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Come & Feel the Difference

Student Name: …………………………………………………

Class: 8th Subject: Science Session: 2020-21

Unit-1
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Microorganism

Definition: An organism that is too small to be seen by the unaided eye,

especially a single celled organism, such as a bacterium is called
microorganism.

Microorganisms are classified into four major groups. These groups are
bacteria, fungi, protozoa and some algae.

Viruses are also microscopic. They, however, reproduce only inside the
cells of the host organism, which may be a bacterium, plant or animal.

Where do Microorganisms Live:

They can survive under all types of environment, ranging from ice cold
climate to hot springs and deserts to marshy lands. They are also found
inside the bodies of animals including humans. Some microorganisms
grow on other organisms while others exist freely. Microorganisms like
amoeba can live alone, while fungi and bacteria may live in colonies.

Microorganisms and Us:

Microorganisms play an important role in our lives. Some of them are

beneficial in many ways whereas some others are harmful and cause
diseases.

Commercial Use of Microorganisms:

Microorganisms are used for the large scale production of alcohol, wine
and acetic acid (vinegar). Yeast is used for commercial production of
alcohol and wine. For this purpose yeast is grown on natural sugars
present in grains like barley, wheat, rice and crushed fruit juices, etc.

Medicinal Use of Microorganisms

Whenever we fall ill the doctor may give us some antibiotic tablets,
capsules or injections such as of penicillin. The source of these
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medicines is microorganisms. These medicines kill or stop the growth

of the disease-causing microorganisms. Such medicines are called
antibiotics. These days a number of antibiotics are being produced from
bacteria and fungi. Streptomycin, tetracycline and erythromycin are
some of the commonly known antibiotics which are made from fungi
and bacteria. The antibiotics are manufactured by growing specific
microorganisms and are used to cure a variety of diseases. Antibiotics
are even mixed with the feed of livestock and poultry to check microbial
infection in animals. They are also used to control many plant diseases.

Vaccine

When a disease-carrying microbe enters our body, the body produces

antibodies to fight the invader. The body also remembers how to fight
the microbe if it enters again. So, if dead or weakened microbes are
introduced in a healthy body, the body fights and kills them by
producing suitable antibodies. The antibodies remain in the body and
we are protected from the disease causing microbes.

This is how a vaccine works. Several diseases, including cholera,

tuberculosis, smallpox and hepatitis can be prevented by vaccination.

Increasing Soil Fertility

Some bacteria and blue green algae are able to fix nitrogen from the
atmosphere to enrich soil with nitrogen and increase its fertility. These
microbes are commonly called biological nitrogen fixers.

Commensals:

Some microorganisms live inside our body. They help in certain

functions of our body systems. For example some bacteria in our
gastrointestinal tract help in digestion. These type of organisms which
reside in our body and are beneficial as well are called commensals.

Apart from them certain food like curd, contain beneficial bacteria.

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Harmful Microorganisms

Microorganisms are harmful in many ways. Some of the

microorganisms cause diseases in human beings, plants and animals.
Such disease-causing microorganisms are called pathogens. Some
microorganisms spoil food, clothing and leather.

Disease— causing Microorganisms in Humans

Pathogens enter our body through the air we breathe, the water we
drink or the food we eat. They can also get transmitted by direct contact
with an infected person or carried through an animal. Microbial
diseases that can spread from an infected person to a healthy person
through air, water, food or physical contact are called communicable
diseases. Examples of such diseases include cholera, common cold,
chicken pox and tuberculosis.

There are some insects and animals which act as carriers of disease
causing microbes. Housefly is one such carrier. The flies sit on the
garbage and animal excreta. Pathogens stick to their bodies. When these
flies sit on uncovered food they may transfer the pathogens. Whoever
eats the contaminated food is likely to get sick. Another example of a
carrier is the female Anopheles mosquito, which carries the parasite of
malaria. Female Aides mosquito acts as carrier of dengue virus.

Some Common Human Diseases caused by Microorganisms

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Disease— causing Microorganisms in Animals

Several microorganisms not only cause diseases in humans and plants,

but also in other animals. For example, anthrax is a dangerous human
and cattle disease caused by a bacterium. Foot and mouth disease of
cattle is caused by a virus.

Disease— causing Microorganisms in Plants

Several microorganisms cause diseases in plants like wheat, rice,

potato, sugarcane, orange, apple and others. The diseases reduce the
yield of crops.

They can be controlled by the use of certain chemicals which kill the
microbes.

Food Poisoning

Food poisoning could be due to the consumption of food spoilt by some

microorganisms. Microorganisms that grow on our food sometimes
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produce toxic substances. These make the food poisonous causing

serious illness and even death. So, it is very important that we preserve
food to prevent it from being spoilt.

Food Preservation

Microorganisms spoil our food. Spoiled food emits bad smell and has a
bad taste and changed colour.

Common methods to preserve food in our homes.

Chemical Method: Salts and edible oils are the common chemicals
generally used to check the growth of microorganisms. Therefore they
are called preservatives. We add salt or acid preservatives to pickles to
prevent the attack of microbes. Sodium benzoate and sodium
metabisulphite are common preservatives. These are also used in the
jams and squashes to check their spoilage.

Preservation by Common Salt: Common salt has been used to

preserve meat and fish for ages. Meat and fish are covered with dry salt
to check the growth of bacteria. Salting is also used to preserve alma,
raw mangoes, tamarind, etc.

Preservation by Sugar: Jams, jellies and squashes are preserved by

sugar.

Sugar reduces the moisture content which inhibits the growth of

bacteria which spoil food.

Preservation by Oil and Vinegar: Use of oil and vinegar prevents

spoilage of pickles because bacteria cannot live in such an environment.
Vegetables, fruits, fish and meat are often preserved by this method.

Heat and Cold Treatments: You must have observed your mother
boiling milk before it is stored or used. Boiling kills many
microorganisms.

Similarly, we keep our food in the refrigerator. Low temperature

inhibits the growth of microbes. Pasteurized milk can be consumed
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without boiling as it is free from harmful microbes. The milk is heated

to about 700C for 15 to 30 seconds and then suddenly chilled and
stored. By doing so, it prevents the growth of microbes. This process
was discovered by Louis Pasteur. It is called pasteurization.

Storage and Packing: These days dry fruits and even vegetables are
sold in sealed air tight packets to prevent the attack of microbes.

Nitrogen Fixation: Rhizobium is involved in the fixation of nitrogen in

leguminous plants (pulses). Sometimes nitrogen gets fixed through the
action of lightning. But the amount of nitrogen in the atmosphere
remains constant

Nitrogen cycle

Our atmosphere has 78% nitrogen gas. Nitrogen is one of the essential
constituents of all living organisms as part of proteins, chlorophyll,
nucleic acids and vitamins. Certain bacteria and blue green algae
present in the soil fix nitrogen from the atmosphere and convert into
compounds of nitrogen. Once nitrogen is converted into these usable
compounds, it can be utilised by plants from the soil through their root
system. Nitrogen is then used for the synthesis of plant proteins and
other compounds. Animals feeding on plants get these proteins and
other nitrogen compounds.

When plants and animals die, bacteria and fungi present in the soil
convert the nitrogenous wastes into nitrogenous compounds to be used
by plants again.

Certain other bacteria convert some part of them to nitrogen gas which
goes back into the atmosphere. As a result, the percentage of nitrogen in
the atmosphere remains more or less constant

Question: 1. Fill in the blanks:

(a) Microorganisms can be seen with the help of a ____________.

Answer: Microscope
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(b) Blue green algae fix __________ directly from air to enhance fertility of
soil.

Answer:- Nitrogen

(c) Alcohol is produced with the help of __________.

Answer:- Yeast

(d) Cholera is caused by __________.

Answer: Bacteria

Question: 2. Tick the correct answer:

(a) Yeast is used in the production of

(1) Sugar

(2) Alcohol

(3) Hydrochloric acid

(4) Oxygen

Answer: (2) Alcohol

(b) The following is an antibiotic

(1) Sodium bicarbonate

(2) Streptomycin

(3) Alcohol

(4) Yeast

Answer: (2) Streptomycin

(c) Carrier of malaria-causing protozoan is

(1) Female Anopheles mosquito

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(2) Cockroach

(3) Housefly

(4) Butterfly

Answer: (1) Female Anopheles mosquito

(d) The most common carrier of communicable diseases is

(1) Ant

(2) Housefly

(3) Dragonfly

(4) Spider

Answer: (2) Housefly

(e) The bread or idli dough rises because of

(1) Heat

(2) Grinding

(3) Growth of yeast cells

(4) Kneading

Answer: (3) Growth of yeast cells

(f) The process of conversion of sugar into alcohol is called

(1) Nitrogen fixation

(2) Moulding

(3) Fermentation

(4) Infection

Answer: (3) Fermentation

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Question: 3. Match the organisms in Column I with their action in

Column A Column B
Bacteria Fixing nitrogen
Rhizobium Setting of curd
Lactobacillus Baking of bread
Causing
Yeast
malaria
A protozoan Causing cholera
A virus Causing AIDS
Producing
antibodies

Answer:

Column A Column B
Bacteria Causing cholera
Rhizobium Fixing nitrogen
Lactobacillus Setting of curd
Yeast Baking of bread
Causing
A protozoan
malaria
A virus Causing AIDS

Question: 4. Can microorganisms be seen with the naked eye? If not,

how can they be seen?

Answer: Microorganisms cannot be seen with naked eye. They can be

seen through a microscope.

Question: 5. What are the major groups of microorganisms?

Answer: The major groups of microorganisms are: Bacteria, Virus,

Fungi and Protozoa.

Question: 6. Name the microorganisms which can fix atmospheric

nitrogen in the soil.

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Answer: Rhizobium bacteria carry out nitrogen fixation in soil.

Question: 7. Write 10 lines on the usefulness of microorganisms in our

lives.

Answer: Following are the benefits of microorganisms in our lives:

(a) Lactobacillus causes setting of curd.

(b) Rhizobium helps in nitrogen fixation in soil.

(c) Yeast helps in making fluffy bread and cake.

(d) Some bacteria facilitate retting of jute.

(e) Some bacteria facilitate tanning of leather.

(f) Blue green algae carry out nitrogen fixation.

(g) Penicillium; a fungi; is used to produce antibiotics.

(h) Many microbes carry out decomposition of dead remains of plants

and animals.

(i) Yeast causes fermentation which is utilised to produce alcohol.

(j) Processing and ageing of cheese is carried out by microorganisms.

Question: 8. Write a short paragraph on the harms caused by

microorganisms.

Answer: Microorganisms can also be harmful to us. Many microbes

which reside in our body may turn pathogenic and can cause serious
diseases. Many microbes from outside can enter our body and cause
diseases. Some microbes lead to rotten food which leads to large scale
damage. Sometimes, eating contaminated food may lead to food
poisoning which can also prove lethal.

Question: 9. What are antibiotics? What precautions must be taken

while taking antibiotics?

Answer: Medicines which are given to kill bacteria are called antibiotics.
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Antibiotics are helpful tools to fight most of the diseases. But use of
antibiotics should be done with certain cautions in mind. Never take an
antibiotic without advice from a doctor. Before taking an antibiotic,
check for date of expiry on the packet. Take the dose as advised by the
doctor. Keep the antibiotic away from the reach of children

Coal and Petroleum

Natural Resources:

There are two types of natural resources:

Inexhaustible Natural Resources and Exhaustible Natural Resource

Inexhaustible Natural Resources: Resources which do not exhaust

and which are available in plenty in nature are known as inexhaustible
natural resources. For example – air, sunlight, etc.

Exhaustible Natural Resources: Resources which get exhausted and

are not available in nature in plenty and are known as exhaustible
natural resources. They take longer to get replenished. For example –
coal, petroleum, forest, minerals, etc.

Coal and Petroleum: Coal and petroleum are exhaustible natural

resources as their availability is limited in nature. Coal and petroleum
are used mainly as fuel. Coal is used as fuel, petroleum products are
used to run vehicle and for many other purposes. Coal and petroleum
are known as fossil fuels since they are formed from remains of living
organism.

Coal
Coal is a black coloured stone-like material. Coal is used to produce
electricity in thermal power stations. Coal was used to run steam engine
till recent years in India. Coal gives carbon dioxide when burnt in air.

Formation of Coal
About 300 millions year ago, dense forest in low lying lands of earth
got buried because of many natural processes. In the due course, they
sank deeper and deeper. Inside the earth, because of high pressure
and temperature they slowly converted into coal. Such slow process of
conversion of dead vegetation into coal is called carbonization.
Coal is considered as fossil fuel as it is formed because of carbonization
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of dead remains of living organism.

Coal is mined from earth and processed to obtain many useful
products, such as coal, coke, coal tar, etc.

Coke
Coke is almost pure form of carbon. Coke is a porous, black and similar
to coal. Coke has high percentage of carbon and very low percent of
impurities. It is obtained from destructive distillation of a particular
type of coal. Coke is used as fuel, as reducing agent in the smelting of
iron ore in blast furnace. It is used in the manufacturing of steel and in
the extraction of many types of metals.

Coal Tar : -
Coal tar is obtained as one of the by-products while obtaining the coke
or coal gas. Coal tar is a highly viscous liquid and brown-black in colour.
It is a variable mixture of many substances
Coal tar is used in the manufacturing of many products; such as
synthetic dyes, drugs, explosive, perfumes, plastics, roofing material,
etc. as starting material.
Till about two decades ago, coal tar was used as binding material in the
making of roads. Now-a-days bitumen is used in making of roads in the
place of coal tar.

Coal gas

Coal gas is also one of the by-products in the processing of coke. Coal
gas is used as fuel mainly for heating in many industries.

Petroleum

The word petroleum is used for both naturally occurring crude oil
and other petroleum products which are obtained after refining of
crude oil, such as petrol, diesel, etc. Petrol and diesel are highly
consumed fuel today as these are used to run vehicles.

Petroleum is a dark oily liquid having unpleasant odour.

Formation of Petroleum

Petroleum is formed from the dead remains of living organisms which

lived in sea and were buried millions of year ago below the sea bed.
Because of high pressure and temperature those dead remains were
transformed into petroleum. Since, petroleum is the product of dead
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remains, so it is known as fossil fuel.

Extraction of petroleum

Petroleum is extracted from the reservoir usually found in sea beds

and river basin by drilling through pipe lines. Such places where
reservoir of petroleum are found and extracted out by drilling are
known as oil well.

Refining of Petroleum

After extraction, petroleum is refined to obtain petrol, diesel,

lubricating oil, wax, paraffin, bitumen, kerosene, etc. Place where
refining process of petroleum is done is called petroleum refinery.

Some of the petroleum products and their uses

Petroleum products Uses

Petrol Fuel in motor car, aviation, solvent
for dry cleaning
Diesel Fuel for heavy vehicle, such as
trucks, rail engine, small vehicle,
such as jeep car, for jet air crafts,
small generators, etc.
Fuel in households, and in
Liquid Petroleum Gas vehicles.
Fuel for stoves, jet aircrafts, lamps,
Kerosene etc.
Lubricating oil Used as lubricants mainly in
engines.
Paraffin wax Used in manufacturing of
ointment, candles, cosmetics, etc
Bitumen Used in making of paints, road, etc.

Natural Gas

Natural gas is naturally occurring hydrocarbon gas. Natural gas is a

mixture of methane, higher alkanes, carbon dioxide, etc. Natural gas is
found in deep underground rock formation as fossil fuel. It is one of
the most important fuel.

Natural gas can be transported through pipeline and can be

compressed to smaller volume. Compressed natural gas (CNG) is used

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for running vehicle. Natural gas can be used directly for burning as
fuel. It is a clean fuel as it creates least pollution.

Natural gas is used as starting material in many industries, such as

fertilizer and chemical.

In India natural gas reserves are found in Tripura, Rajasthan,

Maharashtra, and Krishna and Godavari delta.

Some Natural Resources are Limited

Petroleum, coal, natural gas, etc. are natural resources but available in
limited amount. Thus, it is necessary to use them with care.
Some steps to conserve fossil fuels (Natural Resources):

Switch off the engine of vehicle when waiting on signals or at

other places. Drive the vehicle with constant and moderate speed.
Maintain the correct tyre pressure for low consumption of fuel.
Maintain the vehicle by regular checking to ensure less consumption of
fuel.

Question: 1. what are the advantages of using CNG and LPG as fuels?

Answer: Following are the advantages of using CNG and LPG as fuels:

(a) They are more efficient

(b) They can be easily transported; either in cylinders or through

pipelines

(c) They are less polluting than other fossil fuels

Question: 2. Name the petroleum product used for surfacing of roads.

Answer: Bitumen

3. Describe how coal is formed from dead vegetation. What is this

process called?

Answer: - Dead remains of plants got buried under the earth millions of
years ago. Due to intense heat and pressure inside the earth they got
converted into coal. The process of conversion of dead remains of
plants into coal is called carbonization.

Question: 4. Fill in the blanks:

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(a) Fossil fuels are …………, ………… and …………….. Answer: - Coal,
Petroleum and Natural gas

(b) Process of separation of different constituents from petroleum is

called …………….. Answer: Refining (c) Least polluting fuel for vehicle is
……………… Answer: CNG

Question: 5. Tick True/False against the following statements:

(a) Fossil fuels can be made in the laboratory. (F)

(b) CNG is more polluting fuel than petrol. (F)

(c) Coke is almost pure form of carbon. (T)

(d) Coal tar is a mixture of various substances. (T)

(e) Kerosene is not a fossil fuel. (F)

Question: 6. Explain why fossil fuels are exhaustible natural resources.

Answer: It takes millions of years for the formation of fossil fuels. The
rate at which we are using them is very fast compared to the rate of
their formation. Due to this, fossil fuels are exhaustible in nature.

Question: 7. Describe characteristics and uses of coke.

Answer: Coke is a type of coal. It is a tough, porous and black substance.

It is almost pure form of carbon. Coke burns much cleaner than coal and
provides more energy for comparable mass. It is used in manufacture of
steel and in extraction of many minerals.

Question: 8. Explain the process of formation of petroleum.

Answer: The organisms which lived in the sea got buried at the bottom
of oceans. Over a period of time, their dead bodies were covered with
sediments. Intense pressure and heat under the earth’s layers
transformed these organisms into petroleum.

Question: 9. The following Table shows the total power shortage in

India from 1991– 1997. Show the data in the form of a graph. Plot
shortage percentage for the years on the Y-axis and the year on the X
axis.

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Answer:

Unit-2
The Cell
EXERCISE:
Qno.1)Define a cell?
Ans.)Cell is the structural and functional unit of all living organisms.
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Qno.2) who discovered the cell?

Ans.)An English scientist Robert Hooke discovered the cell in 1665.
Qno.3) Give three examples of unicellular organisms?
Ans.)Amoeba, paramecium, euglena.
Qno.4) Answer the following questions:
i) Why cells could not be observed before 17th century?
Ans.)Majority of cells are too small to be seen with the help of
microscope. Since microscope was invented in 17 thcentury, cells could
not be observed before 17th century.
ii) Why cork could not be observed as such by Hooke?
Ans.)Cork could not be observed as such by Hooke, as it is a solid
structure.
iii)Where did Hooke demonstrate his observation on cork slice?
Ans.)Hooke demonstrated his observation on cork slice at Royal society
of London.
iv)Name the outer most layer of an animal cell?
Ans.)Cell membrane or plasma membrane
V)Name the layer which is present outside the plasma membrane in
plant cell?
Ans.)Cell wall.
vi)Where are chromosomes present in a cell?
Ans.)The chromosomes are present in the nucleoplasm of nucleus.
vii)Name the cell part that has tiny holes?
Ans.)Nuclear membrane and cell wall has tiny holes.
viii)Name the cell organelles which are found in the plant cell.
Ans.)The cell organelles present in the plant cells are plastids,
mitochondria, endoplasmicrecticulm, lysosome, ribosome dictyosomes,
vacuoles.
ix)Name the cell having branched structure?
Ans.)Nerve cell.
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x)Which cell can be observed with the unaided eye?

Ans.)An ostrich egg (170mm x 135mm) can be seen with unaided eye.
Qno.5)mention the functions of the following:
a)cell membrane:-It is the outer most covering of [Link] performs
following functions:-
i)it gives form to the cell.
ii)it protects the cell from injury.
iii)it keeps the cell content in place and prevents their mixing with
extra-cellular materials.
iv)it forms organelles within the cytoplasm.
v)it regulates the flow of selected materials into and out of the cell.
b)chromosomes:-chromosomes are hereditary units. Chromosomes
contain genetic information and is concerned with the transmission of
hereditary traits from one generation to another.
Qno.6)Why are the following important to a plant cell?
a)cell wall.
Ans.)The plant cells as well as bacteria and fungi posses an additional
layer outside the plasma membrane called the cell wall .cell wall is
important because :-
i)it maintains the shape of the cells.
ii)it prevents the cells from injury and prevent their
desiccation(drying).
iii)it provides mechanical strength to support the cell.
iv)it permits the plant cell to become turgid.
b)chloroplast:-
Ans.)chloroplasts are green colored plastids because of the presence of
the pigment chlorophyll. Chloroplasts are bounded by two units
[Link] has two distinct regions:-
i)Thylakoids:-These are membrane bound ovoid/ovalsacs,which are
packed in piles called the grana.

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ii)stroma:-it is a colorless homogeneous ground substance in which

thylakoids are embedded
Functions:-
i)The chloroplasts trap the solar energy and convert it into the chemical
energy of carbohydrates using water and [Link] progress is
called photosynthesis.
c)Mitochondria:-
Ans.)The mitochondria are double membrane bound cell organelles.
The mitochondria are found in all aerobic eukaryotic cells
Functions:-
i)Mitochondria are the sites of cellular respiration. they oxidize the food
and store energy in the form of ATP (adenosine tri-phosphate)
molecules and then release it for performing different cellular activities
therefore they are also known as “power house’’ of the cell
d)nucleus:-
Ans.)The nucleus is the largest organelle of a eukaryotic cell. Nucleus is
important because:-
i)It controls all the metabolic activities of the cell and hence it is called
“control unit’’ of cell.
ii)it controls cell division.

iii)it transmits characters from parents to offspring.

Qno.7) Draw an outline diagram of an animal cell. and label the

different parts?

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Label diagram of plant cell:-

Qno.8)Mention the differences between plant cell and animal cell?

Ans)Following are the differences between plant cell and animal cell:

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 ANIMAL CELL  PLANT CELL

1)Cell wall is lacking.
2)chloroplasts are absent. 1)A rigid cell wall is present.
3)vacuoles are [Link] 2)Chloroplasts are present.
present they are smaller in 3)vacoules are larger in size.
size. 4)Plant cells have many golgi
4)Animal cells have single golgi complexes scattered in the
apparatus generally near the cytoplasm.
nuclear envelope. 5)nucleus is often pushed to one
5)Nucleus is generally near the side in the peripheral cytoplasm.
centre of the cell.

Qno.9) What features are possessed by both plant cells and animal
cells?
Ans)Features shared by plant cells and animal cells are:-
1)plasma membrane is present in both.
2)Nucleus is present in both.
3)Mitochondria,endoplasmicreticulum golgicomplex,lysosomes and
ribosomes are present in both plant and animal cells.
Qno.10)Why are nerve cells long?why do these cells have projections?
Ans)Nerve cells are long(90mm-100mm) as it controls and co-
ordinates the functioning of different parts of body.
Nerve cells have projections ,as it has to convey messages to different
parts of the body.
Qno.11)Which four basic elements constitute more than 90% of
protoplasm?
Ans) carbon,hydrogen,oxygen and nitrogen.
Qno.12)Write in brief about the variation in shape and size of cells.
Ans)Plant cells and animal cells vary in shape and [Link] plant and
animal cells are visible to a naked [Link] cells however are visible
only with a [Link] example an egg is the biggest animal [Link]
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is as big as 170mm x [Link] known cell is

PPLO(pleuropneumonia like organism) which is about 0.1 u in
[Link] body nerve cells are the largest measuring about 90mm in
[Link] cells are longer than a metre.A livings RBC measures
about [Link] other cells as that of kidney,liver,intestinee.t.c are
between 20-3- u in diameter.
Cells may have diverse [Link] may be spherical oval (e.g eggs
of many animals), cubidal,columnar (e.g epithelial cells),spendial
shaped(e.g smooth musculefibres) alongated (e. nerve cells).some cells
continuously change their shapes (e.g WBSs) however,Most of the cells
maintain a constant shape throughout lives.
Qno.13)Name the different cell organelles and the functions of these
organelles?
I)Plasmamembrane:It is the outer most covering of the cell that
separates the contents of the cell from its external [Link] is
composed of lipids and [Link] membrane is
thin,living,delicate,elastic and selectively permeable membrane.
Functions:
i)It gives form to the cell.
ii)It protects the cell from injury.
iii)It keeps the cell content in place and prevents their mixing with the
extra-cellular materials.
iv)It forms organelles within the cytoplasm.
v)It regulates the flow of selected materials into and out of the cell.
II)Endoplasmicreticulum:Thr ER is the large network of membrane
bound tubes and the form of long tubular or round or oblong bags.
Functions:
i)ER acts as channels for the transport of materials inside the cell.
ii)ER is involved in the process of detoxification of many poisons and
drugs.
iii)ER provides a large surface area for life functions.
III) Golgi bodies:It consists of a system of membrane bound vesicles
arranged parallel to each other in stacks called [Link] plant cells

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golgi bodies are distributed throughout the cytoplasm and are called
dictyosomes
Functions:
i)It collects and distributes the substances made in the cell e.g proteins.
ii)It involves in the formation of lysomes.
iii)it forms complex sugars from simple sugars.
IV)Lysosomes:Lysosomes are tiny spherical sac like structures evenly
distributed in the [Link] lysosome is surrounded by a single
membrane and contains powerful digestive enzymes.
Functions:
i)They destroy any foreign material which enter the cell such as virus
and bacteria.
ii)They digest worn out cell organelles and are known as scavengers.
Qno.14)What is meant by protoplasm? How does it differ from
cytoplasm?
Ans)Protoplasm refers to the contents of the living cell bounded by
plasma [Link] includes cell memsbrane ,cytoplasm,a
nucleus. It contains various elements like
carbon,hydrogen,oxygen,nitrogen,phosphorous,sulphur and calcium.
These elements combine to form compounds like
water,carbohydrates,proteins,fats and nucleic [Link] compounds
make the protoplasm living in the nature.
Cytoplasm is a jelly like substance that occupies the space
between cell membrane and [Link] also contains cell
[Link],cytoplasm is a protoplasm without a nucleus.

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Sound
TOPICS IN THIS CHAPTER

Introduction

Compression & Rarefaction

Characteristics of Wave

Quality of Sound And Sound in different Medium

Reflection of Sound

Audible Range

Introduction - Sound

Sound is a type of energy. Sound travels in the form of wave from

one place to another.

Production of sound:-
Sound is produced because of the vibration of any object. In
other words, when an object is vibrated it produces sound.

Example:-
Sound can be produced by clapping of palms.
Sound can be produced by vibrating a string.
Sound can be produced by beating a table or diaphragm of a drum.
Sound is produced by a flute because of vibration of air
column. Sound is produced by a guitar because of vibration
of its string.

Thus, an object is needed which could be vibrated to produce sound.

Propagation of sound:
When a stone is dropped in pond water, it produces many circular
wrinkles and water appears to be travelling outwards from centre.
These circular wrinkles are called ripples. This happens because of
formation of waves in water.

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When a stone is dropped in water, it creates a disturbance in water

particles. The water particles pass the disturbance to the adjacent
particles and the adjacent particles pass the disturbance to the next
adjacent particles and so on. This phenomenon continues and the
disturbance moves outward from the centre of disturbance. This
makes water appear to be moving. In fact, water molecules do not
travel in this case, rather only the disturbance is passed through
particles of water. This creates wave in the form of ripples in water.
Sound travels from one place to another in similar manner i.e.
through wave formation. In this case, the particles of medium do
not travel rather only the disturbance; caused by sound energy;
passes to the adjacent particles of the medium. So, the traveling of
sound is called propagation of sound.
Thus, sound propagates from one place to another in the
form of waves, i.e. because of the disturbance of particles of the
medium.

Wave – Sound Wave

The disturbance or oscillation from one location to another location;
accompanied by transfer of energy is called wave.

There are two types of wave, viz. Electromagnetic Wave and Mechanical
Wave.

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE – Wave that requires no medium to

propagate is called Electromagnetic wave. For example – light wave.
Light can also travel through vacuum.

MECHANICAL WAVE – Wave that requires medium to propagate is

called

Mechanical Wave. For example - sound wave. Sound cannot travel in the
absence of a medium.

TYPES OF WAVE - ON THE BASIS OF DIRECTION:

On the basis of direction of propagation, waves can be divided into two

types

1. Transverse Wave

2. Longitudinal Wave

TRANSVERSE WAVE – The wave formed because of the oscillation

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perpendicular to the disturbance is called transverse wave. For

example light wave, water wave, etc.

In transverse wave, particles oscillate in up and down directions;

relative their normal position of rest. Particles of medium create
elevation above the normal position or line of zero to the surface of
medium and depression below the normal position in the course of
oscillation. The elevation is called crest and the depression is called
trough.

LONGITUDINAL WAVE – The wave formed because of the oscillation;

parallel to the disturbance; is called longitudinal wave. For example;
sound waves. ause of forward and backward movement of particles of
the medium. If a slinky is pushed and pulled backward and forward, the
wave formed in slinky is similar to longitudinal wave.
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Sound Wave is longitudinal wave – Sound propagates because of

oscillation of particles of medium parallel to the disturbance, thus
sound wave is longitudinal wave.
Amplitude, Time Period and Frequency of a Sound

Sound travels in the form of wave. When a pebble is dropped in pond

water, it produces ripples in water. The ripple is called wave. Sound
travels producing similar waves.

Amplitude and frequency are two important characters of sound.

Sounds produced by different object are differentiated by amplitude
and frequency of sound.

Amplitude – The distance from normal to peak is called amplitude.

Since, sound travels in the form of wave, so sound has amplitude.

Frequency: The number of vibrations or oscillations per second is called

frequency.

Frequency is expressed in hertz.

If an object oscillates or vibrates 40 times in 1 second, then its

frequency will be equal to 40 hertz.

Time period - Time required to produce one complete oscillation is

called time period.

Loudness and Pitch

Loudness of sound depends on the amplitude of the sound wave.

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Greater amplitude produces louder sound and smaller amplitude

produces feeble sound.

Loudness of sound is measured in decibel (dB). Loudness of some

types of sound is given here in decibel.

Shrillness or pitch

Frequency of a sound determines the shrillness or pitch of the sound.

Shrillness or pitch increases with increase in frequency of sound.
Sound with greater frequency is shriller and has higher pitch. Sound
with lower frequency is less shrill and of lower pitch.

Examples:

Children and women produce sound of high frequency and their sound
is shriller and of higher pitch. On the other hand, an adult male
produces sound of lower frequency and his sound is less shrill and has
lower pitch.

A drum produces sound of lower frequency which is less shrill and has
lower pitch, while a whistle produces sound of higher frequency which
is shriller and is of higher pitch.

A lion produces a sound of lower frequency which is less shrill and

has lower pitch, while a bird produces sound of high frequency
which is shriller and has higher pitch. However, sound of lion is
louder than the sound of a bird.

Audible and Inaudible Sound

Sounds with frequency between 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz are called

audible sound. The hearing range of human beings is between 20
hertz to 20,000 hertz.

Sound with frequency below 20 hertz and above 20,000 hertz is called
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sound of inaudible range. Humans cannot hear the sound of inaudible

range.

Many animals, such as dogs, cats, etc. can hear the sound with
frequency above 20,000 hertz.

Noise and Music

Sound that appears unpleasant to us is called noise, such as sound of

horn, sound near the site of construction work, sound of aeroplane, etc.

Sound that appears pleasant to our ear is called musical sound, such as
sound of musical instrument, song of a good singer, etc.

Noise Pollution

Loud and excessive sound is unbearable to our ears, and is called noise.
Unwanted and excessive sound in our environment creates noise
pollution. Sounds of crackers, factories,

Vehicles, desert coolers, air conditioners, aeroplane, transistors or

television with high volume, loudspeakers, etc. create sound
pollution.

Problems due to Noise Pollution:

Noise pollution can create many types of health related problems, such
as lack of sleep (insomnia), hypertension, loss of hearing, anxiety, etc.
Sound above 80 dB is very painful to hear.

A person who is exposed to loud sound continuously may get

permanent or temporary loss of hearing (impairment of hearing).

Measure to Limit Noise Pollution

Noise pollution can be limited or controlled by controlling the noise

coming from source. Noise pollution can be limited by taking following
measures:

TV or radio should be played at low

volume. By installing high quality
silencer in vehicles. Minimum use of
vehicle horns.

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Plantation of trees along the road sides and around buildings.

Trees absorb sound. Awareness campaign to make people aware;
about the harmful effects of noise
pollution and measures to control noise pollution.

Sound

TOPICS IN THIS CHAPTER

Introduction

Compression & Rarefaction

Characteristics of Wave

Quality of Sound And Sound in different Medium

Reflection of Sound

Audible Range

Compression and Rarefaction:

When a slinky is jerked to and forth, two phenomena take place

simultaneously.

First, the coils come closer to each other while; on the other hand;
some of the adjacent coils go farther from each other. This
phenomenon continues and the wave goes forward.

The action when coils come closer is called compression and when coils
go farther from each other is called rarefaction.

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In the given figure the area of compression is denoted by letter ‘C’ and
the area of rarefaction is denoted by letter ‘R’.

When sound wave travels through a medium, say air, the particles of
medium disturb in the same fashion, i.e. compression and rarefaction
(depression). When air particles come closer it is called compression.
On the other hand, when particles go farther than their normal position
it is called rarefaction. This is similar to the compression and
rarefaction produced in the slinky. In the condition of compression,
molecules of medium come closer to each other and in the condition of
rarefaction, molecules of medium go farther from each other;
compared to their normal positions.

Density, pressure and disturbance:-

When compression takes place in the medium, the density and

pressure of the medium increase. When rarefaction takes place in
the medium, density and pressure of the medium decrease. This
increase and decrease in density and pressure are temporary.

Thus, compression is called the region of high density and pressure.

Rarefaction is called the region of low density and pressure.

Production of sound in laboratory:-

In laboratories, sound wave is produced by striking a tuning fork over a

rubber pad.

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When prongs of the tuning fork are struck over a rubber pad, the
prongs of tuning fork start vibrating and produce sound.

One can feel the vibration of prongs by touching them after striking
over the rubber pad. The vibration produces sound energy. This sound
energy creates disturbance in the medium by making compression and
rarefaction and the sound wave propagates forward.

Quality of Sound

Timbre: The quality of sound is called timber of sound. Timber is

one of the characteristics of sound that enables us to differentiate
between two different types of sound.

Because of timbre; the sound of flute and harmonium or other musical

instruments can be differentiated. For example; the frequency of a
particular note ‘Do’ or ‘Sa’ produced by all the musical instruments is
equal. In spite of that, because of different timbre one can differentiate
the sound of same frequency of different musical instruments.

Different persons produce sound of different timbre. Because of

different timbre in sound, the voice of different persons can be
recognized.

Tone and Note of sound:-

Sound of a single frequency is called tone and sound of mixture of

several frequencies is called note. A note is pleasant to listen.

Noise is unpleasant to hear.

Music is pleasant to hear because of good quality, i.e. timbre while

noise is unpleasant because of bad quality.

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Medium is a must for propagation of sound wave:

Since sound wave travels by the compression and rarefaction of the

particles, so a medium is necessary for propagation of sound wave.
Sound cannot propagate without a medium.

Sound wave cannot propag Sound wave cannot propagate through

vacuum. This can be demonstrated using the bell jar apparatus.

When all air is vacuumed out of bell jar, the sound of the bell is not
heard outside. This happen because there is no medium present,
consequently no particles present for compression and rarefaction in
the bell jar through which sound waves could propagate.

Propagation (travelling) of sound through different media:-

Sound propagates through solid, liquid and gas. In all these media;
sound wave propagates by the compression and rarefaction of
particles of the medium.

Velocity of sound wave in different media:

The velocity of sound waves depends upon the following three factors:

Nature of the
medium
Temperature

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Humidity present in air

Nature of medium:

The velocity of sound isThe velocity of sound is maximum in solid,

moderate in liquid and minimum in gas. For example:

Temperature:

The velocity of sound is directly proportion to temperature. This

means, velocity of sound increases with increase in temperature. For
example: sound wave at 0⁰C in air is 332m/s. The velocity of sound
waves at 20⁰C in air is 344m/s. This is the reason, we hear more
clearly on a hot day than on a cold day.

Humidity present in air:

Since, velocity of sound wave in water is more than that in air, so

humidity in air increases the velocity of sound. Therefore, an increase
in humidity in air increases the velocity of sound and a decrease in
humidity in air decreases the velocity of sound. This is the cause that
we can hear more clearly in rainy season than in summer.

Reflection of Sound

Sound wave also gets reflected as light waves do. Bouncing back of
sound wave from the surface of solid or liquid is called reflection of
sound.

Reflection of sound follows the Laws of Reflection as light wave

does. This means the angle of incident wave and reflected wave to
the normal are equal.

For reflection of sound a polished or rough and big obstacle is

necessary.

Use of Reflection of Sound:-

Reflection of sound is used in many devices. For example; megaphone,

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loudspeaker, bulb horn, stethoscope, hearing aid, sound board etc.

Loudspeaker, Megaphone, bulb horn:

Loudspeaker, Megaphone and bulb horn are devices used to send

the sound in desired direction without spreading the sound all
around. These devices act on the laws of reflection of sound wave.

In such devices, a funnel like cone shaped tube is used. Sound is

introduced at the narrower end of tube and let to come out from wider
end. Because of successive reflections, the amplitude of sound is added
up which makes the sound louder. The name ‘Loudspeaker’ is given as it
is used to make the sound louder.

Stethoscope: –

Stethoscope is used to hear the sounds of internal organs of a

patient; for diagnostic purposes. It works on the laws of
reflection of sound.

In stethoscope, sound is received by chest piece and sent to the

earpieces by multiple reflecting through a long tube. Doctors
diagnose the condition of an organ of the human body by hearing the
sound using the stethoscope. Stethoscope has become the symbol of
the medical profession since its invention.

Soundboard –
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Sound board is used to send the sound towards audience in big hall
or auditorium. This works on the basis of laws of reflection of sound
waves.

Sound board is a big concave board and is set in such a fashion

behind the stage that speaker is at the focus. Sound coming from
speaker falls over sound board and gets reflected towards the
audience. As a result, the audience sitting in the hall even at far
distance from the speaker can clearly hear what the speaker is
saying.

Additionally, the ceiling of the auditorium is also made curved so

that it also acts like sound board. The curved surface of the ceiling
reflects the sound waves and facilitates better hearing.

Echo:
The sound which we hear after reflection is called echo or echo of
sound. One can hear the echo by shouting loudly in a big hall. After
shouting loudly, the same sound reaches the ears after reflecting from
the surface of the wall. Echo of sound can be heard by producing sound
at place surrounded by hills or big buildings.

Thus, repetition of sound because of multiple reflection of sound wave

is called echo.

Condition necessary for creation of echo:

One does not experience any echo sound in a small room. This does
not mean that sound does not get reflected in a small room, but
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necessary conditions for production of echo are not present.

Any sound persists on one’s brain upto 0.1 second of time. So echo can
only be heard if the same sound comes to one’s ear after a lapse of 0.1
second.

Thus, reflection of sound must reach to the brain after a lapse of 0.1
second.

Explanation:

Since, sound covers 344 m in air in 1 second.

Thus, in 0.1 second sound would cover a distance of 344 m x 0.1 = 34.4
m

Thus, to hear an echo sound the reflecting surface must be at a

distance of 17.2 m, so that sound has to cover a distance which is more
than 17.2 m x 2 = 34.4 m; before reaching the ears.

So, if reflecting surface is at a distance of more than 17.2 m, the sound

would reach to our brain after 0.1 second and we would be able to
hear the echo of sound.

Thus, there are two conditions to experience the echo of sound –

Sound must come back to the person after 0.1 second.

(a) For above condition, the reflecting surface must be at a minimum

distance of 17.2m.

Multiple Echo:

You may have heard the echo of your yahoo in hilly areas. This
happens because of multiple reflection of sound wave and is often
called multiple echoes.

The rolling sound of thunder is heard because of the multiple

reflections of thunder sound or multiple echoes. The sound of thunder
comes to us many times because of reflections from clouds and earth
surface.

Use of multiple reflection of sound:

(a) In measuring the depth of sea/ocean.

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(b) For the detection of the position of any objects, such as

shipwrecks, sea rocks, hidden ice-berg in the sea and ocean.

(c)Investigating any problem inside the human body.

For above mentioned purposes, sound of high frequency is produced so

that reflections can be received from various surfaces. The time taken
for reception of reflected sound waves is analyzed by a computer to
detect the problem.

Reverberations
Persistence of sound wave for a long time because of multiple
reflections is called reverberation. Usually, this happens in big halls.
Sound becomes too blurred and distorted to be heard in big concert
halls because of reverberation. This can often lead to annoyance.

To overcome this problem, sound absorbent materials, such as

curtains, plant fibre, compressed fireboard, carpets, etc. are used
in the auditorium.

These materials absorb undesired reflected sound and reduce

reverberation.

Range of Hearing or Audible Range

The human ear can hear the sound between frequencies of 20 Hz to

20,000 Hz. Thus, audible range or range of hearing is between 20 Hz to
20,000 Hz; for human beings. However, children under 5 years of age
can hear the sound upto 25000

Hz.

Sound beyond audible range of human being: Infrasound and

Ultrasound

Infrasonic Sound or Infrasound

Sound, below the frequency of 20Hz is called infrasonic or infrasound.

Infrasound is produced because of very slow vibration. For example;
simple pendulum produces sound below 20Hz. Human being cannot
hear infrasound as their ears are not adapted to hear the sound of
such range.

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Many animals; such as whale, elephant, rhinoceros, etc. can produce

and hear sound having frequencies below 20 Hz.

Ultrasound or Ultrasonic Sound

Ultrasound or ultrasonic sound:- Sound, above the frequency of 20000

Hz is called ultrasound. Humans cannot hear the ultrasonic sound.
However, many animals such as dogs, cat, bat, monkey, deer, etc. can
hear ultrasound.

Bats catch their prey by producing ultrasound. Bat produces ultrasound

and detects the reflected sound waves coming from any obstacle; such
as a prey. By detecting the reflection of ultrasound, bat understands the
position and type of prey or of any obstacle in the way. Some aquatic
animals, such as dolphin, also use ultrasound to catch their prey.

USE OF ULTRASOUND

Ultrasound is sound waves of high frequency. Because of high

frequency, ultrasound is associated with more energy and can
penetrate upto a large extent. This characteristic of ultrasound makes
it very useful for many purposes. Some of its uses are given here:

In detection of ailments in the human body.

In cleaning of machinery parts which are beyond reach without

disassembling of parts.

Detection of any deformities in metal blocks.

Detection of any blockade in pipe lines.

SONAR :-

SONAR: The full form of SONAR is Sound Navigation And Ranging.

This is a device which is used to measure depth of sea bed, locate
scraps, wrecks, submarines of enemies, etc. in the water by producing
ultrasound. It is fitted over ships and submarines.

Ultrasonic sound waves are produced by SONAR and when these waves
return after reflection from anything in water, they are analyzed with
the help of computer. The shape and position of objects under sea and
ocean is detected on the basis of speed and nature of reflected
ultrasound waves.

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Human Ear :

Structure of Human Ear:

The human ear can be divided into three main parts, viz. external ear,
middle ear and internal ear.

External Ear: The external ear is outside the body and is also
called pinna. It extends into the ear canal.

Middle Ear: The middle ear is composed of the ear drum or

tympanum and the bone ossicles. There are three bone ossicles, viz.
the hammer, the anvil and the stirrup.

Internal Ear: The internal ear is composed of a cochlea and three

semi-circular canals. The cochlea makes the hearing apparatus and
the auditory nerve from it goes to the brain.

Working of Human Ear: The external ear catches sound waves and
channelizes them to the ear drum, via the ear canal. During
compression, the pressure increases outside the ear drum which forces
the eardrum to move inwards. During rarefaction, the pressure
decreases outside the ear drum which forces the eardrum to move
outwards. Thus, a vibration is produced in the eardrum. Further, the
three bones amplify the sound wave, by vibrating in turns. In the inner
ear, the vibrations are converted into electrical signals. These signals
are transmitted by the auditory nerve to the brain. Finally, the brain
interprets those signals as sound.

Question: 1. Choose the correct answer :

Sound can travel through

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(a) gases only

(b) solids only

(c) liquids only

(d) solids, liquids and gases.

Answer:- (d) solids, liquids and gases.

Question: 2. which of the following voices is likely to have minimum

frequency?

(a) Baby girl

(b) Baby boy

(c) A man

(d) A woman

Answer:- (c) A man

Question: 3. In the following statements, tick T against those which are

true, and F against those which are false:

(a) Sound cannot travel in vacuum. (T/F)

Answer: T

(b) The number of oscillations per second of a vibrating object is called

its time period. (T/F)

Answer: F

(c) If the amplitude of vibration is large, sound is feeble. (T/F)

Answer: F

(d) For human ears, the audible range is 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz. (T/F)

Answer: T

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(e) The lower the frequency of vibration, the higher is the pitch. (T/F)

Answer: F

(f) Unwanted or unpleasant sound is termed as music. (T/F)

Answer: F

(g) Noise pollution may cause partial hearing impairment. (T/F)

Answer: T

Question: 4. Fill in the blanks with suitable words.

(a) Time taken by an object to complete one oscillation is

called....................

Answer: Time period.

(b) Loudness is determined by the .........................of vibration.

Answer: Amplitude

(c) The unit of frequency is..........................

Answer: hertz

(d) Unwanted sound is called..........................

Answer: Noise

(e) Shrillness of a sound is determined by the................. of vibration.

Answer: frequency and amplitude

Question: 5. A pendulum oscillates 40 times in 4 seconds. Find its time

period and frequency.

Answer:

Since time period is time taken to complete one oscillation,

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Question: 6. The sound from a mosquito is produced when it vibrates its

wings at an average rate of 500 vibrations per second. What is the time
period of the vibration?

Answer:

Since time period is time taken to complete one oscillation,

Question: 7. Identify the part which vibrates to produce sound in the

following instruments:

(a) Dholak

Answer: Diaphragm (stretched membrane)

(b) Sitar

Answer: String

(c) Flute

Answer: Air column

Question: 8. What is the difference between noise and music? Can music
become noise sometimes?

Answer:

Unwanted sound that is unpleasant to ear is called noise. A pleasant

sound is called music.

Music can become noise at many instances. When someone tries to

enjoy very loud music, it can be noise for someone else. When loud
music is played during religious celebrations or marriages, it can be
annoying for many people.

Question: 9. List sources of noise pollution in your surroundings.

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Answer:

 Running vehicles.
 Use of loudspeaker.
 Use of TV with high volume.

Question: 10. Explain in what way noise pollution is harmful to humans.

Answer: Noise pollution is harmful to humans in many ways. Constant

exposure to noise pollution can create many health related problems;
like insomnia, hypertension and may even lead to loss of hearing.

Question: 11. Your parents are going to buy a house. They have been
offered one on the roadside and another three lanes away from the
roadside. Which house would you suggest your parents should buy?
Explain your answer.

Answer: I will suggest my parent to buy a house which is away from the
roadside, because house at roadside would be noisy because of running
vehicles. On the other hand, the house which is three lanes away from
the roadside would be quieter.

Question: 12. Sketch larynx and explain

its function in your own words.

Answer: Larynx is composed of two

stretched membranes; with some gap
between them. When air passes through
the larynx, the membranes or vocal cords
vibrate and produce sound. That is why
larynx is also known as sound box.

Question: 13. Lightning and thunder take

place in the sky at the same time and at
the same distance from us. Lightning is seen earlier and thunder is
heard later. Can you explain?

Answer: We know that the speed of light much more than the speed of
sound. Due to this, light reaches to us faster than sound. Hence, during
lightning we see the streak of light earlier than hearing the sound of
thunder.

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Term Ist
Conservation of Plants And Animals
Deforestation and Its Causes

A great variety of plants and animals exists on earth. They are essential
for the wellbeing and survival of mankind. Today, a major threat to
survival of these organisms is deforestation. Deforestation means
clearing of forests and using that land for other purposes.

Trees in the forest are cut for some of the purposes mentioned below:

•Procuring land for cultivation.

•Building houses and factories.

•Making furniture or using wood as fuel.

Some natural causes of deforestation are forest fires and severe

droughts.

Consequences of Deforestation
Deforestation increases the temperature and pollution level on the
earth. It increases the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Ground
water level also gets lowered. Deforestation disturbs the balance in
nature. If cutting of trees continues, rainfall and the fertility of the soil
will decrease. Moreover, there will be increased chances of natural
calamities such as floods and droughts. Plants need carbon dioxide for
photosynthesis. Fewer trees would mean that less carbon dioxide will
be used up resulting in its increased amount in the atmosphere. This
will lead to global warming as carbon dioxide traps the heat rays
reflected by the earth. The increase in temperature on the earth
disturbs the water cycle and may reduce rainfall. This could cause
droughts.
Deforestation is a major cause which leads to the change in soil
properties. Physical properties of the soil get affected by plantation and
vegetation. Fewer trees result in more soil erosion. Removal of the top
layer of the soil exposes the lower, hard and rocky layers. This soil has
less humus and is less fertile. Gradually the fertile land gets converted
into deserts. It is called desertification.

Deforestation also leads to a decrease in the water holding capacity of

the soil. The movement of water from the soil surface into the ground
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(infiltration rate) is reduced. So, there are floods. The other properties
of the soil like nutrient content, texture, etc., also change because of
deforestation.

Biosphere Reserve
Biosphere reserves are the areas meant for conservation of
biodiversity. Biodiversity is the variety of plants, animals and
microorganisms generally found in an area. The biosphere reserves
help to maintain the biodiversity and culture of that area. A biosphere
reserve may also contain other protected areas in it. The Pachmarhi
Biosphere Reserve consists of one national park named Satpura and
two wildlife sanctuaries named Bori and Pachmarhi.

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Flora and Fauna:

The plants and animals found in a particular area are termed flora and
fauna of that area. Sal, teak, mango, jamun, silver ferns, arjun, etc are
the flora and chinkara, blue bull, barking deer, cheetal, leopard, wild
dog, wolf, etc. are examples of the fauna.

Endemic Species
Endemic species are those species of plants and animals which are
found exclusively in a particular area. They are not naturally found
anywhere else. A particular type of animal or plant may be endemic to
a zone, a state or a country.

Sal and wild mango are two examples of the endemic flora. Bison,
Indian giant squirrel and flying squirrel are endemic fauna. The
destruction of their habitat, increasing population and introduction
of new species may affect the natural habitat of endemic species and
endanger their existence.

Migration
The way human beings move from their home town to another
city in search of livelihood, animals also move from one place
to other in search of food. This phenomenon is called
migration.

Migratory birds fly to far away areas every year during a particular
time because of climatic changes. They fly for laying eggs as the
weather in their natural habitat becomes very cold and inhospitable.
You will be amazed to know that Siberian Cranes travel about 4000
kms from Siberia to India every year in winter season.

Some species of fish and tortoise also migrate thousands of kilometers

to lay their eggs.

Recycling of Paper
Paper can be recycled five to seven times for use. If each one saves at
least one sheet of paper in a day, we can save many trees in a year. We
should save, reuse used paper and recycle it. By this we not only save
trees but also save energy and water needed for manufacturing paper.
Moreover, the amount of harmful chemicals used in paper making will
also be reduced. In India, we have some method of paper recycling by
way of rag pickers and dealers of old and waste items. You may have
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observed your parents selling old newspapers to the Kabadiwala. They

sell them to shopkeepers and paper bag manufacturers. Some of the
papers land in paper manufacturing plants for recycling.

Reforestation
Reforestation is restocking of the destroyed forests by planting new
trees. The planted trees should generally be of the same species which
were found in that forest. We should plant at least as many trees as we
cut. Reforestation can take place naturally also. If the deforested area
is left undisturbed, it reestablishes itself. In natural reforestation there
is no role of human beings. We have already made a tremendous
damage to our forests. If we have to retain our green wealth for
generations, plantation of more trees is the only option.
Summary
Wildlife sanctuary, national park and biosphere reserve are names
given to the areas meant for conservation and preservation of forest
and wild animals.
Biodiversity refers to the variety of living organisms in a specific area.
Plants and animals of a particular area are known as the flora and
fauna of that area.
Endemic species are found only in a particular area.
Endangered species are those which are facing the danger of
extinction. Red Data Book contains a record of the endangered
species.
Migration is the phenomenon of movement of a species from its own
habitat to some other habitat for a particular time period every year
for a specific purpose like breeding.
We should save, reuse and recycle paper to save trees, energy
and water. Reforestation is the restocking of destroyed forests
by planting new trees

Solution of NCERT Exercise

Question: 1. Fill in the blanks:

(a) A place where animals are protected in their natural habitat is

called ……………..

Answer: Sanctuaries

(b) Species found only in a particular area is known as ……………..

Answer: Endemic

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(c) Migratory birds fly to far away places because of …………….changes.

Answer: Climatic

Question: 2. Differentiate between the following:

(a) Wildlife sanctuary and biosphere reserve

Answer: Both wildlife sanctuary and biosphere reserve are meant for
protecting animals in their natural surroundings. Human interference
is totally prevented in case of a wildlife sanctuary. On the other hand,
tribal; living in nearby areas are allowed access to a biosphere reserve.
Moreover, biosphere reserve is much larger in size compared to
wildlife sanctuary.

(b) Zoo and wildlife sanctuary

Answer: A zoo is a place where animals are kept in captivity; with

separate enclosures for carnivores and herbivores. Zoo is also a place
where and endangered animal can be bred in captivity. A wildlife
sanctuary is a place where animals live in their natural habitat and are
not kept in captivity.

(c) Endangered and extinct species

Answer: A species which is in the danger of becoming extinct is called

endangered species. A species which no longer exists on the earth is
called extinct species.

(d) Flora and fauna

Answer: The sum of plant species in a given area is called the flora of
that area. The sum of animal species in a given area is called the fauna
of that area.

Question: 3. Discuss the effects of deforestation on the following:

(a) Wild animals

Answer: The habitat of wild animals is drastically reduced. This creates

scarcity of food and dwelling place for wild animals.

(b) Environment
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Answer: Green plants prepare their own food and all other organisms
depend for their food on green plants. So, deforestation disturbs the
food chain. Green plants also help in precipitation and deforestation
reduces the amount of precipitation. Green plants take in carbon
dioxide and release oxygen during photosynthesis and thus maintain
the balance of carbon dioxide and oxygen in the environment.
Deforestation disturbs this balance.

(c) Villages (Rural areas)

Answer: Deforestation leads to soil erosion and results in flash floods.

This hampers agricultural activities and thus disturbs the people in
rural areas.

(d) Cities (Urban areas)

Answer: Cities depend on rural areas and forests for many items; like
food and timber. Deforestation can reduce the supply of necessary
items to people in urban areas.

(e) Earth

Answer: The whole earth is full of various ecosystems which together

make the biosphere. Deforestation disturbs the balance in the
biosphere. It disturbs climatic patterns.

(f) The next generation

Answer: The next generation would get an environment which would

be in very bad shape; because of deforestation. Life would be very
difficult for the next generation.

Question: 4. What will happen if:

(a) We go on cutting trees.

Answer: Deforestation will result in environmental degradation and

desertification. It will also reduce groundwater reserve.

(b) The habitat of an animal is disturbed.

Answer: The animal would become extinct.

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(c) The top layer of soil is exposed.

Answer: It will lead to loss of fertility of soil and finally to

desertification.

Question: 5. Answer in brief:

(a) Why should we conserve biodiversity?

Answer: A rich biodiversity is necessary to protect our environment.

That is why we need to conserve biodiversity.

(b) Protected forests are also not completely safe for wild animals.
Why?

Answer: Due to growing human population, human interference is on

the rise even in protected forests. Moreover, poaching is still rampant
in many parts. This is the reason that even protected forests are not
completely safe for wild animals.

(c) Some tribals depend on the jungle. How?

Answer: Tribal which lives near a jungle take many forest produce for
their use. For example; they take firewood which is used as kitchen
fuel. They hunt for some game animals. They utilize many plants as
herbs and medicines. They also collect some forest produce which are
used as raw materials for various industries.

(d) What are the causes and consequences of deforestation?

Answer: Causes of deforestation are as follows:

 Clearing land for human habitation and cultivation

 Need of wood for building houses and factories.
 Need of wood for making furniture.

Consequences of deforestation are as follows:

 Soil erosion
 Depletion of groundwater
 Flash flood
 Global warming

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(e) What is Red Data Book?

Answer: The Red Data Book is a list of endangered species. It is

released by ICUN (International Union for Conservation of Nature). It
was first released in 1963.

(f) What do you understand by the term migration?

Answer: Many animals travel to faraway places in search of food and

breeding ground; when climatic changes take place in their natural
habitat. Migration is usually an annual event. Birds are more famous as
long distance migratory species. Many birds from Siberia come to India
during winter months; in search of warm climate and food.

Question: 6. In order to meet the ever-increasing demand in factories

and for shelter, trees are being continually cut. Is it justified to cut trees
for such projects? Discuss and prepare a brief report.

Answer: According to a United Nations report, agriculture is the major

cause of deforestation. Subsistence farming is responsible for 48% of
deforestation; commercial agriculture is responsible for 32% of
deforestation; logging is responsible for 14% of deforestation and fuel
wood removals make up 5% of deforestation. This report shows that
agriculture is responsible for 80% of deforestation. Logging which is
done to supply wood for construction activities contributes 14% but
this also a significant number.

Since human beings also need natural resources for their use so they
have every right to exploit natural resources for their benefit. But being
the most intelligent species on the earth, it is our responsibility to
protect the earth. This can be done by proper planning for afforestation
so that removed trees can be replaced with new trees.

Question: 7. How can you contribute to the maintenance of green

wealth of your locality? Make a list of actions to be taken by you.

Answer: I can take following actions to contribute to the maintenance

of green wealth in my locality:

 Planting new trees.

 Convincing other people to plant new trees.
 Taking out rallies to create awareness among people.

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 Coordinating with local authorities for proper help.

Question: 8. Explain how deforestation leads to reduced rainfall.

Answer: Green plants lose water by way of transpiration. This

contributes a lot towards atmospheric moisture. Thus, green plants
have major contribution in precipitation. Due to this, deforestation
leads to reduced rainfall.

Question: 9. Find out the information about the national parks in your
state. Identify and show their location on the outline map of India.

Answer: Some major national parks have been shown in the following
map of India. You can select the national parks which are in your native
state and can fill the map accordingly.

Question: 10. Why should paper be saved? Prepare a list of ways by

which you can save paper.

Answer: Paper is made from wood pulp; which means trees need to be
cut for making paper. By saving paper, we can in fact save the forest.
We can do following to save paper:

 Use old newspaper and notebooks for making rough work while
doing your homework.
 Old envelopes can also be used for doing the rough work.
 Paper should be recycled to minimize the need of cutting trees.
 Schools should encourage online submission of reports and
assignments so that paper can be saved.
 Don’t take a printout unless it is absolutely necessary.

Question: 11. Complete the word puzzle:

Down

1. Species on the verge of extinction.

2. A book, carrying information about endangered species.

5. Consequence of deforestation.

Answer: 1: ENDANGERED, 2: RED DATA BOOK, 5: DESERTS

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Across

1. Species which have vanished.

3. Species found only in a particular habitat.

4. Variety of plants, animals and microorganisms found in an area.

Answer: 1: EXTINCT, 3: ENDEMIC, 4: BIODIVERSITY

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Food Production and Management

All living organisms require food. Plants can make their food
themselves. Animals including humans cannot make their own food.
The energy from food is utilized by organisms for carrying out their
various body functions, such as digestion, respiration and excretion.
We get our food from plants, or animals, or both.

In order to provide food for a large population— regular production,

proper management and distribution of food is necessary.

Agricultural Practices

When plants of the same kind are grown and cultivated at one place on
a large scale, it is called a crop. For example, crop of wheat means that
all the plants grown in a field are that of wheat. Crops are of different
types like cereals, vegetables and fruits. These can be classified on the
basis of the season in which they grow. India is a vast country. The
climatic conditions like temperature, humidity and rainfall vary from
one region to another.

Accordingly, there is a rich variety of crops grown in different

parts of the country. Despite this diversity, two broad cropping
patterns can be identified. These are:

(i) Kharif Crops:- The crops which are sown in the rainy season
are called kharif crops. The rainy season in India is generally from
June to September. Paddy, maize, soyabean, groundnut, cotton, etc.,
are kharif crops.

(ii) Rabi Crops:- The crops grown in the winter season are called
rabi crops. Their time period is generally from October to March.
Examples of rabi crops are wheat, gram, pea, mustard and linseed.
Besides these, pulses and vegetables are grown during summer at
many places.

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Basic Practices of Crop Production

Cultivation of crops involves several activities undertaken by farmers

over a period of time. These activities or tasks are referred to as
agricultural practices. These activities are listed below.

(i) Preparation of Soil:

The preparation of soil is the first step before growing a crop. One of
the most important tasks in agriculture is to turn the soil and loosen it.
This allows the roots to penetrate deep into the soil. The loose soil
allows the roots to breathe easily even when they go deep into the soil.
The loosened soil helps in the\ growth of earthworms and microbes
present in the soil.

The process of loosening and turning of the soil is called tilling or

ploughing. This is done by using a plough. Ploughs are made of wood
or iron. If the soil is very dry, it may need watering before ploughing.
The ploughed field may have big pieces of soil called crumbs. It is
necessary to break these crumbs with a plank. The field is levelled for
sowing as well as for irrigation purposes. The levelling of soil is done
with the help of a leveller.

(ii) Sowing:
Sowing is the most important part of crop production. Before sowing,
good quality seeds are selected. Good quality seeds are clean and
healthy seeds of a good variety. Farmers prefer to use seeds which give
a high yield.

Before sowing, one of the important tasks is to know about the

tools used for sowing seeds

Traditional Tool: The tool used traditionally for sowing seeds is

shaped like a funnel. The seeds are filled into the funnel, passed down
through two or three pipes having sharp ends. These ends pierce into
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the soil and place seeds there.

Seed Drill: Nowadays the seed drill is used for sowing with the help of
tractors. This tool sows the seeds uniformly at proper distances and
depths. It ensures that seeds get covered by the soil after sowing. This
prevents damage caused by birds. Sowing by using a seed drill saves
time and labour.

(iii) Adding Manure and Fertilisers

The substances which are added to the soil in the form of nutrients for
the healthy growth of plants are called manure and fertilisers. Soil
supplies mineral nutrients to the crop. These nutrients are essential for
the growth of plants. In certain areas, farmers grow crop after crop in
the same field. The field is never left uncultivated or fallow.

Continuous growing of crops makes the soil poorer in certain

nutrients. Therefore, farmers have to add manure to the fields to
replenish the soil with nutrients. This process is called manuring.

Manure is an organic substance obtained from the decomposition of

plant or animal wastes. Farmers dump plant and animal waste in
pits at open places and allow it to decompose. The decomposition is
caused by some microorganisms. The decomposed matter is used as
organic manure.

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Advantages of Manure: The organic manure is considered better

than fertilisers. This is because

it enhances the water holding capacity of the soil.

it makes the soil porous due to which exchange of gases

becomes easy. it increases the number of friendly
microbes.

it improves the texture of the soil.

(iv) Irrigation

All living beings need water to live. Water is important for proper
growth and development of flowers, fruits and seeds of plants. Water
is absorbed by the plant roots. Along with water, minerals and
fertilisers are also absorbed. Plants contain nearly 90% water. Water
is essential because germination of seeds does not take place under
dry conditions. Nutrients dissolved in water get transported to each
part of the plant. Water also protects the crop from both frost and hot
air currents.

The supply of water to crops at different intervals is called

irrigation. The time and frequency of irrigation varies from crop
to crop, soil to soil and season to season.

Sources of Irrigation: The sources of irrigation are— wells,

tubewells, ponds, lakes, rivers, dams and canals.

Traditional Methods of Irrigation

The water available in wells, lakes and canals is lifted up by different

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methods in different regions, for taking it to the fields. Cattle or

human labour is used in these methods. So these methods are
cheaper, but less efficient. The various traditional ways are:

(i) Moat (pulley-system)

(ii) Chain pump

(iii) Dhekli, and

(iv) Rahat (Lever system)

Modern Methods of Irrigation

Modern methods of irrigation help us to use water economically. The

main methods used are as follows:

(a) Sprinkler System: This system is more useful on the uneven

land where sufficient water is not available. The perpendicular pipes,
having rotating nozzles on top, are joined to the main pipeline at
regular intervals. When water is allowed to flow through the main pipe
under pressure with the help of a pump, it escapes from the rotating
nozzles. It gets sprinkled on the crop as if it is raining. Sprinkler is very
useful for sandy soil.

(b) Drip system: In this system, the water falls drop by drop just at
the position of the roots. So it is called drip system. It is the best
technique for watering fruit plants, gardens and trees.

(v) Protection from Weeds

In a field many other undesirable plants may grow naturally along

with the crop. These undesirable plants are called weeds.

The removal of weeds is called weeding. Weeding is necessary since

weeds compete with the crop plants for water, nutrients, space and
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light. Thus, they affect the growth of the crop.

Farmers adopt many ways to remove weeds and control their growth.
Tilling before sowing of crops helps in uprooting and killing of weeds,
which may then dry up and get mixed with the soil. The best time for
the removal of weeds is before they produce flowers and seeds. The
manual removal includes physical removal of weeds by uprooting or
cutting them close to the ground, from time to time. This is done with
the help of a khurpa.

Weeds are also controlled by using certain chemicals, called

weedicides; these are sprayed in the fields to kill the weeds. They
do not damage the crops.

(vi) Harvesting

Harvesting of a crop is an important task. The cutting of crop after it is

mature is called harvesting. In harvesting, crops are pulled out or cut
close to the ground. It usually takes 3 to 4 months for a cereal crop to
mature.

In the harvested crop, the grain seeds need to be separated from the
chaff. This process is called threshing. This is carried out with the help
of a machine called ‘combine’ which is in fact a combined harvester
and thresher.

(vii) Storage

Storage of produce is an important task. If the crop grains are to be

kept for longer time, they should be safe from moisture, insects, rats
and microorganisms. The fresh crop has more moisture. If freshly
harvested grains (seeds) are stored without drying, they may get spoilt
or attacked by organisms, losing their germination capacity.

Summary

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In order to provide food to our growing population, we need

to adopt certain agricultural practices.

Same kind of plants grown and cultivated at a place constitute a

crop.

In India, crops can be broadly categorised into two types based

on seasons -rabi and kharif crops.
It is necessary to prepare soil by tilling and levelling. Ploughs
and levellers are used for this purpose.
Sowing of seeds at appropriate depths and distances gives good
yield. Good variety of seeds is sown after selection of healthy
seeds. Sowing is done by seed drills.

Soil needs replenishment and enrichment through the use of

organic manure and fertilizers. Use of chemical fertilisers has
increased tremendously with the introduction of new crop
varieties.

Supply of water to crops at appropriate intervals is called irrigation.

Weeding involves removal of unwanted and uncultivated plants called

weeds. Harvesting is the cutting of the mature crop manually or by
machines

Separation of the grains from the chaff is called threshing.

Proper storage of grains is necessary to protect them from

pests and microorganisms.
Food is also obtained from animals for which animals are reared.
This is called animal husbandry.

Question: 1. Select the correct word from the following list and fill in
the blanks.
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(float, water, crop, nutrients, preparation)

(a) The same kind of plants grown and cultivated on a large scale at a
place is called _____________.

Answer: crop

(b) The first step before growing crops is _____________ of the soil.

Answer: preparation

(c) Damaged seeds would _____________ on top of water.

Answer: - Float

(d) For growing a crop, sufficient sunlight and _____________ and

_____________ from the soil are essential.

Answer: - water and nutrients

Question: 2. Match items in column A with those in column B.

Colulumn A Column B
Kharif crops Food for cattle
Rabi crops Urea and super phosphate
Chemical fertilizers Animal excreta, cow dung, urine and plant waste
Organic manure Wheat, gram, pea
Paddy and maize

Answer:

Colulumn A Column B
Kharif crops Paddy and maize
Rabi crops Wheat, gram, pea
Chemical fertilisers Urea and super phosphate
Organic manure Animal excreta, cow dung, urine and plant waste

Question: 3. Give two examples of each.

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(a) Kharif crop:

Answer: Paddy and maize

(b) Rabi crop:

Answer: Wheat and gram

Question: 4. Write a paragraph in your own words on each of the

following.

(a) Preparation of soil

Answer: Preparation of soil is the first step of farming. Soil is loosened

and turned over. This helps in making the soil more airy so that roots
can breathe in air. Moreover, loosening of soil also facilitates better
penetration of roots into the soil. Seeds can be easily sown in loosened
soil.

(b) Sowing

Answer: The method of putting the seeds into soil is called sowing.
Traditionally, seed is sown manually by spreading the seeds by hands.
This process is called broadcasting. Seed drills are used when sowing
needs to be done on a large scale.

(c) Weeding

Answer: Removal of weeds is called weeding. Unwanted plants which

grow along with the crop are called weeds. They compete for
resources; like sunlight, water and air; with the main crop. So, it is
necessary to remove weeds for proper growth of crops. Weeding is
usually done manually by using hands and sickles. Sometimes
weedicides are also sprayed.

(d) Threshing

Answer: Separation of grains from harvested stems is called threshing.

For smaller quantity, threshing is done by hands. For somewhat bigger
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quantity, threshing is done using animal; especially bullocks. Animals

are made to trample over the harvested stock which helps in
separation of grains. Threshing machines are used for bigger
quantities.

Question: 5. Explain how fertilisers are different from manure.

Answer: Fertilisers are synthesized in factories from inorganic

materials. On the other hand, manure is made from organic materials;
through the process of decomposition. Excessive use of fertilisers is not
good for soil and may lead to soil pollution. Use of manure is beneficial
for soil.

Question: 6. What is irrigation? Describe two methods of irrigation

which conserve water.

Answer: The process of artificially providing water to growing crops is

called irrigation. Two methods of irrigation which help in water
conservation are as follows:

(a) Sprinkler: Sprinkler system is composed of pipelines in which

nozzles are fitted at various locations. Water comes out of the nozzle
and is sprinkled on plants. This system helps in saving lot of water.

(b) Drip Irrigation: For this, small holes are made in pipes which are
laid along the rows of crops. Water slowly drips down on the roots of
crops. This system is especially useful for plantations and also in water
scarce areas.

Question: 7. If wheat is sown in the kharif season, what would

happen? Discuss.

Answer: The crop of wheat needs mild to moderate temperature and

frost free days; along with irrigation but no water logging. Winters are
suitable for growing wheat. In the kharif season; which coincides with
the peak summer months in India, temperature is at its peak which is
not suitable for wheat. Moreover, during rainy season lot of water
accumulates in fields which would be harmful for wheat crop. Hence, if
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wheat is sown in the kharif season; the productivity would be

minuscule and would not be profitable for the farmers.

Question: 8. Explain how soil gets affected by the continuous

plantation of crops in a field.

Answer: Continuous plantation of crops in a field affects soil fertility.

Plants utilize all the nutrients from soil which leads to depletion of
nutrients in the soil. As a result, soil fertility reduces drastically.

Question: 9. What are weeds? How can we control them?

Answer: Unwanted plants which grow along with crops are called
weeds. Weeds compete with crops for natural resources; like sunlight,
water and nutrients. Thus, weeds hamper the growth of crops. Weeds
are usually removed manually by hands and by sickles. This process is
called weeding. Sometimes, weedicides are also sprayed to kills weeds.

Question: 10. Arrange the following boxes in proper order to make

a flow chart of sugarcane crop production.

Sending crop to sugar factory → Irrigation → Harvesting → Sowing →

Preparation of soil → Ploughing the field → Manuring

Answer: Preparation of soil → Ploughing the field → Manuring →

Sowing → Irrigation → Harvesting → Sending crop to sugar factory

Question: 11. Complete the following word puzzle with the help of
clues given below.

Down

1. Providing water to the crops.

2. Keeping crop grains for a long time under proper conditions.

5. Certain plants of the same kind grown on a large scale.

Answer: 1: IRRIGATION 2: STORAGE 5: CROP

Across

3. A machine used for cutting the matured crop.

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4. A rabi crop that is also one of the pulses.

6. A process of separating the grain from chaff.

Answer: 3: HARVESTOR 4: GRAM 6: WINNOW.

Combustion and Flame

Combustion

Process of giving off heat by a substance after reaction with oxygen is

called combustion. Sometimes, in the process of combustion, light is
also given off along with heat. Combustion is a chemical process. For
example; when petrol, LPG, kerosene, etc. reacts with oxygen, they give
off heat.

Combustible Substance

Substances which go under combustion are known as combustible

substances. Combustible substances are also known as fuel. For
example; wood, charcoal, LPG, kerosene, petrol, diesel, etc.

Ignition Temperature:

Ignition temperature is the lowest temperature at which a substance

catches fire. Ignition temperature is different for different substances.
For example; LPG, petrol, natural gas, etc. catch fire at very low
temperature and thus have low ignition temperature, while wood,
coal, etc. have high ignition temperature.

Conditions for combustion

There are three conditions necessary for combustion: -

(a)Fuel – Fuel is the substance which undergoes combustion.

(b) Supply of air – Oxygen helps in combustion. Air contains about

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29% of oxygen, thus supply of air makes the oxygen available which
helps in combustion. Without oxygen, combustion will not take place.

(c)Ignition temperature – For catching fire, a combustible substance

must reach its ignition temperature. If a combustible substance does
not reach at or above its ignition temperature, it will not catch fire
and combustion will not take place.
Thus, above three conditions are necessary for combustion to take
place. If any one of the three will not be available, combustion will not
take place.

Inflammable substance
Substances which catch fire at very low temperature and burn
with flame are called inflammable substances. For example; LPG,
Petrol, Spirit, etc.

Controlling the Fire – Fire extinguisher

Many a time; homes, forest, shops, etc. catch fire. In such cases, it
becomes necessary to put off the fire otherwise it may cause huge
monetary loss and loss of lives. Fire Brigade or Firemen are experts in
controlling fire by using fire extinguisher.

To extinguish fire, at least any one out of three essential conditions for
combustion must be removed. Supply of fuel, supply of air and ignition
temperature; are the three essential conditions for combustion.

In case of fire in a building, the whole building becomes fuel. It is not

possible to cut off the supply of fuel. Thus, firemen try to cut off air
supply and or bring down the temperature of combustible material
below their ignition temperature.

Fire extinguisher:
Water is one of the best, cheapest and oldest fire extinguishers. By
pouring water over the combustible material, the temperature can be
cooled down. Cooling down brings the combustible materials below
their ignition temperature. In addition to this, water vapour surrounds
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the combustible material which stops the supply of air. Removal of

these two conditions puts off the fire.
This is the cause that firemen generally pour water over the materials
which have caught fire.
Controlling fire when electrical equipment is on fire: Water is not
suitable in the case when electrical equipment or oil catches the fire.
In the case of electrical equipment on fire, pouring water over them
may prove disastrous because normal water is a good conductor of
electricity. It may conduct electricity and can harm the persons who
are trying to control the fire.

Controlling fire in the case of oil, petrol, etc.: Water is heavier than oil.
So when water is poured over oil; oil comes on top and keeps on
burning.

Carbon dioxide as fire extinguisher: Carbon dioxide does not

support combustion and hence is considered as the best fire
extinguisher.

Carbon dioxide is heavier than air and hence covers the material
which is burning. By covering the material, supply of oxygen is
stopped. This puts off the further combustion and fire is controlled.

Under high pressure, carbon dioxide liquefies and takes less space
because of compression. Liquid carbon dioxide is stored in cylinders.
A nozzle is attached with cylinder to release carbon dioxide. When
nozzle is opened, carbon dioxide starts coming out from the cylinder
because of high pressure. It expands and covers the combustible
materials as blanket. This cuts off the supply of oxygen to the
combustible materials. Because of expansion, the temperature of
carbon dioxide decreases which decrease the temperature and brings
down the combustible material below their ignition temperature.
Thus, stoppage of supply of oxygen and bringing down the
temperature below the ignition temperature of combustible materials
put off the fire.
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Sodium bicarbonate or potassium bicarbonate as fire extinguisher:

Sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) or potassium bicarbonate releases
carbon dioxide on heating. Thus, when powder of sodium bicarbonate
or potassium bicarbonate is spread over or near the fire, they release
carbon dioxide which covers the burning
materials and cuts off the supply of oxygen to them. This puts off the
fire
Combustion and Flame
Types of Combustion: -
Combustion can be divided into three types – rapid combustion,
spontaneous combustion and explosion.
Rapid Combustion:
Combustion in which a substance burns rapidly and produces heat and
flame is known as rapid combustion, such as combustion of natural
gas,
LPG, petrol etc. This is usually attained by introducing external heat.
Substances which undergo rapid combustion have lower ignition
temperature.

Spontaneous Combustion:
When a substance suddenly starts burning into a flame; without the
supply of any external cause (such as heating; the combustion is called
spontaneous combustion. Substances; which have relatively low
temperature of ignition generally burn by spontaneous combustion.

Examples:
Phosphorous and sulphur start burning instantaneously; at room
temperature. Haystacks, linseed oil, coal, pyrite, etc. sometimes start
burning suddenly with
flame because of increase in temperature.

In coal mines, fire breaks out many a times because of combustion of

coal dust. Fire often breaks out suddenly because of increase in
temperature due to sun or Friction
Explosion: -
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When combustion is accompanied by sudden production of heat,

sound and large amount of gas, it is called explosion. Firecrackers and
bombs are substances which show explosion.

Flame
All substances do not give flame while burning. Substances which
vapourise while burning give flame and those which do not vapourise
while burning do not give flame.

Fuels which burnt with flame are used to produce light.

Example –

Kerosene, wax, wood, etc. burn with flame as they vapourise during
burning.
Coal and coke do not vaporize while burning and hence do not produce
flame

Structure of flame

Flame can be divided into three zones – innermost zone, middle zone
and outer zone

Innermost zone: Zone near the wick of a candle is called the innermost
zone of the flame. The innermost zone is the zone of unburnt wax and
is generally of black colour. It is the least hot zone.
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Middle zone: Zone in the middle of the flame is called the middle zone.
Middle zone of flame is moderately hot and of yellowish colour. In this
zone, fuel burns partially. Middle zone is the luminous zone, because
partial combustion of carbon produces glow.

Middle zone produces black deposits of unburnt carbon particles.

Outer zone: Outer zone of flame is of bluish colour and the hottest part
of the flame. In this zone, fuel is completely burnt. Because of complete
combustion, it gives bluish colour.

Fuel
All combustible materials are not considered as fuel. Charcoal, wood,
LPG, cowdung cake, natural gas, petrol, diesel, kerosene etc. are known
as fuel.

Criteria for ideal fuel

Easily and readily available Cheap

Burns easily in air at moderate rate Produces large amount of heat

Burns completely and does not leave any undesirable substance after
burning.

Substances which meet above criteria are known as ideal fuel. But
ideal fuel is not available in practical life.

Fuels which meet most of the criteria are considered as good fuel.

Fuel efficiency:

Efficiency of a fuel is measured by its calorific value.

Calorific value is the amount of heat produced by the complete burning
of 1 kg of fuel. And hence calorific value of fuel is expressed in kilo
joule per kg (k J/kg).

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A fuel with higher calorific value is considered as an efficient fuel.

Burning of Fuel Produces Harmful Products

Since, no fuel is considered as an ideal fuel, thus they do not undergo

complete combustion and produce unwanted substances. These
substances have harmful effect on the humans and the environment.
Some of the harmful effects of burning of fuel are as follows:
Fuels; like, wood, petrol, diesel, coal, etc. release unburnt carbon
particles. These unburnt carbon particles create pollution by mixing in
air. They lead to diseases of respiratory system and many other related
diseases.

Incomplete combustion of carbon fuels produces carbon monoxide.

Carbon monoxide is a poisonous gas which may kill a person.

Most of the fuels release carbon dioxide gas. Excess carbon dioxide gas
in the atmosphere leads to global warming.

Burning of coal and diesel produce sulphur dioxide. Burning of petrol

gives oxide of nitrogen. When these gases mix with rainwater, acids
are formed. These acids fall along with rainwater and this is called acid
rain. Acid rain is harmful for animals and plants.

Acid rain is also harmful for buildings and monuments. The famous Taj
Mahal has lost much of its sheen because of acid rain.

CNG is considered as a cleaner fuel. It releases harmful products in

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very small amount. Now-a-days CNG is being used to run vehicles in

many towns, such as Delhi, Ahmadabad and Mumbai. This has helped
in reducing the level of pollution
Question: 1. List conditions under which combustion can take place.
Answer: - Conditions under which combustion can take place are as
follows:
(a) Presence of oxygen
(b) Presence of an inflammable substance
(c) Ignition temperature
Question: 2. Fill in the blanks:
(a) Burning of wood and coal causes …………….of air.
Answer: Pollution
(b) A liquid fuel, used in homes is …………….
Answer: - Kerosene
(c) Fuel must be heated to its ………… …………….before it starts burning.
Answer: Ignition temperature
(d) Fire produced by oil cannot be controlled by ……………...
Answer: Water
Question: 3. Explain how the use of CNG in automobiles has reduced
pollution in our cities.
Answer: CNG is a cleaner fuel; compared to petrol and diesel. CNG
produces lesser amount of harmful gases on burning. Due to this, CNG
is now being used in automobiles in many cities; which has helped in
reducing pollution in our cities.
Question: 4. Compare LPG and wood as fuels.
Answer: Wood has traditionally been used as kitchen fuel and is still
predominantly being used in rural areas. Burning of wood creates
many air pollutants which can result in respiratory problems.
Moreover, incomplete oxidation during burning of wood creates
carbon monoxide which is a poisonous gas. LPG is much better
because it burns without giving smoke. It produces lesser amount of
air pollutants. Complete oxidation during burning of LPG does not lead
to carbon monoxide production.
Question: 5. Give reasons:
(a) Water is not used to control fires involving electrical equipment.
Answer: Pure water is a bad conductor of electricity but normal water
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contains many salts and hence is a good conductor of electricity.

Trying to douse fires; involving electrical equipment; with water can
result in electric shock. Due to this, water is not used to control fires
involving electrical equipment.
(b) LPG is a better domestic fuel than wood.
Answer: LPG is a better domestic fuel than wood because of several
reasons. Unlike wood, LPG burns without smoke. This makes the life of
housewives more comfortable and they do not have to worry about
blackening of pots and pans. Moreover, use of LPG as domestic fuel
also rules out the chances of getting respiratory disorders which may
happen when someone uses wood as kitchen fuel. Storage and
transportation of LPG is easier compared to that of wood.
(c) Paper by itself catches fire easily whereas a piece of paper wrapped
around an aluminum pipe does not.
Answer: The ignition temperature of paper is lower compared to that
of aluminum. When paper is wrapped around an aluminum pipe; the
ignition temperature increases. That is why paper itself catches fire
easily whereas a piece of paper wrapped around an aluminum pipe
does not.
Question: 6. Make a labelled diagram of a candle flame.
Answer:

Question: 7. Name the unit in which the calorific value of a fuel is

expressed.
Answer: The calorific value of a fuel is expressed in kilo joule per kg
(kJ/kg).
Question: 8. Explain how CO2 is able to control fires.
Answer: Carbon dioxide is heavier than oxygen. Due to this, carbon
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dioxide forms a blanket around the burning material and makes a

barrier between the burning material and oxygen. As oxygen supply is
cutoff, it helps in extinguishing the fire.
Question: 9. It is difficult to burn a heap of green leaves but dry leaves
catch fire easily. Explain.
Answer: Green leaves contain moisture and as a result, the ignition
temperature of green leaves is much higher than that of dry leaves.
Due to this, it is difficult to burn a heap of green leaves but dry leaves
catch fire easily.
Question: 10. Which zone of a flame does a goldsmith use for melting
gold and silver and why?
Answer: The outermost zone of a flame is the hottest zone. Due to this,
goldsmith uses the outermost zone of a flame for melting gold and
silver.
Question: 11. In an experiment 4.5 kg of a fuel was completely burnt.
The heat produced was measured to be 180,000 kJ. Calculate the
calorific value of the fuel
Answer: Total mass of fuel = 4.5 kg
Heat produced by burning the given mass of fuel = 180,000 kJ.
We know that calorific value of fuel

Hence, the calorific value of the given fuel = 40,000 kJ/kg

12. Can the process of rusting be called combustion? Discuss.
Answer: Although the process of rusting also involves oxidation but it
cannot be termed as combustion. The reason for this is that
combustion is defined as a process in which oxidation is accompanied
by heat and heat is not produced during rusting.
13. Abida and Ramesh were doing an experiment in which water was
to be heated in a beaker. Abida kept the beaker near the wick in the
yellow part of the candle flame. Ramesh kept the beaker in the
outermost part of the flame. Whose water will get heated in a shorter
time?
Answer: Since Abida has kept the beaker in the luminous zone of the
flame, the beaker will take more time to get heated. On the other hand,
Ramesh has kept the beaker in the non-luminous zone of the flame so
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his beaker will be heated in shorter time.

Light
The sense of sight is one of the most important senses. Through it we
see mountains, rivers, trees, plants, chairs, people and so many other
things around us. We also see clouds, rainbows and birds flying in the
sky. At night we see the moon and the stars.

We may say that eyes see the objects. But, we can not see an object in
the dark. It means that eyes alone cannot see any object. It is only when
light from an object enters our eyes that we see the object. The light
may have been emitted by the object, or may have been reflected by it.

Definition: Light is electromagnetic radiation, particularly radiation of

a wavelength that is visible to the human eye (about 400–700 nm), or
perhaps 380–750 nm. In physics, the term light sometimes refers to
electromagnetic radiation of any wavelength, whether visible or not.

Three primary properties of light are:

Intensity

Frequency or wavelength :
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Polarization

Laws of Reflection

After striking the mirror, the ray of light is reflected in another

direction. The light ray, which strikes any surface, is called the incident
ray. The ray that comes back from the surface after reflection is known
as the reflected ray.

Regular and Diffused Reflection:

When all the parallel rays reflected from a plane surface are not
parallel, the reflection is known as diffused or irregular reflection. The
diffused reflection is not due to the failure of the laws of reflection. It is
caused by the irregularities in the reflecting surface, like that of a
cardboard. On the other hand reflection from a smooth surface like that
of a mirror is called regular reflection. Images are formed by regular
reflection.

Kaleidoscope

A kaleidoscope is a tube of mirrors containing loose coloured beads,

pebbles or other small coloured objects. The viewer looks in one end
and light enters the other end, reflecting off the mirrors. Typically there
are two rectangular lengthwise mirrors. Setting of the mirrors at 45°
creates eight duplicate images of the objects, six at 60°, and four at 90°.
As the tube is rotated, the tumbling of the coloured objects presents the
viewer with varying colours and patterns. A kaleidoscopic point is a
point of intersection of two or more lines of reflection symmetry.

Human Eyes
We see things only when light coming from them enters our eyes. Eye is
one of our most important sense organs.

The eye has a roughly spherical shape. Outer coat of the eye is white. It
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is tough so that it can protect the interior of the eye from accidents. Its
transparent front part is called cornea. Behind the cornea, we find a
dark muscular structure called iris. In the iris, there is a small opening
called the pupil. The size of the pupil is controlled by the iris. The iris is
the part of that eye which gives it its distinctive colour. When we say
that a person has green eyes, we refer actually to the colour of the iris.
The iris controls the amount of light entering into the eye.

Behind the pupil of the eye is a lens which is thicker in the centre. The
lens focuses light on the back of the eye, on a layer called retina. Retina
contains several nerve cells. Sensations felt by the nerve cells are then
transmitted to the brain through the optic nerve.

There are two kinds of cells

(i) Cones, which are sensitive to bright light and

(ii) Rods, which are sensitive to dim light.

Besides, cones sense colour. At the junction of the optic nerve and the
retina, there are no sensory cells, so no vision is possible at that spot.
This is called the blind spot.

The impression of an image does not vanish immediately from the

retina. It persists there for about 1/16th of a second. So, if still images
of a moving object are flashed on the eye at a rate faster than 16 per
second, then the eye perceives this object as moving.

Care of Eyes
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It is necessary that we take proper care of our eyes. If there is any

problem we should go to an eye specialist. Have a regular checkup. If
advised, use suitable spectacles.

Too little or too much light is bad for eyes. Insufficient light causes
eyestrain and headaches. Too much light, like that of the sun, a
powerful lamp or a laser torch can injure the retina. Do not look at the
sun or a powerful light directly.

Never rub eyes. If particles of dust go into eyes, wash eyes with clean
water. If there is no improvement go to a doctor. Wash eyes frequently
with clean water.

Always read at the normal distance for vision. Do not read by bringing
book too close to eyes or keeping it too far.

Lack of vitamin A in foodstuff is responsible for many eye troubles.

Most common amongst them is night blindness.

One should, therefore, include in the diet components which have

vitamin A. Raw carrots, broccoli and green vegetables (such as spinach)
and cod liver oil are rich in vitamin A. Eggs, milk, curd, cheese, butter
and fruits such as papaya and mango are also rich in vitamin A.

Visually Challenged Persons Can Read and Write

Some persons, including children, can be visually handicapped. They

have very limited vision to see things. Some persons cannot see at all
since birth. Some persons may lose their eyesight because of a disease.
Such persons try to identify things by touching and listening to voices
more carefully. They develop their other senses more sharply.

However, additional resources can enable them to develop their

capabilities further.

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Braille System
The most popular resource for visually challenged persons is known as
Braille. The present system was adopted in 1932. There is Braille code
for common languages, mathematics and scientific notation. Many
Indian languages can be read using the Braille system. Visually
challenged people learn the Braille system by beginning with letters,
then special characters and letter combinations.

Methods depend upon recognition by touching. Each character has to

be memorised. Braille texts can be produced by hand or by machine.
Type writer - like devices and printing machines have now been
developed.

Light: Reflection and Refraction

Reflection: Introduction

Reflection of Light Through Plane and Spherical Mirrors

Reflection is one of the unique properties of light. It is the reflection

of light, which enables us to see any object.

Reflection:- The bouncing back of rays of light from a polished and

shiny surface is called reflection or reflection of light. It is similar to
bouncing back of a football after colliding with a wall or any hard
surface.

Laws of Reflection of light:

The angle of incidence and angle of reflection is equal.

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The incident ray, reflected ray and normal to the point of

reflection lie in the same plane.

The angle of incidence is denoted by 'i' and angle of reflection is

denoted by 'r'.

The law of reflection is applicable to all types of reflecting surface.

Mirror and Reflection of Light:-

Mirror is a shiny polished object (glass) which reflects most of the rays
of light falling upon it. One side of mirror is polished with suitable
material to make the other side reflective.

Types of Image formed by mirrors:- Real and Virtual.

Real image:- Image which is formed in front of the mirror and it can be
obtained on a screen is called real image

Virtual image:- Image which is formed behind the mirror and cannot be
obtained on a screen is called virtual image.

Types of Mirror:- Plane and spherical.

Plane Mirror:- A mirror having a flat surface is called plane mirror.

Formation of image in plane mirror:-

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A plane mirror always form virtual and erect image.

The distance of image and that of object is equal from

the mirror. The image formed by a plane mirror is
laterally inverted.

Spherical Mirror: Mirrors having curved reflecting surface are

called spherical mirrors. A spherical mirror is a part of a sphere.

Type of spherical mirror: Spherical mirrors are of two types - Concave

and Convex.

Concave Mirror: Spherical mirror with reflecting surface curved

inwards is called concave mirror.

Convex Mirror: Spherical mirror with reflecting surface curved

outwards is called convex mirror.
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Important terms in the case of spherical mirror:

Pole: The centre of reflecting surface of a spherical mirror is known as

Pole. Pole lies on the surface of spherical mirror. Pole is generally
represented by ‘P’.

Centre of Curvature: The centre of sphere; of which the reflecting

surface of a spherical mirror is a part; is called the centre of
curvature of the spherical mirror. Centre of curvature is not a part of
spherical mirror rather it lies outside the mirror. Centre of curvature
is denoted by letter ‘C’.

In the case of concave mirror centre of curvature lies in front of the

reflecting surface. On the other hand, centre of curvature lies behind
the reflecting surface in the case of convex mirror.

Radius of Curvature: The radius of sphere; of which the reflecting

surface of a spherical mirror is a part; is called the Radius of
Curvature of the spherical mirror. The radius of curvature of a
spherical mirror is denoted by letter ‘R’.

Similar to centre of curvature, radius of curvature lies in front of

concave mirror and lies behind the convex mirror and is not a part of
the mirror as it lies outside the mirror.

Aperture: The diameter of reflecting surface of a spherical mirror is

called aperture.

Principal Axis: Imaginary line passing through the centre of curvature

and pole of a spherical mirror is called the Principal Axis

Focus or Principal Focus: Point on principal axis at which parallel rays;

coming from infinity; converge after reflection is called the Focus or
Principal Focus of the spherical mirror. Focus is represented by letter
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‘F’

In the case of a concave mirror, parallel rays; coming from infinity;

converge after reflection in front of the mirror. Thus, the focus lies in
front of a concave mirror.

In the case of a convex mirror, parallel rays; coming from infinity;

appear to be diverging from behind the mirror. Thus, the focus lies
behind the convex mirror.

Focal length: The distance from pole to focus is called focal length.
Focal length is denoted by letter ‘f’.

Focal length is equal to half of the radius of curvature

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Use of Concave Mirror:-

As reflector in electric torch, head lights of vehicle, search

light, etc. The source of light is put at the focus of the
reflector, which produces a strong parallel beam of light,
which helps in clear visibility.

As shaving mirror to produce larger image of face to facilitate

better viewing during shaving.

Concave mirror is used by dentists to see larger image of teeth of

the patient. When a tooth is placed between focus and pole, the
concave mirror produces a magnified image of the tooth.

As reflector in solar furnace. By using concave mirror in solar

furnace the concentrated rays of sunlight is obtained at focus
which produces enormous amount of heat because of
concentration.

Use of Convex Mirror:

Convex mirror is used in rear view mirror of vehicles; so that

the driver can see the traffic coming from behind. The field of
view is widest in case of a convex mirror, which enables it to
show a wider area from behind.

Convex mirror is used on hairpin bends on the road; so that the driver
can see the traffic approaching from another side of the bend.

Light: Reflection and Refraction

Refraction:- Introduction

The change of direction of light because of change of medium is known

as Refraction or Refraction of Light. The ray of light changes its
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direction or phenomenon of refraction takes place because of

difference in speed in different media.

The light travels at faster speed in rare medium and at slower speed
in denser medium. The nature of media is taken as relative. For
example air is a rarer medium than water or glass.

When ray of light enters from a rarer medium into a denser medium, it
bends towards normal at the point of incidence. On the contrary, when
ray of light enters into a rarer medium from a denser medium it bends
away from the normal.

Ray emerging after the denser medium goes in the same direction and
parallel to the incident ray.

The angle between incident ray and normal is called Angle of

Incidence and it is denoted as ‘i’. The angle between refracted ray
and normal is called the Angle of Refraction. Angle of refraction is
denoted by ‘r’.

Laws of Refraction:-

(a) The incident ray, refracted ray and normal to the interface of
given two transparent media, all lie in same plane.

(b) The ratio of sine of angle of incidence and sine of angle of

refraction is always constant for the light of given colour and for the
pair of given media.

Law of Refraction is also known as Snell’s Law of Refraction.

The constant is called refractive index of the second medium in

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relation to the first medium.

Refractive Index:-

A ray of light changes its direction when it enters from one medium
to another medium. This happens because speed of light is different
in different media. For example; the speed of light is 3 x 10 8 m/s
(2.99x108m/s) in vacuum and it is 2.98 x 108 m/s in air.
Refractive Index is the extent of change of direction of light in a given
pair of media. The refractive index is a relative value of speed of light
in the given pair of media.

Thus, to calculate the refractive Index the speed of light in two media is
taken.

Let the speed of light in medium 1 is v1 and in medium 2 is v2

Therefore,

Above expression gives the refractive index of medium 2 with respect

to medium 1. This is generally denoted by n21.

Similarly, the refractive index of medium 1 with respect to medium 2

is denoted by n12.

Absolute Refractive Index:- When one medium is taken as vacuum and

speed of light is taken in it, then the refractive index of second medium
with respect to vacuum is called Absolute Refractive Index and it is
generally denoted by n2.

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The speed of light in vacuum is slightly faster than in air.

Let speed of light in air is ‘c’ and the speed of light in given medium is
‘v’.

Therefore,

Since, Refractive Index is the relative value of the speed of light of a

medium with respect to the speed of light in vacuum, thus light will
travel faster in the medium having lower value of refractive index.

Optical density: Medium having greater value of refractive index is

called optically denser medium, this means light will travel at slower
speed in optically denser medium compared to in an optically rarer
medium
Light:- Reflection and Refraction

Lens

Lens is an optical device which converges or diverges the rays of

light before transmitting.

A lens has similar shape to lentils and genus of lentil is called Lens, thus
a lens got its name after the shape and name of genus of lentils.

A lens is made by combining at least one part of sphere made of

transparent material, generally glass.

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Spherical Lens:

Most of the lenses are made by the combination of parts of

transparent sphere. Concave and Convex lens are most
commonly use spherical lens.

Convex lens:-
Lens having two spherical surface bulging outwards is called Convex
Lens. It is also known as biconvex lens because of two spherical
surface bulging outwards.

Concave lens:-

Lens having two spherical surface bulging inwards is called Concave

Lens. It is also known as biconcave lens because of two spherical
surface bulging inwards.

Important terms for spherical lens:

Centre of curvature:- The centre of sphere of part of which a lens is
formed is called the centre of curvature of the lens. Since concave and
convex lenses are formed by the combination of two parts of spheres,
therefore they have two centres of curvature.

One centre of curvature is usually denoted by C1 and second is denoted

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by C2.

Focus: Point at which parallel rays of light converge in a concave

lens and parallel rays of light diverge from the point is called Focus
or Principal Focus of the lens.

Similar to centres of curvature; convex and concave lenses have two

Foci. These are represented as F1 and F2.

Principal Axis:- Imaginary line that passes through the centres of

curvature of a lens is called Principal Focus.

Optical centre:- The central point of a lens is called its Optical Centre. A
ray passes through optical centre of a lens without any deviation
Radius of curvature:- The distance between optical centre and centre
of curvature is called the radius of curvature, which is generally
denoted by R.

Focal Length:- The distance between optical centre and principal focus
is called focal length of a lens.

Focal length of a lens is half of the radius of curvature.

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This is the cause that the centre of curvature is generally denoted by 2F

for a lens instead of C

Light: Reflection and Refraction

Refraction of ray of light through Convex and Concave

Lenses:

Refraction of parallel ray:-

A parallel ray converges at focus of a convex lens and diverges from the
focus of a concave lens.

Refraction of ray passing through the Principal focus:

A ray passing through principal focus emerges parallel to the

principal axis after refraction from a convex lens.
Human Eye and the Colourful World
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Structure of Human Eye:

The human eye is a spherical structure which fits in the eye socket in
the skull bone. There are following main parts in the human eye.

1. Pupil:- Pupil is the round black spot in front of eye. It regulates the
amount of light entering the eyes. Pupil works like aperture of a
camera. In case of dim light pupil dilate to allow more light to enter the
eyes. In case of strong light pupil constrict allowing less light to enter.

[Link]:- Irish is made of muscles. They control the size of opening of

pupil.

3. Lens:- Lens lies just behind the pupil. Lens becomes thin to increase
its focal length. This enables us to see distant objects clearly. To focus
on nearer objects, lens becomes thick to decrease its focal length. But
there is a limit. The minimum distance of clear vision is 25 cm. Below
this distance, we cannot see things clearly.

4. Retina:- Retina works like a screen or camera film. Retina is full of

light and colour sensitive cells. These cells, upon receiving image send
electrical signals to the brain, which processes these information to
make a mental image of what we see. The photoreceptor cells in the eye
are of two types, viz. rod cells and cone cells. The rod cells are sensitive
to dim light. The cone cells are sensitive to bright light and colour.

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Benefits of two eyes:- One eye is having a field of vision of about 150
degrees. Both the eyes enable us to see upto a field of 180 degrees.
Moreover, as two different images get juxtaposed in the brain, so we
are able to see a three dimensional view of the world.

Power of Accommodation of Human Eye:- The human eye can

clearly see a nearby object as well as an object on infinity. This ability
of the human eye is called the power of accommodation of human
eye.

Malfunctions of Eyes:-

1. Cataract: In old age the cornea becomes cloudy. This reduces the
vision in old age. Cataract can be cured by eye surgery. Sometimes,
artificial lens is also transplanted during cataract surgery. This is
called Intra Ocular Lens Transplantation.

2. Myopia: Myopia is also known as near-sightedness. A person with

myopia can see nearby objects clearly but cannot see distant objects
distinctly. In a myopic eye, the image of a distant object is formed in
front of the retina and not at the retina itself. This defect may arise due
to

(i) excessive curvature of the eye lens, or

(i) elongation of the eyeball.

Correction of Myopia:

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This defect can be corrected by using a concave lens of suitable power.

A concave lens of suitable power will bring the image back on to the
retina and thus the defect is corrected.

3. Hypermetropia: Hypermetropia is also known as far-sightedness. A

person with hypermetropia can see distant objects clearly but cannot
see nearby objects distinctly. The near point, for the person, is farther
away from the normal near point (25 cm). Such a person has to keep a
reading material much beyond 25 cm from the eye for comfortable
reading. This is because the light rays from a nearby object are focused
at a point behind the retina. This defect arises either because

(i) the focal length of the eye lens is too long, or

(ii) the eyeball has become too small.

Correction of Hypermetropia:

This defect can be corrected by using a convex lens of appropriate

power. Eye-glasses with converging lenses provide the additional
focusing power required for forming the image on the retina.

4. Presbyopia: The power of accommodation of the eye usually

decreases with ageing. For most people, the near point gradually
recedes away. They find it difficult to see nearby objects comfortably
and distinctly without corrective eye-glasses. This defect is called
Presbyopia. It arises due to the gradual weakening of the ciliary
muscles and diminishing flexibility of the eye lens. Sometimes, a person
may suffer from both myopia and hypermetropia. Such people often
require bifocal lenses.

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A common type of bi-focal lenses consists of both concave and convex

lenses. The upper portion consists of a concave lens. It facilitates
distant vision. The lower part is a convex lens. It facilitates near vision.

kaleidoscope
 (kəlī`dəskō p), optical instrument that uses mirrors to produce
changing symmetrical patterns. Invented by the Scottish physicist Sir
David Brewster
 in 1816, the device is usually a hand-held tube, a few inches to as much
as twelve feet in length, and looks like a small telescope. At one end of
the tube is an eyepiece; at the other end colored chips of glass are
loosely sandwiched between two glass disks. Between the ends of the
tube are two rectangular plane mirrors. The long edge of one of the two
mirrors lies against the long edge of the other at an angle, their
intersection lying close to the axis of the tube. The glass chips form
patterns where they lie, and these patterns change as the chips fall into
new positions when the tube rotates. Each pattern undergoes multiple
reflections in the mirrors in such a way as to produce a resulting
symmetrical pattern as seen through the eyepiece.

The world's largest kaleidoscope, located in Mt. Tremper, N.Y., is 64 ft

(19.5 m) tall. There is no eyepiece; people stand inside the base to view
the image, which is projected downward onto three reflective panels to
produce a spherical cluster of 254 hexagonal facets that appears to be
50 feet across. For Expo 2005 in Aichi, Japan, a 130-ft-high (40-m)
kaleidoscope was constructed in the three-sided Earth Tower; three
enormous, oil-filled revolving disks filtered incoming light that was
reflected by huge mirrors to produce a spherical image some 118 ft (36
m) in diameter; the image was viewed by standing inside the tower.

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Some Natural Phenomena

Lightning

We always see sparks on a electric pole when wires become loose. This
phenomenon is quite common when a wind is blowing and shaking the
wires. We also often see sparks when a plug is loose in its socket.
Lightning is also an electric spark, but on a huge scale.

Lightning is an atmospheric discharge of electricity usually

accompanied by thunder, which typically occurs during thunderstorms,
and sometimes during volcanic eruptions or dust storms. Lightning is
caused when two clouds collide or slide against one another. This
involves same process which happens when you rub a comb on your
dry hair and the hair gets an electric charge.

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As amount of charge generated during collision of clouds is huge so we

witness it as flashing lights in the sky. This flashing light is called
lightning. Once a cloud gets electrically charged it releases the charge
to earth. In other words the earth receives the charge and neutralizing
the cloud in the process.

Lightning Safety:

During lightning and thunderstorm no open place is safe.

• Hearing thunder is an alert to rush to a safer place.

• After hearing the last thunder, wait for some time before coming out
of the safe place.

Do’s and Don’ts during a Thunderstorm:

Outside: Open vehicles, like motorbikes, tractors, construction

machinery, open cars are not safe. Open fields, tall trees, shelters in
parks, elevated places do not protect us from lightning strokes.
Carrying umbrella is not a good idea at all during thunderstorms. If in a
forest, we should take shelter under shorter trees. If no shelter is
available and we are in an open field, stay far away from all trees. We
should stay away from poles or other metal objects. We should not lie
on the ground. Instead, we should squat low on the ground.

Inside the House: Lightning can strike telephone cords, electrical

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wires and metal pipes. During a thunderstorm contact with these

should be avoided. It is safer to use mobile phones and cordless
phones. Bathing should be avoided during thunderstorms to avoid
contact with running water. Electrical appliances like computers, TVs,
etc., should be unplugged. Electrical lights can remain on.

They do not cause any harm.

Lightning Conductors: Lightning Conductor is a device used to protect

buildings from the effect of lightning. A metallic rod, taller than the
building, is installed in the walls of the building during its construction.
One end of the rod is kept out in the air and the other is buried deep in
the ground. The rod provides easy route for the transfer of electric
charge to the ground. The metal columns

used during construction, electrical wires and water pipes in the

buildings also protect us to an extent. But do not touch them during a
thunderstorm.

You can notice trident shaped iron rod on top of temples, TV towers
and cell phone towers. These are lightning conductors.

Earthquake

An earthquake is a sudden shaking or trembling of the earth lasting for

a very short time. It is caused by a disturbance deep inside the earth’s
crust.

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Earthquakes occur all the time, all over the earth. They are not even
noticed. Major earthquakes are much less frequent. They can cause
immense damage to buildings, bridges, dams and people. There can be
a great loss to life and property. The earthquakes can cause floods,
landslides and tsunamis.

Causes of Earthquake

The outermost layer of the earth is not in one piece. It is fragmented.

Each fragment is called a tectonic plate. These plates are in continual
motion. When they brush past one another, or a plate goes under
another due to collision, they cause disturbance in the earth’s crust. It
is this disturbance that shows up as an earthquake on the surface of the
earth.

Tremors on the earth can also be caused when a volcano erupts, or a

meteor hits the earth, or an underground nuclear explosion is carried
out. However, most earthquakes are caused by the movement of earth’s
plates.

Since earthquakes are caused by the movement of plates, the

boundaries of the plates are the weak zones where earthquakes are
more likely to occur. The weak zones are also known as seismic or fault
zones. In India, the areas most threatened are Kashmir, Western and
Central Himalayas, the whole of North East, Rann of Kutch, Rajasthan
and the Indo – Gangetic Plane. Some areas of South India also fall in the
danger zone

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Power of Earthquakes: The power of an earthquake is expressed in

terms of a magnitude on a scale called Richter scale. Really destructive
earthquakes have magnitudes higher than 7 on the Richter scale. Both
Bhuj and Kashmir earthquakes had magnitudes greater than 7.5.

Protection against Earthquakes

It is, important that we take necessary precautions to protect ourselves

all the time. People living in seismic zones, where the earthquakes are
more likely to occur, have to be specially prepared. First of all, the
buildings in these zones should be designed so that they can withstand
major tremors. Modern building technology can make it possible. It is
advisable to make the structure simple so that it is ‘Quake Safe’.

• Consult qualified architects and structural engineers. In highly

seismic areas, the use of mud or timber is better than the heavy
construction material. Keep roofs as light as possible. In case the
structure falls, the damage will not be heavy.

• It is better if the cupboards and shelves are fixed to the walls, so that
they do not fall easily.

• Be careful where you hang wall clocks, photo-frames, water heaters

etc., so that in the event of an earthquake, they do not fall on people.

• Since some buildings may catch fire due to an earthquake, it is

necessary that all buildings, especially tall buildings, have fire fighting
equipment in working order.
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Question 1:
Which of the following cannot be charged easily by friction?
(a) A plastic scale
(b) A copper rod
(c) An inflated balloon
(d) A woollen cloth

Answer:
(b) A copper rod
Only non-conducting materials can be easily charged by friction.
Copper is a highly conducting materials.
Therefore, a copper rod cannot be charged easily by friction.
Question 2: When a glass rod is rubbed with a piece of silk cloth the
rod
(a) and the cloth both acquire positive charge.
(b) becomes positively charged while the cloth has a negative charge.
(c) and the cloth both acquire negative charge.
(d) becomes negatively charged while the cloth has a positive charge.
Answer: (b) The rod becomes positively charged, while the cloth has a
negative charge. When an object is charged by rubbing it against
another object, the two objects get oppositely charged. By convention,
it is considered that the charged acquired by the glass rod is positive
and charged acquired by the cloth is negative. Therefore, the rod
becomes positively charged and the cloth becomes negatively charged.
Question 3: Write T against true and F against false in the following
statements.
(a) Like charges attract each other. (T / F)
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(b) A charged glass rod attracts a charged plastic straw. (T / F)

(c) Lightning conductor cannot protect a building from lightning. (T/F)
(d) Earthquakes can be predicted in advance. (T / F)
Answer: (a) False: Like charges repel each other. It is the unlike
charges that attract each other.
(b) True: A charged glass rod has positive charges on its surface while
a charged plastic straw has negative charges on its surface. Since unlike
charges attract each other, a charged glass rod attracts a charged
plastic straw.
(c) False: During a lightning, the lightning conductor conducts all the
atmospheric charges to the Earth directly, leaving the building safe.
Hence, lightning conductors protect a building from lightning.
(d) False: Although the causes of earthquakes is known, but no
instrument could be invented to detect it till now. Hence, earthquakes
cannot be predicted in advance.
Question 4: Sometimes, a crackling sound is heard while taking off a
sweater during winters.
Explain.
Answer: When a sweater is taken off, the woollen sweater gets charged
because of the friction between the sweater and the body. Hence, one
can hear a crackling sound during the given process.
Question 5: Explain why a charged body loses its charge if we touch it
with our hand.
Answer: When we touch a charged object, our body conducts its
charges to the earth. That is why a charged body loses its charge, if we
touch it with our hand. This phenomenon is known as electric
discharge.

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Question 6: Name the scale on which the destructive energy of an

earthquake is measured. An earthquake measures 3 on this scale.
Would it be recorded by a seismograph? Is it likely to cause much
damage?
Answer: The destructive energy of an earthquake is measured by the
Richter scale. This scale has the readings from 1 to 10. The reading of
magnitude 3 on the Richter scale would be recorded by a seismograph.
If the Richter scale gives a reading of magnitude 3, then the earthquake
is not likely to cause much damage. Generally, earthquake of
magnitudes higher than 5 is considered destructive in nature.
Question 7: Suggest three measures to protect ourselves from
lightning.
Answer: Protective measures against lightning are as follows:
(i) Stay in a completely closed place. If you are moving in a car, then
remain there until the lightning is over.
Close the windows of the car immediately.
(ii) Do not touch any electrical wires, telephone cables, metal pipes, etc.
(iii) Do not bath in running water. This may cause an electric shock.
Question 8: Explain why a charged balloon is repelled by another
charged balloon whereas an uncharged balloon is attracted by another
charged balloon?
Answer: The nature of charges present on the surface of charged
balloons are similar. Since like charges repel each other, two charged
balloons repel each other. When a charged body is brought near an
uncharged body, the uncharged body acquires charges on its surface
caused by the induction of charges. The charges are of opposite nature
in relation to the charged body. Since unlike charges attract each other,

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a charged body always attracts an uncharged body. Hence, an

uncharged balloon is attracted by another charged balloon.
Question 9: Describe with the help of a diagram an instrument which
can be used to detect a charged body.
Answer: An electroscope can be used to detect whether a body is
charged or not. The following figure shows a simple electroscope.

It consists of a metal rod. At one end of the rod, two leaves of

aluminium foil are fixed and at the other end, there is a metal disc. The
leaves of aluminium foil are placed inside a conical flask and the flask is
corked to isolate the leaves from air.
When the metal disc is touched with a charged body, the aluminium
strips move away from each other. This happens because some of the
charges of the body are transferred to the strips through the metal rod.
This method of charging a body is called charging by conduction. The
nature of charges on both the leaves and the charged body are the
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similar. Hence, both the leaves of the aluminium foil will move away
from each other. If the body was not charged, then the leaves of the foil
would remain as they were before. They would not repel each other.
Question 10: List three states in India where earthquakes are more

likely to strike.

Answer: The three states in India where earthquakes are more likely

to strike are Jammu and Kashmir, Gujrat, and Assam.

Question 11: Suppose you are outside your home and an earthquake

strikes. What precaution would you take to protect yourself?

Answer: Some of the precautions are as follows:

(i) Try to find an open field away from tall buildings, installations, tall

trees, and electric wires and poles.

(ii) If travelling in a bus or a car, then do not come out when an

earthquake strikes. Ask the driver to drive in an open field.

Question 12: The weather department has predicted that a

thunderstorm is likely to occur on a certain day. Suppose you have to

go out on that day. Would you carry an umbrella?

Explain.

Answer: No. We should not carry an umbrella in a thunderstorm.

During thunderstorms, which are accompanied with lightning, electric

discharge from the clouds can travel through the metallic rod of the

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umbrella. This may give an electric shock to the person who is carrying

it. Hence, it is not safe to carry an umbrella during lightning.

Summary

(ii) Some objects can be charged by rubbing with other objects.

(iii) There are two kinds of charges — positive charge and negative
charge

(iv) Like charges repel and unlike charges attract each other.

(v) The electrical charges produced by rubbing are called static

charges.

(vi) When charges move, they constitute an electric current.

(vii) An electroscope may be used to detect whether a body is charged

or not.

(viii) The process of transfer of charge from a charged object to the

earth is called earthing.

(ix) The process of electric discharge between clouds and the earth or
between different clouds causes lightning.

(x) Lightning strike can destroy life and property.

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(xi) Lightning conductors can protect buildings from the effects of

lightning.

(xii) An earthquake is a sudden shaking or trembling of the earth.

(xiii) Earthquake is caused by a disturbance deep inside the earth’s

crust.

(xiv) It is not possible to predict the occurrence of an earthquake.

(xv) Earthquakes tend to occur at the boundaries of earth’s plates.

These boundaries are known as fault zones.

(xvi) Destructive energy of an earthquake is measured on the Richter

scale. The earthquake measuring 7 or more on Richter scale can cause
severe damage to life and property.

We should take necessary precautions to protect ourselves from

earthquakes.

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UNIT-3

REACHING THE AGE OF ADOLESCENCE

 Puberty facts

 Puberty is the period of sexual maturation and achievement of

fertility.

 The time when puberty begins varies greatly among individuals;

however, puberty usually occurs in girls between the ages of 10
and 14 and between the ages of 12 and 16 in boys.

 Body fat and/or body composition may play a role in regulating the
onset of puberty.

 Puberty is associated with development of secondary sex

characteristics and rapid growth.

 Some medical conditions may worsen or first become apparent at

puberty.

 Precocious puberty is puberty that occurs earlier than usual. It is

more common in girls than in boys.

What is puberty?
Puberty is the period during which growing boys or girls undergo the
process of sexual maturation. Puberty involves a series of physical
stages or steps that lead to the achievement of fertility and the
development of the so-called secondary sex characteristics, the
physical features associated with adult males and females (such as the
growth of pubic hair). While puberty involves a series of biological, or

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physical, transformations, the process can also have an effect on the

psychosocial and emotional development of the adolescent.

When does puberty occur?

The onset of puberty varies among individuals. Puberty usually occurs
in girls between the ages of 10 and 14, while in boys it generally occurs
later, between the ages of 12 and 16. In some African-American girls,
puberty begins earlier, at about age 9, meaning that puberty occurs
from ages 9 to 14.

Adolescent girls reach puberty today at earlier ages than were ever
recorded previously. Nutritional and other environmental influences
may be responsible for this change. For example, the average age of the
onset of menstrual periods in girls was 15 in 1900. By the 1990s, this
average had dropped to 12 and half years of age.

Nutritional needs of adolescents (11–17 years old)

The period of adolescence is a time of very rapid growth and high
demands for nutrients and energy. The rapid growth period starts at
the age of 10 or 11 for girls and at the age of 12 or 13 for boys and
continues for about 2.5 years. Adolescents need high intakes of
calories, vitamins and minerals, especially iron, calcium, vitamins A, C
and D. During this time, boys and girls begin to reach puberty (gaining
sex characteristics to mature into men and women) and nutritional
needs start to differ, although good nutrition is essential for both sexes
to grow into healthy [Link] is important for adolescents to select
their foods carefully to ensure that their nutrient and calorie needs are
met. Sometimes the workload of adolescent girls and boys increases, as
they begin to have greater responsibilities for carrying out household
tasks and additional jobs to help the family. When this is the case, their
needs for energy (calories) for the additional work they are doing,
along with their needs for growth, will have to be met. Some

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adolescents, however, become less physically active and have to meet

their nutrient needs without eating more calories than they need to
maintain a healthy body weight. Adolescence is a time to reinforce
good food habits and establish regular meal patterns. Dietary habits
and food preferences are developed in childhood and particularly in
adolescence. As they become more independent, many adolescents
begin to have more meals away from the family, often resulting in poor
food choices, skipped meals, increased snacking instead of regular,
balanced meals and lower vitamin and mineral intake at a time when
good nutrition is especially important. Adolescents also tend to follow
food fads and slimming diets which do not meet all of their nutritional
needs. It is important at this age to eat a variety of foods, including
carbohydrates, plentiful fruits and vegetables, daily protein and dairy
foods or other foods containing calcium and to avoid excess fat and
sugar Adolescent girls Special attention should be given to adolescent
girls, who need to be well-nourished for their own immediate
development and for the future nutritional demands of childbearing.
Adolescence is a critical time for young women, building the foundation
for successful reproduction and a healthy adulthood and later life.
Young women must enter adulthood with good nutritional stores to
remain strong and healthy throughout their child-bearing years and
into old age. Good nutrition is especially important for adolescent girls
to meet future needs of pregnancy and breastfeeding. Adolescence is
also the time that the skeletal system builds its strong foundation of
calcium stores. If the calcium stores in the bones are not sufficient
entering into the reproductive years, bones can become weak with
successive pregnancies, leading to broken bones and disability in later
years (a condition called osteoporosis). Increasing calcium
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consumption by eating a diet rich in dairy foods and leafy green

vegetables will help meet the increased needs of adolescents for
calcium. Because of the demands of growth, as well as blood loss with
menstruation, the requirement for iron among adolescent girls is very
high. It is important for girls to increase their consumption of iron-rich
foods, such as red meats, fish, poultry and legumes, to help prevent
anaemia resulting from iron deficiency. Adolescent girls who are
anaemic and may not be eating sufficient quantity of iron-rich foods to
meet their needs may be advised, under the guidance of a doctor or
other health professional, to take iron supplements. Early pregnancies
can be harmful to the health of girls who, themselves, are still growing.
Young girls’ bodies are still developing and usually are not ready to
support the extra burden of pregnancy and child birth. Special care
must be taken during adolescent pregnancy to insure that the young
mother receives sufficient food for her own increased needs, as well as
for the needs of the unborn baby. Adolescent boys Adolescent boys
have different needs than adolescent girls because their bodies are
maturing differently, and at a different rate. A growth spurt happens
for both sexes during adolescence, but typically boys’ rates of growth
are more rapid. Much of the adult height and muscle mass is gained
during adolescence. Increased growth and activity increases the need
for certain nutrients and energy. Boys may need even more calories
during this period to support this growth, especially if their physical
activity level increases. Protein foods, such as meat, fish, poultry, eggs,
dairy products, nuts or seeds and legumes are all foods that supply high
protein needed for additional growth in height and muscle mass during
adolescence. While boys do not have the very high need for iron that
adolescent girls have, the tissue growth and increased blood volume for
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boys does increase their need for iron which can be met by increased
meat and other iron-rich foods. Calcium needs are also increased
because of the rapid bone growth during adolescence and additional
dairy products and green leafy vegetables can help meet these needs.

Q1: What is the term used for secretions of endocrine glands

responsible for changes taking place in the body?

Answer: Hormones. Hormones are chemical messengers that transport

signal from one cell(or gland) to another cell (or gland).
Q2: Define adolescence.

Answer: The period of life, when the body undergoes changes, leading

to reproductive maturity, is called adolescence. Adolescence begins
around the age of 11 and lasts upto 18 or 19 years of age. Since this
period covers the ‘teens’ (13 to 18 or 19 years of age), adolescents are
also called ‘teenagers’. In girls, adolescence may begin a year or two
earlier than in boys. Also, the period of adolescence varies from person
to person.
Q3: What is menstruation? Explain.

Answer: In a female reproductive ovaries, the ova begin to mature

with the onset of puberty. One ovum matures and is released by one of
the ovaries once in about 28 to 30 days. During this period, the wall of
the uterus becomes thick so as to receive the egg, in case it is fertilized
and begins to develop. If fertilization does not occur, the released egg,
and the thickened lining of the uterus along with its blood vessels are
shed off. This causes bleeding in women which is called menstruation.

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Menstruation occurs once in about 28 to 30 days.

Q4: List changes in the body that take place at puberty.

Answer:
Common changes occur among boys and girls during puberty:
(i) Sudden increase in height.
(ii) Change in body shape
(iii) Change in voice. in boys voice becomes deep and harsh, in girls it is
high pitched voice.
(iv) Increased activity of sweat and sebaceous glands.
(v) Reproductive organs begin to mature.
(vi) Appearance of secondary sexual characteristics.

Changes in Boys during puberty:

1. Facial hairs such as beard and moustaches develop.
2. Hair develops under the armpit, under chest and in the pubic
regions.
3. Voice becomes deeper.
4. Muscles develop, and shoulder becomes broad.
5. Increase in weight.

Changes in Girls during puberty:

1. Development and enlargement of breasts.
2. Hair develops under the armpit and in the pubic regions.
3. Hips broaden and pelvic region widens
4. Initiation of menstrual cycle.
5. Deposition of fat around hips,
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Q5: Prepare a Table having two columns depicting names of

endocrine glands and hormones secreted by them.

Answer:

Endocrine Glands Hormones secreted

i.  Pituitary Growth Hormones
ii. Thyroid Thyroxine
iii. Adrenal Glands Adrenalin
iv Pancreas Insulin
v.  Testes Testosterone
vi. Ovaries Estrogen, Progestrone

Q6: What are sex hormones? Why are they named so? State their
function.
Answer: Hormones which constitute the secondary sexual characters
are called sex hormones.

In general, hormones work instantly when they released in blood

stream. Sex hormones
are different because they start to work later on. They gradually
prepare the body for reproduction.
The sex hormones are responsible for the fundamental change in
growth and development and stimulate the developments of secondary
sexual characters. The testes and the ovaries are the reproductive
Organs; and both are stimulated by the pituitary hormone during
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Puberty. That's the reason these are called sex hormones.

Functions of Sex Hormones:
1. In male, the testes produces the male sex hormone testosterone. This
hormone helps in the development and maintenance of the primary
and secondary sexual characters and functions of sperms.
2. In female, the ovaries secrete estrogen and progesterone responsible
for the primary and secondary sexual characters. 
Q7: Choose the correct option.
(a) Adolescents should be careful about what they eat, because
(i) proper diet develops their brains.
(ii) proper diet is needed for the rapid growth taking place in their
body.
(iii) adolescents feel hungry all the time.
(iv) taste buds are well developed in teenagers.
Answer (ii) proper diet is needed for the rapid growth taking place in
their body.
(b) Reproductive age in women starts when their
(i) menstruation starts.
(ii) breasts start developing.
(iii) body weight increases.
(iv) height increases.
Answer:  (i) menstruation starts.

(c) The right meal for adolescents consists of

(i) chips, noodles, coke.
(ii) chapati, dal, vegetables.
(iii) rice, noodles and burger.
(iv) vegetable cutlets, chips and lemon drink.
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Answer: (ii) chapati, dal, vegetables.

Q8. Write notes on—
       (a) Adam’s apple.
       (b) Secondary sexual characters.
       (c) Sex determination in the unborn baby.

Answer:
(a) Adam's apple: The protruding part of the throat is called Adam’s
apple. It is the enlarged voice box or larynx which gets enlarged and
visible from outside in boys at the onset of puberty. This makes the
voice of boys hoarse.
(b) Secondary Sexual Characters are those characters which
distinguish a male from female. A few of these are described below:

Boys:
1. Facial hairs such as beard and moustaches develop.
2. Hair develops under the armpit, under chest and in the pubic
regions.
3. Voice becomes deeper.
4. Muscles develop, and shoulder becomes broad.
5. Increase in weight.
Girls:

1. Development and enlargement of breasts.

2. Hair develops under the armpit and in the pubic regions.
3. Hips broaden and pelvic region widens
4. Initiation of menstrual cycle.
5. Deposition of fat around hips,
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(c) Sex determination in unborn baby: All human beings have 23

pairs of chromosomes in the nuclei of their cells. Two chromosomes
out of these are the sex chromosomes, named X and Y. A female has two
X chromosomes, while a male has one X and one Y chromosome. The
gametes (egg and sperm) have only one set of chromosomes. The
unfertilised egg always has one X [Link] sperms are of two
kinds. One kind has an X chromosome, and the other kind has a Y
chromosome. When a sperm
containing X chromosome fertilises the egg, the zygote would have two
X chromosomes and develop into a female child. If the sperm
contributes a Y chromosome to the egg (ovum) at fertilisation, the
zygote would develop into a male child. This concludes that the sex
chromosomes of the father determine the sex of an unborn baby.

Q9. Word game : Use the clues to work out the words.
Across
3. Protruding voice box in boys
4. Glands without ducts
7. Endocrine gland attached to brain
8. Secretion of endocrine glands
9. Pancreatic hormone
10. Female hormone
Down
1. Male hormone
2. Secretes thyroxine
3. Another term for teenage
5. Hormone reaches here through blood stream
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6. Voice box
7. Term for changes at adolescence

Answer:
See figure below.

Q10. The table below shows the data on likely heights of boys and
girls as they grow in age. Draw graphs showing height and age for
both boys and girls on the same graph paper. What conclusions
can be drawn from these graphs?

Answer: Conclusion:
(i) Girls are taller than boys till they reach the age of 12 years.
(ii) Till the age of 16 years, the heigh of both boys and girls remain the
same.
(iii) After 16, both boys and girls gain increase in height. In general,
boys are taller than girls.
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Q11: Why do personal hygiene become more important  during

adolescent age?

Answer: The basic aim of personal hygiene is to keep body neat and
clean and to avoid microbes like bacteria, virus entering our body.
Otherwise these harmful bodies can infect us.

Q12: What precautions should be taken to maintain personal

hygeine?

Answer: To maintain personal hygiene following precautions must be

taken:

1. Before and after taking meals, always wash your hands with tap
water.
2. Take bath regularly with clean water.
3. Brush your teeth after each meal and before going to bed to avoid
tooth decay.
4. Keep your nails short and clean.
5. Feet should be cleaned and well protected. 
6. Hairs should be washed regularly with soap and water.
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7. Eyes should be washed daily with clean and cold water.

8. waste food material and garbage should be disposed of properly.

Friction
Force that resists the relative motion of surfaces is called friction. Solid,
liquid and air; all types of surface offer the force of friction. The force of
friction always applies in the opposite direction of movement. Friction
is applied when two surfaces in contact move relative to each other.

Example :–

A moving ball on the ground stops after covering a certain distance.

Ball stops after covering a short distance because surface of ground
offers friction to the surface of ball in motion. Since, friction acts in the
opposite direction of movement of ball, so the ball stops after covering
a certain distance.

When a person applies brakes to a moving bicycle, the surface of

brakes offers friction to the surface of moving wheel and the bicycle
stops because of friction.

Factors that affect friction

A surface offers friction because of irregularities over the surface. A
surface may appear smooth but microscopic view shows those
irregularities. The irregularities of two surfaces get interlocked when
in contact. To remove the interlocking, a surface offers friction when it
slides or rolls over another surface.

Thus, rougher surface offers more force of friction.

Friction increases with increase in weight. In the case of increase in

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weight irregularities between surfaces get interlocked tightly because

of pressure, and the surface offers more resistance of friction.

For example –
It is easy to roll or slide a lighter wooden box over ground than a
heavier one.

It is easy to drag a mat over ground. But to drag the same mat
becomes difficult; with someone sitting over it. This happens because
friction increases with increase in weight.

Sliding Friction:
When a surface slides over another surface, the resistance to its
motion is called sliding friction. For example; sliding of mat or a box
over ground.

Rolling Friction:

When a surface rolls over another surface, the resistance to its

motion is called rolling friction. Rolling friction is smaller than
sliding friction. This is the cause that to roll anything over the
ground is easier than to slide.

Example –
Luggage is fitted with wheels, so that one can roll the luggage easily.

Ball bearings are fitted between hub and axle of bicycles to make the
movement easier.

FRICTION: A NECESSARY EVIL

Friction has both harmful and beneficial effects and hence it is called a
necessary evil.

One can walk because ground offers friction. In the case of less friction
walking becomes almost impossible. Thus, friction is necessary even a
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simple task like walking.

Example –
A person slips over the banana peel. This happens because banana
peels have slippery surface and it offers very less friction to the
ground. Thus whenever banana peel comes under the feet of a
person, the person may slip and trip over because of less friction.

It is difficult to walk over muddy surface. This is because muddy

surface offers very small friction to the surface of feet of a person.

Soles of shoes have grooves on them. Grooved soles offer more

friction to the ground which gives better grip while walking. Shoes
with worn out soles can be slippery.

The tyres of vehicles have treads for better grip over road. When
treads are worn out, the tyres need to be replaced with new one.

Writing with pen is possible because paper offers friction to the tip of
pen.

On oily paper, friction is very less and so it is difficult write on such

paper.

While writing with chalk over black board, the rough surface of the
black board rubs off the chalk because of which some of the particles
of chalk get stuck with black board and writing becomes possible.
INCREASE OF FRICTION:
Since, friction is necessary for us, therefore many a time
friction is increased to accomplish a task.

Example –

Tyres are treaded to increase friction. Vehicle with treads on tyres

offer mores friction which gives better road grip.

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Soles of shoes are treaded to increase friction.

Javelin thrower rubs some powder on his palm to get better grip on the
javelin.

REDUCTION OF FRICTION:
Sometimes, it is necessary to reduce the undesirable friction.
Lubricants make a thin layer over surface and facilitate easy
movement. In the engines of vehicles, use of lubricants

increases the efficiency as parts are not rubbed directly over one
another because of thin layer of lubricant. In many machines, graphite
powder or air is used as lubricant.

Example –

While playing carom, talcum powder is sprayed over it to reduce

friction.

Lubricant is used to reduce friction in engines, such as engine oil is

used in the engine of motorcycle, car, truck, etc. Grease is used over the
chain of bicycles.

FLUID FRICTION:

Gas and liquids are considered as fluid. Similar to solid, fluids also offer
friction. The friction of fluid increases with the speed of object moving
through it; and speed of fluid.
Object which are made to move in fluid are made like boat-shaped to
reduce friction offered by fluid. The shape of aeroplane, ship and boat
is made streamlined. Birds and fish also have streamlined shape. A
shape which is pointed on both ends and wide at the middle is called
streamlined shape. Such a shape facilitates easier movement through
fluids.

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The friction offered by fluids is called drag.

Question: 1. Fill in the blanks:

(a) Friction opposes the _____________ between the surfaces in contact

with each other.

Answer: Movement

(b) Friction depends on the _____________ of surfaces.

Answer: Irregularities

(c) Friction produces __________.

Answer: Heat

(d) Sprinkling of powder on the carrom board ________ friction.

Answer: Reduce

(e) Sliding friction is ___________ than the static friction.

Answer: less

Question: 2. Four children were asked to arrange forces due to rolling,

static and sliding frictions in a decreasing order. Their arrangements
are given below.

Choose the correct arrangement.

(a) Rolling, static, sliding

(b) Rolling, sliding, static

(c) Static, sliding, rolling

(d) Sliding, static, rolling

Answer: (c) Static, sliding, rolling

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Question: 3. Alida runs her toy car on dry marble floor, wet marble
floor, newspaper and towel spread on the floor. The force of friction
acting on the car on different surfaces in increasing order will be :

(a) Wet marble floor, dry marble floor, newspaper and towel.

(b) Newspaper, towel, dry marble floor, wet marble floor.

(c) Towel, newspaper, dry marble floor, wet marble floor.

(d) Wet marble floor, dry marble floor, towel, newspaper

Answer: (a) Wet marble floor, dry marble floor, newspaper and towel.

Question: 4. Suppose your writing desk is tilted a little. A book kept on

it starts sliding down. Show the direction of frictional force acting on it.

Answer:

Question: 5. You spill a bucket of soapy water on a marble floor

accidently. Would it make it easier or more difficult for you to walk on
the floor? Why?

Answer: The soapy water would make a thin layer over the marble
floor. This will reduce friction. Hence, walking on the floor shall be
difficult in that case.

Question: 6. Explain why sportsmen use shoes with spikes.

Answer: Shoes with spikes offer more friction because of more

irregularities in the surface. This gives better grip to sportsmen while
running.
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Question: 7. Iqbal has to push a lighter box and Seema has to push a
similar heavier box on the same floor. Who will have to apply a larger
force and why?

Answer: Seema has to apply larger force, because friction increases

with increase in weight.

Question: 8. Explain why the sliding friction is less than the static
friction.

Answer: When something is static, a greater force is required to break

the interlocking between two surfaces. When something is in motion,
there is no need to break the interlocking and a smaller force is
required the keep the object in motion. Hence, sliding friction is less
than static friction.

Question: 9. Give examples to show that friction is both a friend and a

foe.

Answer: Following two examples show that friction is both a friend and
a foe:

 Because of friction a vehicle can be stopped and we can walk,

thus friction is a friend.
 Friction wears out the parts of machine, thus friction is a foe.

Question: 10. Explain why objects moving in fluids must have special
shapes.

Answer:

The streamlined shape encounters less resistance while moving

through a fluid. This is not true for other shapes. So, objects moving in
the fluids must have special shapes like boat or fish.

TEXT BOOK QUESTIONS

Q.1 State the laws of limiting friction?

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Ans:- (i) limiting friction always oppose the motion of a body and acts
in the direction opposite to the direction of applied force.

(ii) Limiting friction depends up on the nature of surface in contact

with each other.

(iii) Limiting friction increases with the increase in the weight of the
body and vice versa.

(iv)Limiting friction is independent of area of contact between two

surfaces; provided the weight of the body and then nature of surface
does not change.

Q.2 why are the worn and tyers discarded?

Ans:- The worn out tyres are discarded, it is because the grooves of
such tyres get disappeared due to wear and tear. thus, offer little
friction.

Q.3 Why do carom coins move faster on carom sorrel when dusted
with talcum powder?

Ans:- though the surface of carom board appears to be smooth but is

actually possessed with uneven projections. These uneven projections
offer frictional force to carom coins. When talcum powder is dusted on
its surface, it fills the grooms and makes the surface smother, thus,
reduces friction.

Q.4 Why the surface of conveyor belt is made rough?

Ans:- The surface of conveyor belt used for turning wheels and pulleys
in factories are made rough so that they could provide necessary
friction and the wheels could turn about the axles.

Q.5 Why is the sewing machine is often oiled?

Ans:- The oil used in sewing machine acts as lubricant so as to reduce

the friction between the two surfaces which are is tact with each other.
This is because the oil fills up the cavities and thus, reamers the
irregularities. Due to this the various parts of the machine move faster.

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Q.6 Why do new automobile tyres have deep grooves?

Ans:-These tyres have deep grooves so as to provide the required

amount of friction. This prevents the slipping and skidding of wheels
on the road.

Q.7 Why does a ball rolling on a ground stow down?

Ans:- the ball rolling on the ground slows down itself, it is because of
the friction offered by ground and due to air resistance.

Q.8 Why boats and aeroplanes are given special shape?

Ans:- The boats and aeroplanes are given special shape known as
streamlined. This shape helps in the reduction of friction offered either
by water or air. Thus, helps them to move easily and faster.

Q.9 Why do meteors burn on entering the atmosphere?

Ans:- The meteors enter the atmosphere at very high speed. At such
speed the friction and to resistance of air is Very high which results in
raising the temperature of meteor to such a high temperature that they
catch fire.

Q.10 why do painters use sand papers in polishing doors?

Ans:- the painters use sand papers in polishing the doors for removing
the irregularities. These actually by breaking down the projections so
as to have smooth the surfaces and make it look like glassy.

Q.11Why is it easies to tie a Knot with cotton strings as compared

silk string? Ans:- we can tie a knot with cotton string
easily as it offers more friction than that of silk string.

Reproduction In Animals
Modes of Reproduction

There are two modes by which animals reproduce. These are: (i) Sexual
reproduction, and (ii) Asexual reproduction.

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Sexual Reproduction

In animals, males and females have different reproductive parts or

organs. Like plants, the reproductive parts in animals also produce
gametes that fuse to form a zygote. It is the zygote which develops into
a new individual. This type of reproduction beginning from the fusion
of male and female gametes is called sexual reproduction.

The Male Reproductive System

The purpose of the organs of the male reproductive system is to
perform the following functions:

 To produce, maintain, and transport sperm (the male reproductive

cells) and protective fluid (semen)
 To discharge sperm within the female reproductive tract during sex
 To produce and secrete male sex hormones responsible for
maintaining the male reproductive system

Unlike the female reproductive system, most of the male reproductive

system is located outside of the body. These external structures include
the penis, scrotum, and testicles.

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 Penis: This is the male organ used in sexual intercourse. It has three

parts: the root, which attaches to the wall of the abdomen; the body, or
shaft; and the glans, which is the cone-shaped part at the end of the
penis. The glans, also called the head of the penis, is covered with a
loose layer of skin called foreskin. This skin is sometimes removed in a
procedure called circumcision. The opening of the urethra, the tube
that transports semen and urine, is at the tip of the penis. The glans of
the penis also contains a number of sensitive nerve endings.

The body of the penis is cylindrical in shape and consists of three

circular shaped chambers. These chambers are made up of special,
sponge-like tissue. This tissue contains thousands of large spaces that
fill with blood when the man is sexually aroused. As the penis fills with
blood, it becomes rigid and erect, which allows for penetration during
sexual intercourse. The skin of the penis is loose and elastic to
accommodate changes in penis size during an erection.

Semen, which contains sperm (reproductive cells), is expelled

(ejaculated) through the end of the penis when the man reaches sexual
climax (orgasm). When the penis is erect, the flow of urine is blocked
from the urethra, allowing only semen to be ejaculated at orgasm.

 Scrotum: This is the loose pouch-like sac of skin that hangs behind and
below the penis. It contains the testicles (also called testes), as well as
many nerves and blood vessels. The scrotum acts as a "climate control
system" for the testes. For normal sperm development, the testes must
be at a temperature slightly cooler than body temperature. Special
muscles in the wall of the scrotum allow it to contract and relax,
moving the testicles closer to the body for warmth or farther away
from the body to cool the temperature.

 Testicles (testes): These are oval organs about the size of large olives
that lie in the scrotum, secured at either end by a structure called the
spermatic cord. Most men have two testes. The testes are responsible

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for making testosterone, the primary male sex hormone, and for
generating sperm. Within the testes are coiled masses of tubes called
seminiferous tubules. These tubes are responsible for producing sperm
cells.
Guide to the Female Reproductive System
The female reproductive system is designed to carry out several
functions. It produces the female egg cells necessary for reproduction,
called the ova or oocytes. The system is designed to transport the ova
to the site of fertilization. Conception, the fertilization of an egg by a
sperm, normally occurs in the fallopian tubes. The next step for the
fertilized egg is to implant into the walls of the uterus, beginning the
initial stages of pregnancy. If fertilization and/or implantation does not
take place, the system is designed to menstruate (the monthly shedding
of the uterine lining). In addition, the female reproductive system
produces female sex hormones that maintain the reproductive cycle.

What Parts Make up the Female Anatomy?

The female reproductive anatomy includes parts inside and outside the
body.

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The function of the external female reproductive structures (the

genitals) is twofold: To enable sperm to enter the body and to protect
the internal genital organs from infectious organisms. The main
external structures of the female reproductive system include:

 Labia majora: The labia majora enclose and protect the other external
reproductive organs. Literally translated as "large lips," the labia
majora are relatively large and fleshy, and are comparable to the
scrotum in males. The labia majora contain sweat and oil-secreting
glands. After puberty, the labia majora are covered with hair.
 Labia minora: Literally translated as "small lips," the labia minora can
be very small or up to 2 inches wide. They lie just inside the labia
majora, and surround the openings to the vagina (the canal that joins
the lower part of the uterus to the outside of the body) and urethra (the
tube that carries urine from the bladder to the outside of the body).
 Bartholin's glands: These glands are located beside the vaginal
opening and produce a fluid (mucus) secretion.
 Clitoris: The two labia minora meet at the clitoris, a small, sensitive
protrusion that is comparable to the penis in males. The clitoris is
covered by a fold of skin, called the prepuce, which is similar to the
foreskin at the end of the penis. Like the penis, the clitoris is very
sensitive to stimulation and can become erect.
The internal reproductive organs in the female include:

 Vagina: The vagina is a canal that joins the cervix (the lower part of
uterus) to the outside of the body. It also is known as the birth canal.
 Uterus (womb): The uterus is a hollow, pear-shaped organ that is the
home to a developing fetus. The uterus is divided into two parts: the
cervix, which is the lower part that opens into the vagina, and the main
body of the uterus, called the corpus. The corpus can easily expand to
hold a developing baby. A channel through the cervix allows sperm to
enter and menstrual blood to exit.
 Ovaries: The ovaries are small, oval-shaped glands that are located on
either side of the uterus. The ovaries produce eggs and hormones.

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 Fallopian tubes: These are narrow tubes that are attached to the

upper part of the uterus and serve as tunnels for the ova (egg cells) to
travel from the ovaries to the uterus. Conception, the fertilization of an
egg by a sperm, normally occurs in the fallopian tubes. The fertilized
egg then moves to the uterus, where it implants into the lining of the
uterine wall.
Fertilization:

The first step in the process of reproduction is the fusion of a sperm

and an ovum. When sperms come in contact with an egg, one of the
sperms may fuse with the egg. Such fusion of the egg and the sperm is
called fertilization. During fertilization, the nuclei of the sperm and the
egg fuse to form a single nucleus. This results in the formation of a
fertilized egg or zygote.

The process of fertilization is the meeting of an egg cell from the

mother and a sperm cell from the father. So, the new individual inherits
some characteristics from the mother and some from the father.

Fertilization which takes place inside the female body is called internal
fertilization. Internal fertilization occurs in many animals including
humans, cows, dogs and hens.

In many animals fertilization takes place outside the body of the

female. In these animals, fertilization takes place in water.

During spring or rainy season, frogs and toads move to ponds and slow
flowing streams. When the male and female come together in water,
the female lays hundreds of eggs. Unlike hen’s egg, frog’s egg is not
covered by a shell and it is comparatively very delicate. A layer of jelly
holds the eggs together and provides protection to the eggs.

As the eggs are laid, the male deposits sperms over them. Each sperm
swims randomly in water with the help of its long tail. The sperms
come in contact with the eggs. This results in fertilization. This type of

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fertilization in which the fusion of a male and a female gamete takes

place outside the body of the female is called external fertilization. It is
very common in aquatic animals such as fish, starfish, etc.

Development of Embryo

Fertilization results in the formation of zygote which begins to develop

into an embryo. The zygote divides repeatedly to give rise to a ball of
cells. The cells then begin to form groups that develop into different
tissues and organs of the body. This developing structure is termed an
embryo. The embryo gets embedded in the wall of the uterus for
further development.

The embryo continues to develop in the uterus. It gradually develops

the body parts such as hands, legs, head, eyes, ears, etc. The stage of the
embryo in which all the body parts can be identified is called a foetus.
When the development of the foetus is complete, the mother gives birth
to the baby.

In animals which undergo external fertilization, development of the

embryo takes place outside the female body. The embryos continue to
grow within their egg coverings. After the embryos develop, the eggs
hatch.

Viviparous and Oviparous Animals

Some animals give birth to young ones while some animals lay eggs
which later develop into young ones. The animals which give birth to
young ones are called viviparous animals. Those animals which lay
eggs are called oviparous animals.

Asexual Reproduction

This type of reproduction in which only a single parent is involved is

called asexual reproduction.

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In each hydra, there may be one or more bulges. These bulges are the
developing new individuals and they are called buds. In hydra too the
new individuals develop as outgrowths from a single parent. Since new
individuals develop from the buds in hydra, this type of asexual
reproduction is called budding.

Another method of asexual reproduction is observed in the microscopic

organism, amoeba. Amoeba is a single-celled organisms. It begins the
process of reproduction by the division of its nucleus into two nuclei.
This is followed by division of its body into two, each part receiving a
nucleus. Finally, two amoebae are produced from one parent amoeba.
This type of asexual reproduction in which an animal reproduces by
dividing into two individuals is called binary fission

Summary

• There are two modes by which animals reproduce. These are: (i)
Sexual reproduction, and (ii) Asexual reproduction.

• Reproduction resulting from the fusion of male and female gametes is

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called sexual reproduction.

• The reproductive organs in the female include ovaries, oviducts and

uterus.

• The reproductive organs in male include testes, sperm ducts and

penis.

• The ovary produces female gametes called ova and the testes produce
male gametes called sperms.

• The fusion of ovum and sperm is called fertilization. The fertilized egg
is called a zygote.

• Fertilization that takes place inside the female body is called internal
fertilization. This is observed in human beings and other animals such
as hens, cows and dogs.

• Fertilization that takes place outside the female body is called

external fertilization. This is observed in frogs, fish, starfish, etc.

• The zygote divides repeatedly to give rise to an embryo.

• The embryo gets embedded in the wall of the uterus for further
development.

• The stage of the embryo in which all the body parts are identifiable is
called foetus.

• Animals such as human beings, cows and dogs which give birth to
young ones are called viviparous animals.

• Animals such as hen, frog, lizard and butterfly which lay eggs are
called oviparous animals.

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• The transformation of the larva into adult through drastic changes is

called metamorphosis.

• The type of reproduction in which only a single parent is involved is

called asexual reproduction.

• In hydra, new individuals develop from buds. This method of asexual

reproduction is called budding.

• Amoeba reproduces by dividing itself into two. This type of asexual

reproduction is called binary fission

Question: 1- Explain the importance of reproduction in organism.

Answer- Reproduction helps to complete the life cycle of any species.

Reproduction is essential for the continuation of a species. It ensures
the continuation of similar kind of individuals; generation after
generation. Reproduction is also responsible for bringing variations in
subsequent generations and ultimately evolution of a new species.

Question: 2 - Describe the process of fertilization in human beings.

Answer- Fertilization- The fusion of male and female gametes is called

fertilization.

In humans, internal fertilization occurs. During each ovulation cycle,

usually one egg is released from the ovary and is transferred to the
fallopian tube. The sperm travels to the fallopian tube. Fertilization
takes place in the fallopian tube.

Question: 3 - Choose the most appropriate answer.

(a) Internal fertilization occurs

1. In female body.
2. Outside female body.
3. In male body.
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Answer -1. In female body.

(b) A tadpole develops into an adult frog by the process of

1. Fertilization
2. Metamorphosis
3. Embedding
4. Budding

Answer- 2. Metamorphosis

(c) The number of nuclei present in a zygote.

1. None
2. One
3. Two
4. Four

Answer-2. One

Question: 4- Indicate whether the following statements are true

(T) or false(F):

(a) Oviparous animals give birth to young ones.

Answer-(F)

(b) Each sperm is a single cell.

Answer (T)

(d) External fertilization takes place in frog.

Answer- (T)

(e) A new human individual develops from a cell called gamete.

Answer-(F)

(f) Egg laid after fertilization is made up of a single cell.

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Answer- (T)

(g) Amoeba reproduces by budding.

Answer-(F)

(h) Fertilization is necessary even in asexual reproduction.

Answer-(F)

(i) Binary fission is a result of asexual reproduction.

Answer- (T)

(j) A zygote is formed as a result of fertilization.

Answer-(T)

(k) An embryo is made up of a single cell.

Answer- (F)

Question: 5 - Give two differences between a zygote and a foetus.

Answer

Zygote Foetus
The product of The stage of the
fusion of the embryo which
nuclei of the resembles a
sperm and egg is human being is
called zygote called a foetus
It is a unicellular It is a multicellular
structure structure.

Question: 6 - Define asexual reproduction. Describe two methods

of asexual reproduction.

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Answer-The reproduction in which a single parent is involved is called

asexual reproduction. Budding and Binary fission are the methods of
asexual reproduction.

Budding -Hydra reproduces by budding. Many bulges develop on the

body of hydra. Each bulge grows into a new individual. Bulges are
called buds.

Binary fission -Amoeba reproduces by binary fission. At first the

nucleus divides into two nuclei and then the mother cell divides into
two; with each part receiving a nucleus.

Question: 7 - In which female reproductive organ does the embryo

get embedded?

Answer- The embryo gets embedded in the wall of the uterus.

Question: 8 - What is metamorphosis? Give examples.

Answer- The transformation of the larva into adult through drastic

change is called metamorphosis. Metamorphosis can be seen in many
animals, e.g. frog and silkmoth. The tadpole stage of frog is different
from an adult frog. It metamorphoses into an adult frog. The larva of
silkmoth undergoes pupa stage and later on develops into a moth.

Question: 9 - Differentiate between internal fertilization and

external fertilization.

Answer:

Internal fertilization External fertilization

Takes place inside the Takes place out of the
body body
Less number of eggs is A large number of eggs is
formed formed
Examples: crocodile, bird, Examples: fish, frog
mammals

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Question: 10 - Complete the cross- word puzzle using the hints

given below

Across

(1) The process of the fusion of the gametes.

Answer: Fertilization

(6)The type of fertilization in hen

Answer: Internal fertilization

(7)The term used for bulges observed on the sides of the body of hydra.

Answer: Bud

(8) Eggs are produce here.

Answer: Ovary

Down

(2)sperms are produced in these male reproductive organs

Answer: Testis

(3)Another term for the fertilized egg.

Answer: Zygote

(4)These animals lay eggs.

Answer: Oviparous

(5)A type of fission in amoeba.

Answer: Binary fission.

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Term 2nd
Chemical Effects of Electric Current

Conduction of Electricity

Similar to many solids, some liquids also conduct electricity.

Conductor: Substances which allow electricity to pass through

them are called conductors; such as silver, gold, acidic solution,
salt solution, etc.

Insulator: Substances which do not allow electric current to pass

through them are called insulators; such as plastic, rubber, etc.

Good conductor and Bad Conductor:

Substances which allow electric current to pass through them

easily are called good conductors of electricity; such as silver, gold,
aluminium, etc.

Some substances allows electric current to pass through them but in

very little amount. Therefore, such substances called bad conductors
of electricity, rather than being called as insulator.

In fact, most of the substances allow electric current to pass through

them under certain conditions, so instead of using terms conductors
and insulators, good conductors and bad conductors are used.

Testing of conduction of electricity through liquid:

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Liquids; which contain salt dissolved in them; conduct electricity.

The conduction of electricity through a liquid can be tested using
two electrodes and a bulb.

But the conduction of electricity through the liquids which are poor
conductor cannot be tested. But conduction of electricity through such
liquids can be tested using LED or magnetic compass needle.

For this, you need a compass needle, an empty matchbox, two electric
cells, some wires, a plastic bottle cap and the liquid which is to be
tested. Keep the compass needle inside the empty tray of matchbox and
wrap a couple of rubber bands around it. Connect the wires to the
battery and insert two wires in the liquid which is kept in the plastic
bottle cap. You will observe that when the current flows through the
wire, there is deflection in the compass needle. This shows that the
given liquid conducts electricity. In fact, magnetic compass needle can
detect even feeble current. LED can also be used in place of compass
needle.

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Salts; dissolved in water are responsible for conduction of electricity through

water. Tap water, acid solutions, basic solutions, etc. are good conductors of
electricity. Distilled water is poor conductor of electricity because in no salt
is present in distilled water.

Chemical Effects of Electric Current

When electric current is passed through a conducting solution, some

chemical reaction takes place.

Example: -

(a) When electric current is passed through water, water dissociates into
hydrogen and oxygen. Hydrogen is deposited over negative pole and oxygen
is deposited over positive pole. Deposition of hydrogen and oxygen at
different poles is visible in the form of bubbles.

(b) When electric current is passed through the solution of a metal salt,
such as solution of copper sulphate, metal gets deposited at the negative
pole, because metal is positively charged.

(c)Sometimes, the colour of solution also changes when electric current

passes through

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it.

The above examples are some of the chemical effects of electric current.
The chemical reaction depends upon the type of solution through which
electric current is passed.

Electroplating:

Electroplating is one of the chemical effects of electric current.

Electroplating is a chemical process using which a metal is coated with a
layer of another desired metal. Electroplating is done to make the metals
shiny. Electroplating is done over the articles made of iron to make the iron
shiny and to prevent iron from getting rusted.

Example

Wheel rims, handle of cycle, etc. are made shiny by the method of
electroplating.

Process of electroplating:

In the process of electroplating, metal salt solution is taken in a container. Salt

of metal is chosen which is to be coated over another metal. Metal which is to
be coated is dipped in
the solution and connected with negative pole. Metal for desired coating is
connected with positive pole.

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When electric current is passed through the solution, metal from anode is
dissolved in the salt solution and deposited over the negative pole (cathode).
Thus, coating of desired metal is obtained on another metal.

Use of electroplating:

(a) Water pipes, which are made of iron, are coated with a layer of zinc
metal by the process of electroplating. Zinc is less reactive than iron and
thus prevents the iron pipe from getting rusted.

(b) Rims of wheel of cycle, cars, etc. are electroplated with chromium
metal. Layer of chromium metal give them shiny appearance and prevents
from rust.

(c) Ornaments made of silver or other cheap metals are electroplated

with gold to give them appearance like gold.

(d) Tin cans used for storing food are made of iron electroplating with a
coat of tin. Tin is less reactive than iron, and prevent foods packed in them
from getting spoiled.

Question: 1. Fill in the blanks

(a) Most liquids that conduct electricity are solutions of, ______________ and
______________.

Answer: acid, base and Salts

(b) The passage of an electric current through a solution causes ______________

effects.

Answer:- Chemical

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(c) If you pass current through copper sulphate solution, copper gets
deposited on the plate connected to the ___________ terminal of the battery.

Answer: -negative

(d) The process of depositing a layer of any desired metal on another material
by means of electricity is called _________.

Answer:- electroplating.

Question: 2. When the free ends of a tester are dipped into a solution, the
magnetic needle shows deflection. Can you explain the reason?

Answer: -Magnetic needle shows the deflection because of conduction of

electricity through the solution.

Question: 3. Name three liquids, which when tested in the manner shown in
the figure, may cause the magnetic needle to deflect.

Answer: - Acid solution, salt solution, solution of a base.

Question: 4. The bulb does not glow in the setup shown in the figure. List the
possible reasons. Explain your answer.

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Answer: Bulb does not glow in the above setup because solution taken is poor
conductor of electricity. Solution which is poor conductor of electricity does
not allow much current to pass through it which can produce the required
amount of heat to make the bulb glowing.

Question: 5. A tester is used to check the conduction of electricity through two

liquids, labeled A and B. It is found that the bulb of the tester glows brightly
for liquid A while it glows very dimly for liquid B. You would conclude that

(i) liquid A is a better conductor than liquid B.

(ii) liquid B is a better conductor than liquid A.

(iii) both liquids are equally conducting.

(iv) conducting properties of liquid cannot be compared in this manner.

Answer: (i) liquid A is better conductor than liquid B.

Question: 6. Does pure water conduct electricity? If not, what can we do to

make it conducting?

Answer: Pure water does not conduct electricity. By dissolving some salt, such
as common salt, pure water can be made a conductor of electricity.

Question: 7. In case of a fire, before the firemen use the water hoses, they shut
off the main electrical supply for the area. Explain why they do this.

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Answer: Water is good conductor of electricity. Therefore, firemen shut off the
main electrical supply for the area before using of water hoses in the case of
fire to prevent them from getting electric shock.

Question: 8. A child staying in a coastal region tests the drinking water and
also the seawater with his tester. He finds that the compass needle deflects
more in the case of seawater. Can you explain the reason?

Answer: Since, seawater contains more salts dissolved in it, thus in the case of
seawater, compass needle of the tester deflects more than the drinking water.

Question: 9. Is it safe for the electrician to carry out electrical repairs outdoors
during heavy downpour? Explain.

Answer: Rainwater may contain many impurities which get dissolved in it

when it passes through various layers of troposphere. Due to this, rainwater
becomes good conductor of electricity. If an electrician carries out electrical
repairs outdoors during heavy downpour, he may get electric shock. Hence, it
is not safe for the electrician to carry out electrical repairs outdoors during
heavy downpour.

Question: 10. Paheli had heard that rainwater is as good as distilled water. So
she collected some rainwater in a clean glass tumbler and tested it using a
tester. To her surprise she found that the compass needle showed deflection.
What could be the reasons?

Answer: Many impurities get dissolved in the rain water while it comes to the
ground. Due to the presence of these impurities, rainwater conducts
electricity. This explains Paheli’s observation.

Question: 11. Prepare a list of objects around you that are electroplated.

Answer: Rim of cycle, handle of cycle, electric iron, door handles, water tap,
water pipe.

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Question: 12. The process that you saw in Activity 14.7 is used for purification
of copper. A thin plate of pure copper and a thick rod of impure copper are
used as electrodes. Copper from impure rod is sought to be transferred to the
thin copper plate. Which electrode should be attached to the positive terminal
of battery and why?

Answer: Electrode of impure copper is connected with the negative terminal.

Because pure copper metal, which is positively charged, from positive
terminal is deposited over the negative terminal of thin copper after
dissolving in the solution.

Force and Pressure

Force

A pull or push over an object is called force.

Example – to open a drawer, one has to pull it; and to close the drawer one
has to push it. Thus, in both the conditions a person applies force by pull or
push.

To kick a ball, one has to push it, i.e. a force is applied.

To ride a bicycle one has to push the pedal. In this condition, force is
applied while pushing the pedal.

Forces are due an interaction:

To apply a force over an object interaction between object and source

of force is necessary.

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Example –

To open a drawer one has to pull by holding it, drawer will not open
otherwise .

To kick a ball one has to touch it, otherwise force will not be applied over the
ball.

Direction and Magnitude of Force:

The measure of amount or strength of force is called the magnitude of

force. Thus, strength or amount of force is expressed in terms of
magnitude.

Condition when more than two forces are applied over an object:

Forces applied in same direction:

When more than one force is applied in the same direction, the total
force is the magnitude of both the forces.

Example – It is difficult to push a car by single person, but two or more

persons can collectively push the same car easily. This is because when more
than one person tries to push the car, magnitudes of forces applied by each of
the person are summed up and applied over than car, and car is pushed easily
because of greater magnitude of force.

That means if three units of force are applied over an object by each of the two
persons,

The total unit of force = sum of both forces = 3 unit + 3 unit = 6 unit

Forces applied in opposite direction:

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When two forces are applied over an object from opposite directions, the
total effective force is the difference of two forces.

Example –

(a) When two persons are pushing a box in opposite directions and the
magnitude of both the forces is equal, then box will not move, because the
difference of two forces will be equal to zero.

Let a person applying 4 unit of force in one direction and other person is also
applying 4 unit of force in opposite direction on the same wooden box.

Therefore, the magnitude of total force = 4 unit – 4 unit = 0

(b) If one person is applying a force of 4 unit in one direction and

another person is applying a force of 6 unit in opposite direction,

Then total magnitude of force = 6 unit – 4 unit = 2 unit

Thus, force will act in the direction of larger magnitude of force.

Force can change the state of motion:

State of rest:

An object is called in the state of rest when it is not moving. This means a
stationary object is called in the state of rest. For example – a building, an
electric pole, a ball kept over the ground and not moving, etc.

State of motion:

A moving object is called in the state of motion. For example – a moving car,

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a moving ball, etc.

A force can speed up a moving object. Force can decrease the speed of a
moving object. Force can stop a moving object. Force can change the direction
of a moving object. Force can move a stationary object.

Example –

In the game of cricket, when a batsman pushes a fast moving ball in the same
direction of the movement of ball, the speed of the ball is increased.

When a batsman pushes a fast moving ball in the opposite direction the
speed of ball decreases; because of force being applied from his bat.

When a player in the game of football kicks the ball to his mate, he changes
the direction of the moving football by applying force through his kick.

A goalkeeper stops the football going towards the goal post by applying a
force by his hand.

Force can change the shape of an object:

When you apply force on an inflated balloon; using your hand from both sides,
the force of pressure changes the shape of balloon.

You mom change the shape of dough into a bread by applying force with a
rolling pin.

A blacksmith changes the shape of an iron rod by applying force using a

hammer.

When a rubber band is stretched in opposite directions, its shape is changed.

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Force and Pressure

Kinds of Force

Contact Force

Force that comes into action after the interaction between objects is called
contact force. Contact force acts on the point of contact. For contact force;
interaction between objects is necessary. Example; pushing a car, opening a
drawer, kicking a ball, etc. In these examples, interaction between objects is
necessary.

Muscular force, force of friction, etc. are types of contact force.

Muscular Force: -

Force caused by the action of muscles is called muscular force. In other

words, force resulting because of action of muscle is called muscular force.
Muscular force is applied only after interaction with the object. Hence it is a
type of contact force.

Example : –

While kicking a ball, the player applies force over the ball using his leg
muscles.

While opening a drawer, you pull the drawer holding it by hand. In this
action, muscles of your hand apply the force.

While pulling a cart, the horse or the ox applies the force of its muscles.

Friction:

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Force acting between the surfaces of two objects is called the force of friction.
Force of friction always acts in the opposite direction of the movement of
object. Force of friction is acting over all the moving objects.

Example -

A moving football stops after going to a certain distance. This happens

because of force of friction between the surface of ground and the surface of
football.

A moving boat stops after some distance because of friction between the
surface of water and the surface of boat.

Since force of friction comes into action only after interaction between two
objects, thus, it is a type of contact force.

Non – contact Force

Force that comes into action without interaction between two objects is
called non-contact force. For example; a magnet can pull an iron nail
from a distance.
Magnetic force, Electrostatic force and Gravitational force are examples of
non-contact force.

Magnetic Force:

Force exerted by a magnet on another magnet or on magnetic substances

is called magnetic force. A magnet can exert force even without coming in
contact, thus it is a non-contact force.

Example – A magnet attracts the opposite pole of another magnet and repels
the similar pole of another magnet.

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Electrostatic Force:

Force exerted by a charged body is called electrostatic force. A charged body

attracts an uncharged body. A positively charged body attracts a negatively
charged body and repels a positively charged body without coming in contact,
thus it is a non-contact force.

Gravitational Force:

Force exerted by earth, moon, sun and other planets is called gravitational
force. Earth attracts all objects towards it. Similarly, all other planets along
with moon attract all objects towards them. Since, earth attracts all objects
even without coming in contact, thus gravitational force is a non-contact
force.

Example –

When anything is released from a height, it falls over the ground because of
gravitational pull of earth.

Pressure:

A force applied over the unit area of a surface is called pressure. In other
words, force per unit area is called pressure.

Pressure = Force / Area

In this case, area is indirectly proportional to the pressure, thus pressure

decreases with increase in area and increases with decrease in area.

Example:

While cutting an apple, we need to use the sharp edge of the knife. Using the

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blunt edge of knife shall not serve the purpose. The blunt edge of knife has
larger surface area than the sharp edge. Because of smaller surface area; more
pressure can be applied through the sharp edge of the knife and something
can be easily cut.

While putting a nail into a wooden board, the pointed end of the nail is kept
at the front. The pointed end of the nail has very small surface area and this
enables us to apply a greater pressure with the applied force.

School bags have broad shoulder straps. Because of broad shoulder straps,
the pressure because of the weight of the school bag is distributed over a
larger area and it becomes easier to carry the bag.

Pressure exerted by Liquid and Gas

Similar to solid, liquid and gas also exert pressure. Liquid and gas exert
pressure on inner walls of the container in which they are kept.

Example –

Water starts leaking if there is a pore in the bottle. This happens because
water exerts pressure over the walls of the bottle.

Water flows from higher level to lower level of the ground. This happens
because of pressure exerted by water.

When air is filled, a rubber balloon gets inflated from all sides. This happens
because air, which is a gas, exerts pressure over inner walls of the balloon.

Atmospheric Pressure:

Our atmosphere is made of air. Since air is mixture of gases and gas exerts
pressure, thus air exerts pressure. Pressure exerted by air (present in

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atmosphere) is called atmospheric pressure.

Atmosphere of 10cm X 10cm X 10cm exerts about 1000 kg of pressure.

We do not feel the atmospheric pressure over us because the pressure

inside our body nullifies the atmospheric pressure.

Example –

A pressed rubber sucker on a plane surface does not come off because of
atmospheric pressure.

When you go to hills and mountains, it is difficult to breather. This happens

because of low atmospheric pressure.

The ink of a fountain pen spills out in aero plane, because of low pressure
at higher altitude.

At higher altitude, lentils (pulses) take longer to get cooked. This happens
because of low atmospheric pressure at higher altitude. Because of low
atmospheric pressure, water boils at a lower temperature and that
temperature is not enough for cooking the pulses.

Important terms

Force - A pull or push over an object is called force.

Magnitude of Force: Strength or amount of force is expressed in terms of

magnitude.

Contact Force: Force that comes into action after the interaction between
objects is called contact force.

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Muscular Force: Force caused by the action of muscles is called muscular

force.

Friction: Force acting between the surfaces of two objects is called force of
friction.

Non – contact Force: Force that comes into action without interaction
between two objects is called non-contact force.

Magnetic Force: Force exerted by a magnet on other magnet or on magnetic

substances is called magnetic force.

Electrostatic Force: Force exerted by a charged body is called electrostatic

force.

Gravitational Force: Force exerted by earth, moon, sun and other planets to
pull an object towards them, is called gravitational force.

Pressure: A force applied over the unit area of a surface is called pressure.

Atmospheric Pressure: Pressure exerted by air present in atmosphere is

called atmospheric pressure

Question: 1. Give two examples each of situations in which you push or pull to
change the state of motion of objects.

Answer: -

Push: -

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To close a drawer.

To move a wooden box on floor.

Pull:

To open a drawer

A horse pulling a cart.

Question: 2. Give two examples of situations in which applied force causes a

change in the shape of an object.

Answer:

Making of bread from dough

Stretching of a rubber band.

Question: 3. Fill in the blanks in the following statements:

(a) To draw water from a well we have to ——— at the rope.

Answer: Pull

(b) A charged body ———— an uncharged body towards it.

Answer: Attracts

(c) To move a loaded trolley we have to ———— it.

Answer: Push or Pull

(d) The north pole of a magnet ———— the north pole of another magnet.

Answer: repels

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Question: 4. An archer stretches her bow while taking aim at the target. She
then releases the arrow, which begins to move towards the target. Based on
this information fill up the gaps in the following statements using the
following terms:

muscular, contact, non-contact, gravity, friction, shape, attraction

(a) To stretch the bow, the archer applies a force that causes a change in its
________.

Answer: Shape

(b) The force applied by the archer to stretch the bow is an example of — ——
force.

Answer: Muscular

(c) The type of force responsible for a change in the state of motion of the
arrow is an example of a ———— force.

Answer: Contact

(d) While the arrow moves towards its target, the forces acting on it are due to
———— and that due to ———— of air.

Answer: gravity, friction

Question: 5. In the following situations identify the agent exerting the force
and the object on which it acts. State the effect of the force in each case.

(a) Squeezing a piece of lemon between the fingers to extract its juice.

Answer:

Agent exerting the force – Fingers

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Object on which force acts – Lemon

Effect of force – Change in shape of lemon

(b) Taking out paste from a toothpaste tube.

Answer:

Agent exerting the force – Fingers

Object on which force acts – toothpaste tube

Effect of force – Change in shape of toothpaste tube.

(c) A load suspended from a spring while its other end is on a hook fixed to a
wall.

Answer:

Agent exerting the force – Load

Object on which force acts – Spring

Effect of force – Change in shape of spring.

(d) An athlete making a high jump to clear the bar at a certain height.

Answer:

Agent exerting the force – Muscles of Athlete

Object on which force acts – Athlete

Effect of force – Change of state of motion of athlete

Question: 6. A blacksmith hammers a hot piece of iron while making a tool.

How does the force due to hammering affect the piece of iron?

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Answer:

Force due to hammering changes the shape of the piece of iron.

Question: 7. An inflated balloon was pressed against a wall after it has been
rubbed with a piece of synthetic cloth. It was found that the balloon sticks to
the wall. What force might be responsible for the attraction between the
balloon and the wall?

Answer: Electrostatic force

Question: 8. Name the forces acting on a plastic bucket containing water held
above ground level in your hand. Discuss why the forces acting on the bucket
do not bring a change in its state of motion.

Answer: In this case, muscular force is acting in upward direction and the
force of gravity is acting in downward direction. Both forces are acting in
opposite directions to each other and hence nullify the effect of each other.
Due to this, there is no change in the state of motion of the bucket.

Question: 9. A rocket has been fired upwards to launch a satellite in its orbit.
Name the two forces acting on the rocket immediately after leaving the
launching pad.

Answer: Gravitational force and atmospheric pressure.

Question: 10. When we press the bulb of a dropper with its nozzle kept in
water, air in the dropper is seen to escape in the form of bubbles. Once we
release the pressure on the bulb, water gets filled in the dropper. The rise of
water in the dropper is due to

(a) pressure of water

(b) gravity of the earth

(c) shape of rubber bulb

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(d) atmospheric pressure

Answer: (d) Atmospheric pressure.

Materials – Metal and Non-metals

Introduction of Metals and Non-metals

Materials are classified into two types – metals and non-metals; on the
basis of their properties. For example – aluminium, copper, iron, silver,
etc. are metals. Sulphur, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, etc. are non-metals.

Physical properties of Metals and Non-metals

Hardness

Metals – Metals are generally hard. For example; iron, copper, silver, gold,
aluminium, etc. But some metals, such as mercury, sodium, calcium, etc. are
not hard.

Non-metals – Non-metals are not hard. For example – phosphorous,

sulphur, etc. Diamond is exception, which is a type of non-metal, coal.
Diamond is the hardest naturally occurring material.

Appearance:

Metals – Metals are shiny in appearance. For example – iron, gold, silver,
copper, etc.

Non-metals – Non-metals are dull in appearance. For example coal.

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Sonorous:

Metals - Metals produce ringing sound when beaten, i.e. metals are sonorous.
This is the reason that bells are made of metal.

Non-metals – Non-metals do not produce ringing sound when beaten. And

thus, non-metals are non-sonorous.

Ductility:

Metals – Metals are ductile in nature. This means metals can be beaten into
thin sheets. For example thin sheets of iron are used in making the body of
vehicle, ship, roof of thatched house, etc.

Non-metals – Non metals are not ductile. When non-metal is beaten it broken
into pieces, thus metals are called brittle. For example when a lump of coal is
beaten using a hammer, it is broken into pieces.

Malleability:

Metals: Metals can be drawn into wire. This property of metal is called
malleability and thus metals are malleable. For example – electric wires are
made of metals, such as aluminium, copper, etc.

Non-metals: Non-metals are brittle and thus cannot be drawn into wire.

Conductor:

Metals: Metals are good conductor of electricity and heat. This is the cause
that electric wire and kitchen utensils are made of metals.

Non-metals: Non-metals do not conduct electricity or heat and they are bad
conductor. However, graphite; which is a non-metal; is an exception as it

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conducts electricity.

Thus, materials which are hard, sonorous, good conductors of electricity and
heat, malleable, ductile and have shiny appearance are called metals.

And materials which are not hard, non-sonorous, bad conductors, brittle and
dull in appearance are called non-metals

Materials – Metal and Non-metals

Chemical Properties of Metals and Non-metals

Reaction of metals with oxygen:

Metals form their oxides when react with oxygen.

Metal oxides are basic in nature.

Example -

Reaction of Iron metal with oxygen

When iron reacts with moist air, it forms rust. Rust is iron oxide. Articles
made of iron, such as grills, fencing, etc. are get rusted because of reaction
with moist air.

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Rust is reddish brown in colour and is iron oxide.

Iron oxide is basic in nature. It turns red litmus blue.

Reaction of Magnesium metal with oxygen:

When magnesium is burnt in air, it forms magnesium oxide. Burning in

air means reaction with oxygen.

Magnesium oxide forms magnesium hydroxide with water. Solution of

Magnesium oxide turns red litmus paper blue. This means magnesium oxide is
basic in nature.

Reaction of Non-metals with oxygen:

Non-metals forms their oxides when react with oxygen.

Thus,

Non-metal forms their oxide when reacts with oxygen

Non-metal oxides are acidic in nature.

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Example -

Reaction of sulphur with oxygen

When sulphur is burnt in air, it forms sulphur dioxide.

Solution of sulphur dioxide turns blue litmus paper red. Sulphur dioxide
forms sulphurous acid when dissolved in water. Thus, sulphur dioxide
is basic in nature.

Reaction of carbon with oxygen

When carbon is burnt in air, it forms carbon dioxide. You can observe that
when coal (carbon) is burnt it forms smoke, which contains carbon
dioxide.

Carbon dioxide is basic in nature. The solution of carbon dioxide in water

turns blue litmus paper red.

Reaction of Metals and Non-metals with water:

Generally, metals form respective hydroxides when they react with water.

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Reaction of sodium metal with water:

Sodium metal vigorously reacts with water and forms sodium hydroxide along
with lot of heat.

Reaction of potassium with water:

Potassium metal vigorously reacts with water and forms potassium

hydroxide along with lot of heat.

Non-metals generally do not react with water. Rather some non-metals

which react with air vigorously are stored in water.

Materials – Metal and Non-metals

Chemical Properties of Metals and Non-metals - part 2

Reaction of metals and non-metals with dilute acid

Metals give hydrogen gas when they react with dilute acid.

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Reaction of zinc with dilute acid:

Zinc gives hydrogen gas along with zinc chloride when it reacts with
hydrochloric acid.

Similarly, zinc gives hydrogen gas along with zinc sulphate when it reacts with
sulphuric acid.

This method is used to produce hydrogen gas in laboratory.

Reaction of sodium metal with dilute acid:

Sodium gives hydrogen gas and sodium chloride when reacts with dilute
hydrochloric acid (HCl).

Reaction of Aluminium with dilute acid:

Aluminium gives hydrogen gas along with aluminium chloride when it reacts
with dilute hydrochloric acid.

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Copper does not react with dilute sulphuric acid even on heating, but it reacts
with concentrated sulphuric acid. Copper, silver and gold are considered as
noble metals as do not react with dilute acid.

Generally, non-metals do not react with dilute acid.

Reaction of metals and non-metals with base:

Metals give hydrogen gas when they react with a base

Reaction of aluminium metal with sodium hydroxide

Aluminium metal forms hydrogen gas and sodium aluminate when it reacts
with sodium hydroxide.

Similarly; zinc gives sodium zincate and hydrogen gas when it reacts
with sodium hydroxide.

Displacement Reaction

When a more reactive metal reacts with the salt solution of less reactive
metal, more reactive metal displaces the less reactive metal from its
solution.

In the above equation, metal A is more reactive than metal B.

Example –

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When aluminium metal is dipped in the solution of copper sulphate, it forms

aluminium sulphate and copper.

When iron reacts with solution of copper sulphate, it gives iron sulphate and
copper.

In the above two reactions, aluminium and iron are more reactive than
copper, that’s why they replace copper from the solution of copper sulphate.

When copper metal is dipped in the solution of aluminium nitrate, no

reaction takes place. Because copper is less reactive than aluminium.

Use of Metals and Non-metals

Use of metals

Iron is used in making machinery, buildings, car, motorcycle, ships,

bridge, etc. Copper is used in making electric wires, statue, etc.

Aluminium is used in making kitchen utensils, electric

wire, etc. Gold is used in making ornaments.
Silver is used in making
ornaments. Use of Non-metals

The number of non-metals is very less in comparison to metals but non-

metals are more useful for us. So far only 22 non-metals are discovered.

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We breathe oxygen which is a non-metal. Without oxygen no one can live.

Sodium chloride (common salt) cannot be formed without chlorine (a

non-metal) which we use to enhance the taste of food. Without using
common salt, food is tasteless.

Nitrogen is used in making

fertilizers. Coal, which carbon, is
used as fuel.

1. Which of the following can be beaten into thin sheets?

(a) Zinc

(b) Phosphorus

(c) Sulphur

(d) Oxygen

Answer: - (a) Zinc

2. Which of the following statements is correct?

(a) All metals are ductile.

(b) All non-metals are ductile.

(c) Generally, metals are ductile.

(d) Some non-metals are ductile.

Answer: - (c) Generally, metals are ductile

3. Fill in the blanks :

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(a) Phosphorus is very ………….non-metal.

Answer: Reactive

(b) Metals are …………..conductors of heat and …………..

Answer: Good, temperature

(c) Iron is …………..reactive than copper.

Answer: More

(d) Metals react with acids to produce …………..gas.

Answer: hydrogen

4. Mark ‘T’ if the statement is true and ‘F’ if it is false.

(a) Generally, non-metals react with acids. (F )

(b) Sodium is a very reactive metal. ( T)

(c) Copper displaces zinc from zinc sulphate solution. (F )

(d) Coal can be drawn into wires. ( F)

5. Some properties are listed in the following Table. Distinguish between

metals and non-metals on the basis of these properties.

Answer:

Properties Metals Non-metals

Appearance Lustrous Dull
Hardness Hard Brittle
Malleability Malleable Non-malleable(Brittle)
Ductility Ductile Non-ductile(Brittle)

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Heat conduction Conductor Non-conductor

Conduction of electricity Conductor Non-conductor

6. Give reasons for the following : -

(a) Aluminium foils are used to wrap food items.

Answer: - Aluminium is one of the least reactive metals, so it does not react
with food items and does not alter the taste. Moreover, being a metal;
aluminium is highly malleable and can be made into very thin foils which are
perfect for wrapping food.

(b) Immersion rods for heating liquids are made up of metallic substances.

Answer: - Immersion rods for heating liquids are made up of metallic

substances because metals are good conductors of heat and electricity. The
immersion rod needs electric supply to get heated and; in turn; to heat liquids.

(c) Copper cannot displace zinc from its salt solution.

Answer: Copper is less reactive than zinc. This is the reason, copper cannot
displace zinc from its salt solution.

(d) Sodium and potassium are stored in kerosene.

Answer: Sodium and potassium are highly reactive metals. If kept in open,
they readily react with oxygen in the atmosphere. The reaction is so quick and
that sodium and potassium easily catch fire when exposed to air. To prevent
accidental fire, they are stored in kerosene.

7. Can you store lemon pickle in an aluminium utensil? Explain.

Answer: Aluminium is a metal and most of the metals react with acid to
produce hydrogen gas. Lemon pickle contains acid which would react with
aluminium. Hence, lemon pickle should not be stored in an aluminium pickle.

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8. In the following Table some substances are given in Column I. In Column II

some uses are given. Match the items in column I with those in Column II.

Question Answer
Column I Column II Column I Column II
Gold Thermometers Gold Jewellery
Iron Electric wire Iron Machinery
Aluminium Wrapping food Aluminium Wrapping food
Carbon Jewellery Carbon Fuel
copper Machinery copper Electric Wire
Mercury Fuel Mercury Thermometers

9. What happens when

(a) Dilute sulphuric acid is poured on a copper plate?

(b) Iron nails are placed in copper sulphate solution?

Write word equations of the reactions involved.

Answer: (a) When dilute sulphuric acid is poured on a copper plate, bubbles
appear on the surface of plate. This happens because sulphuric acid reacts
with copper to produce hydrogen gas. This can be shown by following
equation:

Sulphuric acid + Copper → Copper sulphate + Hydrogen gas

(b) When iron nails are placed in copper sulphate solution, the blue colour of
copper sulphate solution fades and turns into light green. This happens
because iron displaces copper from copper sulphate solution. This can be
shown by following equation:

Copper sulphate + Iron → Iron sulphate + Copper

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10. Saloni took a piece of burning charcoal and collected the gas evolved in a
test tube.

(a) How will she find the nature of the gas?

Answer: For this, the evolved gas should be passed into a test tube which is
filled with lime water. If the lime water turns milky, it shows that the evolved
gas is carbon dioxide.

(b) Write down word equations of all the reactions taking place in this
process.

Answer: Carbon + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide + Heat

11. One day Reeta went to a jeweller’s shop with her mother. Her mother gave
old gold jewellery to the goldsmith to polish. Next day when they brought the
jewellery back, they found that there was a slight loss in its weight. Can you
suggest a reason for the loss in weight?

Answer: The goldsmith use a mixture of acids to clean

jewellery. Gold usually doesn’t react with acids. But the
mixture which is used by goldsmith is Aqua regia which
can even dissolve gold. Due to this, some gold is lost
during the polishing process. This explains the loss in
weight

Pollution Of Air And Water

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Definition: Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into an environment

that
causes instability, disorder, harm or discomfort to the ecosystem i.e. physical
systems or living organisms. Pollution can take the form of chemical
substances,
or energy, such as noise, heat, or light energy. Pollutants, the elements of
pollution, can be foreign substances or energies, or naturally occurring; when
naturally occurring, they are considered contaminants when they exceed
natural
levels. Pollution is often classed as point source or non point source pollution.
Air Pollution
Air pollution is the introduction of chemicals, particulate matter, or biological
materials that cause harm or discomfort to humans or other living organisms,
or
damages the natural environment, into the atmosphere.
The atmosphere is a complex, dynamic natural gaseous system that is
essential
to support life on planet Earth. Stratospheric ozone depletion due to air
pollution
has long been recognized as a threat to human health as well as to the Earth's
ecosystems.
Causes of Air Pollution:
The substances which contaminate the air are called air pollutants.
Sometimes,
such substances may come from natural sources like smoke and dust arising

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from forest fires or volcanic eruptions. Pollutants are also added to the
atmosphere by human activities. The sources of air pollutants are factories,
power plants, automobile exhausts and burning of firewood and dung cakes.
Vehicles produce high levels of pollutants like carbon monoxide, carbon
dioxide,
nitrogen oxides and smoke. Carbon monoxide is produced from incomplete
burning of fuels such as petrol and diesel. It is a poisonous gas. It reduces the
oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood. There is thick fog-like layer in the
atmosphere, especially during winters. This is smog which is made up of
smoke
and fog. Smoke may contain oxides of nitrogen which combine with other air
pollutants and fog to form smog. The smog causes breathing difficulties such
as
asthma, cough and wheezing in children. Many industries are also responsible
for causing air pollution. Petroleum refineries are a major source of gaseous
pollutants like sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide. Sulphur dioxide is
produced
by combustion of fuels like coal in power plants. It can cause respiratory
problems, including permanent lung damage.
Other kinds of pollutants are chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) which are used in
refrigerators, air conditioners and aerosol sprays. CFCs damage the ozone
layer
of the atmosphere.
In addition to the above mentioned gases, automobiles which burn diesel and

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petrol also produce tiny particles which remain suspended in air for long
periods.
They reduce visibility. When inhaled, they cause diseases. Such particles are
also produced during industrial processes like steel making and mining.
Power
plants give out tiny ash particles which also pollute the atmosphere.
Case Study: - The Taj Mahal
Over the past 2 decades, India’s most famous tourist attraction, Taj Mahal
located in Agra, has become a matter of concern. Experts have warned that
pollutants in air are discolouring its white marble. So, it is not only living
organisms that get affected by polluted air but non-living things like buildings,
monuments and statues also get affected. The industries located in and
around
Agra like rubber processing, automobile, chemicals and especially the
Mathura
oil refinery, have been responsible for producing pollutants like sulphur
dioxide
and nitrogen dioxide. These gases react with the water vapour present in the
atmosphere to form sulphuric acid and nitric acid. The acids drop down with
rain,
making the rain acidic. This is called acid rain. Acid rain corrodes the marble
of
the monument. The phenomenon is also called “Marble cancer”. Suspended
particulate matter, such as the soot particles emitted by Mathura oil refinery,
has

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contributed towards yellowing of the marble.

Greenhouse Effect
We know that the sun’s rays warm the earth’s surface. A part of the radiation
that
falls on the earth is absorbed by it and a part is reflected back into space. A
part
of the reflected radiation is trapped by the atmosphere. The trapped
radiations
further warm the earth. The trapped heat warms the green house. The
trapping
of radiations by the earth’s atmosphere is similar. That is why it is called the
greenhouse effect. Without this process, life would not have been possible on
the
earth. But now it threatens life. CO2 is one of the gases responsible for this
effect.
Global Warming
CO2 is continuously being released because of human activities. On the other
hand, area under forests is decreasing. Plants utilize CO2 from the atmosphere
for photosynthesis, thereby decreasing the amount of CO2 in the air.
Deforestation leads to an increase in the amount of CO2 in the air because the
number of trees which consume CO2 is reduced. Human activities, thus,
contribute to the accumulation of CO2 in the atmosphere. CO2 traps heat and
does not allow it to escape into space. As a result, the average temperature of
the earth’s atmosphere is gradually increasing. This is called global warming.
Water Pollution

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Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies such as lakes, rivers,

oceans, and groundwater caused by human activities, which can be harmful to
organisms and plants that live in these water bodies. It occurs when
pollutants
are discharged directly into water bodies without treating it first.
Causes of Water Pollution
There are many causes for water pollution but two general categories exist:
direct and indirect contaminant sources. Direct sources include effluent
outfalls
from factories, refineries, waste treatment plants etc. that emits fluids of
varying
quality directly into urban water supplies. In the United States and other
countries, these practices are regulated, although this doesn't mean that
pollutants can't be found in these waters.
Indirect sources include contaminants that enter the water supply from
soils/groundwater systems and from the atmosphere via rain water. Soils and
ground waters contain the residue of human agricultural practices (fertilizers,
pesticides, etc.) and improperly disposed of industrial wastes. Atmospheric
Contaminants are also derived from human practices (such as gaseous
Emissions from automobiles, factories and even bakeries).
Contaminants can be broadly classified into organic, inorganic, radioactive
and
acid/base.
Effects of Water Pollution

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The effects of water pollution are varied. They include poisonous drinking
water,
poisonous food animals (due to these organisms having bioaccumulated
toxins from the environment over their life spans), unbalanced river and lake
ecosystems that can no longer support full biological diversity, deforestation
from acid rain, and many other effects. These effects are, of course, specific to
the various contaminants.
Corrective Actions Required
Science provides many practical solutions to minimizing the present level at
which pollutants are introduced into the environment and for remediating
(cleaning up) past problems. All of these solutions come with some cost (both
societal and monetary). In our everyday lives, a great deal can be done to
minimize pollution if we take care to recycle materials whose production
creates
pollution and if we act responsibly with household chemicals and their
disposal.
Additionally, there are choices we make each day that also can affect the
quantity of pollutants our actions will introduce into the environment.
Heavily packaged foods, for instance, contain boxes, cartons, bottles etc. made
with polluting dyes, many of which are released from groundwater at
municipal
land fills. Whether we choose to drive to the corner store rather than walk or
ride
a bicycle will determine how much we personally contribute to acid and

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hydrocarbon emissions to the atmosphere (and ultimately to global fresh

water
supplies).
Potable Water & Purification of Water
Water which is suitable for drinking is called potable water. Various physical
and
chemical processes in the sewage treatment plants help to clean water before
discharging it into water bodies. Similarly, municipal bodies treat the water
before
supplying it to households.
Water can be made safe for drinking:
• Water is filtered. This is a physical method of removing impurities. A
popular
household filter is a candle type filter.
• Many households use boiling as a method for obtaining safe drinking water.
Boiling kills the germs present in the water.
• Chlorination is a commonly used chemical method for purifying water. It is
done
by adding chlorine tablets or bleaching powder to the water.

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Air and Water Pollution

NCERT Solution

Question – 1 - What are the different ways in which water gets

contaminated?

Answer: Water gets contaminated by following:

a. Untreated sewage
b. Practice of bathing and washing near a water body
c. Practice cremating the dead bodies near river banks
d. Oil spill

Question – 2 - At an individual level, how can you help reduce air

pollution?

Answer: I can take following steps to reduce air pollution:

 I will walk when I have to go to the nearby market.

 I will use my bicycle to go to school.
 I will prefer to use public transport.

Question – 3 - Clear, transparent water is always fit for drinking.

Comment.

Answer: Even the clear, transparent water can contain harmful germs. Thus
the clear water is not necessarily fit for drinking.

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Question – 4 - You are a member of the municipal body of your town.

Make a list of measures that would help your town to ensure the supply
of clean water to all its residents.

Answer: I will take following steps to ensure the supply of clean water:

 All leakages in the pipelines should be repaired.

 Water should be properly treated before being supplied to the
households.
 A sewage treatment plant should be installed in the municipal area.

Question – 5 - Explain the differences between pure air and polluted air.

Answer:

Question – 6 - Explain circumstances leading to acid rain. How does acid

rain affect us?

Answer: When oxides of nitrogen and sulphur mix with rainwater, they form
acids. It results in acid rain, i.e. the rainwater becomes acidic. Acid rain is very
harmful for living beings. Acid rain also damages buildings and monuments.

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Question – 7 - Which of the following is not a greenhouse gas?

a. Carbon dioxide
b. Sulphur dioxide
c. Methane
d. Nitrogen

Answer: (d)

Question – 8 - Describe the ‘Green House Effect’ in your own words.

Answer: Some gases trap solar radiation which helps in increasing the
temperature of the atmosphere. This effect is called greenhouse effect.

Question – 9 - Prepare a brief speech on global warming that you have to

make in your class.

Answer: Global warming is a serious concern of the modern times. We are

using more cars and bikes than past. We are also consuming at a large scale
which means more and more factories are coming up to satisfy our greed. All
of this has resulted in an increased level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
The increased level of carbon dioxide has resulted in global warming.

Due to this; the summers have become hotter and winters have become much
colder. We are seeing increased instances of flash floods. Weather changes are
drastic and this is being attributed to global warming.

Global warming would result in total disaster for us. A time will come when
the temperature on the earth will finish the life as we know it.
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It is high time we should stand up and take a pledge to fight against global
warming.

Question – 10 - Describe the threat to the beauty of the Taj Mahal.

Answer: Taj Mahal is made up of white marble. Marble is composed of calcium

carbonate. Calcium carbonate reacts with acids and thus gets corroded. This is
the reason; acid rain is damaging the Taj Mahal. This wonderful monument
does not look white but is looking pale and dull. If corrective measures are not
taken, the future generations may not be able to see the beauty of the Taj.

Question – 11 - Why does the increased level of nutrients in the water

affect the survival of aquatic organisms?

Answer: Increased level of nutrients in water helps in promoting the growth

of algae. Algae proliferate quickly to cover the whole water body. This
phenomenon is called algal bloom. Finally, when these algae die; many
decomposers thrive in the water body to decompose the dead algae. Increased
population of decomposers means a lot of oxygen in the water gets utilised by
them. This leaves less oxygen for other aquatic plants and animals. Thus, the
aquatic plants and animals perish in the process.

Stars And The Solar System

Our solar system consists of an average star we call the Sun, the planets
Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto. It
includes: the satellites of the planets; numerous comets, asteroids, and

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meteoroids; and the interplanetary medium. The moon is the brightest object
in the night sky. The stars, the planets, the moon and many other objects in
the sky are called celestial objects.

The Moon
The Moon is Earth's only natural satellite and the fifth largest satellite in the
Solar System. The average centre-to-centre distance from the Earth to the
Moon is
384,403 km, about thirty times the diameter of the Earth. The common centre
of mass of the system is located about 1,700 km—a quarter the Earth's radius
beneath the surface of the Earth. The Moon makes a complete orbit around
the Earth every 27.3 days (the orbital period), and the periodic variations in
the geometry of the Earth–Moon–Sun system are responsible for the lunar
phases that repeat every 29.5 days.

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The Moon is the only celestial body to which humans have traveled and upon
which humans have performed a manned landing.
Eclipses
Eclipses can occur only when the Sun, Earth, and Moon are all in a straight
line. Solar eclipses occur near a new moon, when the Moon is between the Sun
and Earth. In contrast, lunar eclipses occur near a full moon, when the Earth is
between the Sun and Moon. Because the Moon's orbit around the Earth is
inclined by about 5° with respect to the orbit of the Earth around the Sun,
eclipses do not occur at every full and new moon. For an eclipse to occur, the
Moon must be near the intersection of the two orbital planes. The periodicity
and recurrence of eclipses of the Sun by the Moon, and of the Moon by the
Earth, is described by the soars cycle, which has a period of approximately 6
585.3 days (18 years 11 days 8 hours).
The Stars
A star is a massive, luminous ball of plasma that is held together by gravity.
The nearest star to Earth is the Sun, which is the source of most of the energy
on Earth. Other stars are visible in the night sky, when they are not outshone
by the Sun. For most of its life, a star shines due to thermonuclear fusion in its
core releasing energy that traverses the star's interior and then radiates into
outer space. Almost all elements heavier than hydrogen and helium were
created by fusion processes in stars. The total mass of a star is the principal
determinant in its evolution and eventual fate. Other characteristics of a star
are determined by its evolutionary history, including the diameter, rotation,
movement and temperature.
Constellations

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A constellation is what astronomers call an asterism: a group of celestial

bodies (usually stars) that appear to form a pattern in the sky or appear
visibly related to each other. Examples are Orion (which appears like a human
figure with a belt, often referred to as "The Hunter"), Leo (which contains
bright stars that outline the form of a lion), Scorpius (which can seem
reminiscent of a scorpion), and
Crux (a cross). Constellations are names for groups of stars that appear to
form shapes in the sky. They were given their names many hundreds of years
ago to help us remember which stars are which. We use constellations to
divide up the sky; finding one can help us find another because constellations
move so slowly that, in our lifetime, they will always be found in about the
same place.

The Big Dipper (Ursa Major or the Great Bear):

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The best known group of stars is the Big Dipper. The Big Dipper is a group of
seven bright stars, 3 which form a handle and 4 which form a bowl. The Big
Dipper is not actually a constellation but is part of the constellation Ursa
Major, or Great Bear.
Little Dipper (Ursa Minor or the Little Bear):
The Little Dipper is a mirrored and smaller version of the Big Dipper. It can be
found by looking directly up from the two outermost stars which form the
bowl on the Big Dipper. These two stars point us to Polaris, the Pole Star
(indicating the North Pole), which is at the end of the Little Dipper's handle.
Orion
Another well-known constellation is Orion. Orion was an ancient Greek hunter
and warrior and the constellation resembles this figure, with a club and a
shield, and a sword dangling from his belt. The belt is usually the easiest part
of Orion to spot, with three bright stars in a row. Can you find his belt in the
picture below? Orion has more bright stars than any other constellation; the
two brightest are Betelgeuse (shoulder) and Rigel (foot).
Cassiopeia
Cassiopeia is found next to the Big Dipper and Orion. Its shape is easy to
remember, a neat W, or M, formed by 5 bright stars. Cassiopeia is the
mythological Queen of Ethiopia.
The Pleiades (Seven Sisters)
The Seven Sisters were said to be the daughters of Atlas and the objects of
Orion's affection. As the name Seven Sisters implies, there are seven stars in
this constellation but most people can only see six. The Pleiades is located
between the constellations of Taurus and Perseus.

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The Solar System

The Sun and the celestial bodies which revolve around it form the solar
system. It consists of large number of bodies such as planets, comets,
asteroids and meteors. The gravitational attraction between the Sun and these
objects keeps them revolving around it. The Earth also revolves around the
Sun. It is a member of the solar system. It is a planet. There are seven other
planets that revolve around the Sun. The eight planets in their order of
distance from the Sun are: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn,
Uranus and Neptune.
The Sun
The Sun is the nearest star from us. It is continuously emitting huge amounts
of heat and light. The Sun is the source of almost all energy on the Earth. In
fact, the Sun is the main source of heat and light for all the planets.
The Planets
The planets look like stars, but they do not have light of their own. They
merely reflect the sunlight that falls on them. The simplest method of
identifying planets from stars is that stars twinkle, whereas planets do not.
Also the planets keep changing their positions with respect to the stars. A
planet has a definite path in which it revolves around the Sun. This path is
called an orbit. The time taken by a planet to complete one revolution is called
its period of revolution. The period of revolution increases as the distance of
the planet increases from the sun. Some planets are known to have
moons/satellites revolving round them. Any celestial body revolving around
another celestial body is called its satellite.
Mercury (Budh)

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The planet mercury is nearest to the Sun. It is the smallest planet of our solar
system. Because Mercury is very close to the Sun, it is very difficult to observe
it, as most of the time it is hidden in the glare of the Sun. However, it can be
observed just before sunrise or just after sunset, near the horizon. So it is
visible only at places where trees or buildings do not obstruct the view of the
horizon. Mercury has no satellite of its own.
Venus (Shukra)
Venus is earth’s nearest planetary neighbor. It is the brightest planet in the
night sky. Sometimes Venus appears in the eastern sky before sunrise.
Sometimes it appears in the western sky just after sunset. Therefore it is often
called a morning or an evening star, although it is not a star. Venus has no
moon or satellite of its own. Rotation of Venus on its axis is somewhat
unusual. It rotates from east to west while the Earth rotates from west to east.
The Earth
The Earth is the only planet in the solar system on which life is known to exist.
Some special environmental conditions are responsible for the existence and
continuation of life on the Earth. These include just the right distance from the
Sun, so that it has the right temperature range, the presence of water and
suitable atmosphere and a blanket of ozone.
Mars (Mangal)
The next planet, the first outside the orbit of the Earth is Mars. It appears
slightly reddish and, therefore, it is also called the red planet. Mars has two
small natural satellites.
Jupiter (Brihaspati)

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Jupiter is the largest planet of the solar system. It is so large that about 1300
earths can be placed inside this giant planet. However, the mass of Jupiter is
about 318 times that of our Earth. It rotates very rapidly on its axis. Jupiter
has a large number of satellites. It also has faint rings around it.
Saturn (Shani)
Beyond Jupiter is Saturn which appears yellowish in colour. What makes it
unique in the solar system is its beautiful rings. These rings are not visible
with the naked eye. Saturn also has a large number of satellites. Saturn is the
least dense among all the planets. Its density is less than that of water.
Uranus and Neptune
These are the outermost planets of the solar system. They can be seen only
with the help of large telescopes. Like Venus, Uranus also rotates from east to
west. The most remarkable feature of Uranus is that it has highly tilted
rotational axis. The first four planets, Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars are
much nearer the Sun than the other four planets. They are called the inner
planets. The inner planets have very few moons. The planets outside the orbit
of Mars, namely Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune are much farther off than
the inner planets. They are called the outer planets. They have a ring system
around them. The outer planets have large number of moons.
Some Other Members of the Solar System
There are some other bodies which revolve around the Sun. They are also
members of the solar system.
Asteroids
There is a large gap in between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. This gap is
occupied by a large number of small objects that revolve around the Sun.

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These are called asteroids. Asteroids can only be seen through large
telescopes.
Comets
Comets are also members of our solar system. They revolve around the Sun in
highly elliptical orbits. However, their period of revolution round the Sun is
usually very long. A Comet appears generally as a bright head with a long tail.
The length of the tail grows in size as it approaches the sun. The tail of a comet
is always directed away from the sun. Many comets are known to appear
periodically. One such comet is Halley’s Comet, which appears after nearly
every
76 years.
Meteors and Meteorites
A meteor is usually a small object that occasionally enters the earth’s
atmosphere. At that time it has a very high speed. The friction due to the
atmosphere heats it up. It glows and evaporates quickly. That is why the
bright steak lasts for a very short time. Some meteors are large so that they
can reach the Earth before they evaporate completely. The body that reaches
the Earth is called a meteorite.
Artificial Satellites
India has built and launched several artificial satellites. Aryabhatta was the
first Indian satellite. Some other Indian satellites are INSAT, IRS, Kalpana-1,
EDUSAT, etc. Artificial satellites have many practical applications. They are
used for forecasting weather, transmitting television and radio signals. They
are also used for telecommunication and remote sensing.

Stars and the Solar System

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Text Book Questions

Q.1 Define "Universe". Give its composition.

Ans. The vast space that includes everything that exists on the earth and
around it, is called the universe. The universe includes the celestial bodies like
the stars, the planets and their moons (satellites), meteorites, asteroids,
comets etc.

Q.2 Define solar system. Name all the planets in the solar system in
order of their distance from the sun.

Ans. The solar system consists of the sun, the eight planets and their
satellites and thousands of other smaller heavenly bodies such as asteroids,
comets and meteors. The eight planets in their order of distance from the sun
are:

(i) Mercury (ii) Venus (iii) Earth (iv) Mars (v) Jupiter (vi) Saturn

(vii) Uranus and (viii) Neptune. ( MV-EMJ-SUN).

Q.3 How many moons Mars has? Name these moons.

Ans. Mars has two moons. These are Phobos and Deimos

Q.4 what is a comet? Why does a comet develop a tail while approaching
the sun.

Ans. The bright "Star" like objects with a longer tail, approaching the sun in a
highly elliptical orbit are called comets. Because of the pressure of solar

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radiations the tail of the comet consisting of gaseous matter always points
away from the sun.

Q.5. what is star? What makes the star give out vast amount of energy?

Ans. - Stars are the huge glowing balls of hot gases mainly hydrogen, helium
and some dust. In the core of stars hydrogen atoms fuse together to form
helium atoms with the liberation of large amount of energy in the form of heat
and light.

Stars have life 'in billions of years. They travel in the sky from east to
west. Stars are classified according to size.

Q.6. Difference between meteors and stars.

Ans.

Stars Meteors (Shooting Star)

(i)Stars mostly consist of hydrogen (i) Meteors are mostly made up of
and helium rocks metals and dust
(ii) Stars produce heat and light (ii) meteors produce heat and light
energy due to fusion of hydrogen into due to frictions of air when they enter
helium. into the atmosphere.

(iii)Stars are very big in size Meteors are small pieces of rocks.
(iv)star’s life span is billions of years. Meteors last for short period (a few
seconds.)

Q.7 Write short notes on:

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(a) Meteor (b) Meteorite

(a) Meteor: Meteors are the rocky pieces of planets which exploded and
broke up long ago and are now seen floating in space. As soon as they enter
the earth's atmosphere, they catch fire due to heat of friction between air and
the rocky pieces. These burning pieces move with great speed and look like
streaks of light and are known as meteors. Meteors bum completely before
they reach the earth's surface.

(B) meteorites:- Sometimes meteors are big in size. When these meteors
enter the earth's atmosphere, they do not burn completely and reach the
surface of earth. These unburnt pieces of meteors reaching the earth's surface
are called meteorites.

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