METROLOGY( Meng 5221 ) Lecture notes:- By Instr. Bahiru B. MECHANICAL ENGINEERING College of Engineering Wolaita Sodo University1.0 INTRODUCTION Metrology is defined 2: ESSERESSEERSUREAI tis the language of science. you cannot measure, you cannot describe it, you cannot analyze it. Measurement is Sa SAUTSEIUHA.,«.¢., toturn a shaft, measurement are USGS SSSI iiSCEnSESSISSEESHEGEGE. The measurement for the shaft can be dimensional eg, radius, surface finish, roundness ete 1.4 System of International standards ‘This system has seven (7) base unit: Quantity Unit 1. Length metre (m) 2 Mass kilogram (kg) 3. Time second (s) 4, Electric current ‘Ampere (A) 5. Temperature Kelvin (K} 6. Luminous intensity Candria (Cd) 7. Amount of substance ‘mole (mol) From these base units, other units can be derived, e.g. Newton, N= kg.m/s?. One of the most commonly used unit is the meter, which is defined as the distance travelled by light in vacuum during a time interval of 1/299792458 of a second. 1.2 __Line and end standard Line standards are measuring instruments which measure through some graduated scale ef, steel rule, measuring tapes etc.Fig steetruleas2tine stnded (ESSUERIETERESSRERNEMOEMRNIEES.€ c., eauge blocks (fig 1.2) <= ‘The end standards are mainly used in both linear and angular measurements, Te surface finish must have very low levels of roughness so as to minimize errors when measuring, and allow wringing, 1.3 Mathematical concepts in metrology 1.3.1 Definition of terms 2) Precision ~ hiss the FiiEESRGTSHSITESEUGRIAEREEMERY/measurand eg, 2.000% mm is more precise than 1.001 mm. ») Accuracy This's EREHEEBERSRTSHAc.the nearness tothe ‘true’ value. ) Errors These can be described 2s iS FSCS EUS TESSUFERERT. They generally are generally of two types: ') Systemic errors ~ these are ertors arising fromthe measuring system, such asa wrongly graduated scale.a 14 li) Random errors ~ such as misreading a scale. itis generally assumed that that not everything is known about the standard. if a measurement is repeated severally, the observation will not be the same. This diserepancy is generally due to random errors. Repeatabi ty ~ This 's a measure of the reproducibility of reading of the reading of the Standards A stondord SESE SSS BERANE. These standards vary in accuracy from the shop floor stancard all he way tothe international standard, The shop flor standard should be traceable tothe organization's standard, which in turn should be traceable tothe national standard and subsequently traceable tothe international standard SSeS defined as the property of a measurement to be related to the national/international standard through an unbroken chain of comparisons (salitsrat ons} ‘Through standardization/calibration/traceability, manufacturers can make components from different locations and the parts will function as required. IE ssa ‘SEIS SRSELECIONEIOREBEEREE. For example a standard M10 by 1.25 mm bolt, if ‘made using calibrated equipment will always function regardless where it was made from.) International Standard National standard ¥ Company Standard (company’s gauge block) F ‘Shop floor vernier caliper Fig 1.3: Traceability of a measurement144 Branches of metrology Metrology can either be fra@@/legalimetloBy or Seiehtificmetrology. Madelmetrology simsat promoting far trade to ensure that both the seller and buyer of say sugar get a fair deal in Kenya, trade metrology is regulated by the department of weights and measures, SINE Scientific metrology in Kenya is under the mandate of the Kenya Bureau of Standards.2.0 LINEAR MEASUREMENT 2.4 Vernier instruments Vernier instruments have two scales: » RGGESTESTOSTRAREESIE. his arrangement improves the precision ofthe instrument. The most common examples ae the IAB ‘SiGRHSWERRIEEREREEEGEE. The principle of operation is such that the smallest graduation on the main scale is divided into equal number of parts onthe sliding scale. The principle of reading a vernier sale isilustratd in fig 2.1 below > R44 vis wil 7 oH veep ‘ie opera fo ‘The steps are detailed below for the reading in fig 2.16, (Note that the smallest division on the main scale is 1 mm. This is divided into ten (10) equal divisions fon the sliding scale, giving 1/10 mm as the precision.) 1" step. 2 step 3 step 4a? step ‘the largest division on the main scale = 30 mm the main scale reading that is coincident or just after zero on the sliding scale s3 mm the first vernier reading that is coincident to a main scale readings 4, Amm hhence 4 *1/10 mr addition 30 mm +3 mm +0.4 mm‘This verner principle is applicable to all vernier instruments, including vernier instruments for angular ‘ESSUESTIERESUEHGSVETAENERGESEISS. The main parts of a vernier caliper are ilustrated in ig 2.2 Figa.2:Pat of avemiercalipar 2.4.1 Measurement with a vernier caliper a) Alignment When measuring, HiGaIISeEmiUsEos BrOBEHNSNGned, '.c., FRSIiGSHEssUreMenemUBEBE ‘SSSITRORASISGSHTSRTANGLANTGAAAGEANBE. rors arising fom misalignment are illustrated in fig 2.3 to 2.5. ligament of verter calipers during measurementpivot Fig2.4: Messuringan external diameter ‘The vernier caliper is rocked around the pivot until the largest distance (diameter) Is obtained(34% ‘The vammier is aligned to ensure shat the line of measurement is paaliel tothe beam Fig 2.5: Internal measurement Other variations of the vernier caliper include dial calipers and electronic/digital calipers. 2.2 Micrometer instruments Micrometer instruments employ precise screw threads for measurement: They SNES ! we sales ao ane onthe barrel andthe second on the thimble ss sho nfs?Spindle Knurled Gripe Anvil Spindle N Ratchet «\Faces Reading 2 micrometers easier than the vernier previously discussed, ISSR aNES@ ST SESS] ‘SESIS TSIEN SEU MUSE ERDAS NERNIMEIOBEAIS| This gives the precision of the micrometer. For example, if the smallest barrel division is 0.5 mm, and the number of divisions on thimble are 50, then the reading of the micrometer is 0.01 mm (5 mm/S0). The reading is in three steps as illustrated in fig 2.7 Obtain the reading on the barrel scale, (2.5 mm} — GEESTESSSIARTSERERAIBISERIE (38 * 01 mm = 0.38 mm) RRB (2.5 + 0.38 = 2.88 mm)Fig2.7: Reading e micrometer sorewgage ations of the micrometer screw gage include iil ICES iets ‘micrometers, internal micrometers, depth micrometers, ot In comparison to the vernier caliper, the micrometer screw gage has the following advantages and limitations, a) More accurate b) Higher precision Easier toread 4) Obeys Abbey's principle e) The ratchet controls the measuring pressure Limitations 2) Short measuring range b) Best suited for external measurement More expensive Measuring with the external micrometer ‘When taking an external measurement, a procedure similar to the one previously discussed for the caliper is used as illustrated in fig 2.8 10Fig2.8 Measuring with an external micrometer a As with the vernier caliper, the intrument is rocked until the diameter isobtained23 — Dial Gauges These instruments are components shown in fig 2.9 ‘The dial gauge has the main atte Bae pisise 2) Front REEGGIEIASUEUSEREEGWA This motion represents the de FBZ. the use ofa dial gauge is illustrated in fig 2.10. 2ee rT Fig 2.10. Gauging with otal ingicator ‘etre as atnion therpesiveoenestveromihislength Oil ncicstorscon aio be 3as shown in fig 2.11, aheftis slowly rotated Fig 2.11: checking he rue running Gauging is generally a measurement method where [SUSIE SURES els WeSrBEreBERNEER inom and oc ee i ——____, 4Three tyes of ils are commonly used as illustrated in fg2.12 ° 20 0 « 30 b) Continuous ant elochwize balanced al Concineus clockwise Fig2A2: Types of ciale used in dial indicators The most common gauge isthe SONOSORSUER Ring gauges Consider a 10 mm # 0.02 mm diameter shaft. The minimum acceptable diameter is 9.98 mm while the maximum is 10.02 mm as illustrated in fig 2.13») Plug gauges Consider a hole to be drilled with the same tolerance of 10 mm £0.02 mm diameter. The maximum permissible diameter (minimum metal coeltion is 10.02 mm while the minimum diameter f 9.98 mm (maximum metal condition). This hole EiS=SEea USSG! (NOSOTEBUEB as itustrated in fig 2.14 16It should be noted that Pten b 0 a Limits, fits and limit gauges Definition of terms Basic size ~ this also called the nominal siz, SSS is SS STEN designer. ‘Actual size — this is the FiESiTESSUred Sane eOmBOnent Limts of size ~this is the faximunt and minimum permissible sizes ofthe part Tolerance ~th’s the difference between the maximum and the minimum limits of size as illustrated in fig 2.15, v7_—f y+ TP] Bese 252 Fits ‘The fit between two mating parts is the type of relationship between them, with respect to the clearance or interference when joined. Three types of fits are identified 3) Glearance fit - the BSHEISSEEYSERaIERERSRIENEIRGIE. The minimum clearance is the difference between the largest shaft and the smallest hole, while the maximum clearance is the difference between the smallest shaft and the largest hole. itference between the agest shaft andthe sales ole ©) Transition ft - eecurs when the variation between shaft and hole can result in either a clearance or an interference fit The three types of fits are illustrated in fig 2.16 18transition interference Fig 2.16: Clearance, transition and Interference fits ‘To obtain the various fits, two approaches are adopted: (ESRREREt anal iMustrated in fig 2.17, ‘These approaches are 19Generally, the hole basis system is preferred because holes are routinely made by standard tools such as ‘The clearance is a common type of fit and several categories are identified: 3) Slide fit- Werysmialilesrance. used when mating parts move slowly relative foleschiothet c., the feed motion in a drilling machine. b) Easy slide- this ft guarantees 2 SaIEIESFanes.' SrisUresialignment between shaftanid HOIeTot slow non-regular motion eg. piston and slide valves ©) Running fit- these allow for SSBISEBISEIESIaRES. They re EPISVERIRpoNestOnENn ‘SESHSRSERRGUETSRERBEREE cg, crankshatts at the main bearings. 4) Slack running fits- Efile elesrarice RO CoMmipensate MOUntINEHTOR «5, camshafts in internal combustion engines. 2.5.3 General limits of tolerance ‘The tolerance required in a part depend on. - (i) eiaRIGF he Brod eg, the tolerances ona shaft ina posho mill would have very large tolerances as compared to a shaft in a jet plane, (ii) Manufacturing processes available (iil) Cost generally the smaller the tolerances, the higher the cost. the lowest cost. Tolerances can either be unilateral or bilateral os il ustroted in P22 i) Unitaryie.,x +3 or x £9] dimensions vary in one direction i) Bilateral fx +2 20 Downloaded by Bans Sadaeno (busrmane3@gmsleem)252, Soi Sato Soto. ote SOD, Soro 2 the BERR. The ISO system oflimits and fits covers holes and shafts from a few mm in diameter to over 3000, mm diameter. 26 _Limit gauges (ESRTGHTISNENGIETEREE. They are versatile tools in that they can be used even by unskilled labor to accept/reject work pieces. An illustration of limit gauges is shown in fig 2.9 Limit systems sh Gmginghles wth couse sats wth soa ens 22.6.1 _ Design of limit gauges There are no hard rules, but 2 The rule of the thumb is that toe ean have uniateral or blteralrancs, a) Unite This is illustrated in fig 2.20 hm I Z * x Go ut La min hole ae Fo |_| -9 Fig 2.20: Unilateral tolerances on a gauge z For example, consider a hole, site of 30 +205 High hole limit is 30.05 mm Low hole limit 29.95 mm Tolerance = 0.1 mm, therefore gauge tolerance is 0.1/10 = 0.01 mm Dimension of GO plug= 29.95 +3 mm Dimension of NO GO plug 30.05 Boy mim 2TM) Bilateral system In this cave, the tolerance on the workis bisected by the gauge the 0.01 mm tolerance is bisected. Hence, the above example is considered, then Dimensions ofthe GO plug 29.95 48235 mm Dimensions ofthe NO GO plug = 30.05 +825 mm Inthe course of use, These gauges are routinely rubbing against the work, resulting in wear, IAREORH ‘can be compensated when designing the gauges to prolong ther life. Genera iy, 5% allowance of work (GIEESRRESIETAEMUBEW This alowance is included when obtaining the nominal size of the gauge, It should be noted that this wear generally affects the GO gauge. For the example above, Work tolerance = 0.1 mm, hence 5% of 0.1 mm = 0.005 mm This is added to the nominal size of the gauge. ‘Therefore, nominal size of the gauge is 29.95 + 0.005 = 29.955 mm ‘With this nominal sizeof the gauge, the gauge tolerances can be obtained, kg for bilateral, the gauge willhave a size of 29.995 28205 mm 2.7 Geometrical and positional tolerances Tolerances has been described as the [afin iniensiohs tata bartean avelanGtil SENVEHHe (RRREERBUBEEE. Geometrical and positional tolerances are important mainly: 1 When features are ete o functionality orinterehangeabity bi 1c ensure consisteney Between desig, manufacturing aninspecton Psion lero etr othe RESORASTGERIGRGMERURE. ne ocavon of shoe tobe drilled as shown in fig 2.21 2320+) 204, Fig 2.21: Positional tolerancing of a hole ‘The tolerance zone defined in fig 2.21 is a square zone as shown in fig 2.2220+} Fig 2.22: Conventional Tolerance, prescribes a square zone However, [isu AUARSCESSERESENBA os detailed in fg 2.23. Point A is acceptable as far as function and tolerancing is concerned. But the shaded area in the circle is not acceptable from the positional tolerancing. But if point Ais acceptable, then the shaded area is also functionally acceptable. SIEGREINE. Adopting this method effectively increases the avaiable work tolerances during 25‘manufacturing thereby reducing the cost. fig 2.23: Restriction of conventional tolerancing Definition of terms Feature — general term applied to a physical portion on a part eg, hole, slot, etc Datum. theoretically correct/exac plane, point or axis from where dimensions are measured from (the metrologst could use a surface plate or marking out table as his datum while the designer can use the drafting table o set the datum in the computer when using a design software Form tolerance - it species how far an actual feature is permitted to vary from the prescribed form in the drawing Profle tolerance specifies how far an actual feature is permitted to vary from the prescribed form in the drawing relative toa datum (examples ae ilstrated in fig 2.4) (Orientation tolerance — specifies how fara feature can vary relative to a datum, (BeatlonSIeFARER— specines how the location of a feature can vary from a perfect location relative toa datum or other feature 26unout tolerance ~ states how far a feature is permitted to vary from the desired form during a full 360° rotation ofthe part ona datum aks ‘Type of Tolerance _| Symbol Characteristic ___| Uses datum Form Straightness Never flatness ereulariy Gylindrcity Profile Profie ofaline | Sometimes Profile ofa surface Orientation “Angularity ‘Always Perpendicularity Parallelism Tocation Postion ‘concentricity Symmetry OFS es 0 Q)0/0| Run out Circular run out 7Total run out Fig 2.23: Sample Geometric Dimensional and Tolerancing (GD&) symbols 283.0 ANGULAR MEASUREMENT 3.1 Introduction ‘Angles basically deal with directions. They define the relationship between two line/planes. Where they intersect, is the vertex as shown in fig 3.1, We can thus define angle AOB A Fig 3.1: Vertex of two lines 3.2 Measurement The instruments used for angular measurements vary from simple scale instruments such as protractors to highly specialized interferometers. 3.2.1 Squares When a circle is bisected, two 180°angles result, Perpendicularity is the measurement ofa right angle (90°). The right angle is generated from a plane surface. Squares are hardened steel right, angles as shown in fig 3.2 29‘The cylindrical square, in conjuction with a surface plate is used to calibrate squares as shown in fig 3.3 cylindrical squar2 Check for alignment square 3.3: Calibration of squares with e cylindrical square Squareness may be defined as the accuracy of the right angle. When installing machines or in precision scientific works, itis measured in seconds of an arc. On the shop floor, its more convenient to express squareness deviations in terms of a length in a specified distance (like the way tapers are specified) 3.2.2 Spiritlevels Levels are very common instruments and sometimes they are inbuilt in equipments e.g. in tripods. They come in various formas as shown in fig 3.4 30Fig3.4: Spirit levels, ‘These levels are bubble instruments in that a bubble in a fluid that isin arc of a circle will respond to gravity as shown in fig 3.5 Fig2.5: Bubble in a spirit level Initially, the tubes were filled with spirits of wine (to avoid freezing), hence the term spirit level. The precision of the level depend on the length of the radius of curvature, the larger the radius, the higher the precision. The spirit levels read as illustrated in fig 3.6 Cotter) Cae esr a) level ') one division to the right Fig 3.6: Reading spirit level 31‘The graduation is normally given in ratios ofan elevation to a length. e.g. 1 um to 100 mm. 3.2. ‘The spirit level is only used for small angles. This limitation is addressed by the clinometers. The clinometer isa level mounted on a frame that can be rotated. The frame is rotated to take the reading, ‘The vials used to approximate the reading. The scale is then observed through an eye piece to obtain precise readings. Typical sensitivity/precision is S seconds. The clinometers is illustrated in fig 3.7 Clinometers Fig 3.7: Clinometer 3.2.4 Sine bars The sine bar uses the trigonometric ratio the sine of an angle. The bar forms the hypotenuse of a triangle while the opposite side can be obtained accurately (e,g. usig gauge blocks). The functional features of a sine bar are shown in fig3.8 plugfyinder known centerlengthcistance Figasthe sine bar 32‘Atypical application of the sine bar isillustrated in fig 3.9 ‘gauge blacks Fig 2.9: Application of gauge blocks = sin sin Where 8 gle = gauge block height |= fength of sine bar. ‘The sine bar used together with a dial indicator can be used to gauge an angular surface as ilustrated in fig3.10 33gauze blocks Fig 3.10: Gauging with sine bars 3.2.5 Angle gauge blocks These blocks operate in a similar way to the length gauge blocks. They are end standards, ‘manufactured to very high accuracy and precision. They come with fewer pieces than the length gauge blocks, since through their orientation during use depends ifthe angles on each block will bbe added or subtracted from each other. This silustrated in fig 3.11 34 Downloaded by Bans Sadaeno (busrmane3@gmsleem)3.2.6 Dividing Heads ‘These instruments were developed to assist in dividing circles into equal number of divisions. ‘They find applications in miling (e.g. of gears, splines, etc) a) The dial index head It consists of a horizontal spindle mounted on a base as illustrated in fig 3.12. plunger lever Face plate Pin Scale Fig 3.12: Dial index dividing head ‘On one end of the spindle , there is @ face plate for clamping work, on the other end there is a wheel for ‘turning the spindle against a scale. The plate has holes that engages the stationary housing. For example a plate with 24 holes gives (360/24) = 25° increments. 35a) The plain index head This is an improvement ofthe dial index head. A worm and gear mechanism is introduced to improve ‘the precision. Consider the dial index head with 24 holes as illustrated in fig 3.13, SECTORARM INDEX INDEXHEADSPINDLE WORM WHEEL 40 TEETH secon Anu’ INDEXPLATE WORMSHAFT WORMSINGLE jain indexing head Indexing moves Work piece 40 revs rev I2arev (a/aoy (i724) 1/2arev= is '360/(40°24) = 0° 22" 307 With a 40:1 worm and gear addition, the precision improves from 15°to 0° 22’ 30” 364.0 COMPARATORS 4.1 Introduction Comparators generally are measuring instruments that do not give an absolute measurement, but compare two dimensions and give the difference between them. The dial gauge is the simplest comparator. The standard is used to zero set the gauge and the measurand is the introduced and the deviation is noted as illustrated in fig 4.1 rh (0) zero set using the (2) Comparision standard length | Fig 4.1: Use of 2 dial gauge as a comparator The amplification of the dial gauge is obtained through the use of levers and/or gear trains. However, ‘these amplifications have limitations, hence also limiting the resolution that cn be obtained. This is solved by using optical, pneumatic or electronic amplification 4.2 High amplification comparators 4.2.4 High amp! The traditional method is gearing method with a rack and pinion to convert the linear motion to circular deviation as applied to dial gauges. With these methods, resolution of up to 0.5 um has been achieved. These mechanical comparators have limitations due to friction, inertia, etc. ication mechanical comparators 374.2.2 Electronic measurement In this case, a mechanical measurement is converted into an electrical signal. The signal can then be amplified ( power amplification) without the challenges of inertia/friction as experienced in the mechanical comparators. The output signal can also be used to control a machine or a process. ‘The basic circuit is the Wheatstone Bridge as illustrated in fig 4.2 pick up Meter Fig 4.2: The Wheatstone Bridge When the bridge is balanced, Le all resistances are equal there is no variation in the meter reading. If the pick up resistance changes, there is a corresponding change in the meter. However, the instrument is not stable, since the meter reading is dependent on the battery voltage. This s addressed by using an impedance bridge. The bridge uses a linear variable differential transformer. (LVDT) 4.2.3 Pneumatic Comparators ‘These use pressurized air through a port whose size can be controlled. The feature to be measured causes the calibrated air flow to change, corresponding to the feature that is being measured, Pneumatic comparators have power amplification and also eliminates metal to metal contact, The comparators use either pressure or flow rate control a) Back pressure instruments ‘These instruments use pressure for measurement. A common type is the double orifice system, Ilustrated in fig 4.3. 38Source Pressure Restriction orifice Intormediate pressure nozale orifice jouble orifice system ‘The nozzle orifice restricts flow in direct relation to the clearance distance x. this restriction causes changes in the intermediate pressure. This change is measured and related to the clearance distance x. Reducing x reduces the flow, increasing the pressure, Due to the compressibility of air, the sensitivity of the instrument is affected. The mass of air entering the gauge must be equal to the mass of air leaving. The gauge measures the clearance distance x by measuring the intermediate pressure variation. However, the intermediate pressure is attained after sometime due to the compressibility, This challenge is addressed by using rate of flow systems b) rate of flow systems ‘These systems use constant pressure, while the rate of flow varies with the clearance x as illustrated in fig 4.4 39Clesrancex prossure 7 supaly valve t ow meter VY rfiow Figs: Constant Pressure, flow rater ave ‘As the clearance is increased, the flow rate is also increased. The rise in the flow rate is measured by the flow meter, and related to e clearance distance x. 4.3 Optical Projectors ‘These are also called profile projectors. They are used for measuring such features as pitch of screw threads, dimensions of small components such as diameter of pin sized shafts, etc. the partis placed on the table of the projector. Light is then moved through a series of lenses to project the image on the screen. By moving the x or y coordinate as appropriate, measurements can be taken, 44 Microscopes ‘These operate in a similar way to the profile projectors. However, the image is viewed with the eye and ‘the measurements taken as described for the profile projector. 45 Collimation Light travels in straight lines, but it can be reflected back. If the reflector is placed at 90°, the light will travel back on the same path as shown in fig 4.5. 40Reflector Collimating lens Fig 4.5: Collimation Collimation is the action of aligning light to move in a specific direction. Ifthe mirror in fig 45 is tilted by an angle 8, the reflected rays will be projected at A as shown in fig 4.6. a1Fig 4.6: Measurement of angles with a collimator ‘This principle is used in auto collimators to accurately/precisely measure small angles. The auto collimator uses this principle to measure angles/tlatness. 42Lame iffuser Cross line graticule View point Eyepiece Collimatar objective collimator Fea. Straightness When two perfect planes meet, they form a perfect straight line, Straightness is a measure of the deviation from this perfect straight line, The tolerance zone of straightness is the space between two parallel straight lines that contain the actual ine. Straightness can be applied to an axis orto a surface as illustrated in fig 4.8 and 4.9 respectively 43= ga. straightness applied to an axis Figs: straightness tolerance on asurface 4.7 Flatness This isthe property of a surface having all points on the same plane, Flatness is specified by two ‘Tat’ parallel planes that contain all the points on the surface under consideration as illustrated in fig 4.10'b) Tolerance zone 455.0 SURFACE TEXTURE 5.1 Introduction ‘The smoothness or roughness of a surface is dependent on the manufacturing method and the application/use of the component. For rough surfaces, casting, rolling, forging, etc can be used as, ‘manufacturing methods of choice. Smooth surfaces such as those of gauge blocks, must be finished by some secondary processes such as grinding, polishing, lapping, etc. These two scenarios,(from the rough cast surface to the lapped surface) have a wide range and there is a need to specify the surface finish required. Surface metrology is used to ensure that the design specifications can be ascertained in the produced part 5.2 Surface texture measurement 5.2.1 Measurement Surface finish/surface texture is the deviation from a true plane surface at @ micro level, as illustrated in gS. Fig 5.1: Surface finish Several types of instruments are available for surface finish measurement Stylus method instruments ‘These instruments have a stylus that traces the surface aver a certain length and the same is plotted on a graph, Pocket size/shop floor instruments, as illustrated in fg 5.2, will probe the surface and display ‘the various results 46ce Fig 5.2: Pocket Surface lester Since the measurements are very small, the stylus would need to be smaller to be able to trace. The tip radius of the stylus is generally between 1.27 jum and 12.3 um. The principle of operation of a stylus instrument is illustrated in fig 5.3, <——> (ot Fig 5.3: Surface roughness measurement with a stylus instrument ‘Two types of stylus instruments are identified 47(a) True datum/ skidless instrument In this case, the assessment is made based on the path that the datum forms. The stylus moves across the part along a datum surface established by the instrument as illustrated in fig 5.4 ‘The main advantage of this layout is that he resulting graph is a very close representation to the actual surface being analyzed. However, setting up is difficult since the surface being analyzed must be aligned to the machine datum, (b) Surface datum/skid type instrument ‘These instruments use the surface being evaluated as the datum as illustrated in fig 5.5. 48siyus ‘skid Fig 85: Skid ype styusinstument A supporting slide rests on the surface and slides the stylus along the surface being evaluated. The radius of the skid must me much larger than the feature being evaluated to ensure that it does not ‘probe’. The main advantage of this method is that it is very easy to set up. However, distortion of the obtained graph is more as compared to the true datum instruments 5.2.2 Parameters Measured (a) Arithmetic average (Rs) This is the a metic average of the absolute deviations measured from the center line along a specified sampling length as shown in fig 5.6. The absolute values, irrespective of the sign, are used. ty t ya tobe nex BEMAY: Ir cotetme Sagi bh alortnterghinoaress 49(b) Root Mean Square (RMS) method This is computed in a manner similar to the arithmetic average, but the deviations are squared, added ‘together and the square root of the sum obtained [it yt + yh + nt ve RMS (c) Maximum peak value thickness (Re ‘This picks the maximum outer and minimum inner point asin fig 5.7. It should be noted that any single exceptionally large deviation outlier point (e.g. points x and y) would distort the results, Fig 57: Maximum Peak Value (max) (6) Ten point average (R,) ‘This method averages between five highest peaks and five deepest valleys in the sampling length effectively reducing the effect of exceptional points that would distort maximum peak value above. 506.0 SCREW THREADS 6.1 Introduction ‘Threads are used as fasteners and as power transmission elements. The accuracy requirements of threads depend on the application. This accuracy dictates the method of production, since the production method has a big effect on the accuracy. Threads may be made though casting, thread chasing (cutting), rolling, ete. 6.2 ‘Thread measurement and inspection ‘The elements to be checked are the major diameter, minor diameter, pitch diameter, pitch and the helix angle. 6.2.4 Major diameter ‘The major diameter of a screw and the minor diameter of a nut can be measured with a snap and plug ‘gauge respectively. They can also be measured with a vernier caliper. The two parameters are illustrated infig 6.2 ‘ 2 : ) major Wr major Minor diameter eae “NAA diameter (a) Screw (b) Nut Fig 6.1: Major and minor diameter of screw threads ‘To measure the major diameter of a screw with a micrometer, the anvils should have a sufficient diameter to span at least two threads as illustrated in fig 6.2 ™m m4 Fig 6.2: Measurement of major diameter 516.2.2 Minor diameter ‘The minor diameter of a screw can be measured with a screw thread micrometer. This micrometer is similar to the ordinary micrometer, but the anvils are replaced with anvil and spindle inserts as shown in fig6.3 Fig 6.3: Screw thread micrometer ‘Two ‘V” inserts are used to contact the root of the thread as shown in fig 6.4 insert Insert Fig 6.4: Measurement of minor diameter 526.2.3 Pitch Diameter ‘The three wire method is used. It involves using three small diameter cylinders (wires) of equal and precise/accurate diameter as illustrated in fig 6.5. Fig 6.5: The three wire method “Three wires are used to prevent misalignment of the measuring faces of the micrometer. The ‘measurement is carried out, and the dimension W, over the wires as shown in fig 6.5 is determined. The pitch diameter is then computed as illustrated in fig 66 a vy AC Pyare reer S 2 as 53Peace £ WePe ances where Wis the dstance ove the wires, Pi the pltchclameter and di the wie dameter but c= AD —co From the igure 42 = sin (2) tence, AD = 8 = Leosec$ coe co 2 Hence, CD = 2, = —Eewnere piste pitch ofthe tread and asthe thread angle Therefore, Therefore, War +2(deosees Hence, ae 27 47 P= W-2(dcosee Hence, using the three wire method, the pitch diameter can be determined For iso metric screw threads, a = 60° © a_¢@ 2, From this expression, the diameter of the wire to use for a particular pitch of threads can be determined, 546.2.5 Pitch and thread angle ‘The pitch is defined as the distance between two corresponding points ina screw thread. Itcan be ‘gauged with a screw pitch gauge. It can be also be measured with profile projectors. The thread angle on the other hand is generally measured using optical methods such as the profile projector. 55