CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

All living cells in the body for example in the brain liver kidney and muscles need energy, so
glucose and oxygen must be transported throughout the body. In some small animals
especially those with a flat body such as a flatworm, substances are transported in and out
the body from one tissue to another through the process of diffusion.

Large complex organisms such as humans have a small surface area in relation to their
relatively large volume. Asa. Result cells near the centre of the body are some distance away
from contact with the atmosphere and may also be some distance and may also be some
distance from the gut where the food is digested. Cells in such organisms cannot gain
enough oxygen and glucose by diffusion alone

Fish circulation- it’s a single circulatory system because blood flows thru it once per cycle
since not evolved, rapid gall in velocity and pressure as blood leaves the gills, pressure too
low for efficient kidney function as in mammals

A mass flow system-

To supply oxygen and glucose as well as other substances, large organisms have a specialised
transport system. This system is called the blood system in vertebrate animals and is an
example of a mass flow system. A mass flow system carries large volume of fluid to all parts
of the organism and has four parts-
1. Medium- fluid flows in the system and carries materials around the body this is blood
2. A system of tubes that carries the fluid from place to place the arteries and veins
3. A pump that supplies pressure to keep the fluid moving through the tubes is heart
4. A site of exchange that allows materials to be delivered by blood to enter the tissue that
needs them are the capillaries

Functions of the circulatory system-

1. Exchange of respiratory gases, giving out oxygen to taking in carbon dioxide from cells
takes place because blood is circulated all around the body
2. Exchange of nutrients and waste products again since blood circulated all through the
body

Structure of the heart-

- size of heart is the size of a closed fist, different for people depending on their size of
closed fist
- The heart of a mammals pumps blood through the circulatory system, it provides
pressure that forces the blood through arteries, capillaries and veins
- The pressure is generated by the squeezing of the walls of the heart against the
incompressible fluid blood
- They can squeeze blood since the heart walls are made of muscles and muscles contract
rhythmically

A double pump-
The heart is divided into two sides, each of which acts as a pump. The right side of the
heart pumps deoxygenated blood coming from the tissues to the lung, the left side of the
heart pumps oxygenated blood coming from the lungs to the tissues. A much greater
pressure is needed to force the bloc out to the extremities of the body than needed to drive
blood to the lungs which is why the left side of the heart is more muscular than the right

The heart is divided into 2 parts or

components by a separation called
the septum ( separates oxygenated
deoxygenated blood too). Further
there is something that divides heart
into 4 chambers- upper chambers the
atrium and lower chambers the
ventricles. So you have right atrium,
right ventricle, left atrium, left
ventricle

Vena cava- the main vein of the body; returns deoxygenated blood from the head and
lower body to the right atrium
Superior vena cava- regions above heart
Inferior vena cava- regions below heart
Right atrium- receives deoxygenated blood from the vena cava, the pacemaker is found in
the wall of the right atrium
Tricuspid/bicuspid valve- named based on the number of cusps they show. Tricuspid
valve has three cusps or pockets while bicuspid has has two pockets or cusps. The function
of these valves is allowing entry in only one direction, to allow unidirectional flow, prevents
back flow
Tricuspid value will only allow entry to blood from right atrium to right ventricle, prevents
back flow from right ventricle to right atrium
Blood can only flow from atrium to ventricle
Bicuspid valve will allow the blood from left atrium to left ventricle, unidirectional flow, these
are sorta like doorways
Right ventricle
Pulmonary Semilunar valve- between right ventricle and pulmonary artery, named
because of shape it prevents back flow of blood from pulmonary artery to right ventricle
Pulmonary artery- carries deoxygenated blood to the lungs for oxidation; only artery
with deoxygenated blood
Lungs
Pulmonary vein- carries oxygenated blood from lungs to the left atrium, vein from each
lung join together before entering the left atrium
Left atrium- receives oxygenated blood returning from legs, atria have thin walls because
they only need to pump blood to ventricles
Bicuspid valve
Left ventricle- thick and muscular because it must fore good through arteries to all the
tissues of the Body
Aortic semilunar valve- between aorta and left ventricle prevents back flow; semilunar
are half pockets look like half moon
Aorta- the main artery of the body; carries oxygenated blood to the tissues, blood pressure
is at its highest in the aorta, strongest pulse is felt here
Tendons- tightened to make sure that the valve does not turn inside out when ventricle wall
contracts, fibres thread like structures that keep ventricles and atrium intact

Deoxygenated blood- blood at loss pressure

Oxygenated blood- blood at high pressure

Entire blood flow explained-

Right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from superior and inferior vena cava, which is
passed on from the tricuspid valve to the right ventricle, then via the pulmonary semilunar
valve it enters the pulmonary artery and is sent to the lungs for oxygenation. After which the
now oxygenated blood enters the left atrium via the pulmonary veins. From the left atrium
via the bicuspid valve it enters the left ventricle. From there through the aortic semilunar
valve it is pushed into the aorta from where it is circulated to the rest of the body

The pumping action-

- The beating of the heart is controlled by a pacemaker. In a healthy person the heart beats
around 70 times per minute during normal levels of activity. This rate is enough to supply
bloc containing oxygen and nutrients to the tissues.
- The muscular walls of the heart differ from other muscles in that they never become
fatigued or tired nevus each contraction of the heart is immediately followed by a
relaxation
- Even when the heart is beating at its fastest due to severe exercise the period of relaxation
allows the muscle to recover so it doesn’t fatigue
- The pattern of contraction and relaxation is kept going by electrical signals sent from a
region of heart called the pace maker, thus is a specialised piece of tissue in the wall of
the right atrium. It is sensitive to the swelling of the heart wall as blood enters from the
main veins. These signals ensure that-
1. The ratio contracts just before the ventricles so that the blood flows from atria to
ventricle
2. The heartbeat is fast enough to meet he demands of the tissues for oxygen and nutrients
and for removal of wastes

Pump- having a wave of contraction and relaxation.

Both atriums contract and relax together; both ventricles contract and relax together.
When right atrium contracts- blood enters through vena cava
When right atrium relaxes, ventricles contract- blood from right atrium to right ventricle
When right atrium contracts again, right ventricle relaxes, blood goes to the pulmonary
artery
When left atrium relaxes blood enters from the pulmonary vein
When left atrium contracts, left ventricle relaxes and the blood enters the left ventricle
When left ventricle contracts, atrium relaxes and blood goes into the aorta
Note- when atriums contract ventricles relax; ventricles contract atriums relax

One ventricular contraction one ventricle relaxation is one heart beat

One atrium contraction one atrium relation is one heart beat
Systole- contraction
Diastole- relaxation
One atrium systole diastole is one heart beat
One ventricle systole and diastole is one heart beat

Why is wall of the ventricles thicker than that of atria?

Atria only has to pump blood into ventricles literally from one chamber to another while
right ventricle pumps blood into pulmonary vein while left ventricle into aorta so its doing
more work co pared to atria which is why the blood in ventricles are under much higher
pressure so that’s why the walls are thicker, doing more work. Since they are continuously
working harder they build up muscular mass in walls of ventricles

Why is wall of the left ventricle thicker than that of right ventricle?
Left ventricle is doing more work; sending into circulation via aorta to rest of the body while
right ventricle is only to lungs so pressure in left ventricle is higher since more work and
hence thicker walls

Why does rate if heart beat speed up while exercising and slow down when
asleep?
Since when exercising its a vigorous physical activity, more blood flow towards organs and
higher heart rate
Sleep is not much energy less blood flow

Metabolic rate female > male so heartbeat varies

For different animals the surface area ratio to the heart size is more so takes more time if
large animals and less if smaller

Double circulation- blood flows trice in the heart before it completes one round
Systemic circulation- blood flows thru it once per cycle

Double circulation because blood

passes through the heart twice fir
each complete circulation of body.
The blood flows to the lungs under
high pressure then having picked up
oxygen at the lungs the blood receives
another boost of pressure from the
heart to drive it out to the tissues
where the oxygen is needed
Pulmonary artery- Unlike other arteries this vessel carries deoxygenated blood which also
has a high carbon dioxide concentration, from the right ventricle to the lungs
Pulmonary vein- Unlike other veins this vessel carries oxygenated blood, it has highest
oxygen and lowest carbon dioxide concentration in circulation. From lungs to left atrium
Aorta- main artery of the body supplies oxygenated blood at high pressure to the organs
and tissues of the body
Hepatic artery- carries oxygenated blood to liver from heart
Mesentric artery- carries oxygenated blood to digestive system from heart
Renal artery- carries oxygenated blood with a high concentration of urea to kidneys
Posterior/ inferior vena cava- the main vein of the body is the vena cava, returns
deoxygenated blood at low pressure from organs and tissues to the heart, inferior is from
regions below heart
Renal vein- blood with reduced urea concentration is returned to the circulation, kidney to
the inferior vena cava and heart
Hepatic portal vein- carries blood containing variable amounts of the absorbed products
of digestion from digestive system to liver
Hepatic vein- returns blood with regulated optimum concentrations of food substances to
the circulation- liver to heart
Carotid artery- carries blood and oxygen into brain from heart
Jugular vein- from the head joins the superior vena cava
Anterior/ superior vena cava- the main vein of the body is the vena cava, returns
deoxygenated blood at low pressure from organs and tissues to the heart, superior is from
regions above heart

Capillaries link arteries and veins, the are present in all organs and tissues and are sites of
exchange of mortals between blood and tissue fluid

If pressure in pulmonary artery is too high tissue fluid or plasma cab leave into the lungs,
this sometimes happens to climbers at high altitude
Blood at low pressure- veins
Blood at high pressure- arteries

A portal vein is a vein that begins and ends with capillaries

Which blood vessel has least concentration of oxygen? - pulmonary artery

Which blood vessel has least concentration of urea? Renal vein
Which blood vessel has highest concentration of glucose an hour after meal? Hepatic portal
vein
Which blood vessel has optimal concentration of nutrients in circulation? Hepatic vein

The network of branched tubes connecting the heart to the different parts of the body are
called blood vessels.
These are of 3 types:
- Arteries (vessels that carry blood away from the heart)
- Capillaries (help in diffusion, join arteries and veins)
- Veins (vessels that carry blood back to the heart)
Arteries
- thick layer of muscles and elastic fibres, thicker outer wall, narrow central tube ( lumen),
smooth lining so no obstruction to flow of blood
- Is a vessel that carries blood away from the heart to different parts of the body
- Has thick muscular walls
- Has narrow lumen
- Blood in it flows in spurts & at high pressure (corresponding to ventricular contractions)
- Blood is at high pressure and rich in oxygen low in carbon dioxide except the pulmonary
artery
- Elastic walls expand and contract as blood is forced out of the heart. Thus causes the
pulse that can you can feel if you press an artery against a bone for example in wrist
- Thick walls withstand the high pressure of blood. Rings of muscles can narrow or widen
the artery and control the blood flow according to bodies needs

Vein-
- Conveys blood from an organ back to the heart
- Has thin muscular walls & wider lumen to reduce resistance to blood flow
- Contains valves which prevent backflow of blood
- Blood is at low pressure, but muscles squeeze veins & help push blood back to heart
- Thin outer wall, thin layer of muscle and elastic fibres, wide central tube ( lumen), flap of
watch pocket valve
- Blood is at low temperature and high in carbon dioxide low in oxygen except pulmonary
vein
- Valves prevent back flow of blood, since its at low pressure but nearby muscles squeeze
veins and help push blood towards the heart
- Large diameter and thin walls reduce resistance to flow of blood

Capillaries- materials are exchanged between blood tissues and tissue fluid is formed
 -Very narrow tube (wide enough that RBCs pass in single file as
they unload their oxygen
-Wall consists of single layer of cells –the ‘endothelium’; has no
muscles
-Highly branched to cover large surface area –for diffusion
-Capillary beds are constantly supplied with fresh blood, thus
concentration gradients of dissolved substances between blood &
tissue is maintained, so as to enable diffusion

To reach the cells that need them, dissolved substances carried in blood must leave the blood
vessels and enter the tissues. At the same time, waste materials produced by tissues need to
enter the blood to be carried away. Dissolved substances move between the blood and tissue
by diffusion across the walks of very fine blood vessels called capillaries. Networks or beds of
capillaries extend through all the tissues so every body cell is near to a capillary. The
capillary beds are adapted to their function of exchange of substances in a number of ways,
- the wall of the capillaries are only one cell thick substances dont have the travel far to
diffuse
- The capillaries are highly branched so they cover an enormous surface area giving more
space for diffusion to occur
- The capillary beds are constantly supplied with fresh blood, keeping up the concentration
gradient of dissolved substances between blood and tissues, without these concentration
gradients diffusion couldn’t occur

How tissue fluid is formed-

Plasma leak out of capillary walls into tissue fluid
Plasma leaks out to form the tissue fluid; the volume of blood therefore drops, and so too
does the pressure!
O2 and other required material diffuses from capillary wall into tissue fluid
CO2 and other wastes diffuse from tissue fluid into capillary
Cells take in O2 and give out CO2, wastes etc to and from the tissue fluid

Problems with the return of tissue fluid-

Tissue fluid is formed when blood plasma is squeezed out of the capillaries. Tissue fluid
returns ti the capillaries by osmosis- if the blood plasma has a higher water potential water
cannot return quickly enough. The tissues swell up with fluid and if the body is short of
plasma proteins as in malnourished the children affected by kwashiorkor the body swells up
If plasma leaking out of capillary is X, tissue fluid returning is Y and tissue fluid being
absorbed into lymph vessels is Z, then y + z needs to be x
Or water balance in body will be effected

Id the blood contains correct concentrations of vital substances the tissue fluid and cells will
automatically receive the correct balance

Lymph vessels collect lymph from around the body and return it too the blood, close to the
heart, the blockage of the lymph vessels can produce severe swelling of tissues and organs
on the side of the blockage furthest from the heart

Lymph nodes- as lymph returns towards the blood vessel ut us filtered through lymph
modes. These contain cells called lymphocytes that can remove any harmful microbes that
have infected the body

Sometimes, due to an infection, many lymphocytes are produced in the lymph node, causing
it to swell up.Elephantiasis- lymph vessels are blocked by swellings caused by parasitic worms

FUNCTIONS OF LYMPH:
Nutrition: supplies nutrition and O2 to parts where blood cannot reach
Drainage: excess tissue fluid, metabolites drained; proteins from tissue spaces returned to
blood
Absorption: fats absorbed from intestine through lacteals in villi
Defence: lymphocytes & monocytes present in lymph defend body; lymphatics remove
bacteria from tissue

COMPOSITION OF LYMPH:
WBCs (mostly lymphocytes)
Water, proteins, fats, carbohydrates, antibodies, inorganic components etc

While some of the tissue fluid is re-absorbed into blood vessels, most of it enters minute
tubes called lymph vessels, where it is called ‘lymph’.

Contraction & relaxation maintained by electrical signals produced by specialised tissue in

wall of right atrium – the ‘Pacemaker’
Latest pacemakers can sense changes in breathing, movements, body temp etc and make
adjustments to heart rate.

Elastic walls of arteries expand and then relax when contraction of ventricles forces blood
through them – this causes pulse in arteries

Why is there no pulse in veins?

- lower pressure
- Heart isn’t pushing it in veins its flowing due to muscles contracting not heart

How does blood get back to heart via the vein against gravity?
- muscles squeezing together
- Valves prevent back flow

Sinoatrial or SA is The node that sends our heart and muscular flaps impulses to open or
close or contract or expand
Sinoartrial or SA Node generates an electrical signal that causes the upper heart chambers
(atria) to contract. The SA node is considered the pacemaker of the heart.

CORONARY HEART DISEASE

Heart muscles contract to push blood through the vessels of circulation. This contraction us
work and it requires energy. The energy is made available by aerobic respiration so the
working cells of the heart need glucose and oxygen for respiration
The blood passing through the chambers on the left side of the heat contains oxygen and
glucose, but the heart cells cannot use these because the muscular walls are very thick an the
blood is too far away. The heart muscle has its own blood supply delivered to capillary beds
rib the walls of the heart through the coronary arteries. The coronary arteries branch off
from the aorta, just where the aorta leaves the left ventricle. The heart therefore has a high
pressure supply of blood loaded with oxygen and glucose. Once these useful substances have
been removed by the hart muscle checks and replaced with wastes such as carbon dioxide
the blood returns to circulation through the coronary veins which pour blood into the vena
cava. The coronary circulation is shown below left. The activity of the heart can be checked
in number if ways-
1. making an ECG ( electrocardiogram), there should be a regular pattern of the flow of
electrical current through the heart muscle any irregularity could be sign of heart
disease
2. Measuring pulse rate- regular allowing exercise or activity. Any unusual change could
indicate problems with heart’s nervous system
3. Heart sounds- lub dup sound of the heart cause by the heart valves closing in sequence,
leaking valves can make the sound less clear

Coronary heart disease-

The supply of blood to the heart muscle may be interrupted if any of the coronary arteries
become blocked. The heart muscle cells are deprived of glucose and oxygen and poisonous
wasted such as lactic acid build up. Part of the heart stops contracting and causing a heart
attack. This can be damaging or even fatal because other tissues and the body no longer
receive their supplies of oxygen and nutrients if the heart stops beating.

What causes the coronary arteries to become blocked? A healthy coronary artery may be
narrowed by atheroma so that blood flow is restricted. This person has coronary heart
disease or CHD

The risk of developing CHD is increased by-

- poor diet high levels of cholesterol or saturated fatty acid in the blood
- Poor lifestyle- smoking, lack of exercise, stress
- Genetic factors- being male, having a family history of heart attack
Aspirin- stop small clots forming which could block arteries, and red wine

Angiogram- carried out if suspicion of CHD if arteries are blocked then coronary artery
bypass is carried out

In coronary artery bypass operation a blood vessel is removed from another part of the body
and stitched into the place between the aorta and unblocked part of the coronary artery.
Sometimes an artificial vessel is used,. The bypass increases blood flow and reduces the
likelihood of angina or chest pain
Angiplasty can also help a special cable is passed into narrowed artery and used to insert a
metal ‘cage’ which forces the artery open, the metal cage or stent is placed in the artery and
the cable is withdrawn blood can flow more easily

Atherosclerosis and Arteriosclerosis are different things:

Arteriosclerosis is a general hardening of the arteries (loss of elasticity)
Atherosclerosis is a form of arteriosclerosis, caused due to formation of an atheroma

A person in whom blood flow is restricted due to narrowing of coronary artery by atheroma
is said to have CHD (Coronary Heart Disease)

Angina can go unnoticed its similar to heart attack, frequency and pain increase wit time
can lead to heart attack like a warning sign

Infarct- dead tissue, if for prolonged time oxygen etc not gotten to a region to the heart it
dies out
Myocardial infarction

Blood is the circulatory medium

The average adult human has about 5 dm of blood which contains a number of blood cells
suspended in a watery liquid plasma. If a sample of blood taken from the body is allowed to
stand and a chemical added to prevent it clotting it will separate into layers as shown
opposite ( see textbook page 97).
If a drop of blood is placed on a microscopic slide and stained with a special dye these
different types of cell can be seen

Blood cells are first formed in the bone marrow of long bones such as femur although they
might be transported to other parts of the body before fully developed. The structure and
function of different types of blood cell are shown in the table below

Cell type Appearance Function How structure is suited

to the function

Red blood cells or biConcave red Transports oxygen from Contains haemoglobin
erythrocytes lungs to all respiring an iron containing
tissues. Prepare carbon pigment which picks up
dioxide for transport oxygen at the lungs and
from all respiring tissues lets go of it at the
to lungs tissues. Have no nucleus
leaving more space for
haemoglobin. Cells are
small flexible so can
squeeze through narrow
capillary
Cell type Appearance Function How structure is suited
to the function

White blood cells See pic Remove any micro- Irregular shaped nucleus
phagocytes organism that invade the allows cell to squeeze
body and might cause through gaps in walls of
infection. The phagocyte capillaries. Enzymes in
engulfs the micro- cytoplasm digest micro-
organism organisms once
engulfed. Sensitive cell
surface membrane can
detect micro-organisms

White blood cells See pic Produce antibodies- Large nucleus contains
lymphocytes proteins that help in the many copies of genes
defence agains disease for the control of
antibody protein
production

Platlets Pic Cell fragments involved Can release blood

in blood clotting clotting enzymes

Functions of the blood-

- red blood cells transport respiratory gases oxygen carbon dioxide between lungs and
respiratory tissues
- Plasma also has transport functions this watery liquid carries dissolved food molecules
such as glucose and amino acids waste materials such as urea and some control molecules
such as hormones
- Plasma has very specific heat capacity since largely water which means that plasma is able
to distribute heat around various parts of the body
- Defence against disease
Functions of the blood-
Regulatory functions- homeostasis- blood solute affect the water potential of the blood and
thus the water potential gradient between the blood and tissue fluid. The size of this water
potential gradient is largely due to sodium ions and plasma proteins. The blood solute levels
regulates the movement of water between the blood and tissues

Water platys a part in the distribution of heat between heat producing areas such as liver
and areas of heat loss such as skin. Blood also helps maintain an optimum ph in tissues. Too
much alcohol in blood can cause water to leave brain cells causing pain and sensation of this

Protective functions- platelets plasma proteins and many other plasma factors like ca2+ ions
protect against blood loss and the entry of pathogens by the clotting mechanism. White
blood cells protect against disease causing organisms
- phagocytes engulf them
- Lymphocytes produce and secrete specific antibodies against them
Tramsport functions-
1. Soluble products of digestion such as glucose amino acids fatty acids vitamins and
minerals are transported from the gut to the liver and then to general circulation
2. Waste products of metabolism such as urea lactate are transported from sites of
production to sites of removal such as liver and kidney
3. Respiratory gases oxygen and carbon dioxide are transported from their sites of uptake
or production to their sites of use or removal
4. Hormones such as insulin are transported from their sites of production in the glands to
the target organs where they have their effects

Support function- erection of penis is achieved by filling large spongy spaces with blood.
The penis becomes soft when blood flows out more quickly then flows in

Describe the process of clotting as the conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin to form a mesh

The blood detects…

Scientist who specialises in the study of blood is called a haematologist. From a tiny sample
of blood one can tel…
Anaemia- Inability to transport enough oxygen; detected by lower RBC count
Leukaemia- Cancer of WBCs; detected by high no of oddly shaped WBCs
AIDS- May be detected in early stages by presence of antibodies to HIV in plasma; affected
person is HIV positive; in later stages, number of WBCs greatly reduced
Dna finger printing- Used in criminal investigations; can be carried out on nuclei extracted
from WBCs; also in testing for father paternity test if more band patterns match, also
identical twins
Diabetes- Maybe detected by high glucose concentration in plasma
Eating disorder- May be detected by higher than normal concentration of urea in the
plasma
Sickle shaped red blood cells show the person has sickle cell anaemia. a sickle is a long
hooked tool used for cutting crops

IMMUNITY SYSTEM-
1.  Describe a pathogen as a disease-causing organism
2. Describe a transmissible disease as a disease in which the pathogen can be passed from
one host to another
3. State that a pathogen is transmitted:
c. by direct contact, including through blood and other body fluids
d. indirectly, including from contaminated surfaces, food, animals and air

Disease is often caused by invasion of the body by another organism. Organisms that cause
diseases in this way are called pathogens and their attacks on the body result in infections

Skin/hair.mucus and defence against disease…

The outer layer of the skin, the epidermis is waxy and impermeable to water and to
pathogens, although microorganisms can live on its surface. Natural gaps in skin may be
protected by chemical secretions for example-
-mouth leads to the gut which is protected by hydrochloric acid in stomach
- eyes are protected by lysozyme an enzyme that destroys bacterial cell walls in the tears
- The ears are protected by bactericidal wax or bacteria killing wax
Physical defences against the entry of microorganisms include cilia and mucus secreting cells
of the respiratory pathway. If the potential pathogens do penetrate the first line of defence
they might reproduce quickly in the warm moist nutrient filled tissues and further defence
depends on the blood

Bleeding and clot formation-

Blood clotting seals wounds. The blood clot limits the loss of blood and prevent entry of any
pathogens, clothing depends on the platelets and blood proteins

White blood cells and defence-

Organisms that gain antru to the tissue are removed or destroyed by white blood cells. These
white blood cells must attack only invading organisms and not the body’s own cells. The
white blood cells recognise foreign particles such as bacteria or perhaps large molecules such
as proteins in snake venom and react against them. These foreign particles are called
antigens, potential pathogens have antigens on their surface and they are recognised and
destroyed by phagocytes and antibodies. Phagocytes engulfs and then destroys the pathogen
with digestive enzymes as outlines above.

There are many phagocytes present in areas of the body likely to suffer infection. The
exposed surfaces of lungs for example are [patrolled bye phagocytes. If the lungs are
regularly attacked by the fire radicals in tobacco smoke, large members of phagocytes collect
and may become disorganised, they can destroy the lung tissue rather than foreign particles
leading to disease emphysema

Sometimes phagocytes die

as they accumulate toxins
from pathogens, the pus
underneath a scab or in a
spot contains many of these
death phagocytes

Some pathogens escape

phagocytes by hiding inside
the host’s cells eg
plasmodium in liver cells or
staying in phagocyte free
areas like gut
 Beneath a scab the
tissue may become
red and inflamed.
Certain WBCs
release histamine,
a chemical
messenger which
allows plasma to
leak out of the
capillaries. The
extra plasma
dilutes any toxins
which may have
entered the wound.

Inherited defects in blood protein production cause severe bleeding disease is

called haemophilia

First Aid can save lives

Severe blood loss, or haemorrhage, can cause a number of problems. Following an accident
there may be so much blood loss that the blood pressure falls to dangerously low
levels. This may affect the function of vital organs such as the heart, brain and kidney
If the victim has no pulse or is not breathing, steps are taken to restart these essential
functions.
If there is considerable bleeding, the first-aider applies firm pressure to the site of the injury.
The victim should not be moved unless he or she is in danger. No attempt should be
made to clean wounds – this may force a foreign body such as a glass fragment
deeper into the wound.
Organisations such as the St. John’s Ambulance Brigade in the UK provide training in first
aid.

An antibody is a protein produced by the body in response to an antigen. Each different

antigen stimulates the production of the particular type of antibody that will destroy
that antigen. Antibodies are made by white blood cells called lymphocytes

Lymphocytes
- Type of WBCs
- Found in circulating blood & lymph nodes
- Have large nucleus & no granules in cytoplasm
- Stimulated by contact with pathogens to produce proteins called antibodies
- B-lymphocytes produce antibodies, while T-lymphocytes either attack pathogens directly
or produce chemicals which coordinate the activity of all cells in the immune
system
- T-helper cells (type of T-lymphocytes) are invaded by HIV to cause AIDS

- Each different antigen stimulates the production of a particular type of antibody

Scientists estimate that lymphocytes can make up to 1 000 000 different antibodies – thus
accounting for almost every pathogen we might ever meet!
- Lymphocytes produce antibodies that are able to recognise, bind to & help destroy
pathogens
- These are always Y shaped
- Labelled’ pathogens maybe destroyed by:
- Sticking together in clumps so they can be ingested by phagocytes
- T-lymphocytes, which burst membranes around the pathogens
- Antibodies, which directly destroy the pathogen’s cell walls or membranes
- An antigen is a protein or carbohydrate on the surface of the pathogen
- It is able to provoke the immune system of the host
- Pathogens may evade the immune system by mutation they change and produce different
antigens which host has not learnt to
- Once the lymphocytes have learnt to make a particular type off antibody in response to
the antigens on an infective organism, the body begins to recover as the organisms
are destroyed.
- It takes a few days to produce antibodies so the infected individual will show some
symptoms of the diseases high temperature foe example
- After an infection, some lymphocytes are kept as ‘memory cells’, as they help defend the
body against further attacks by same antigen.
- This ‘memory’ may last for years & the body is said to be ‘immune’ to the disease
Sometimes there are people who suffer from chicken pox a second time. How can this be
possible?Mutations.

Immunity may be-

Active- individual makes his or her own antibodies, this gives long term even life long
immunity because there are now memory cells that retain the ability to produce
antibodies
Natural- pathogens aft individuals- individual contracts disease but survives, makes
antibodies and is now immune to further infection by same pathogen, immunity
develops to different strains of the common cold
Artificial- weakened pathogen ( vaccine) vaccine does not cause disease but lymphocytes do
produce antibodies to this pathogen
Passive- individual is given ready made antibodies this gives only short term immunity
because no memory cells produced
Natural- mothers antibodies cross the placenta and are in breast milk- the newest born child
temporarily immune to pathogens for which mother produced antibodies eg gut
infections
Artificial- antibodies collected from blood of laboratory animals and stores as serum,
infection

Adult is now immune to disease. Used if disease is too fast acting for immunity system to
deal with or emergency situation etc- eg- injection of anti-tetanus antibodies
following a deep dirty cut or wound. This offers only temporary immunity because
body its not producing any of its own antibodies

Immunity is the body’s use of antibodies t combat invasion by pathogens. It is enhanced by a

vaccine- a chemical oil cell which provokes the Boyds immunity system to make the
appropriate antibodies
Vaccination reduces the spread of disease. If many individuals are protected by their
antibodies there will be very new host organisms where pathogens can multiply and
there will therefore be fewer pathogens to ingest new people

Some problems with the immune response…

The activity of the immune system saves us all our lives many times however there are
occasions where it may actually reduce the likelihood of survival-
1. Autoimmune diseases- Caused by body producing antibodies which destroy its own cells
Examples:
- Diabetes, where body destroys its own insulin producing cells by an immune reaction
- Rheumatoid arthritis, where WBCs destroy connective tissues in joints, thereby making
movement extremely painful
Why this should happen is not known.

2. Transplant rejection-
- Recipient’s lymphocytes may recognise antigens on the surface of donor organ, and
slowly destroy it
- Problem can be overcome by:
1. Drugs that suppress the immune system of the recipient long enough to allow the
transplanted organ to become established
2. Matching tissues where possible (seeking out relatives for tissue transplant, since they are
more likely to have similar antigens as recipient)

Allergies-
Conditions in which body becomes sensitive to a substance and over-reacts to it
May lead to swelling and tissue damage
Examples: Hay fever, sensitivity to bee & wasp stings
Treatment: drugs such as antihistamines to reduce the immune response
Monoclonal antibodies
Scientists need a good supply of pure antibodies to work with they produce these by
combining the properties of two cells like a hybrid
- lymphocytes- efficient in producing antibodies but cannot multiply fast
- Tumour cells- cannot produce antibodies but can divide very well in artificial culture
Cells formed by joining together lymphocytes and tumour cells called hybridomas can
produce enormous quantities of one desirable kind of antibody and survive for long
periods in artificial cultures.
Antibodies produces this way are monoclonal antibodies and have many uses in medicine
and research