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20 Photosynthesis
20.1 Roles of photosynthesis in ecosystems

1 Photosynthesis is the process by which organic food (carbohydrates) are made from simple
inorganic substances (carbon dioxide and water) using light energy. Oxygen is released as a
by-product.
2 The word equation for the overall process of photosynthesis:

3 Significance of photosynthesis:
- Provides the basic food source for most organisms.
- Maintains energy flow in ecosystems.
- Maintains the balance of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

20.2 Requirements for photosynthesis

1 To determine if a leaf has carried out photosynthesis, we can:

- detect the production of oxygen from the leaf using a glowing splint.
- detect the presence of starch in the leaf by iodine test.
2 If we plan to use the presence of starch in leaves as evidence that photosynthesis has occurred,
any starch that is present in the leaves before the investigation must be removed by
destarching (脫澱粉).
3 Destarching is the removal of starch from the leaves of a plant by putting it in the dark for at
least 24 hours. This is to make sure that the starch detected at the end of the investigation
was made during the investigation.
4 Light, carbon dioxide, chlorophyll and water are required for photosynthesis.

20.3 Site of photosynthesis

1 In plants, leaves are the main site of photosynthesis.

2 The morphology (形態) of the leaf, the structures of the leaf and the distribution of
chloroplasts in the cells are well adapted to maximize the absorption of light, facilitate gas
exchange, facilitate transport of materials or reduce water loss, such that photosynthesis
can occur at a higher rate.

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3 Adaptive features of a terrestrial dicotyledonous leaf for photosynthesis:

Feature of leaf Adaptation

Whole leaf - Leaf blade is broad and flat - Provides a large surface area for
absorbing sunlight

- Leaf is thin - Gases and light can reach the

photosynthetic cells easily

Internal Palisade mesophyll

structure - Consists of tightly packed cells that - Allows effective absorption of
of leaf contain many chloroplasts sunlight
- Located on the upper side of the leaf
(exposed directly to sunlight)

Spongy mesophyll
- Consists of loosely packed cells with - Allows gases to diffuse freely inside
many air spaces the leaf
- The cells contain chloroplasts - Allows absorption of sunlight
(fewer than palisade mesophyll)

Upper epidermis and lower epidermis

- Covered by a thin layer of waxy - Reduce water loss from the leaf,
cuticle so that water is kept inside for
photosynthesis and keeping the cells
turgid to support the leaf blade

Stoma (in epidermis)

- More on the lower epidermis - Opens when the conditions are
- Surrounded by a pair of guard cells favourable for photosynthesis;
(containing chloroplasts) closes when the conditions are less
favourable. This regulates the
passage of gases and water vapour
into and out of the leaf

Midrib and veins

- Contain vascular bundles which are - Allow efficient transport of materials
made up of xylem and phloem (e.g. water and food) into and away
from the leaf
- Support and spread the leaf blade
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4 Structure of a chloroplast:

outer membrane
thylakoid
(類囊體) inner membrane
stroma
(基質)
granum
(基粒)
chlorophyll molecules

thylakoid
membrane

5 Adaptive features of the chloroplast for photosynthesis:

Structure of
Description Adaptation
chloroplast

Stroma - Jelly-like fluid - Contains enzymes that catalyse

photosynthetic reactions
- Holds starch grains which are temporary
stores of photosynthetic products
- Holds other photosynthetic products
(e.g. lipid droplets)

Thylakoid - Membranous sacs - Provides a large surface area to pack

- Large in number more chlorophyll
- Arranged in stacks called grana

- Grana are interconnected - Allows efficient transport of

photosynthetic products within the
chloroplast

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20.4 Process of photosynthesis

1 Photosynthesis occurs in two main stages: photochemical reactions (光化學反應) and carbon
fixation (碳固定).
a Photochemical reactions (also called light reactions (光反應)):
- Occur in the thylakoids of chloroplasts
- Require light
- Involve three main processes:

1a Light absorption and electron emission

Chlorophyll molecules in the thylakoid membrane capture light energy. Some
electrons of the chlorophyll molecule are raised to a higher energy level and are
emitted from the chlorophyll molecule.
1b Electron transport
The excited electrons pass through an electron transport chain (電子傳遞鏈). Energy
is released in a stepwise manner.
2 Formation of ATP
The energy released in the electron transport chain is used for
photophosphorylation (光磷酸化) of ADP to form ATP.
3 Photolysis of water
The light energy captured by chlorophyll also drives the photolysis (光解) of
water, forming:
- hydrogen, which is accepted by NADP to form NADPH;
- oxygen gas, which is released into the atmosphere as a by-product.

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 b Carbon fixation (also called the Calvin cycle (卡爾文循環) or dark reactions (暗反應)):
- Occurs in the stroma of chloroplasts
- Does not require light
- Involves a cyclic series of reactions:

 Carbon dioxide fixation and formation of a 3-C compound

Under the action of enzymes, one molecule of carbon dioxide is accepted by one
molecule of a 5-C compound (carbon dioxide acceptor) to form two molecules of a
3-C compound.
 Reduction of 3-C compound and formation of glucose
Using energy from ATP and hydrogen from NADPH formed in photochemical
reactions, the 3-C compound is reduced to triose phosphate (丙糖磷酸). Two
molecules of triose phosphate then combine to form one molecule of glucose. The
ADP and NADP regenerated are reused in photochemical reactions.
 Regeneration of the carbon dioxide acceptor
Most triose phosphate molecules are used to regenerate the 5-C carbon dioxide
acceptor, using energy from ATP, so that the Calvin cycle can repeat itself.

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2 Photochemical reactions and the Calvin cycle are linked by ATP and NADPH.
3 The balanced equation for the overall process of photosynthesis:

4 Differences between the photochemical reactions and the Calvin cycle:

Photochemical reactions The Calvin cycle

(Light reactions) (Dark reactions)

Occur in daytime In daytime only In daytime and at night

or at night?

Place of occurrence Thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts Stroma of chloroplasts

Energy change Light energy is converted to chemical Chemical energy in ATP and NADPH
energy in ATP and NADPH is converted to chemical energy in
organic food

Input - Light energy - Carbon dioxide

- Water - 5-C compound
- ADP and NADP - ATP and NADPH
(from the Calvin cycle) (from photochemical reactions)

Output - ATP - Glucose

- NADPH - 5-C compound
- Oxygen (regenerated for the Calvin cycle)
- ADP and NADP
(for photochemical reactions)

20.5 Fate of photosynthetic products

1 Triose phosphate is the primary photosynthetic product. It can be synthesized into glucose or
fructose.
2 Some glucose is used as an energy source, combine with fructose to form sucrose for
transport, or is built into cellulose for making cell walls.
3 Excess glucose is built into starch for storage. During non-photosynthetic periods, starch
can be broken down to form glucose or converted to sucrose.
4 Intermediates of glucose breakdown can be used to form glycerol and fatty acids for
making lipids; they can also combine with inorganic ions to form amino acids for making
proteins.
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20.6 Factors affecting the rate of photosynthesis

1 Effect of light intensity on the rate of photosynthesis:

 At low to moderate light intensity, the rate of photosynthesis increases proportionately

with light intensity as more energy is supplied to the photochemical reactions. Light
intensity is the limiting factor in this period.
 The saturation point (maximum rate of photosynthesis) is reached when the rate just starts
to level off. The light intensity at this point is called optimum light intensity.
 When light intensity increases further, the rate levels off as it is limited by other factors.
 At very high light intensities, chlorophyll and other photosynthetic components may be
damaged and the rate drops.
2 Effect of carbon dioxide concentration on the rate of photosynthesis:

 At low light intensity, the rate of photosynthesis increases proportionately with carbon
dioxide concentration as more substrates are supplied to the Calvin cycle. Carbon
dioxide concentration is the limiting factor.
 As the carbon dioxide concentration increases beyond the optimum value, the rate levels
off as it is limited by other factors.
 At high light intensity (curve B), the rate of photosynthesis increases, showing that light
intensity is the limiting factor at this range of carbon dioxide concentrations in curve A.
 As the carbon dioxide concentration increases further, the rate levels off again as it is
limited by another factor.
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3 Growing crops in greenhouses (温室) allows farmers to regulate the rate of photosynthesis of
their crops by monitoring environmental factors such as temperature, light intensity and carbon
dioxide concentration.
4 Growing crops in greenhouses can:
- improve productivity (生產力).
- reduce damages by pests, pollution and bad weather to improve quality of the crops.
- produce crops all year round to improve the crop yield.

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