MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

Reasoning, Intuition, Proof and Certainty

Lesson Objectives:

Reasoning in mathematics is as much as important as mathematics itself because every operation, theory,
statement, and many more about mathematics first start with the idea of reasoning. There are two basic types
of reasoning – it is the inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning. So, what are they and how important
they are in the field of mathematics? Let us start first with inductive reasoning.

Inductive reasoning is the conceptualization of idea or thought through general observation. It is a thought
process that is trying to be approved or disapprove depending in the evidence that can be used to support the
idea. It can be either true or false in a general scale.

Deductive reasoning, on the other hand, is the concept of breaking up things or concept that are already
proven and use it to a specific purpose depending in the situation or cases that are being studied.

Intuition, Proof and Certainty

Mathematical intuition is coming across a problem, glancing at it, and using your logical instinct to pull out
an answer without asking further questions.

Example:

How can you say that 156/150 = 1.0… something. It is because based on experience and frequent encounter
of similar problem.

Just like this example.

(X2 – 9) = (X +3) (X-3);

In this example by just looking at the expression (X2 – 9) you can directly say that its factor is (X +3) and (X-
3). It is because you encounter similar problem or the same problem most frequently in mathematics.

Mathematical Proof is an inferential argument for a mathematical statement, showing that the stated
assumptions logically guarantee the conclusion. The argument may use other previously establish
statements, such as theorems; but every proof can, in principle, be constructed using only certain basic or
original assumptions known as axioms, along with the accepted rules of inference. Proofs are example of
exhaustive deductive reasoning or exhaustive inductive reasoning which establish logical certainty, and to be
distinguished from empirical arguments or non-exhaustive inductive reasoning which establish “reasonable
expectation”.

Mathematical certainty is it something that is true or always without any doubt or proving that it is certain. It
is something that is considered by the past that it is true.

Mathematically Acceptable Statements

Consider the following Statement:

“The sum of two prime numbers is always even.”

The given statement can either be true or false since the sum of two prime numbers can be either be an even
number or an odd number. Such statements are mathematically not acceptable for reasoning as this sentence
is ambiguous. Thus, a sentence is only acceptable mathematically when it is “Either true or false, but not both
at the same time.” Therefore, the basic entity required for mathematical reasoning is a statement. This is the
mathematical statement definition.
Types of Reasoning in Maths
In terms of mathematics, reasoning can be of two major types which are:
 Inductive Reasoning
 Deductive Reasoning

The other types of reasoning are intuition, counterfactual thinking, critical thinking, backwards induction and
abductive induction. These are the 7 types of reasoning which are used to make a decision. But, in
mathematics, the inductive and deductive reasoning are mostly used which are discussed below.

Note: Inductive reasoning is non-rigorous logical reasoning and statements are generalized. On the other
hand, deductive reasoning is rigorous logical reasoning, and the statements are considered true if the
assumptions entering the deduction are true. So, in maths, deductive reasoning is considered to be more
important than inductive.

Inductive Reasoning
In the Inductive method of mathematical reasoning, the validity of the statement is checked by a certain set of
rules and then it is generalized. The principle of mathematical induction uses the concept of inductive
reasoning.

As inductive reasoning is generalized, it is not considered in geometrical proofs. Here, is an example which
will help to understand the inductive reasoning in maths better.

Example of Inductive Reasoning:

Statement: The cost of goods is Rs 10 and the cost of labour to manufacture the item is Rs. 5. The sales price
of the item is Rs. 50.

Reasoning: From the above statement, it can be said that the item will provide a good profit for the stores
selling it.

Deductive Reasoning
The principal of deductive reasoning is the opposite of the principle of induction. On the contrary to inductive
reasoning, in deductive reasoning, we apply the rules of a general case to a given statement and make it true
for particular statements. The principle of mathematical induction uses the concept of deductive reasoning
(contrary to its name). The below-given example will help to understand the concept of deductive reasoning in
maths better.

Example of Deductive Reasoning:

Statement: Pythagorean Theorem holds true for any right-angled triangle.

Reasoning: If triangle XYZ is a right triangle, it will follow Pythagorean Theorem.

Types of Reasoning Statements

There are three main types of reasoning statements:
 Simple Statements
 Compound Statements
 If-Then Statements

Simple Statements
Simple statements are those which are direct and do not include any modifier. These statements are more
comfortable to solve and does not require much reasoning. An example of a simple statement is:

a: The Sun rises in the east

In this statement, there is no modifier and thus it can be simply concluded as true.
Compound Statement
With the help of certain connectives, we can club different statements. Such statements made up of two or
more statements are known as compound statements. These connectives can be “and”, “or”, etc.

With the help of such statements, the concept of mathematical deduction can be implemented very easily. For
a better understanding, consider the following example:

Statement 1: Even numbers are divisible by 2

Statement 2: 2 is also an even number

These two statements can be clubbed together as:

Compound Statement: Even numbers are divisible by 2 and 2 is also an even number

Let us now find the statements out of the given compound statement:

Compound Statement: A triangle has three sides and the sum of interior angles of a triangle is 180°

The Statements for this statement is:

Statement 1: A triangle has three sides.

Statement 2: The sum of the interior angles of a triangle is 180°.

These both statements related to triangles are mathematically true. These two statements are connected
using “and.”

Learn More: Tautology and Contradiction

If-Then Statements
According to mathematical reasoning, if we encounter an if-then statement i.e. ‘if a then b’, then by proving
that a is true, b can be proved to be true or if we prove that b is false, then a is also false.

If we encounter a statement which says ‘a if and only if b’, then we can give reason for such a statement by
showing that if a is true, then b is also true and if b is true, then a is also true.

Example:

a: 8 is multiple of 64

b: 8 is a factor of 64

Since one of the given statements i.e. a is true, therefore, a or b is true.

Problem Solving Strategies

Polya's Problem Solving Strategy

Problem-solving is not just applicable in mathematics but also our daily lives and almost all of our decisions,
if not all, are a process of problem-solving and solution evaluation into which is better. Since problem-solving
is common to every one of us, it is second to natural in our self. The difference only is the way how we value,
evaluate and process things that are involved in problem-solving. In Polya's 4 steps in problem-solving these
processes are clearly defined and is theorized that it can be easily applied by anyone for almost anything.
This problem-solving strategy is also not just for mathematics, but it can be used in our daily living to enhance
our capability as an individual.

Polya’s Problem-solving Strategy

In 1945 George Polya published the book How to Solve It which quickly became his most prized publication.
It sold over one million copies and has been translated into 17 languages. In this book he identifies four basic
principles of problem solving.

 Polya's First Principle: Understanding the Problem

This step in the Polya’s Problem-solving strategy may seems unnecessary than tackling the actual problem
directly. Actually, this step in the problem-solving strategies the overall success in solving problem. It is where
you can start to find the actual conflict of the situation and can create possible pathway for solution with higher
chance of success. Understanding is not simply just reading but also thinking about what the problem is all
about and the factors around it. Even from time to time, we might need it to translate the problem to a different
language, like from English to "Visayas", if possible, to deepen our understanding.

You may ask the following questions to help you understand the problem:
Do you understand all the words used in stating the problem?
What are you asked to find or show?
Can you restate the problem in your own words?
Can you think of a picture or diagram that might help you understand the problem?
Is there enough information to enable you to find a solution?

 Polya’s Second Principle: Devise a plan

Since Polya’s problem-solving strategy is a step strategy it does not act as a stand-alone where it can
directly solve a problem but rather it is a way to facilitate different problem-solving techniques and enforce an
orderly manner of solving the problem.

Here are some lists of the problem-solving techniques and strategies which can be incorporated to the polya's
problem-solving strategy:

Guess and Check Look for a pattern

Make an orderly list Draw a picture
Eliminate possibilities Solve a simpler problem
Use Symmetry Use a model
Consider special cases Work backwards
Use direct reasoning Use a formula
Solve an equation Be ingenious

 Polya’s Third Principle: Carry out the plan

This is the actual step where solution is done. After you have selected the strategy that you will be using in
the problem from the second step, you will now start selecting the given and starting with the formula and the
solution of the problem until you reach the answer.
Note: In case if the strategy cannot solve the problem, try using another strategy which may satisfy and be
patient. Practice is the key in this step.

 Polya’s Fourth Principle: Look Back

Here after the solution and answering to the problem is done it is best to review the whole work and process
because you might find errors and faults in the solution that are not obvious during the process but is clearly
seen during your review. Also, reviewing your work my help you to increase your knowledge in finding the
best strategy to a variety of problems.
 So, here is a summary, in the master’s own words, on strategies for attacking problems in mathematics
class. This is taken from the book, How to Solve It, by George Polya, 2nd ed., Princeton University Press,
1957, ISBN 0-691-08097-6.

1. UNDERSTAND THE PROBLEM

First. You must understand the problem.
What is the unknown? What are the data? What is the condition?
Is it possible to satisfy the condition? Is the condition sufficient to determine the unknown? Or is it insufficient?
Or redundant? Or contradictory?
Draw a figure. Introduce suitable notation.
Separate the various parts of the condition. Can you write them down?

2. DEVISING A PLAN
Second. Find the connection between the data and the unknown. You may be obliged to consider auxiliary
problems if an immediate connection cannot be found. You should obtain eventually a plan of the solution.
Have you seen it before? Or have you seen the same problem in a slightly different form?
Do you know a related problem? Do you know a theorem that could be useful?
Look at the unknown! Try to think of a familiar problem having the same or a similar unknown.
Here is a problem related to yours and solved before. Could you use it? Could you use its result? Could you
use its method? Should you introduce some auxiliary element to make its use possible?
Could you restate the problem? Could you restate it still differently? Go back to definitions.
If you cannot solve the proposed problem, try to solve first some related problem. Could you imagine a more
accessible related problem? A more general problem? A more special problem? An analogous problem?
Could you solve a part of the problem? Keep only a part of the condition, drop the other part; how far is the
unknown then determined, how can it vary? Could you derive something useful from the data? Could you
think of other data appropriate to determine the unknown? Could you change the unknown or data, or both if
necessary, so that the new unknown and the new data are nearer to each other?
Did you use all the data? Did you use the whole condition? Have you taken into account all essential notions
involved in the problem?

3. CARRYING OUT THE PLAN

Third. Carry out your plan.
Carrying out your plan of the solution, check each step. Can you see clearly that the step is correct? Can you
prove that it is correct?

4. LOOKING BACK
Fourth.Examine the solution obtained.
Can you check the result? Can you check the argument?
Can you derive the solution differently? Can you see it at a glance?
Can you use the result, or the method, for some other problem?
Example for Poly's Problem Solving Strategy
The following is an example problem for the Polya’s problem-solving strategy:

Suppose the NCAA basketball championships is decided on a best of five series game. In how many ways
can a team win the championships?

Solution:

Step 1: Understand the Problem

There are many different orders to win the championships. The team may have won three straight games
WWW or maybe they could lose the first two games and won the last three games LLWWW. There are also
other possibilities such as WWLW, WLWW, WLWLW

Step 2: Device a Plan

Make an organized list of all possible orders and ensure that each of the different orders is accounted for only
once.

Step 3: Carry out the plan

Each entry in the list must contain three W's and may contain one or two losses. Use a strategy to each order.
One strategy is to start write Ws, then write L if it is not possible to write W. This strategy produces (10
different orders as shown in the following.
WWW Start with three wins
WWLW Start with two wins
WWLLW Start with two wins
WLWW Start with one win
WLLWW Start with one win
WLWLW Start with one win
LWWW Start with one lose
LWWLW Start with one lose
LWLWW Start with one lose
LLWWW Start with two lose

Step 4: Look Back

The list above is organized and contains no duplications. It includes all possibilities; we can conclude that
there are ten different ways in which a basketball team can win the NCAA championships in the best of 5
games.

The Different Problem Solving Strategies

Since Polya's problem-solving strategy is only a step process to make problem solving much easier, it
always needs a support from the different problem solving strategies that actually use a certain equation,
format or analysis to solve a certain problem. Among the list are the most common and are important problem
solving strategies that we can easily incorporate with Polya's. These strategies also sometimes overlap to
which problems they can solve but one of them surely has a best application when it comes to the different
types of problem, we encounter not just in mathematics but also in our daily lives.

Here are the following problem solving strategies:

 Look for a pattern
Mostly use if the problem has certain repetition of values that can be obvious, or the concept have a certain
repetition.

 Make a list or table

This can be used in combination with look for a pattern strategy but there are some problems also that
making a table makes the problem sensible and can be easily solved.

 Logical Reasoning
It is likely a problem solving strategy that requires the concept of reasoning and observation. This problem
solving strategy maybe harder to execute since it needs more time of practice and experience in order to
fluently use it.

 Guess and Check

This problem solving strategy is mostly used in equation that requires finding a certain value. Setting up a
simple guess and estimation, you will try to find the value of any of the given or all the given by using your
estimated number as the answer. By the time that the guess value substituted will result to the certain given
that would be the time that your guess value is the answer.

 Work Backwards
Some problems sometimes give a half assess given or say a half assess statements of the given that in
turn, it makes the problem harder to understand but it is not impossible to solve. It is best observed if the
problem has a cumulative sequence of events in which one action results to another and at the end of it give
just some of the details that is a part of the whole. Solving the problem backwards will slowly pieces together
significant events and connect them one step higher in the hierarchy to make a sense of it and in result finding
the answer.

 Draw a diagram or a picture

This strategy is mostly used in geometrical problems or figurative problem where it is hard to find, analyze
and answer without presenting a picture or diagram.
Note: It does not need any fancy or artistic figure or diagram as long as it makes sense and can be operable
according to the desired purpose.

 Solve a simpler problem

This strategy can be used in the process of anyone who is trying to improve in your experience in problem
solving. Its main purpose is that having a difficult problem and trying to solve it can be prostrating but by
having or looking for a problem almost similar to the difficult problem, but it is easier provide a basis and
pathways-means in solving the difficult problem