Nursing Research

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1 Introduction to nursing research Definitions Meaning of research

The root meaning of the word is
 Search again or
 Examine Carefully
 Research is a systematic enquiry.
Definitions (Cont.):
 Research: is a systematic inquiry that uses disciplined methods to answer questions or solve problems.
 Nursing Research: is a systemic, objective process of analyzing phenomena of importance to Nursing.
 Nursing research: include all studies concerning nursing practice, nursing education & nursing administration
Importance of nursing  Describe the characteristics of a particular nursing situation about which little is known.
research  Explain phenomena that must be considered nursing care.
 Predict the probable outcomes of certain nursing decision.
 Control the occurrence of undesired outcomes.
 Initiate activities to promote desired client behavior.
Purpose of research General purpose of - Research studies can be classified according general purpose of the study as basic and applied research.
research: Basic research Applied research
Definition Is concerned with generating new knowledge. Is referred to as pure research.
Characteristics of  Purpose of basic research is to test and generate new theory.  Directed toward generating knowledge that can be used in the near future.
basic research  Immediate application of the result does not occur.  Often conducted to seek solutions to immediate problems.
 Often uses laboratory animals as subjects.  Majority of nursing studies have been examples of applied research.
Specific purposes of  Description.
research  Exploration.
 Explanation.
 Prediction.
 Control Purposes of nursing research.
Purposes of research  The ultimate purpose is to provide high quality patient care.
related to nursing practices:  Determine the impact of nursing care on health of patient.
 Evaluate the effectiveness of nursing treatment modalities.
 Meet social needs and challenges
 Discover and develop an organized body of knowledge.
 Validate the improvement in nursing practice.
 Make health care efficient and cost effective.
Sources of Nursing Trial & Error: As a mean of discovering knowledge. If one approach did not work, another one was used.
Knowledge Tradition: Involves the handing down of knowledge from one generation to another and leading to actions that occurs.
Authority: Experts or authorities in a given field often provide knowledge for other people.
Personal Experience: To be personally involved in an event, situation or circumstances. e.g., steps of gaining nursing practices are: knowing, observing & doing.
Role Modeling: Imitating the behavior of an exemplar.
Mentorship: An intense form of role modeling. The mentor serves as teacher, sponsor, guide, exemplar & counselor for novice nurse.
The most objective & reliable source of nursing knowledge is obtained through scientific research
The scientific method uses empirical data, which are data gathered through the sense organs.
Historical Nursing research has been slow to develop in country as well in the rest of the world. Some of this slow growth is related to the development of nursing practice or nursing education.
Development  Florence Nightingale Derived the foundation for modern nursing education from the military tradition, which emphasizes the concept of authority.
 Florence Nightingale Recommended clinical nursing research in the mid-1800s her advice was not followed by most nurses until over 100 years later.
 1902 Lavenia Dock reported a school nurse "experiment" .Nurses gave free care to school children and visited the homes of sick children.
 1924 The first doctoral program for nurses was established in 1924 at teachers College, Colombia University. A degree in education was granted to nurses preparing to teach at college level.
 1927 Jean Broad Hurst and colleagues reported a research investigation on hand washing procedures.
 1952 Publication of the first research journal in nursing namely; “Nursing Research”.
 1957 Establishment of the first research department in the Walter Reed Army Institute of Research; U.S.A.
 1970 The nursing process became the focus of many studies with the investigation of assessment techniques and guidelines, goal setting methods & specific nursing interventions.
 1983 Publication of the first volume of the “Annual Review of Nursing Research”.
Priorities for Nursing Those priorities include research concerned with:
Research 1) Health promotion and preventive health practices for all age groups
2) Health care needs of high risk groups.
3) Life satisfaction of individual and families
4) Development of cost effective health care systems.

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Roles of Nurses in There are many roles that nurses can assume in association with research studies as
Research  Principle investigator.
 Member of a research team.
 Evaluator of research findings.
 Client advocate during a research study.
 Subject in research studies.
 User of research findings.
Scientific Research. Scientific research is characterized by several features.
 The researcher uses systematic, orderly, and objective methods of seeking information.
 This information is gained in the form of data or facts that are obtained in an unbiased manner from some aspect of the real world.
 The researcher tries to exercise as much as control as possible over the research situation, to minimize biased results.
 Scientific research is concerned with the ability to generalized results.
Overview of the The scientific research process proceeds in an orderly fashion and consists of the following steps:
Research Process. Identify the Problem The most important step in the research process is to clearly identify the problem that will be studied.
What will be examined by researcher?
 Generally broad topic area
 Specific one sentence statement of the problem
 Good problem statement helps the researcher to move through the steps of the research process.
 The problem of the study is best stated as a question, which demand answer
 The problem statement should specify the population and the variables that are being studied.
Determine the Purpose of  There are differences between Purpose and the problem.
the Study  The problem statement addresses what will be studied
 The purpose furnishes why the study is being done
 There must be a sound rational or justification for every research study. Ex. Infection Control (Broad Topic).
 " Effect of using hand washing techniques for nurses working in premature center and incidence of infection"
Sources of research  Experience
problem  Previous researches
 Social issues
 Nurses literature
 Theories (test for the theory)
Review the Literature  Research studies should build on previous knowledge.
 Before beginning a research study, it is important to determine what knowledge exists of the study topic.
 Literature sources is located through the library card catalog, indexes, abstracts, and computer assisted search.
 Review will help to develop a theoretical or conceptual framework for a study.
Develop a Theoretical  Theoretical frameworks are a valuable part of scientific research.
/Conceptual Framework  It will help in selection of the study variables and in defining them.
 It will also direct the hypothesis and interpretation of the findings.
Identify the Study  Assumptions are beliefs that are held to be true but have not necessarily been proven.
Assumptions  Each research study is based on assumptions, which should be stated explicitly.
 Study assumptions influence :
 The questions that are asked
 The data that are gathered
 The methods used to gather the data
 The interpretation of the data
Acknowledge the  Limitations are uncontrolled variables that may affect study results and limit the generalizability of the findings.
limitations of the Study For example, the educational level of subjects would be a study limitation if the researcher could not control this variable and thought that it might influence the study results.
 Other limitations may occur while the study is in progress (such as malfunctions of equipment and subject drop-out).
Formulate the Hypothesis A research expectation about the results of a research study is expressed in a hypothesis.
or Research Questions  A hypothesis predicts the relationship between two or more variables.
 The hypotheses determine the relationship between the independent and dependent variable.
In experimental studies, the independent variable is cause or the variable that is thought to influence the dependent variable.
The dependent variable is the effect or the variable that is influenced by the researchers’ manipulation.
(e.g.) for hypothesis:
 The more positive the body image of women who have experienced a mastectomy, the higher is their self-esteem level (directional research hypothesis.
 Null hypothesis which predict that no relationship exists between variables.
Define the study Variables The variables and terms contained in the study hypothesis or research questions need to be defined so that their meaning is clear to the researcher and to the reader of a research report.
 An operational definition indicates how a variable will be observed or measured.
 Operational definitions frequently include the instrument that will be used to measure the variables.
Ex. If anxiety were being measured, the theoretical definition might be taken from a certain theorist’s description of anxiety
Select the Research Design The research design
 Is the plan for how the study will be conducted.
 It is concerned with the type of data that will be collected and the means used to obtain these data.
 The researcher chooses the design that is most appropriate to test the study hypothesis or answer the research questions.
Identify the population  The population is a complete set of individuals or objects that possess some common characteristics of interest to the researcher.
 The researcher must specify the broad population or group of interest in a research study as well as the actual population that is available for the study.
 The target population or the Universe is made up of a group of people or objects to which the researcher wishes to generalize the findings of a study.

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 Conduct a Pilot Study A pilot study involves a trial version of the planned study. People are selected for the pilot studies that are similar in characteristics to the sample that will be used in the actual study.
There are several reasons for conducting a pilot study:
 The researcher can determine the feasibility of the study.
 Test the instrument that will be used.
 Gain experience with methodology and instrument, and
 Identify potential problems in data collection.
Collect the Data for  The data are the pieces of information or facts that are collected in a research study.
Analysis  There are multitudes of data collection methods available to nurse researcher.
 Many research studies use more than one data collection method.
Organize the Data for  This step should be should have been planned long before the data were collected.
Analysis  The researcher should have prepared in forms of tables and graphs that could then
 be filled in with the data once they were obtained
Analyze the Data Analyzing data involves how the findings can be used in clinical practice.
Interpreting the Findings After the data have analyzed, the findings should be interpreted in light of the study hypothesis or research questions.
Communicate the Findings  The final step in the research process and the most important one for the nursing, is the communication of the study findings.
Research findings can be communicated through many different mediums.
 The best method of reaching a large number of nurses is through publications in research journals, poster session.
 Posters, as a communication medium, permit many study results to be disseminated to interested research consumers.
Ethical aspects of nursing  Informed and voluntary consent of the subject.
research:  Confidentiality of the data collected.
 Privacy
 Protection of the individual from harm.
Characteristics of good  It should add
research:  New information
 New facts:
For example: effect of exposure to sonography in utero on growth and development during the first two years of life. b-validates previous research findings.
 New relationship among present phenomena:
For example: effect of moist or dry beat on healing of episiotomy.
 Explain previous finding.
There should have a problem that need solution.
 It should achieve a general objective and not personal one
 Research result should be liable to test it if another followed the same steps, he is going to get the same result.
 The scientific approach should be used in the research.
 It should be ethical it does not violate the rights of patient's profession community of the researcher himself.
 It should protect patients, profession, community and research rights.
2 Research Methods There are two categories of research methods:
 Quantitative data collection usually involves numbers, graphs and charts
 Qualitative data collection methods deal with feelings and other non-quantifiable elements.
Questionnaires can be used as qualitative, as well as, quantitative method. Specifically, if open-ended questions are used qualitative methods will be used for data analysis. Alternatively, if questionnaire consists of closed-ended questions, then
quantitative approach is adopted for data analysis.
Differences between The main differences between qualitative and quantitative research methods can be summarized in the following points:
Qualitative and Quantitative research Qualitative research
Quantitative Data: Appears in the forms of numbers and specific measurements. Can be in forms of words, images, transcripts, etc.
Methods: Research findings Can be illustrated in the forms of tables, graphs and pie-charts, whereas, research findings Studies are usually presented in analysis by only using words.
Types of researches: Explanatory research:  To explain things it offers understanding of the phenomena.
 This type of research focuses on questions such as (Why? why such a relationship exists? Example, why premature neonates have a certain patterns of feeding and not the other?
Experiment research: Here the research manipulates the independent variable observes and measures the subsequent changes in the dependent variable
Example: Effect of drug X on heart failure condition.
Historical research:  It is frequently utilized by nurse researchers.
 It is related to the history of nursing which explores documentary data sources.

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Selecting a research Research design: Is defined as the overall plan for collecting and analyzing data including specifications for improving the validity of the study.
design  What to do?
 When to do?
 Where to do?
 How to do?
 Why to do what?
 Where and when?
Types of research design:
Experimental Definition: Are search study which the researcher manipulate the independent variable and measures variations in the dependent variables
research design: Types of True- experimental research Definition: The experimental research design is scientific investigation in which observations are made and
experimental design: data are collected according to a set of well-defined criteria
research It is characterized by:
design:  Manipulation: It grantees that the change in the dependent variable is not because any other extension
variable but as a result of manipulation of the independent variable.
 Control: The process of holding constant possible influences on the dependent variable under
investigation control group refers to group of subjects in the experimental study treatment or manipulation
and who's of interest.
 Randomization
These three characteristics increase the validity of the study.
Quasi experimental research Definition: It is research design in which there is lack at least one of the three characteristics of the true
design: experimental research designs which are manipulation control or randomization.
Non-experimental Definition: Non experimental research, design in which the researcher is a passive agent that is he collects data without manipulation intervention or introduction of
research design any new change or 'treatment.
Reasons for 1) Independent variables are inherently not manipulated
choosing E.g. we cannot confer upon incoming hospital patients various diagnosis in order to study the effect of diagnosis upon preoperative
experimental anxiety.
research 2) Ethical constraints on manipulation:
design: E.g. when study polio vaccine Salk or Sabin and incidence of the disease.
 Group I: Salk
 Group II: Sabin
 Group III: No vaccine
Such a research could not be done for ethical reason.
3) Practical constraints such as
o Insufficient time.
o Inconvenience
o Lack of cooperation
o Lack of adequate= funds.
Types of non- Pure descriptive research Definition: this study is to obtain information about the current status phenomena of interest that is to describe
experimental design: what exists in terms of the frequency of occurrence rather than to describe a relationship between variables.
research design E.g. Determination of the percent of teenager pregnant mothers, whose babies are premature.
Correlation descriptive Definition: It is research design that explore the inter-relationship among variables of interest without .any
research design: active "intervention or manipulation the Independent variables by the researcher, it only 'describe the existing
relationships without fully 'understanding or explaining the complex, casual pathway that exist.
E.g. Are men more likely than` woman to become alcoholics? Whether or not a particular shape of sex
chromosomes has caused a predisposition of alcohol. `
Retrospective research Definition: This is a study that begins with manifestation of the dependent variable in the present (e.g. Lung
design: cancer or low birth weight) and then to some presumed cause occurring in the past.
E.g. Cigarette, smoking or addiction. A study begins with presumed causes and then goes forward in time of
observe -presumed effect.
E.g. A research wants to test the hypothesis that the incidence of rubella during pregnancy is related to
malformation in the spring to do this research prospectively. He begins with a sample of pregnant women (two
groups) one group go to active research design, in ;an examination of rubella in pregnancy , other group did
not get rubella in pregnancy and then observe the incidence of malformation in both groups. The 'result of this
study would say that the incidence was higher in which group.
Other types of  The term survey can be used to describe any research activity in which the investigator gathers data from a ortionulation for the purpose of examining the
non- experimental characteristics , opinions or intentions of populations
research design E.g.:
a. What are people eat?
b. What is their compliance in taking medication?
c. What are their sleeping patterns?
 Case study
It does not have a specific research design it could be performed in several ways and steps according to the phenomena to be studied according to the
phenomena to be studied and the purpose of the study.
Case studies are naturalistic studies, conducted in a setting that is not controlled by the researcher; it involves one or served cases that are studied over time
using multi-Gathering methods. In fact almost all methods of data collecting could be used in the case study

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 Characteristics of good  Appropriate to the research
research design.  Lack of bias
 Control: The researcher must design a study that controls extraneous variable through manipulation, randomization and use of comparison.
 Precision: The term precision is used to refer: to appropriateness of the statistical procedures used to analysis can detect any effect on the dependent variable by the extraneous
variables.
 Internal validity: This is concerned with the questions are attributed to the independent variables or other extraneous variables.
 External validity: This is concerned with the generalizability of the research finding to other individual and other setting.
3 Reliability & Validity Reliability Reliability: Is the degree to which an assessment tool produces stable and consistent results.
Types of Reliability Test-retest Definition: is a measure of reliability obtained by administering the same test twice over a period of time to a group of individuals.
reliability: The scores: from Time 1 and Time 2 can then be correlated in order to evaluate the test for stability over time.
Example: A test designed to assess student learning in psychology could be given to a group of students twice, with the second administration perhaps coming a
week after the first. The obtained correlation coefficient would indicate the stability of the scores.
Parallel forms Definition: is a measure of reliability obtained by administering different versions of an assessment tool (both versions must contain items that probe the same
reliability construct, skill, knowledge base, etc.) to the same group of individuals.
The scores: from the two versions can then be correlated in order to evaluate the consistency of results across alternate versions.
Example: If you wanted to evaluate the reliability of a critical thinking assessment, you might create a large set of items that all pertain to critical thinking and then
randomly split the questions up into two sets, which would represent the parallel forms.
Inter-rater Definition: is a measure of reliability used to assess the degree to which different judges or raters agree in their assessment decisions.
reliability Inter-rater reliability is useful because:
o Human observers will not necessarily interpret answers the same way
o Raters may disagree as to how well certain responses or material
o Demonstrate knowledge of the construct or skill being assessed.
Example: Inter-rater reliability might be employed when different judges are evaluating the degree to which art portfolios meet certain standards. Inter-rater
reliability is especially useful when judgments can be considered relatively subjective. Thus, the use of this type of reliability would probably be more likely when
evaluating artwork as opposed to math problems.
Internal consistency Definition: is a measure of reliability used to evaluate the degree to which different test items that probe the same construct produce similar results.
reliability
Validity Validity: Refers to how well a test measures what it is purported to measure.
Why is it necessary? While reliability is necessary, it alone is not sufficient. For a test to be reliable, it also needs to be valid. For example, if your scale is off by 5 lbs, it reads your weight every day with an
excess of 5lbs. The scale is reliable because it consistently reports the same weight every day, but it is not valid because it adds 5lbs to your true weight. It is not a valid measure of your
weight.
What are some ways to  Make sure your goals and objectives are clearly defined and operationalized.
improve validity?  Expectations of students should be written down.
 Match your assessment measure to your goals and objectives.
 Have the test reviewed by faculty at other schools to obtain feedback from an outside party who is less INVESTED in the instrument.
 Get students involved; have the students look over the assessment for troublesome wording, or other difficulties.
 If possible, compare your measure with other measures, or data that may be available.
The issues of validity, reliability and generalizability need to be addressed in order for the research findings to be accepted as appropriate. Threats to validity and reliability can never be
eliminated thoroughly, but researchers need to aim minimize the level of these threats.
Types of Validity: Face Validity: Definition: Ascertains that the measure appears to be assessing the intended construct under study. The stakeholders can easily assess face validity.
Although this is not a very “scientific” type of validity, it may be an essential component in enlisting motivation of stakeholders. If the stakeholders do not believe
the measure is an accurate assessment of the ability, they may become disengaged with the task.
Example: If a measure of art appreciation is created all of the items should be related to the different components and types of art. If the questions are regarding
historical time periods, with no reference to any artistic movement, stakeholders may not be motivated to give their best effort or INVEST in this measure because
they do not believe it is a true assessment of art appreciation.
Construct Definition: Is used to ensure that the measure is actually measure what it is intended to measure (i.e. the construct), and not other variables.
Validity Using a panel of “experts” familiar with the construct is a way in which this type of validity can be assessed. The experts can examine the items and decide what
that specific item is intended to measure. Students can be involved in this process to obtain their feedback.
Example: A women’s studies program may design a cumulative assessment of learning throughout the major. The questions are written with complicated wording
and phrasing. This can cause the test inadvertently becoming a test of reading comprehension, rather than a test of women’s studies. It is important that the measure
is actually assessing the intended construct, rather than an extraneous factor.
a. Criterion-Related Validity:
2. Is used to predict future or current performance
3. It correlates test results with another criterion of interest.
Example: If a physics program designed a measure to assess cumulative student learning throughout the major. The new measure could be correlated with a
standardized measure of ability in this discipline, such as an ETS field test or the GRE subject test.
The higher the correlation between the established measure and new measure, the more faith stakeholders can have in the new assessment tool.
Formative When applied to outcomes assessment it is used to assess how well a measure is able to provide information to help improve the program under study.
Validity: Example: When designing a rubric for history one could assess student’s knowledge across the discipline. If the measure can provide information that students are
lacking knowledge in a certain area, for instance the Civil Rights Movement, then that assessment tool is providing meaningful information that can be used to
improve the course or program requirements.

Sampling Validity Ensures that the measure covers the broad range of areas within the concept under study. Not everything can be covered, so items need to be sampled from all of the
(similar to content domains.
validity): This may need to be completed using a panel of “experts” to ensure that the content area is adequately sampled. Additionally, a panel can help limit “expert” bias
(i.e. a test reflecting what an individual personally feels are the most important or relevant areas).
Example: When designing an assessment of learning in the theatre department, it would not be sufficient to only cover issues related to acting. Other areas of
theatre such as lighting, sound, functions of stage managers should all be included. The assessment should reflect the content area in its entirety.

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 Research Process: There are a wide range of options available for the selection of a research process. The following are the most suitable options for studies that involve primary data collection.
Option 1:  Stage 1: Confirming research aims and objectives with the supervisor and introducing modifications if necessary.
 Stage 2: Conducting thorough literature review by utilizing wide range of relevant sources.
 Stage 3: Addressing methodology aspect of the work through identifying research philosophy, research approach, design of study, and devising questionnaires.
 Stage 4: Conducting a pilot study and revising the questionnaire according to results of the pilot study
 Stage 5: Collecting primary data with questionnaires
 Stage 6: Discussing and interpreting the questionnaire results, comparing them to literature review findings
 Stage 7: Completing the first draft of the research
 Stage 8: Getting feedback from supervisor for analysis and discussions and overall progress of the work, improving relevant chapters according to the feedback.
 Stage 9: Wring conclusions chapter on the basis of overall research experience Finalizing and submitting the work before the deadline
Option 2  Stage 1: Formulating and clarifying the research area, research topic, research question and objectives.
 Stage 2: Critically evaluating the existing literature and pointing to the gap in the literature this research is going to fill.
 Stage 3: Choosing appropriate methodology for the research, taking into account the characteristics of the current research and critically analyzing advantages and disadvantages of all available
qualitative and quantitative data collection methods.
 Stage 4: Undertaking primary data collection according to chosen methodology
 Stage 5: Explaining, discussing and analyzing the primary data and thus turning raw data into meaningful analysis that is going to form the findings chapter of the research
 Stage 6: Presenting primary and secondary findings and other parts of the research in an effective manner using graphs and tables wherever necessary
 Stage 7: Writing the first draft of the dissertation and revising it according to feedbacks from the supervisor.
 Stage 8: Writing the final draft of the dissertation

4 Sampling Definition: Sampling is the process of selecting units (e.g., people, organizations) from a population of interest so that by studying the sample we may fairly generalize our results back to the population from which they were
chosen.
Definitions:  Sampling: is the process of selecting a representative group from the population under study.
 The target population: is the total group of individuals from which the sample might be drawn.
 A sample: is the group of people who take part in the investigation. The people who take part are referred to as “participants”.
Types of Samples: Probability Simple random Definition: Is the simplest type of probability sampling, often using some type of computer program or random number generator.
(Random) sample: a. Applicable when population is small, homogeneous & readily available
Samples b. All subsets of the frame are given an equal probability.
c. Each element of the frame thus has an equal probability of selection. (Everyone in the entire target population has an equal chance of being selected).
d. It provides for greatest number of possible samples. This is done by assigning a number to each unit in the sampling frame.
e. Random samples require a way of naming or numbering the target population and then using some type of raffle method (lottery) to choose those to make up the sample.
f. A table of random number or lottery system is used to determine which units are to be selected.
The advantages are that your sample should represent the target population and eliminate sampling bias
The disadvantage is that it is very difficult to achieve (i.e. time, effort and money).
Stratified Definition: It involves separating the population into subgroups and then taking a simple random sample from each of these subgroups.
Sampling: Stratified Sampling is possible when it makes sense to partition the population into groups based on a factor that may influence the variable that is being measured. These groups are
then called strata. An individual group is called a stratum.
With stratified sampling one should:
1) Partition the population into groups (strata)
2) Obtain a simple random sample from each group (stratum)
3) Collect data on each sampling unit that was randomly sampled from each group (stratum)
Examples of stratum include mothers, fathers, students, teachers, females, males, etc.
Sampling error is usually lower in stratified sampling than in random sampling.
Stratified sampling works best when a heterogeneous population is split into fairly homogeneous groups. Under these conditions, stratification generally produces more precise
estimates of the population percents than estimates that would be found from a simple random sample.
Stratified random sampling often provides greater statistical accuracy than simple random sampling and helps ensure that certain groups are accurately represented in the sample.
The advantage is that the sample should be highly representative of the target population and therefore we can generalize from the results obtained.
The disadvantage is Gathering such a sample would be extremely time consuming and difficult to do
Cluster Cluster Sampling is very different from Stratified Sampling.
Sampling: With cluster sampling one should:
o Divide the population into groups (clusters).
o Obtain a simple random sample of so many clusters from all possible clusters.
o Obtain data on every sampling unit in each of the randomly selected clusters.
Cluster sampling is an example of 'two-stage sampling’.
o First stage a sample of areas is chosen;
o Second stage a sample of respondents within those areas is selected.
Population divided into clusters of homogeneous units, usually based on geographical contiguity.
o Sampling units are groups rather than individuals.
o A sample of such clusters is then selected.
o All units from the selected clusters are studied.
It is important to note that, unlike with the strata in stratified sampling, the clusters should be microcosms, rather than subsections, of the population. Each cluster should be
heterogeneous.
Additionally, the statistical analysis used with cluster sampling is not only different, but also more complicated than that used with stratified sampling.
Involves dividing a population into smaller clusters, often based upon geographic location or boundaries. A random sample of these clusters is then selected and all of the subjects
within in cluster are measured.
For example, imagine that you are trying to do a study on school principals in your state. Collecting data from every single school principle would be cost-prohibitive and time-
consuming. Using a cluster sampling method, you randomly select five counties from your state and then collect data from every subject in each of those five counties.

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 Systematic Systematic Sampling means chooses subjects in a systematic (i.e. orderly / logical) way from the target population, like every nth participant on a list of names. To take a systematic
Sampling: sample, you list all the members of the population, and then decided upon a sample you would like. By dividing the number of people in the population by the number of people you
want in your sample, you get a number we will call in. In systematic sampling, individuals or households are chosen at regular intervals from the sampling frame. For this method we
randomly select a number to tell us where to start selecting individuals from the list.
For example, a systematic sample is to be selected from 1,200 students at a school. The sample size selected is 100.
 The sampling fraction is 1200/100. The sampling interval is therefore 12.
 The number of the first student to be included in the sample is chosen randomly, for example, by blindly picking one out of 12 pieces of paper, numbered 1 to 12.
 If number 6 is picked, then every twelfth student will be included in the sample, starting with student number 6, until 100 students are selected.
 The numbers selected would be 6, 18, 30, 42, etc.
The advantage: is that is should provide a representative sample
The disadvantage: is that it is very difficult to achieve (i.e. time, effort and money).
Multistage In very large and diverse populations sampling may be done in two or more stages. This is often the case in community-based studies, in which the people to be interviewed are from
Random different villages, and the villages have to be chosen from different areas.
Sampling: A multistage random sample is constructed by taking a series of simple random samples in stages. In a multistage random sample, a large area, such as a country, is
 Firstly: divided into smaller regions (such as states), and a random sample of these regions is collected.
 Secondly: a random sample of smaller areas (such as counties) is taken from within each of the regions chosen in the first stage.
 Thirdly: a random sample of even smaller areas (such as neighborhoods) is taken from within each of the areas chosen in the second stage.
If these areas are sufficiently small for the purposes of the study, then the researcher might stop at the third stage.
If not, he or she may continue to sample from the areas chosen in the third stage, etc., until appropriately small areas have been chosen.
Non- Convenience  Involves using participants in a study because they are convenient and available.
Probability sample:  Uses people from target population available at the time and willing to take part.
Samples  An opportunity sample is obtained by asking members of the population of interest if they would take part in your research.
 An example would be selecting a sample of students from those coming out of the library.
 The advantage: is a quick way and easy of choosing participants
 The disadvantage: may not provide a representative sample, and could be biased
Purposive  Is a non-probability sample that is selected based on characteristics of a population and the objective of the study.
sampling:  Is also known as judgmental, selective, or subjective sampling.
 Involves seeking out individuals that meet certain criteria.
 This type of sampling can be very useful in situations when you need to reach a targeted sample quickly, and where sampling for proportionality is not the main concern.
 The researcher chooses the sample based on who they think would be appropriate for the study.
 This is used primarily when there is a limited number of people that have expertise in the area being researched, or when the interest of the research is on a specific field or a small
group.
Different types of purposive sampling include:
 Deviant case: The researcher obtains cases that substantially differ from the dominant pattern (a special type of purposive sample). The case is selected in order to obtain
information on unusual cases that can be specially problematic or specially good.
 Case study: The research is limited to one group, often with a similar characteristic or of small size.
 Ad hoc quotas: A quota is established (e.g. 65% women) and researchers are free to choose any respondent they wish as long as the quota is met.
Quota  Another non-probability method, quota sampling also identifies strata like stratified sampling
Sampling:  It also uses a convenience sampling approach as the researcher will be the one to choose the necessary number of participants per stratum.
Snowball  This method is commonly used in social sciences when investigating hard to reach groups.
sampling  Existing subjects are asked to nominate further subjects known to them, so the sample increases in size like a rolling snowball.
For example, when carrying out a survey of risk behaviours amongst intravenous drug users, participants may be asked to nominate other users to be interviewed.
Determining Sample Knowing the target population, you have to decide the number of the participants in a sample, which is termed as the “sample size”. Aside from the estimated number of people in the target population, the sample size
Size: can be influenced by other factors such as budget, time available, and the target degree of precision. The sample size can be calculated using the formula:
n= t² x p(1-p)
m²

Where:
 n = required sample size
 t = confidence level at 95% (standard value of 1.96)
 p = estimated prevalence of the variable of interest (e.g. 20% or 0.2 of the population are smokers)
 m = margin of error at 5% (standard value of 0.05)
Sampling Error: Definition: The error that arises as a result of taking a sample from a population rather than using the whole population.
Sampling error is an error that occurs when using samples to make inferences about the populations from which they are drawn.
There are two kinds of sampling error: random error and bias.
A- Random error is a pattern of errors that tend to cancel one another out so that the overall result still accurately reflects the true value. Every sample design will generate a certain amount of random error.
B- Bias, on the other hand, is more serious because the pattern of errors is loaded in one direction or another and therefore do not balance each other out, producing a true distortion.

Sampling error arises from estimating a population characteristic by looking at only one portion of the population rather than the entire population.
It refers to the difference between the estimate derived from a sample survey and the 'true' value that would result if a census of the whole population were taken under the same conditions.
There is no sampling error in a census because the calculations are based on the entire population.
The sampling error for a given sample is unknown but when the sampling is random, the maximum likely size of the sampling error is called the margin of error.
Characteristics of Sampling error
1) Generally decreases as the sample size increases (but not proportionally)
2) Depends on the size of the population under study
3) Depends on the variability of the characteristic of interest in the population
4) Can be accounted for and reduced by an appropriate sampling plan
5) Can be measured and controlled in probability sample surveys.

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5 Data collection methods QUESTIONNAIRE Definition: Is a paper–and pencil self-reporting instruments, it contains questions that respondents are asked to answer in writing.
Questionnaires can be used to Measures knowledge levels, opinions, attitudes, factual information, beliefs, ideas, feelings, and perceptions as well as to gather information.
Characteristic of good questionnaire:  It is important to use a high quality printing process and paper.
 Questionnaire should be neat in appearance, grammatically correct, and contain no typing or spelling errors.
 Questionnaire should not be cluttered or crowded appearance to avoid confusion.
 Adequate margin and spacing of the questions are needed.
 It is better to add another page to the questionnaire rather than to crowding too many questions.
 Questionnaire should be written in a respondents preferred language and appropriate for the knowledge and reading level of the least education.
 Questionnaire should be short kept as possible.
 A desirable length of a question is less than 20 words.
 A question need to be divided into two questions if the length becomes excessive or the question asks more than one idea at a time.
How to write the questions? There are some guidelines to recognize how to construct or how to write the questions:
 State questions in an affirmative rather than negative manner.
EX: All the following criteria should be met in research study except:
There is a problem statement or purpose.
 The references cited in the literature are current.
 The limitation of study is acknowledged.
 The researcher provided the study hypothesis.
 Avoid ambiguous question that contain word have more than one meaning like {many, usually, few, several}.
 Avoid double negative questions
EX: Do not you disagree with the idea that.
 Any question that implies the type of answer to be given may result in biased responses Question should neutral wording.
EX: Do you believe that smoking is a disgusting habit?
The desired question here is:
What is your opinion about cigarette smoking?
 Avoid double barreled question. Which asks tow question in one?
EX: Do you plan to pursue a master degree in nursing and seek an administrative position graduation?
When a question contain "and" it is quite likely that tow question are needed.
Types of questionnaire: Demographic  Used to describe the study sample.
question  Include such factors as age .educational background and religion.
Open–ended The researcher asks respondent to complete question in their own words in open– ended question, essay and fill-in the blank, used in
questions combination with closed-ended question
Closed-ended  The most structured questions are closed-ended question which the respondent is asked to choose from given alternatives.
question  There may be only two alternatives as a true or false question or many as in a checklist type where respondents are asked to check all
items that apply to them.
 Other types of closed-ended questions include multiple-choice question and matching questions.
The following example demonstrates categories that are collectively exhaustive and mutually exclusive.
 Mutually categories
How many apples do you eat each week?
1) None.
2) 1 – 2.
3) 3 – 4.
4) More than 4.
 (Exhaustive) categories
EX:
Please check your highest level of education
 Elementary.
 High school.
 College.
How would subjects respond that had not complete elementary school?
 Adding an “other” category is needed in this condition.
 A blank is provided beside the word other for respondents’ answers.
Contingency  Questionnaire items those are relevant for some respondents and not for others.
question  Ex: A researcher might want to determine if a client has been satisfied with the types of nursing care received during previous
hospitalization.
 Have you ever been hospitalized before? -----Yes ------NO
 How would you rate the care received during your last hospitalization?
-------Poor -------Fair -------Good
Filler question  Items in which the researcher has no direct interest but are included on a questionnaire to reduce the emphasis on the specific purpose of
other question
Ex: If the main purpose of the study was to gain information concerning patients’ perception of the nursing care they had received, the
researcher might include a lot of other questions about the food they had been served, visiting hours. If the subjects could determine that the
only purpose of the study was to obtain their perceptions of nursing care, they might hesitate to criticize the nursing care they had received.
Placement of Question  All questions about a certain topic should be grouped together.
 Demographic questions (which ask for factual information about the subject) should be grouped together.
 Demographic questions frequently placed in the beginning of a questionnaire
 Place simple questions at the beginning, these are easy to answer and may encourage the respondent to continue with the questionnaire.
 Others chooses to place the demographic questions at the end as they belief that this questions which asking for income or age , may be threatening to the
respondent.

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 Cover Letter 1. Should accompany all mailed questionnaires and is helpful any time a questionnaire is administered.
2. The letter should be brief and contain the following:
 Identification of the researcher and any sponsoring agency or person.
 Purpose of the research.
 How participant was selected.
 Reason the respondent should answer the questionnaire.
 Length of time to complete the questionnaire.
 How data will be used or made public.
 Deadline for return of questionnaire.
 An offer to inform respondent of results of study
 Contact phone number, address ,or both
 Personal signature of the researcher
The cover letter may be the single most important factor in motivating respondents to complete questionnaires.
Completion Instruction  Information on how to complete the questionnaire must be clear and concise.
 If all questions are to be answered using the same type of format, a general set of instructions may be written at the top of the questionnaire.
 Several different types of questions are included on instrument, and instruction need to precede each type of question. It is very helpful to provide the
respondent with an example of appropriate way to respond to a particular type of question.
Factors influence response rate  Mailing at a time other than holiday seasons or popular vacation times.
 Hand-addressed outer envelopes.
 Personal signature of the researcher on cover letter.
 Information in the cover letter that motivates respondents.
 An incentive.
 Neatness and clarity of instrument.
 Ease of completion of instrument.
 Time to complete the instrument does not exceed 10 to 15 minutes.
 Guarantee of anonymity.
 Inclusion of a preaddressed, stamped envelope.
Advantages  Quick and inexpensive.
 Easy for reliability, validity.
 Less time consuming.
 Data can be obtained from respondent in widespread geographical area.
 Respondents can remain anonymous.
 If anonymity is assured, respondents are more likely to provide honest answers.
Disadvantages  Mailing can be costly.
 Response rate may be low.
 Respondents may provide socially acceptable answers
 Respondents may fail to answer some of the items.
 There is no opportunity to clarify items that maybe misunderstood by respondents
 Respondents must be literate.
 Respondents may not be representative of the population
 Respondent must have no physical disability that would deter them from completing a questionnaire

INTERVIEW Definition: An interviewer obtains responses from a subject in face–to–face encounter or through a telephone call.
 Interview is frequently used in descriptive research studies & qualitative studies
 Interview is used to obtain factual data about people as well as to measure their opinions, attitudes, and beliefs about certain topics.
Types: Un-structured  The interviewer is given a great deal of freedom to direct the course of the interview.
Interviews  Conducted more like a normal conversation.
 Particularly appropriate for exploratory or qualitative research studies where the researcher does not possess enough knowledge about the topic to
structure questions in advance of data collection.
Structured  Involve asking the same questions, in the same order, and in the same manner of all respondents in a study.
Interviews  Structured interviews are most appropriate when straight forward factual information is desired.

Semi structured  Interviewers are generally required to ask a certain number of specific questions, but additional probes are allowed or even encouraged.
Interviews.  Both closed-ended and open-ended questions are included in a semi structured interview.

Interview Instrument Interview Schedule  Data obtained in interview are usually recorded on an instrument referred to as an interview schedule.
 The interview schedule contains a set of questions to be asked by the interviewer, and space to record the respondents answer.
Audiotapes or  Data obtained from an interview also may be recorded on audiotapes or videotapes.
Videotapes  The total interview process can be captured, and the interviewer is free to observe the respondents.
 Written permission is required, and the permission form should indicate how the information will be use and how confidentiality will be
maintained.
Telephone interview  The collection of data from subjects through use of phone calls rather than in face to face meetings
Interview questions  There are 2 basic categories of questions: open-ended and closed-ended questions.
Interviewer training The investigator of a study in which interviews will be conducted has the responsibility to provide training for all interviewers who will collect data
during the study.
 The data collector was allowed to provide input into the development of an operations manual, which includes a script and scoring guidelines
regarding ways to facilitate home visits.
 The data collector viewed a videotape of an interview being done by a skilled interviewer.
 The data collector was given practice and feedback in a clinic setting.
 Rehearsals were done in homes of people who would not be study participants.
 A videotape was done of the data collector conducting a rehearsal interview.

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 The principal investigator critiqued the data During the training session(s), the researcher should provide interviewers with a description of the study and its purpose.
collector’s performance  General procedures are discussed, and the interview schedule is reviewed in detail.
 The purpose of each question is pointed out, and the meaning of all words is clarified.
 The process of recording information must be explicitly communicated.
 Interviewer training should be carried out in group, so that all interviewers receive the same instructions.
 Role-playing of interviews helps the interviewer gain some appreciation of what the actual interviews will be like.
Influence of interviewers on respondent:  In face-to-face interviews, the interviewer may have a great deal of influence on the outcome.
 First impressions are very important in face-to- face Interviews.
 Interviewers should be neat in appearance, courteous, friendly, and relaxed.
Advantages:  Responses can be obtained from a wide range of subjects.
 Response rate is high.
 Most of the data obtained areusable.
 In-depth responses can be obtained nonverbal behavior and verbal mannerisms can be observed.
Disadvantages  Training programs are needed for Interviewers.
 Interviews are time consuming and expensive.
 Arrangements for interviews may be difficult to make.
 Subjects may provide socially acceptable responses.
 Subjects may be anxious because answers are being recorded.
 Subjects may be in flounced by interviewer’s characteristics.
 Interviewers may misinterpret nonverbal behavior.
OBSERVATION Definition: Concerned with gathering data through visual observation
METHOD Determining behaviors to be observed:  Psychomotor skills (ability of diabetic patient to perform insulin injection).
 Personal habits (smoking and eating behaviors).
 Nonverbal communication pattern (facial expressions).
Research observers 1) If the researcher decides to use other people to help him in collecting data, training sessions are necessary.
2) It is preferable to have more than one observer during the training sessions so estimates of the reliability of the data can be made.
3) Human error is quite likely to occur in visual observations.
Observation procedures  The researcher must determine how and when observations will be made.
 The degree of structure of the observations and the period for gathering data must be considered.
Degree of observation a. Structured  Are carried out when the researcher has prior knowledge about the phenomena of interest.
observations  The data collection tool is usually some kind of check list.
 The expected behaviors of interest have been identified on the check list.
b. Unstructured  The researcher attempts to describe events or behaviors as they occur, with no preconceived ideas of what will be seen.
observations  Requires a high degree of concentration and attention by the observer.
PHYSIOLOGICAL Definition: Involve the collection of physical data from subjects.
MEASURES These types of measures are generally more objective and accurate than many of other methods.
Advantages: is their precision and accuracy.
Disadvantage: special expertise may be necessary to use some of these devices.
The presence of certain data collection instrument may adversely influence the subject.
ATTITUDE SCALE Definition: Self-report data collection instrument.
Used to evaluate attitudes or feeling.
The most commonly used attitude scales:
 Likert scale.
 Semantic differential scale.
Likert scale:  Was named after its developer ,rinses likert
Ex: (nursing questionnaire)
Please read the following items and indicate your agreement or disagreement by checking the appropriate category
EX: SD = strongly disagree.
D= Disagree. U= Uncertain. A= Agree. SA = strongly agree
SD D U A SA
 Nursing diagnoses should be written on all nursing care plans
 The use of nursing diagnoses allows nurses to be autonomous health care professionals.
 The medical diagnosis is more important in determining clients’ health care needs than is the nursing diagnosis.
 Nursing care should be based on the nursing diagnosis.
 Nurses waste valuable time in trying to formulate nursing diagnosis.
The term nursing diagnosis is a popular phrase that will soon become forgotten.
SEMANTIC Definition: The semantic differentia asks subjects to indicate their position or attitude about some concept along a continuum between 2 objects or phrases that are presented in relation
DIFFERENTIAL to the concept being measured.
SCALES Used to evaluate setting, a person, a group, educational course and measurement attitudes
Ex: EVALUATION OF CLINICAL INSTRUCTOR
Each item below concerns characteristics of instructors’ .Words are presented in pairs and represent opposite characteristics. Please place (right) above the line on the scale at the place
which you believe comes the closest to describing your evaluation of the instructor.
KIND _√_ UNKIND.
FRIENDLY UNFRIENDLY.
SENSITIVE UNSENSETIVE.
FLEXIBLE INFLEX
HELPFUL UNHELP

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 PSYCHOLOGICAL Used to assess personality characteristics.
TESTS PERSONALITY  Are self-report measure.
INVENTORIES  Used to assess the differences in personality traits, needs or , values of people.
 These inventories seek information about a person by asking question or requesting responses to statements that are presented.
 More commonly used personality inventories Minnesota multiphase personality inventory (true or false)
PROJECTIVE  One of the criticisms of self-report psychological measures.
TECHNIQUES  More accurate in gathering psychological data.
 A subject is presented with stimuli ambiguous then the person is asked to describe the stimuli or to subject that are projected.
ISUAL ANALOGUE Definition: A Visual Analogue Scale (VAS) is a measurement instrument that tries to measure a characteristic or attitude that is believed to range across a continuum of values and cannot easily be directly measured.
SCALE  VAS is simple, reliable, reproducible, valid and sensitive tool.
 The vas is being used with increasing frequency in nursing research studies.
 It has been found to be particularly useful with patients who are experiencing discomfort, such as nausea, pain, fatigue and shortness of breath.
EX: The amount of pain that a patient feels ranges across a continuum from none to an extreme amount of pain.
How sever is your pain today? Place a vertical mark on the line below to indicate how bad you feel your pain is today.
No Pain l l Very Severe Pain
PREEXISTING Definition: involves the use of existing information that has not been collected for research purpose
DATA EX: patient’s charts, records from agencies and organizations and personal documentations.
6 Writing a research proposal Introduction: A research proposal is a written document specifying what the investigator proposes to study. Proposals serve to communicate the research problem, its significance, and planned procedures for solving the problem to
some interested party. Proposals are written for various reasons. A student enrolled in. are search class is often expected to submit a brief plan to the professor before data collection actually begins.
Definition of Systematic inquiring that uses "orderly scientific methods to answer questions- or solve problems.
research:
Definition of A document specifying what the researcher propose to study ;
proposal: it communicates the research problem, its significance, planned procedures for solving the problem, and when funding is sought, how much the research will cost.
Components of a) The preparation The preparation of the proposal Include the following:
research proposal: of the proposal:
a) Statement  The problem that intended research will address should be clearly and directly identified early in the proposal.
of the  The problem should be stated in such away that its importance is apparent to the reviewer.
problem:  The proposal should indicate the expected generalizability of the research, its potential for improving nursing practice and patient care, and possible applications or
consequences of the knowledge to be gained.
b) Backgroun  Background material should strengthen the author's arguments concerning the significance on the study.
d of the  This section should orient the reader to what is already about the problem and indicate how the proposed research will augment that knowledge.
problem:  The background section offers an excellent opportunity for the proposal write to make evident his or her level of professionalism and grasp of a field.
c) Objectives:  A section of the proposal usually addresses the specific objectives to be achieved in the proposed study.
 The objectives should not be phrased as vague generalities such "the aim of this project is to improve patient care".
 The form in which the objectives are stated depends on the nature of the investigation and the current level of knowledge.
 Objectives stated as hypotheses to be tested are the preferred form.
d) Methods:  Reviewers typically read the methods section of the proposal with greater care than any other part. Therefore, it is important to discuss procedures clearly and completely,
with a considerable amount of detail methods section includes a description of the sampling plan, research plan , instrumentation, specific procedures, and analytic
strategies, together with a discussion of the rational for the method's, potential methodological problems and intended strategies for handling such problems.
 The proposal reviewer normally expects to find a through description of the population, the sample, the sampling plan, and the number of subjects.
e) The work  A proposal should always describe the plan according to which the various tasks and subtasks will be accomplished.
plan:  In other words, the researcher must show the sequence of tasks to be performed, the anticipated length of time required for their completion and the personal required for
their accomplishment the work plan indicates to the reader how realistic and through the researcher has been in designing the study.
 Usually the work plan can be most effectively presented in tabular or graphic form, accompanied by appropriate textual comments.
 Tables are useful in that they permit diverse information to be present simultaneously.
f) Personnel:  In proposal addressed to funding agencies, the qualifications of key project personnel should be prominently high-lighted.
 The research competencies of the project director and other team members are typically given major consideration in evaluating a proposal.
 Resumes of the personnel who will play key roles in the study should be included. The resumes should clearly specify relevant background and experience.
 In addition to resumes, the proposal should include a brief narrative that explains the specific activities to which individual will be a signal.
 The personnel section should be scrutinized by the author to determine if there is any weakness of the staff as a whole,
g) Facilities:  The proposal should document the extent to which special facilities required by the project will be available.
 Access to physiological instrumentation libraries, data processing equipment, computers, “special documents or records, and so forth should be described order to
reassure sponsors or advisors that the project will be able to proceed as planed
h) Budget:  The preparation of a budget often intimidates beginning proposal writers.
 The budget translates the project activities into monetary terms.
 It is a statement of much money will be required to accomplish the various tasks
b) Final aspects of  It is advisable to begin the text proposal with a brief abstract.
the proposal:  The abstract will establish a farm of references for the reviewers as they begin to read the proposal.
 The abstract should be brief but concisely state what the goals of the study are and what general methods will be used.
 Ordinarily the very first page of a proposal is the title page the title page includes such information as the project title, the project director's name and signature.
 The name and signature of an official who is in a position to commit the instruction.
 The name of instruction, the name of the agency to which the proposal is being submitted, an identification of the competition into which the proposal is being entered and the date of the
proposal.
 In many cases it is necessary to submit proposals to funding agencies in two separate parts.
 The technical proposal includes the problem statement, objectives, methods, work plan and descriptions of the personnel and facilities.
 The business proposal includes the budget and certifications.

 Funding for  If is including the following:

research proposals:  Federal funding.
 Private funds.

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  Funding for  Is becoming more and more difficult to obtain.
research projects:  As increasing numbers of nurses become prepared to carry out significant research, so, too, will applications for research monies increase, successful
proposal writers need to have good research and proposal-writing skills, and they must also know how and from whom funding is available.
 The combined set of skills and knowledge is sometimes referred so as "grants man ship”.
 Federal funding:  The federal government is the largest contributor to the support of research activities.
 The two major types of federal disbursements are grants and contracts.
 Grants: Are awarded for proposals in which the search idea is developed by the investigator. The researcher who identifies an important research problem can seek federal
monies through a grant program of one or more agencies of the government.

 Contracts: Is an agency that identifies the need for a particular piece of research issues a request for proposals (RFP), which details the work which the government wants done.
The contract method of securing research support severely constrains the kinds of work in which investigators can engage. For this reason, most nurse researchers
probably will want to compete for grants rather than contracts. Government agencies are increasing using contracts as the mechanism for supporting research.
 Private funds:  Health care research is supported by number philanthropic foundations and professional organization Private organizations typically are less rigid in their
proposal regulations, their reporting requirements, clearance of instruments, and their monitoring of progress .
 Professional associations such as the American nurses foundation, sigma. Theta Tau, the American association of university women, and the social science
research council offer funds for conducting research.
 Health organizations such as the American heart association and the American Cancer society also support research activities.
c) Conclusion:  Proposal represents the means for opening communication between researchers on the one hand and parties’ interest at in the conduct of research on the other.
 Those parties maybe funding agencies, faculty advisors, or institutional officers, depending upon the circumstances.
 The proposal should be written in appositive, confident tone.
 Instead of saying "the study will” try to ...."It is better " .
o to indicate more positively that the study will achieve some goals similar it is more optimistic
o to specify what the investigator will do, rather than what it would do, if approved.
 Proposal writing, like research, is both a skill and an art.
 We hope we have been helpful in communicating some of what goes into the (skill) part and offer all readers our best wishes in cultivating the art of doing and writing about research.

7 Data interpretation Data interpretation: Can be defined as applying statistical procedures to analyze specific facts from a study or body of research. The final stages of a research project, like the beginning stages, are often somewhat more difficult than
intermediary steps of data collection & analysis
Interpretation of The result of data analysis procedures are only numbers with very little inherent meaning associated with them It is a researcher `s role to imbue these numbers with meaning
results:
Interpreting  When the tests of statistical significant support the original research hypotheses
hypothesized results:  Naturally, the researchers are gratified when the results of many hours of effort offer support for their predications
 Interpreting non-significant results
 The statistical procedures currently relevant are greeted toward disconfirmation of the hypothesis.
Errors will have been  Internal validity problems
committed  The selection of deviant sample
 The use of a weak statistical procedure
 Too small sample
interpreting un- There properly nothing more perplexing to a researcher than to obtain results opposite to those hypnotized for instance a nurse researcher might hypo size that individualized patient teaching of breathing techniques is
hypothesized more effective than group instruction but the results might reflect that the group method was better
significant results:
The introduction:  The purpose of the introductory section of research report is to Acquairt readers with the research problem on which the investigation has focused
 The research should explain enough of the back ground of the study to make clear the reasons why the problem was considered worth pursuing
 The introductory section should incorporate definitions of concepts under investigation
The methods section  The scientific reader need to know what has done to solve the problem
 The methods section is often subdivided into several parts
 The methods of sample selection together with the reasons for the selection of these sampling design , need to be very clearly delineated
 The design of the study is often given more detailed coverage in an experimental project than in a non-experimental one
 Identify what steps were taken to control the research situation in general & extraneous variables in particular
 Describe the instruments used to measure the targets variables
 Provide information about what steps were followed in actually collecting the data
 Any unforeseen events occurring during the collection of data that could affect the findings should be described & assessed
The result section  These section summarize the results of analysis
The discussion  The discussion section is typically develop to a consideration of interpretations, limitations, &recommendations
section  The research report should demonstrating that hypotheses were correct or in correct, hypotheses are supported or not when the result of statistical tests are reported and assess the impact of sampling deficiencies,
design problems, instrument weakness & to alert the reader to these difficulties
 The discussion section should include recommendation for investigations which would help to test these hypotheses as well as suggestions for other research to answer questions raised by findings of study
Types of Research This section describes the content, structure, features of three major kinds of research reports
Reports 1- Theses & dissertations
2- Journal articles
3- Papers for professional meetings
 Theses & dissertations: Theses typically document completely the steps performed in carrying out the research investigation
Preliminary pages: Main body Supplementary pages
 Title page  Chapter1: introduction Bibliography Appendix
 Acknowledgment  Chapter2:review of literature
page  Chapter3: methods
 Table of contents  Chapter4: results
 List of tables  Chapter5: discussion summary
 List of figures

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