................................153
The NDA Government (May 2014 – May
Liberhan Commission ......................................................153
2019)........................................................................159
Corruption Scandals..........................................................153
Digital India: a Step Forward in e-Governance .....159
Kashmir ..................................................................................154
Socio-Economic Policies and Programmes of
General Elections of 1996...............................................154
Importance ............................................................................159
Rise of the Dalit Voice.......................................................154
NITI Aayog .............................................................................159
Between 1996 and 1999: Three Prime JAM Trinity: Jan Dhan-Aadhar-Mobile ......................159
Ministers................................................................. 154 Health Policy.........................................................................159
Vajpayee’s Short-Lived Term as Prime Minister ..154 Steps Directed Towards Economic Reform ............159
United Front Government: Deve Gowda and I.K. Farmers...................................................................................160
Gujral .......................................................................................154
Infrastructure ......................................................................160
Gujral Doctrine ....................................................................154
Welfare Schemes ................................................................160
General Elections................................................................155
Security ...................................................................................160
NDA Years (March 1998 to October 1999)
Foreign Relations ...............................................................161
.................................................................................... 155
Social Situation ....................................................................161
Pokhran II: Operation Shakti ........................................155
General Election and Return of the NDA .................162
The Lahore Summit ...........................................................155
Factors behind the NDA Victory ..................................162

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Chapter 1 – Sources for the History of Modern India

• 1600-1857- East India Company’s • Danes also transferred to Copenhagen, some
administration records of Tranquebar at Madras Record
• After revolt of 1857- takeover by British office
crown
Judicial Records
Central Govt. Archives • Records of Mayor’s court of St. George
• National Archives of India, New Delhi housed at Madras record office
• First Surveyor General of Bengal- James • Pre Plassey records of Fort Williams have
Rennell in 1767 been lost
• Formation of Home Political dept.in 1907, • Records of Mayor’s court Bombay is at
exclusively for Political-Communal issues Maharashtra Secretariat Record office-
Mumbai
State Govt. Archives
• Material comprises sources of: Published and Private Archives
o British Indian Sources • Most significant is Parliamentary papers
o Princely states • Records of INC housed at Nehru Memorial
o Foreign administration (apart from Museum and Library, New Delhi
British)
• Kingdom of Lahore= Khalsa Darbar Biographies, Memoir and Travel
• Peshwa Daftar (Pune) deals with Maratha account
History before the fall of Peshwas. • Missionaries writings
• Rajasthan state archive at Bikaner o ‘Hindu Manners and Customs’ by Abbe
• Dogra rule in Jammu & Kashmir began in the Duboi
year 1846 sources housed in Jammu o Journal written by Bishop Heber
• British Travellers
Three Presidencies o ‘Travels into Bokhara’ by James Burnes
o ‘Diary of Travels and Adventures in Upper
• Bengal- Madras- Bombay
India’ by C.J.C. Davidson
• Fort William- Bengal
o ‘Travels and Adventures in the province
• Sack of Calcutta in the year 1756
of Assam’ by John Butler
• Archives of Bengal presidency partly at
• Non- British Travellers
o State archives of West Bengal
o ‘Letters from India describing a journey in
o National archives of India
the Dominions of India, Tibet, Lahore and
• Fort St. George- Madras
Cashmere during the years 1828-1829--
• Archives of Bombay presidency housed at
1831’ by Victor Jacquemont
Maharashtra Secretariat Record office-
o ‘Travels in Kashmir and Punjab’ by Baron
Mumbai
Charles
Other European powers
Newspapers and Journals
• Portuguese archives at Goa • ‘The Bengal Gazette or Calcutta General
• Dutch records of Cochin –Malabar are in Advertiser ‘first published Newspaper in
Madras. Chinsura at West Bengal India by James Augustus Hickey
• French archives of Chandernagore and • Also called as Hickey’s Gazette
Puducherry taken to Paris • The Calcutta gazette -1784
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• The Bombay Herald by William Ash Burner • Bankim Chandra Chatterji

in 1789 o Anand Math (1882)- lyric of
• Hindu and Swadesmitran by G. Subramaniya “Vandemataram”
Iyer o Rajasimha
• Kesari and Maharatta by B.G. Tilak • Hind anne Britanica by Icharam Surya Ram
• Bengalee by Surendranath Banerjee Desai
• Amrit Bazar Patrika by Sisir Kumar Ghosh & • Mohanra rajani by Girija Devi and
Motilal Ghosh Ramatirtha Thammal in 1931
• Sudharak by G.K. Gokhale • Balyakala Sakhi by Vaikom Mohammed
• Voice of India by Dada Bhai Naoroji Bashir
• Indu Prakash by Vishnu Ram Pandit
Paintings
• Som Prakash Banganivasi by Dwarkanath
• Rise of Patna Kalam and patronized by East
Vidhya Bhushan
India Company
• Indian sociologist By Shyamji Krishna
• Introduction of photography in India late
Verma, he also ran a London House facility
1840s
• Bande Matram by Madam Bhikaji Cama
• Relief of Lucknow by Thomas Jones Barker
• Ghadar by Lala Hardyal, he had a
• In Memoriam by Joseph Noel Paton (about
revolutionary political party with the same
revolt of 1857)
name in San Francisco
• Bengal School of Painting led by
Oral Evidences Abanindranath Tagore
Some historians are skeptical • Bengal School dealt with mythology and
cultural heritage of India, depicted Bharat
Creative literature Mata as well
• Novel in India a result of Indo-European
contact

********

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Chapter 4 - India on the Eve of British Conquest

The reign of Aurangzeb (1658-1707): beginning • During the reign of Alamgir II, the Battle of
of the end of Mughal rule in India Plassey was fought in June 1757.
• Reign of Shah Alam II- Third Battle of
External Challenges Panipat and Battle of Buxar
o issued a farman granting Diwani rights of
• invasions from the north-west frontier
Bengal, Bihar and Orissa to the company.
• Nadir Shah, the Persian emperor invaded in
• The title of Raja to Ram mohan Rai was given
1738-39
by Akbar II.
• Nader Shah was Mughal emperor for fifty-
• Bahadur Shah II (Zafar) was the last Mughal
seven days
emperor, He was captured by the English
• the Peacock Throne and the Kohinoor
and sent to Rangoon where he died in 1862.
diamond and seventy crore rupees were
looted by him
• Ahmad Shah Abdali (Successor of Nadir Causes of Decline of Mughal Empire
Shah)
o recognised Alamgir II as the Mughal • Empire-related- decline within the structure
emperor and functioning and Region related- the
o Najib-ud-Daula, as Mir Bakhshi and turmoil and instability in the different parts
‘supreme agent’ of Abdali as well of the empire.
o First Battle of Panipat 1526 – Babur v/s • The zamindars and the nobles shared power
Ibrahim Lodhi of state with the Emperor
o Second Battle of Panipat 1556- Akbar v/s • The zamindars = rais, rajas, thakurs, khuts or
Hemu deshmukhs
o Third Battle of Panipat 1761- Abdali v/s o Rise of local/ regional loyalty and
Marathas shifting of allegiance
o Panipat is located in present day • Mughal rule has been defined as “the rule of
Haryana the nobility” due to the power they
Internal Challenges possessed.
• The roots of the disintegration of the Mughal
• Weak rulers after Aurangzeb (later Mughals) empire has to be the fall of economy,
and long battle of successions financial crisis and rise of Jagirdari system.
• Shah-i-Bekhabar was the title given to • Historians state that military inefficiency
Bahadur Shah I was the principal, if not the sole, cause of
• Jahandar Shah introduced the Izara system that empire’s final collapse.
to enhance financial conditions and • Aurangzeb’s reimposing the jizya or poll tax,
abolished Jaziya on his Hindu subjects was another blunder.
• Sayyid brothers—Abdulla Khan and Hussain • Aurangzeb’s Deccan and Religious policy
Ali (known as ‘King Makers’) made the empire weaker.
• Farrukhsiyar abolished Jaziya and • Powerful regional groups like the Jats, Sikhs
pilgrimage tax. and Marathas defied the authority of the
• The Sayyid brothers, with the help of Mughal state.
Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath, dethroned • The government of the Mughals was a
Farrukhsiyar, he was blinded and killed. personal despotism depending on the
• Muhammad Shah was given the title of emperor.
‘Rangeela’ due to his luxurious life-style. • No definite law of succession.
• Muhammad Shah killed the Sayyid Brothers. • Sharp rise of amirs and their ranks or
• Nadir Shah defeated the Mughals in the mansabs,leading to no Jagirs left.
Battle of Karnal and later imprisoned • The reduction in khalisa land (Crown land),
Muhammad Shah. all of which burdened the state.
• Udham Bai, the ‘Queen Mother’ got the title
of Qibla-i-Alam, Ahmad Shah’s state affairs
were in her hands.
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Rise of Regional States • Even rebel chieftains of the Marathas and

• The states that emerged after Mughals can Sikhs recognised the Mughal emperor as the
be classified as: supreme authority.
• Successor States- Mughal provinces • These states was regional in character, and
that broke away from the empire functional with the collaborative support of
• Independent Kingdoms- examples the different local groups like the zamindars,
being Mysore and the Rajput states. merchants, local nobles and chieftains.
• The New States -These were set up by • The constant warfare these states had with
the rebels against the Mughal empire the neighbouring regional powers.

States Founders Socio-Economic- Cultural Conditions

Hyderabad Nizam ul Mulk • Eighteenth century India became a land of

contrasts because extreme poverty and
Awadh Saadat Khan(Burhan- extreme luxury existed side by side.
ul-Mulk) • Agriculture was technically backward, it was
worked by the hard labour of peasants.
Bengal Murshid Kuli Khan • India’s exports were more than its imports.
• India was known as a sink of precious
Kerala Martanda Varma
metals.
Jat state of Bharatpur Churaman and Badan
Item of import Region of
Singh
import
Rohilakhand Ali Muhammad Khan
pearls, raw silk, wool, dates, Persian Gulf
Farukhabad Mohammad Khan dried fruits ,rose water Region
Bangash
coffee, gold, drugs, and Arabia
honey
• Saadat Khan committed suicide under Nadir sugar, porcelain, tea, silk China
Shah’s pressure.
• Mysore was ruled by the Wodeyars, later gold, musk, woollen cloth Tibet
Haider Ali got the power.
• Under Suraj Mal that Jat power reached its ivory, drugs Africa
zenith.
• Guru Gobind Singh transformed the Sikhs woollen cloth, copper, iron, Europe
into a militant sect. lead, paper
• Sikhs organised themselves into12 misls or
confederacies. • Items of Export Cotton textiles, raw silk and
• Ranjit singh belonged to the Sukarchakiya silk fabrics, hardware, indigo, saltpetre,
misl. opium, rice, wheat, sugar, pepper and other
o Singed Treaty of Amritsar with the spices, precious stones, and drugs.
British. • ‘Bear in mind that the commerce of India is
o English forced him to sign the Tripartite the commerce of the world and…’- Prter the
Treaty in 1838 with Shah Shuja and the Great.
English. • Maharashtra, the Andhra region and Bengal
• Marathas authority was challenged by were the leaders in ship-building.
Ahmed Shah Abdali in the Third Battle of • Muslim Kunjali Maraikkars -who were well
Panipat (1761). known for their seafaring ability.
• The states of Rohilakhand and the kingdom • 18th-century Indian education was
of the Bangash Pathans were a fall out of the traditional in nature.
Afghan migration into India. • Subjects taught: literature, law, religion,
philosophy, and logic
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• Excluded: study of physical and natural • Raja Sawai Jai Singh of Amber and the
sciences, technology and geography. Maratha General Prashuram Bhau tried to
• Elementary schools promote widow remarriage but failed.
o Hindus- Pathshala • Generally higher classes of Rajputs, Khatris
o Muslims- Maktab and Kayasthas kept women slave for
• Secondary/High Schools domestic work.
o Hindus- Chatuspathis or Tols • The advent of Europeans heightened the
o Muslims- Madrasahs slavery and slave trade in India.
• 18th century Indians were divided by caste, • Asaf-ud-Daula built the bada Imambara in
religion, region, tribe and language. 1784.
• Caste councils and panchayats enforced • Sawai Jai Singh built the pink city of Jaipur
caste norms and regulations. and astronomical observatories, timetable
• Muslims were divided by considerations of called Jij Muhammad-shahi.
caste, race, tribe and status. • Growth of Urdu language and poetry took
• sharif Muslims = nobles place in 18th century.
• ajlaf Muslims = the lower class Muslims • The Tamil language was enriched by sittar
• purdah, sati, child marriage, polygamy did poetry.
exist which hindered the progress of • Heer Ranjha, the romantic epic in Punjabi
women. literature, was composed by Warris Shah.
********

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Chapter 5 - Expansion and Consolidation of British Power

in India
The British Imperial History etc., displayed rare qualities of leadership. A
long list of secondary leaders like Sir Eyre
• ‘first empire’ stretching across the Atlantic
Coote, Lord Lake and Arthur Wellesley who
towards America and the West Indies
fought not for the leader but for the cause
• ‘second empire’ towards the East—Asia and and the glory of their country.
Africa.
• Strong Financial Backup: The income of the
• The English then sprang up as the ‘new Company was adequate enough to pay its
Romans’ shareholders handsome dividends as also to
• Our acquisition of India was made blindly. finance the English wars in India.
Nothing great that has ever been done by • Nationalist Pride: An economically thriving
Englishman was done so unintentionally and British people believing in material
so accidentally, as the conquest of India — advancement and proud of their national
John Seeley glory faced the ‘weak, divided-amongst-
• From 1798 to 1818 the British motives were themselves Indians’.
consciously imperialistic.
• Lord Hastings further carried the policy of
Wellesley and treated India as a conquered British Conquest of Bengal
rather than an acquired country. • The English East India Company had vital
commercial interests in trading in Bengal, as
nearly 60 per cent of the British imports
When did the British Period Begin in
from Asia consisted of goods from Bengal.
India? • They had established factories in Balasore,
• Some historians regard: Hooghly, Kasimbazar, Patna and Dacca in
o the year 1740, when the Anglo-French 1630s. By the 1690s, the foundation of
struggle for supremacy in India began in Calcutta by the English company has taken
the wake of the War of Austrian place.
Succession in Europe • In 1741, Alivardi Khan, the Deputy Governor
o the year 1757, when the British defeated of Bihar, killed the Nawab of Bengal Sarfaraz
the Nawab of Bengal at Plassey Khan in a battle and certified his own
o 1761, the year of the Third Battle of position as the new Subahdar of Bengal. he
Panipat when the Marathas were died in April 1756 and was succeeded by his
defeated by Ahmad Shah Abdali grandson, Siraj-ud-daula.

Causes of British Success in India Challenges Before Siraj-ud-daula

• Both war and administrative policies were • A rival cousin, the Nawab of Purnea, Shaukat
used by the English to impose their power. Jang
• Superior Arms, Military and Strategy: The • A hostile aunt, Ghasiti Begum
firearms used by the English, which included • A rebellious commander, Mir Jafar
muskets and cannons, were better than the • An alarmed (Hindu) subject population
Indian arms both in speed of firing and in • Ever-growing commercial activity of British
range.
• Better Military Discipline and Regular Salary The Battle of Plassey
• Civil Discipline and Fair Selection System:
• Prelude:
The Company officers and troops were given
o The officials of the Company made
charge on the basis of their reliability and
rampant misuse of its trade privileges
skill and not on hereditary or caste and clan
and The English fortified Calcutta
ties.
without the nawab’s permission.
• Brilliant Leadership and Support of Second o The Company gave asylum to a political
Line Leaders: Clive, Warren Hastings, fugitive, Krishna Das, son of Raj Ballabh.
Elphinstone, Munro, Marquess of Dalhousie,
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o Siraj attacked and seized the English fort o The Nawab-Company tussle over transit
at Calcutta. duty led to the outbreak of wars between
o ‘Black Hole Tragedy’: Siraj-ud-daula is the English and Mir Kasim in 1763.
believed to have imprisoned 146 English o The Nawab formed a confederacy with
persons who were lodged in a very tiny the Nawab of Awadh, Shuja-ud-daulah,
room due to which 123 of them died of and the Mughal Emperor, Shah Alam II,
suffocation. (Debated by Historians) with a view to recover Bengal from the
• The Battle English.
o Strong force under the command of • The Battle
Robert Clive. o The combined armies of Mir Kasim, the
o Clive forged a secret alliance with the Nawab of Awadh and Shah Alam II were
traitors of the nawab-Mir Jafar, Rai defeated by the English forces under
Durlabh, Jagat Seth (an influential Major Hector Munro at Buxar on October
banker of Bengal) and Omichand. 22, 1764.
o The English victory in the Battle of o Not only the Nawab of Bengal but also
Plassey (June 23, 1757) was decided the Mughal Emperor of India was
before the battle was even fought. defeated by the English.
o After Plassey, the English virtually o After the death of Mir Jafar, his minor
monopolised the trade and commerce of son, Najimud-daula, was appointed
Bengal. nawab, but the real power of
o Mir Jafar became the Nawab of Bengal. administration lay in the hands of the
He gave large sums of money plus the naib-subahdar, who could be appointed
zamindari of 24 parganas to the English. or dismissed by the English.

Mir Kasim and the Treaty of 1760 The Treaty of Allahabad

• Mir Jafar was increasingly irritated by the • Nawab Shuja-ud-Daula agreed to:
interference of Clive. Then started a fight for o surrender Allahabad and Kara to
the nawabship of Bengal between Mir Emperor Shah Alam II;
Kasim, the son-in-law of Mir Jafar, and o pay Rs 50 lakh to the Company as war
Miran’s son. Important features of the treaty indemnity;
were as follows: o give Balwant Singh, Zamindar of Banaras,
o to cede to the Company the districts of full possession of his estate
Burdwan, Midnapur and Chittagong. • Shah Alam II agreed to:
o Company would get half of the share in o reside at Allahabad,
chunam trade of Sylhet o issue a farman granting the diwani of
o Paying off the outstanding dues to the Bengal, Bihar and Orissa to the East India
Company Company
o financing the Company’s war efforts in o a provision of Rs 53 lakh to the Company
southern India in return for nizamat functions of the
• A pension of Rs 1,500 per annum was fixed said provinces
for Mir Jafar. o The treaty made the Nawab of Awadh a
firm friend of the Company, and turned
The Battle of Buxar Awadh into a buffer state.
• Prelude:
o Mir Kasim belied the expectations of the Dual Government in Bengal (1765-72)
Company and did not act like a puppet. • Robert Clive introduced the dual system of
o Mir Kasim could not tolerate this open government, i.e., the rule of the two:
defiance of his authority by Ram Narayan o the Company and the Nawab in Bengal
and he supported by English. • The dual system led to an administrative
o The misuse of the Company’s dastak or breakdown and proved disastrous for the
trade permit by Company officials also people of Bengal.
resulted in tensions between the nawab • Warren Hastings did away with the dual
and the English. system in 1772.
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Mysore’s Resistance to the Company Third Anglo-Mysore War

• In 1612 a Hindu kingdom under the • A dispute arose between Tipu and the state
Wodeyars emerged in the region of Mysore. of Travancore. He considered the act of
• Late 18th century, Mysore emerged as a Travancore as a violation of his sovereign
formidable power under the leadership of rights. In April 1790, Tipu declared war
Haidar Ali and Tipu Sultan. against Travancore for the restoration of his
• Mysore had proximity with the French and rights.
Haidar Ali and Tipu controlled over the rich • The English, siding with Travancore,
trade of the Malabar coast. attacked Tipu. In 1791, Cornwallis took the
• Repeated incursions of the Marathas and of leadership and at the head of a large army.
the Nizam’s troops into the territories of • Tipu offered serious opposition, but the
Mysore resulted in heavy financial demands odds were against him. Consequently, he had
made by the aggressors from Mysore. to pay heavily under the Treaty of
• Haidar Ali fulfilled that need and usurped Seringapatam.
the royal authority by becoming the de facto
ruler of Mysore in 1761. Fourth Anglo-Mysore War
• Haidar Ali took the help of the French to set • The English as well as Tipu Sultan used the
up an arms factory at Dindigul and period 1792 to 1799 to recoup their losses.
introduced Western methods of training for • In 1796, when the Hindu ruler of Wodeyar
his army. dynasty died, Tipu declared himself sultan.
• Wellesley was concerned about Tipu’s
First Anglo-Mysore War (1767-69) growing friendship with the French and
• British concluded a treaty with the Nizam of aimed at annihilating Tipu’s independent
Hyderabad (1766) and promised would existence or force him to submission
protect the Nizam from Haidar Ali. through the system of Subsidiary Alliance.
• The Nizam, the Marathas, and the English • The war began on April 17, 1799 and ended
allied together against Haidar Ali. on May 4, 1799 with the fall of Seringapatam.
• The war continued for a year-and-a-half • The English were again helped by the
without any conclusion. Haidar changed his Marathas and the Nizam. Tipu laid down his
strategy. There was complete chaos and life fighting bravely.
panic at Madras forcing the English to
conclude a very humiliating Treaty of Anglo-Maratha Struggle for Supremacy
Madras. • The Third Battle of Panipat (1761), in which
they were defeated by Ahmad Shah Abdali,
Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780-84) changed the situation, they regrouped,
• Haidar Ali accused the English of breach of regained their strength and within a decade
faith and nonobservance of the Treaty of achieved a position of power in India.
Madras in 1771 he was attacked by the • Bajirao I (1720-40), considered greatest of
Marathas. all the Peshwas, had started a confederacy of
• Haidar Ali’s friendship with the French prominent Maratha chiefs.
caused even more concern to the English. • The Maratha families which emerged
• Haidar considered the English attempt to prominent were the Gaekwad of Baroda,the
capture Mahe a direct challenge to his Bhonsle of Nagpur,the Holkars of Indore, the
authority. Sindhias of Gwalior, and the Peshwa of
• Haidar forged an anti-English alliance with Poona.
the Marathas and the Nizam. English under • The English in Bombay wanted to establish a
Sir Eyre Coote detached both the Marathas government on the lines of the arrangement
and the Nizam from Haidar’s side. made by Clive in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.
• Fed up with an inconclusive war, both sides
opted for peace, negotiating the Treaty of First Anglo-Maratha War (1775-82)
Mangalore (March, 1784). • After the death of Madhavrao in 1772, his
brother Narayanrao succeeded him as the
fifth peshwa.
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• Later Narayanrao’s widow, Gangabai, gave o to subject his relations with other states
birth to a son after her husband’s death. to the control of the English
• Twelve Maratha chiefs (Barabhai), was led o Eventually The Marathas were defeated,
by Nana Phadnavis. reduced to British vassalage and isolated
• Treaties of Surat and Purandhar: from one another.
• Raghunathrao, unwilling to give up his o Defeat of Bhonsle: December 17, 1803,
position in power, sought help from the Treaty of Devgaon
English at Bombay and signed the Treaty of o Defeat of Sindhia: December 30, 1803,
Surat in 1775. Treaty of Surajianjangaon
• The British Calcutta Council condemned the o Defeat of Holkar: 1806, Treaty of
Treaty of Surat (1775) and sent Colonel Rajpurghat
Upton to Pune to annul it and make a new
treaty (Treaty of Purandhar, 1776). The Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817-19)
Bombay government rejected this and gave • By the Charter Act of 1813, the East India
refuge to Raghunath. Company’s monopoly of trade in China
• The English and the Maratha armies met on (except tea) ended and hence the company
the outskirts of Pune. Maratha army was needed more markets.
commanded by a brilliant general named • The Pindaris: attached to Maratha armies as
Mahadji Sindhia. mercenaries
• The English surrendered by mid-January • The Treaty of Bassein, described as “a treaty
1779 and signed the Treaty of Wadgaon. with a cipher (the Peshwa)”
• Warren Hastings, the Governor-General in • Lord Hastings’ actions taken against the
Bengal, rejected the Treaty of Wadgaon and Pindaris were seen as a transgression of the
sent a large force of soldiers under Colonel sovereignty of the Marathas.
Goddard. • The Peshwa attacked the British Residency
• The English, under General Camac, finally at Poona. Holkar made preparations for war.
defeated Sindhia at Sipri. Sindhia proposed a • English, striking back vigorously succeeded
new treaty between the Peshwa and the in not allowing the Peshwa to exert his
English, and the Treaty of Salbai was signed authority again on the Maratha confederacy.
in May 1782. • The Peshwa was defeated at Khirki, Bhonsle
• The treaty guaranteed peace between the at Sitabuldi, and Holkar at Mahidpur.
two sides for twenty years. • Treaty of Poona, with Peshwa
• Treaty of Gwalior, with Sindhia
Second Anglo Maratha War (1803-1805) • Treaty of Mandasor, with Holkar
• After Peshwa Madhavrao Narayan
committed suicide in 1795.Bajirao II, son of Why the Marathas Lost
Raghunathrao, became the Peshwa. • Inept Leadership, Defective Nature of
• Nana Phadnavis, a bitter foe of Bajirao II, Maratha State, Loose Political Set-up,
became the chief minister. Inferior Military System, Unstable Economic
• In 1801 the Peshwa brutally murdered the Policy, Superior English Diplomacy and
brother of Jaswantrao Holkar, Vithuji. A Espionage, Progressive English Outlook.
furious Jaswant arrayed his forces against
the combined armies of Sindhia and Bajirao
Conquest of Sindh
II.
• Bajirao II signed a treaty with the • In the eighteenth century, prior to the rule of
English,Treaty of Bassein (1802). Under the Talpuras Amirs, Sindh was ruled by the
treaty, the Peshwa agreed: Kallora chiefs.
• to receive from the Company a native • In 1758, an English factory was built at
infantry Thatta.
o to cede to the Company territories • In the 1770s, a Baluch tribe called Talpuras,
o to surrender the city of Surat descended from the hills and settled in the
o to give up all claims for chauth on the plains of Sindh.
Nizam’s dominions
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• In 1783, the Talpuras, under the leadership Conquest of Punjab

of Mir Fath (Fatah) Ali Khan, established • After Guru Govind Singh, a section of Sikhs
complete hold over Sindh. under the leadership of Banda Bahadur
• Lord Wellesley’s efforts to revive revolted against the Mughals during the rule
commercial relations with Sindh was the of Bahadur Shah.
hidden aim to counteract the alliance of the • Sikh revolted against the Mughals during the
French, Tipu Sultan and Shah Zaman, the rule of Bahadur Shah. In 1715, Banda
Kabul monarch. Bahadur was defeated by Farrukhsiyar and
• In June 1807, the alliance of Tilsit with put to death.
Alexander I of Russia was joined by • Got divided into two groups—Bandai
Napoleon Bonaparte. (liberal) and Tat Khalsa (Orthodox)
• Sindh was visited by Nicholas Smith who • In 1784 Kapur Singh Faizullapuria organised
met the Amirs to conclude a defensive the Sikhs under Dal Khalsa.
arrangement. After professing eternal • The Sikhs consolidated in misls which were
friendship, both sides agreed to exclude the military brotherhoods with a democratic
French from Sindh and to exchange agents at set-up. Misl is an Arabic word which means
each other’s court. equal or alike.
• In 1832, William Bentinck sent Colonel
Pottinger to Sindh to sign a treaty with the Sukarchakiya Misl and Ranjit Singh
Amirs. • 12 important misls—Ahluwaliya, Bhangi,
o Free passage through Sindh Dallewalia, Faizullapuria, Kanhaiya,
o No English merchant would settle down Krorasinghia, Nakkai, Nishaniya, Phulakiya,
in Sindh Ramgarhiya Sukharchakiya, and Shaheed.
o Tariff rates could be altered by the Amirs
• Ranjit Singh was the son of Mahan Singh, the
o no military dues or tolls would be
leader of the Sukarchakiya misl.
demanded
• Ranjit Singh agreed to sign the Treaty of
• Under Lord Auckland, Pottinger was sent to
Amritsar (April 25, 1809) with the Company.
Hyderabad to sign a new treaty with the
• After the death of few successors of Ranjit
Amirs.
singh, Daleep Singh, a minor son of Ranjit
• The Amirs initially refused but later agreed
Singh, was proclaimed the Maharaja with
reluctantly to sign the treaty in 1838.
Rani Jindan as regent and Hira Singh Dogra
as wazir.
Tripartite Treaty of 1838
• British persuaded Ranjit Singh to sign a First Anglo-Sikh War (1845-46)
tripartite treaty in June 1838 agreeing to • The causes were much more complex and
British mediation in his disputes with the may be listed as follows:
Amirs. o the anarchy in the Lahore kingdom after
• Under threat of superior force, the Amirs Ranjit Singh
accepted a treaty in February 1839 Sindh o suspicions amongst the Sikh army arising
accepted Subsidiary Alliance. from English military campaigns
• We have no right to seize Sindh, yet we shall o the increase in the number of English
do so, and a very advantageous, useful, troops being stationed near the border
humane piece of rascality it will be—Charles with the Lahore kingdom
Napier • Sikh were under the overall command of Lal
• In 1843, under Governor-General Singh.
Ellenborough, Sindh was merged into the • Treaty of Lahore:The end of the first Anglo-
British Empire and Charles Napier was Sikh War forced the Sikhs to sign a
appointed its first governor. humiliating treaty on March 8, 1846.
• Historians generally condemn the • The Sikhs were not satisfied with the Treaty
acquisition of Sindh by the British in strong of Lahore,so they rebelled. In December,
words. The causes for annexation were 1846, the Treaty of Bhairowal was signed.
deliberately manufactured.

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Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848-49) • Indian ruler could not go to war or negotiate
• The defeat in the first Anglo-Sikh War and with any other Indian ruler without
the provisions of the treaties of Lahore and consulting the governor-general.
Bhairowal were highly humiliating for the • One motive of subsidiary alliance system
Sikhs. was to keep the French from reviving and
• Mulraj, the governor of Multan, was replaced expanding their influence in India.
by a new Sikh governor over the issue of • The Indian rulers lost their independence by
increase in annual revenue. Mulraj revolted buying security. Also, the alliance made the
and murdered two English officers, This Indian rulers weak and irresponsible.
could be considered as the immediate cause • The first Indian state to fall into this
of the war. protection trap was Awadh in 1765.
• Lord Dalhousie himself proceeded to • Stages of Application of Subsidiary Alliance:
Punjab. Three important battles were o first stage, the Company offered to help
fought: a friendly Indian state with its troops\
o Battle of Ramnagar o second stage consisted of making a
o Battle of Chillhanwala common cause with the Indian state now
o Battle of Gujarat made friendly and taking the field with
• End was surrender of the Sikh army and its own soldiers and those of the state.
Sher Singh in 1849 and annexation of o third stage when the Indian ally was
Punjab. John Lawrence became the first chief asked not for men but for money
commissioner. o fourth or the last stage, the money or
• After this the Sikhs were to fight loyally on the protection fee was fixed
the British side in the Revolt of 1857 and in • The Indian princes who accepted the
many other campaigns and wars uptil the subsidiary system were:
Indian independence in 1947. o The Nizam of Hyderabad (September
1798 and 1800),
Extension of British Paramountcy o The ruler of Mysore (1799),
o The ruler of Tanjore (October 1799),
Through Administrative Policy o The Nawab of Awadh (November 1801),
o The Peshwa (December 1801),
The Policy of Ring-Fence o The Bhonsle Raja of Berar (December
• Warren Hasting followed a policy of ring- 1803),
fence which aimed at creating buffer zones o The Sindhia (February 1804),
to defend the Company’s frontiers. o The Rajput states of Jodhpur, Jaipur,
• This policy of Warren Hastings was reflected Macheri, Bundi and the ruler of
in his war against the Marathas and Mysore. Bharatpur (1818).
• The states brought under the ring-fence o The Holkars were the last Maratha
system were assured of military assistance confederation to accept the Subsidiary
against external aggression but at their own Alliance in 1818.
expense.
• Wellesley’s policy of subsidiary alliance was, Doctrine of Lapse
in fact, an extension of the ring-fence system. • The doctrine stated that the adopted son
could be the heir to his foster father’s
Subsidiary Alliance private property, but not the state.
• Used by Lord Wellesley, who was governor- • It was for the British to decide whether
general from 1798-1805, to build an empire to bestow the state on the adopted son or
in India. to annex it.
• The allying Indian state’s ruler was • Maharaja Ranjit Singh had annexed a few
compelled to accept the permanent of his feudatory principalities on account
stationing of a British force within his of ‘lapse’.
territory and to pay a subsidy for its • Though this policy is attributed to Lord
maintenance. Dalhousie, he was not its originator.

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• During Lord Dalhousie’s term seven Second Burma War (1852)

states were annexed under the Doctrine • The second war was the result of the British
of Lapse. commercial need and the imperialist policy
• The most important of these were Satara of Lord Dalhousie.
(1848), Jhansi and Nagpur (1854). The • The British merchants were keen to get hold
other small states included Jaitpur of timber resources of upper Burma.
(Bundelkhand), Sambhalpur (Orissa), • An intense guerrilla resistance had to be
and Baghat (Madhya Pradesh). overcome before complete British control of
• Lord Dalhousie annexed Awadh in 1856 lower Burma could be established.
after deposing Nawab Wajid Ali Shah on
grounds of misgovernment. Third Burma War (1885)
• Thibaw succeeded Burmese King Bhindan,
Relations of British India with he was hostile towards the British. The
British merchants at Rangoon and lower
Neighbouring Countries Burma had been complaining about the step-
motherly treatment by Thibaw.
Anglo-Bhutanese Relations • A humiliating fine had been imposed on a
• The occupation of Assam in 1826 brought the British timber company by Thibaw.
British into close contacts with the mountain • Dufferin ordered the invasion and final
state of Bhutan. annexation of upper Burma in 1885.
• In 1865, the Bhutanese were forced to • The Burmese nationalists joined hands with
surrender the passes leading to Assam in the Indian National Congress. To weaken
return for an annual subsidy. this link,Burma was separated from India in
1935.
Anglo-Nepalese Relations • It further intensified under U Aung San
• The Gorkhas wrested control of Nepal from during the Second World War, which finally
the successors of Ranjit Malla of Bhatgaon in led to the independence of Burma on
1760. January 4, 1948.
• In 1801, the English annexed Gorakhpur
which brought the Gorkhas’ boundary and Anglo-Tibetan Relations
the Company’s boundary together. • Tibet was ruled by a theocracy of Buddhist
• The conflict started due to the Gorkhas’ monks (lamas) under nominal suzerainty of
capture of Butwal and Sheoraj, the war, China. Russian influence at Lhasa was
ended in the Treaty of Sagauli. increasing.
• A small Gorkha contingent under Colonel
Anglo-Burmese Relations Younghusband pushed his way into Lhasa
• Causes for three Anglo-Burmese Wars were: (August 1904) while the Dalai Lama fled.
o lure of the forest resources of Burma • Younghusband dictated terms to the Tibetan
o market for British manufactures officials in Treaty of Lhasa (1904).
o the need to check French ambitions in
Burma Anglo-Afghan Relations
• In the early nineteenth century, increased
First Burma War (1824-26) Russian influence in Persia replaced British
• It was fought when the Burmese expansion influence.
westwards and occupation of Arakan and • Passes of the north-west seemed to hold the
Manipur, and the threat to Assam and the key to enter India. The need was felt for
Brahmaputra Valley led to continuous Afghanistan to be under control of a ruler
friction. friendly to the British.
• Peace was established in 1826 with the
Treaty of Yandabo. Forward Policy of Auckland
• This implied that the Company government
in India itself had to take initiatives to

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protect the boundary of British India from a

probable Russian attack. Lytton and the Policy of Proud Reserve
• A Tripartite Treaty (1838) was entered into
by the British, Sikhs and Shah Shuja, who Second Anglo-Afghan War (1870-80)
had been deposed from the Afghan throne. • When the Russians withdrew their envoy
• Shah Shuja be enthroned with the armed from Kabul, Lytton decided to invade
help of the Sikhs, the Company remaining in Afghanistan. Sher Ali fled in face of the
the background. British invasion, and the Treaty of
• Shah Shuja conduct foreign affairs with the Gandamak (May 1879) was signed with
advice of the Sikhs and the British. Yakub Khan, the eldest son of Sher Ali.
• Shah Shuja give up his sovereign rights over • Ripon abandoned Lytton’s plan and decided
Amirs of Sindh. on a policy of keeping Afghanistan as a buffer
state.
First Anglo-Afghan War (1839-1842) • After the First World War and the Russian
• Persia lifted its siege of Herat and Russia Revolution (1917), the Afghans demanded
recalled its envoy from Kabul,but the British full independence.
decided to go ahead with their forward
policy. This resulted in the First Afghan War.
British India and the North-West
• An English army entered triumphantly into
Kabul. Most of the tribes had already been Frontier
won over by bribes. • The conquest of Sindh (1843) and
• As soon as the British withdrew, the Afghans annexation of Punjab (1849) carried British
rose in rebellion, killing the garrison boundaries beyond the Indus and brought
commander in Kabul. The British were them in contact with Baluch and Pathan
compelled to sign a treaty (1841). tribes.
• They arrived at a settlement with Dost • A compromise was finally reached by
Mohammed and recognized him as an drawing a boundary line known as Durand
independent ruler of Afghanistan. Line between Afghan and British territories.
• Curzon, the viceroy between 1899 and 1905,
John Lawrence and the Policy of Masterly followed a policy of withdrawal and
Inactivity concentration.
• It was a reaction to the disasters of the First • He created the North-West Frontier
Afghan War and an outcome of practical Province (NWFP) directly under the
common sense. Government of India.
• Lawrence’s policy rested on the fulfilment of • In January 1932, it was announced that the
two conditions: NWFP was to be constituted as a governor’s
province.
o peace at the frontier was not disturbed
o no candidate in civil war sought foreign
help
********

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