Shop Talk

Electropolishing*
Written by Walter Schwartz
Updated by Dr. James H. Lindsay, AESF Fellow

Practical applications, equipment, electrolytes

and troubleshooting are examined for the elec-
tropolishing process.

Since the early investigations by Jacquet and

Elmore nearly 50 years ago, electropolishing has
become a useful tool for a variety of metal finishing
applications and has achieved a reasonable degree
of commercial development and utility.
Essentially, electropolishing is the improvement
in the surface finish of a metal by making it anodic Fig. 2—Carbon steel pin (a) before and (b) after electropolishing.
in a suitable solution. With the proper selection of
current density, temperature and other conditions, the sur- phoric-acid-based electrolyte for 5 min. The leveling and
face is smoothed and brightened while metal is removed. brightening of the beryllium-copper surface is dramatic,
Figure 1 depicts a fundamental setup for the electropolish- and close inspection of the photomicrograph reveals that
ing operation. substantial deburring of the part has also taken place.
Figures 2 and 3 are photomicrographs illustrating the The photographs point out some of the outstanding
effects of electropolishing on two types of substrates. features of electropolishing. Where the metal or alloy is
Figure 2a shows a machined and tapered carbon-steel pin suitable, electropolishing will produce a chemically clean,
before electropolishing. Figure 2b shows the same pin lustrous to mirror-bright surface. In contrast to mechani-
after electropolishing for 7 min in an electrolyte based cal polishing, electropolishing does not incorporate for-
on chromic, sulfuric and phosphoric acids. Almost com- eign inclusions into the surface layer. In fact, because it
plete removal of all machining lines has been achieved removes surface metal, electropolishing tends to displace
and an obvious smoothing of the surface has also been surface inclusions arising from stamping, machining and
realized. Figure 3a is the “as is” photomicrograph of a the like. The electropolished surface also is more passive
beryllium-copper electrical connector pin. Figure 3b is the and decidedly more corrosion resistant than a mechanically
same connector after electropolishing in a chromic-phos- polished surface.
In electropolishing, both micro- and macro-asperities
* are preferentially removed. The removal or reduction of
Based on an original article from the “AES Update”
the surface micro-asperities increases surface reflectivity
series [Plating, 68, 42 (June 1981)]
and reduces surface friction. Burrs may be regarded, to
some degree, as asperities, and during electropolishing
they are dissolved at a more rapid rate than the rest of the
surface. Deburring is one of the common applications for
electropolishing.
Electropolishing is exceptionally useful for polishing
complex and convoluted parts. Because electropolish-
ing will occur wherever the process solution contacts the
workpiece, difficult parts can be finished by electropolish-
ing at the appropriate current density much more readily
than they could be treated by mechanical polishing.
Electropolishing is an economical finishing process.
Depending on the electrolyte being used, the running
chemical costs, plus power charges, range from $0.15 to
$0.45 per dm2 ($1.40 to $4.20 per ft2) per minute of elec-
tropolishing time. Labor costs for racking and unracking
are additional. Costs for pre-cleaning and water usage
Fig. 1—Fundamental electropolishing operation. should also be added to the basic running costs.

8 Plating & Surface Finishing • March 2003

 Most of the common metals and alloys can
be electropolished with varying degrees of
success. In general, the more homogeneous
and fine-grained the structure of an alloy or
metal is, the better the results of electropolish-
ing will be. Because of their basic metallurgi-
cal makeup, nickel-containing stainless steels
(300 series) have a structure that is particularly
well suited for electropolishing and thus con-
stitute a large portion of the commercial appli-
cations for electropolishing.
High-quality aluminum alloys, as well as
homogeneous brasses and copper alloys, also
Fig. 3—Beryllium-copper connector (a) before and (b) after electropolishing.
electropolish well. Nickel-silver alloys and
other nickel alloys are usually fine-grained
steel cathodes be used with electrolytes that contain sulfuric acid
and respond to electropolishing. Carbon steels ordinarily do not
and that are operated at elevated temperatures. The cathode-to-
produce a very bright surface when electropolished. Commercial
anode area for electropolishing should be 2:1 or 3:1.
applications for electropolishing carbon steels are usually limited
Heating and/or cooling coils should also be fabricated from
to surface conditioning and cleaning prior to plating, deburring or
materials compatible with the electropolishing solution. Teflon
otherwise modifying the surface to conform with engineering spec-
coils, although costly, give excellent service with complete stabil-
ifications. These engineering applications include the reduction of
ity and electrical neutrality. Chemical lead coils also afford good
surface stress, the improvement of surface friction, the reduction
service. For maximum service, chemical lead coils should be rein-
of gear wear and the use of electropolishing to produce desired
forced at the solution/air interface with an additional thickness of
dimensional requirements.
lead. Quartz electric immersion heaters can also be used to heat the
Alloys containing silicon, phosphorus and tin do not electropol-
electropolishing solution. Immersion heaters should be sized for
ish satisfactorily, producing a surface which, although clean, is
a 6 to 8-hr heat-up time with a thermostat and time control. This
frosty and lacking in brightness. Cadmium, lead, tin and zinc
setup reduces the total kilowatt requirement for heat-up and lowers
alloys are not ordinarily electropolished commercially. Gold and
the initial expense of the immersion heater. Sensing elements for
silver alloys are electropolished to a limited degree commercially
thermostat controls should be Teflon coated.
- primarily for surface improvement prior to mechanical polishing.
To remove the acid mist and gases produced during electropo-
Some limited electropolishing is done commercially on titanium
lishing, the tank should be exhausted. Fiberglass, PVC or other
and tungsten alloys.
plastic exhaust casings and ducts give excellent service.
Table 1 summarizes some of the published formulations for
Exhausts should be designed to provide an air flow of 85 m3/min
electropolishing electrolytes and their operating conditions.
(3000 ft3/min) at the tank. Exhaust fans should be constructed of an
Proprietary electropolishing solutions are available from a number
acid-resistant material for maximum service.
of suppliers. These compositions may be modified to some extent
Following electropolishing, rinse tanks, fabricated from poly-
but would usually operate under the outlined conditions.
ethylene, polypropylene or fiberglass are resistant to most electro-
lytes, give good service and are economical. A three-stage coun-
Equipment Requirements tercurrent running rinse effectively removes most electropolishing
From Table 1, it is clear that electropolishing solutions are usu- solutions from the workpiece.
ally mineral acid mixtures and may be operated at elevated tem-
peratures. Tanks, cathodes, coils, rinse tanks, exhaust casings, Racking
etc., therefore must be constructed of materials resistant to the
Plastisol-coated copper-splined racks with titanium contact tips
electrolyte being used.
give the best long-term service for electropolishing. When design-
Chemical lead-lined steel tanks give excellent service life where
ing the rack, provision should be made for sufficient cross-sectional
electrolytes based on sulfuric, phosphoric or chromic acids are uti-
area in the rack spline and contact point to carry the relatively high
lized. When using lead-lined tanks, it is important to remember that
current density used in electropolishing. This insures good current
they are conductive and stray currents may develop. These stray
distribution on the rack, prevents overheating the rack and thwarts
currents do not adversely affect the lead to any great degree, but
arc burning at contact points. Parts should be spaced and mounted
may produce poor current distribution during electropolishing.
on the rack to avoid shielding, allow good drainage and prevent the
Polyethylene, polypropylene, fiberglass, polyvinyl chloride
formation of air or gas pockets. Contact to the work should be firm
and steel tanks lined with these materials can also be used for the
and positive and in an area where any resultant rack mark would
electropolishing tank. When using these materials for construction,
not be objectionable to the finished quality. The part should be
however, it is imperative to ensure both their compatibility with the
positioned on the rack so that the surface requiring the best finish
electrolyte and their long-term temperature stability. Otherwise,
faces the cathode.
the electrolyte may degrade the resin, particularly at welded areas,
Some electrolytes are so-called sludging types. During opera-
causing resin cracking and failure. Stainless-steel tanks (316
tion, these baths accumulate a sludge that must be removed from
series) may provide good service with some electrolytes. Even so,
the bottom of the electropolishing tank. Racks designed for use in
an anodic stray current could actually electropolish the stainless-
this type of system should be made so that they will not contact the
steel tank and cause it to dissolve before very long.
sludge when it is at its maximum buildup. Parts with deep recesses,
Cathodes constructed of chemical lead give long-term service
internal diameters or blind areas require auxiliary or conforming
with most electrolytes. Copper or stainless-steel cathodes can also
cathodes for complete and uniform electropolishing. Racks should
be used with some systems. Copper cathodes should not be used
be designed to permit easy entry into (and exit from) the electropo-
with electrolytes containing chromic acid, nor should stainless-
lishing tank with a minimum distance of 8.75 cm (3.5 in.) from the

Pl a t i n g & S u r f a ce Fin ish in g • March 2 0 0 3 9

cathode. In general, racking practices for electropolishing are very point at which it will produce good results, the metal concentration
similar to those for high-current-density chromium plating. must be kept below a certain level. This is usually accomplished in
one of three ways:
Pretreatment
1. The solution is permitted to reach a predetermined metal con-
As is the case in most metal finishing operations, good surface
centration and then maintained at that level by decanting a por-
preparation is necessary for effective electropolishing. The work
tion of the solution and replacing it with fresh electrolyte on a
should be free of oils, grease and grit. Conventional methods
daily ampere-hour basis.
of cleaning such as vapor degreasing, alkaline soak cleaning or
2. The bath is operated until the metal content reaches a level that
alkaline electrocleaning are also suitable for electropolishing. The
produces poor-quality results and then is cut by a substantial
preferred method naturally will depend on the nature of the soil on
amount (20 to 50%) or remade completely.
the part.
3. If possible, the bath is permitted to reach a level at which the
When using alkaline precleaning, a mild acid dip (1 to 2 wt%)
metal precipitates as an insoluble sludge of metal salts that is
compatible with the electrolyte should be used to neutralize the
periodically removed.
alkali prior to introduction of the work to the electropolishing tank.
Parts should be allowed to drain to avoid excessive drag-in of water
Method 1, although slightly more costly chemically, produces
in the electrolyte. Too much water in the electropolishing solution
more consistent results and may require less labor and handling
is usually detrimental to the chemical balance of the solution and
than the other two methods.
can cause pitting, etching and/or loss of the polishing effect.
Electropolishing will remove light, uniform scale and heat-
treating discoloration without the need for pre-pickling. However, Process Limitations
when scale is heavy, dense or non-uniform, pre-pickling is neces- As with most systems, electropolishing has certain limitations.
sary to avoid an etched or pitted electropolished surface. Some of these shortcomings are as follows:

Post-Treatment 1. The throwing power of electropolishing solutions is generally

poor, i.e., relatively high current densities are required.
Following electropolishing, parts should be thoroughly rinsed
2. Electropolishing removes metal, so parts with close dimensions
to completely remove the acid electrolyte. Some electropolish-
must be made oversized or metal loss must be tolerable.
ing baths are extremely viscous and difficult to rinse, especially
3. Electropolishing does not “flow” the metal surface. Deep
when these solutions are old. In the case of these viscous baths,
scratches or surface imperfections are not smeared over and
a warm water rinse may be required in the first stage of the rinse
hidden as they are by mechanical polishing.
cycle. Certain parts that can entrap the electrolyte may require
4. Not all materials can be successfully electropolished.
additional treatment in a mild alkaline dip (15 to 30 g/L; 2 to 4
oz/gal sodium bicarbonate or 1 to 2 wt% ammonia) to neutralize
Table 2, a troubleshooting chart, outlines some of the more common
any residual acidity and prevent subsequent corrosion or staining.
electropolishing problems, their possible causes and remedies.
Aged electrolytes, high in dissolved metal content, tend to leave
films of metal salt on the work, even with thorough rinsing. These
residues usually dissolve in a dilute acid dip. The strength and type Waste Treatment
of acid used for this dip depend on the metal being electropolished. Depending on the electrolyte being utilized and the metal being
It should be strong enough to cut the residual film without attack- treated, different electropolishing solutions require slightly altered
ing the basis metal. treatment for disposal. The majority of electropolishing solutions
are based with mineral acid and can be readily neutralized with
Solution Control alkali to an acceptable pH level. However, the electropolishing
solution also contains the metal ions of the material that was pro-
The metal anode dissolves in the electropolishing solution. In most
cessed. If, for example, 300-series stainless steel is being treated,
systems, this metal is not plated out on the cathode but builds up
the electrolyte will contain, in addition to the acid, dissolved iron,
in the electropolishing solution. As the bath is operated, there is
nickel and chromium. These metals will precipitate at the alkaline
an increase in the metal concentration, the specific gravity and
pH level and can be filtered out as the metal hydroxide.
the electrical resistance of the electrolyte. At the same time, the
Electrolytes that contain chromic acid as part of their composi-
acidity of the electrolyte decreases and oxidizers or additives are
tion require conventional reduction of the hexavalent chromium
consumed. Water is lost by evaporation and electrolysis.
prior to neutralization. Proprietary and non-proprietary electrolytes
Depending on the type of electrolyte, and after reaching a cer-
should be evaluated to determine whether they contain components
tain dissolved metal concentration, the quality of the final finish
that might function as complexants and prevent precipitation of the
will suffer or the bath will begin to sludge.
dissolved metal ions. They should also be investigated to deter-
Chemical analysis of the solution on a routine basis results in
mine if they contain any materials that might require special treat-
consistent, good-quality electropolishing. A daily reading of spe-
ment prior to disposal. P&SF
cific gravity provides an estimate of the concentration of both dis-
solved metal and water and indicates any gross changes in solution Technical Editor’s Note: The preceding article is based on material
composition. Analysis for solution acidity, acid ratios, dissolved contributed by Walter Schwartz for the AES Update series that ran in this
metal and other constituents should be run as frequently as neces- journal. Since this article was written, much has changed. Indeed, the out-
sary to maintain the bath within its prescribed limits. A loss of solu- look for hexavalent chromate has drastically changed. Nevertheless, these
tion level due to dragout and water evaporation should be made up processes remain relevant to a large portion of the finishing community.
with additions of fresh electropolishing solution and water. The reader may benefit both from that information and the historical per-
In contrast to plating, where metal ions are continually depleted spective of the technology. The Update series was begun and coordinated
by the late Dr. Donald Swalheim, and brought practical information to the
from the bath, electropolishing is continually introducing metal
metal finisher. In some cases here, words were altered for context.
ions into the system. To maintain the electropolishing bath at a

10 Plating & Surface Finishing • March 2003

 Table 1—Electrolytes & Operating Conditions for Electropolishing

Electrolyte Composition Operating Conditions

1. Aluminum & Aluminum Alloys
Sodium carbonate 15% 74-88°C (165-190°F)
Trisodium phosphate 5% 5.0-6.0 A/dm2 (46-56 A/ft2)
Water 80%
Fluoboric acid 2.5% 30°C (86°F)
15-30V
1.0-2.0 A/dm2 (9-18 A/ft2)
Phosphoric acid 50-75% 65-95%C (149-203°C)
Sulfuric Acid 0-10% 10-18V
Chromic Acid 5-20% 5.0-20.0 A/dm2 (46-186 A/ft2)
Water Balance
2. Copper & Copper Alloys
Modified phosphoric acid and alcohol or glycol 20-40°C (68-104°F)
mixtures (proprietary) 6-15V
2.0-10.0 A/dm2 (18-93 A/ft2)
Phosphoric acid 75-84% 40-70%C (104-158°F)
Chromic acid 0-15% 12-18V
Water Balance 10.0-30.0 A/dm2 (93-279 A/ft2)
3. Nickel & Nickel Alloys
Phosphoric acid 15-70% 30-50°C (86-122°F)
Sulfuric acid 15-60% 10-18V
Hydrochloric acid 0-2.5%
Water Balance
4. Stainless Steels
Phosphoric acid 40-65% 45-80°C (113-176°F)
Sulfuric acid 15-45% 10-18V
Water Balance 5.0-50.0 A/dm2 (46-465 A/ft2)
Phosphoric acid 30-65% 45-80°C (113-176°F)
Sulfuric acid 15-55% 6-18V
Organic additives 2.5-15% 5.0-50.0 A/dm2 (46-465 A/ft2)
Water Balance
Phosphoric acid 0-40% 45-85°C (113-185°F)
Sulfuric acid 15-55% 6-18V
Glycolic acid 10-30% 5.0-50.0 A/dm2 (46-465 A/ft2)
Water Balance
5. Carbon Steels
Phosphoric acid 45-75% 45-60°C (113-140°F)
Sulfuric acid 5-40% 10-18V
Chromic acid 0-12% 10.0-30.0 A/dm2 (93-279 A/ft2)
Water Balance
6. Titanium & Titanium Alloys
Hydrofluoric acid 6% 25-40°C (77-104°F)
Ethylene Glycol 88% 8.0-10.0 A/dm2 (74-93 A/ft2)
Water 6%
Hydrofluoric acid 10% 15-20°C (59-68°F)
Chromic acid 40% 3-7V
Water Balance 20.0-50.0 A/dm2 (186-465 A/ft2)

Pl a t i n g & S u r f a ce Fin ish in g • March 2 0 0 3 11

 Table 2—Troubleshooting Chart for Electropolishing

Problem Causes Remedy

Pitting Poor surface preparation. Check pre-cleaning and pre-pickling.
Reduce water drag-in or addition.
Excessive water in bath. Check for leaks in heating or cooling coils.
Increase solution and/or work agitation.
Modify position of part on rack.
Gas (oxygen) not being removed from work
surface.
Poor-quality electropolishing Incorrect electrolyte balance. Analyze and adjust bath.
High metal content. Decant portion of solution.
Low electropolishing current density. Raise voltage and average current density.
Poor rack contact. Check for make-or-break contact on bus bar.
Check for positive rack contact and rack
conductance.
Staining after electropolishing Poor rinsing. Improve rinse cycle.
Neutralize electropolishing solution.
Decrease dwell in air.
Excessive delay in transfer to rinse cycle.
Metal contamination producing immersion Remove source of contamination or
deposit. introduce post-dip to remove immersion
deposit.
High dissolved metal content. Post-dip to dissolve metal salt film.
Gas patterns or streaking Poor escapement of gas away from work; gas Change positioning of part on rack.
pocketing. Increase agitation of work bar or solution.
Reduce operating voltage if possible.

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12 Plating & Surface Finishing • March 2003