Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences

PHYSICS II
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

LECTURE NOTES
PROF. DR. FAHRETTİN GÖKTAŞ

GAUSS LAW

REFERENCE TEXT BOOKS

1. Physics for Scientists and Engineers with Modern Physics, Raymond A. Serway and John W.
Jewett, Cengage Learning, Inc, 2015
2. University Physics with Modern Physics, Hugh D. Young and Roger A. Freedman, Pearson, 2015
3. Principles of Physics, David Halliday, Robert Resnick, Jearl Walker, John Wiley & Sons, 2014
4. Physics: Principles with Applications, Douglas C. Giancoli, Prentice-Hall, 2016

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GAUSS LAW
In this section we will find an alternative method to calculate the electric field
of a solid object for which the integral method may not be used.

1. Electric Flux:

Let’s consider a non-uniform field. The

strength of the electric field at a point
is proportional with the number of
electric field lines passing to that
point. In this figure the number of
field lines penetrating to A are greater
than those of penetrating to B

EA > EB

Electric flux may be thought as a measure of the total number of electric field
lines passing through a given area.

If an area embedded perpendicularly in an

electric field, the electric flux FE passing

through A is equal to the product of E and

surface area A

FE = EA

However if the surface is not perpendicular to the electric field as shown below.

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In this case, the electric flux FE passing through A is equal to the product of E

and the component of A perpendicular to the field:

ΦE = EA cos θ

From this equation we see that

• The flux is a maximum when the • The flux is zero when the surface

surface is perpendicular to the is parallel to the field, q = 0

field (surface normal parallel to

field, q = 0).

• If the field vector enters in a surface the flux at this surface is

negative (if the field line flows into a surface the flux is negative)

• If the field vector exits from a surface the flux at this surface is

positive (if the field line flows out from a surface the flux is positive).

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We already know that the electric field is a vector. But the area is a scalar.

However, the surface may be described in terms of a vector. Let us define a

unit vector pointing out vertically from the surface.

The surface vector is defined as

𝐴⃗ = 𝐴𝐴$
𝐴$ is called surface normal unit vector and 𝐴⃗ is a vector

pointing out perpendicularly from surface (surface area

vector). If the electric field makes an angle with surface

(so as with surface vector) the flux is then

Φ! = 𝐸 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝐸,⃗ ∙ 𝐴⃗
If the surface of the object is not regular, the surface of the may be

considered as composed of many small surface elements (dA). Each of these

surface elements has a surface vector making different angles with electric

field lines.

The flux on the chosen surface element is given as

∆Φ! = 𝐸,⃗" ∙ ∆𝐴$"

Because the flux is a scalar quantity, the total flux

on the outer surface of the object is

Φ! = / 𝐸,⃗" ∙ ∆𝐴$"
"

The sum is over all surface elements. Therefore in general the integral is used

instead of the summation.

Φ! = lim / 𝐸,⃗" ∙ ∆𝐴$" = 3 𝐸,⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝐴⃗

∆$%!⟶#
" &'()*+,

The surface integral means the integral must be evaluated over the surface in
question. In general, the flux depends both on the field pattern and on the
surface
The units of electric flux will be N.m2/C2

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Let us consider a positive point charge in the center of a spherical surface as

shown and calculate the field on the outer surface of the sphere.

The flux on the surface of the sphere is

given as

Φ! = 3 𝐸,⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝐴⃗

The field vectors across the surface

perpendicularly at the every point.
Therefore, the surface element vector is
parallel to the field. Thus, we get

Φ! = 3 𝐸𝑑𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠0 = 3 𝐸𝑑𝐴

!
The electric field vector for a point charge is 𝐸 = 𝑘 , so that
"!
𝑞 1 𝑞 1 𝑞 𝑞
Φ! = 3 𝑘 -
𝑑𝐴 = -
3 𝑑𝐴 = -
4𝜋𝑟 - =
𝑟 4𝜋𝜀. 𝑟 4𝜋𝜀. 𝑟 𝜀.

Notice the radius of the sphere is constant. If there were two point charges in
the center of the spherical surface then the equations become

/ 3$ 43% / 3$ 43%
Φ! = ∫(𝐸/ + 𝐸- )𝑑𝐴 = (𝐸/ + 𝐸- ) ∫ 𝑑𝐴 = 012 A (%
B ∫ 𝑑𝐴 = 012 A (%
B 4𝜋𝑟 -
# #

𝑞/ + 𝑞-
Φ! = C 𝐸,⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝐴⃗ = D E
𝜀.

∑ 𝑞"5
Φ! = C 𝐸,⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝐴⃗ =
𝜀.

The total flux though any closed surface is equal to the total charge inside the
surface divided by 𝜀. . This is called Gauss Law. Gauss law is in general not only
used to calculate the flux, it is used to calculate the electric field.

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2- Applications of the Gauss Law:

In order to apply the Gauss law a Gauss surface (an artificial or pseudo surface)
has to be set up. The Gauss surface has to be suitable to cover the charged
object. The Gauss for some systems:

For a point charge: Enclosed Spherical surface

For a spherical charge: Enclosed Spherical surface
For a rod and a cylinder: Enclosed Cylinder.

Example: The electric field of a point charge.

Consider a positive point charge of q. Let’s calculate the field due to this charge
at distance r.

Then a Gauss surface has to be drawn such that it should have the same center
with charged object and its edge should be at the point where the field is
calculated.

The flux at outer surface of Gauss surface.

∑ 𝑞"5
C 𝐸,⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝐴⃗ =
𝜀.
𝑞
𝐸 3 𝑑𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠0 =
𝜀.
𝑞
𝐸 4𝜋𝑟 - =
𝜀.
1 𝑞 𝑞
𝐸= -=𝑘 -
4𝜋𝜀. 𝑟 𝑟

Example : Insulating Spherical solid Spehere

An insulating solid sphere of radius a has a uniform volume charge density ρ and
carries a total positive charge Q.

a) Calculate the magnitude of the electric field at a point outside the sphere
(r>a)
b) the magnitude of the electric field at a point outside the sphere (r<a)

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a) For r>a ∑ 𝑞"5 𝑄 𝑄

C 𝐸,⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝐴⃗ = ⇒ 𝐸 3 𝑑𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠0 = ⇒ 𝐸 4𝜋𝑟 - =
𝜀. 𝜀. 𝜀.

1 𝑄 𝑄 𝑄
𝐸= - = 𝑘 - ⇒ 𝐸6'7 = 𝑘 -
4𝜋𝜀. 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟

b) For r<a In this case we select a spherical gaussian surface

having radius r <a.

! !
The charge density ρ = =!
"
"
#$"

The charge inside the Gauss surface is

𝑄 4 𝑄𝑟 '
! 𝑞!" = 𝜌𝑉#$%&& = 𝜋𝑟 ' = '
4 ' 3 𝑎
3 𝜋𝑎
∑ )!" ∑ )!"
∮ 𝐸/⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝐴⃗ = *#
⇒ 𝐸 ∫ 𝑑𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠0 =
*#

∑ 𝑞!"
𝐸 4𝜋𝑟 + =
𝜀,
𝑄𝑟 '
1 ∑ 𝑞!" ' 𝑄𝑟 𝑄𝑟
𝐸= + = 𝑘 𝑎+ = 𝑘 ' ⇒ 𝐸!" = 𝑘 '
4𝜋𝜀, 𝑟 𝑟 𝑎 𝑎

The variation of the electric field

vector inside and outside of an

insulating solid sphere.

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INPORTANT HINT: Because the free charges (electrons) resides at

the surface of the conductors, the net charge inside the conductors
is zero. Therefore, the electric filed inside a conducting body is
always zero.
Example: Spherical shell

A thin spherical shell of radius a has a total charge Q distributed uniformly

over its surface (the inside of the sphere is empty). Find the electric field at
points of r>a and r<a.

∑ 𝑞#$
% 𝐸&⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝐴⃗ =
𝜀%
Because the charge inside the Gauss surface
is zero we get

𝐸 . 𝑑𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠0 = 0
Since surface area of the Gauss surface can
not be zero, then
Ein=0

∑ 𝑞#$
% 𝐸&⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝐴⃗ =
𝜀%
All of the charge is in the Gauss surface.

𝑄
𝐸 . 𝑑𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠0 =
𝜀%

𝑄 1 𝑞 𝑞
𝐸 4𝜋𝑟 & = ⇒𝐸= &=𝑘 &
𝜀% 4𝜋𝜀% 𝑟 𝑟

𝑄
𝐸'() = 𝑘
𝑟&

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Example: A uniformly charged rod of infinity length.

Calculate the electric field at a point at a distance r

from the rod with linear charge density of λ.

The best suited Gauss surface for the rod is a

cylinder.

The cylinder has three different surfaces (two flat surfaces and one curved
surface). Therefore the Gauss law for the enclosed system is

∑ 𝑞#$
% 𝐸&⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝐴⃗ =
𝜀%

∑ 𝑞#$
% 𝐸&⃗) ∙ 𝑑𝐴⃗) + % 𝐸&⃗* ∙ 𝑑𝐴⃗* + % 𝐸&⃗+ ∙ 𝑑𝐴⃗+ =
𝜀%

The electric flux on the flat surfaces of the cylinder is zero. Because the field
and surface area vector are vertical. Only the flux on the curved surface is not
zero. Therefore we get,

∑ 𝑞#$ 𝜆𝑙 𝜆𝑙
% 𝐸&⃗+ ∙ 𝑑𝐴⃗+ = ⇒ 𝐸 . 𝑑𝐴+ = ⇒ 𝐸 2𝜋𝑟𝑙 =
𝜀% 𝜀% 𝜀%

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1 𝜆 𝜆
𝐸= = 2𝑘
2𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 𝑟
Example : Infinity plane

Find the electric field due to an infinite plane of positive charge with uniform
surface charge density s.

A Gauss surface with cylindrical

shape may be used.

∑ 𝑞#$
% 𝐸&⃗) ∙ 𝑑𝐴⃗) + % 𝐸&⃗* ∙ 𝑑𝐴⃗* + % 𝐸&⃗+ ∙ 𝑑𝐴⃗+ =
𝜀%

The flux on the curved surface is zero. Thus we get

∑ 𝑞#$
% 𝐸&⃗) ∙ 𝑑𝐴⃗) + % 𝐸&⃗* ∙ 𝑑𝐴⃗* =
𝜀%

∑ 𝑞#$
𝐸 . 𝑑𝐴) + 𝐸 . 𝑑𝐴* =
𝜀%

𝜎𝐴 𝜎
𝐸𝐴 + 𝐸𝐴 = ⇒𝐸=
𝜀% 2𝜀%

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Example: A Sphere inside a Spherical Shell

A solid conducting sphere of radius a carries a

net positive charge 2Q. A conducting spherical

shell of inner radius b and outer radius c is

concentric with the solid sphere and carries a

net charge -Q. Using Gauss’s law, find the

electric field in the regions labeled 1,2,3 and 4.

Draw the electric field versus r.

In this case we select a spherical Gaussian

1- Region 1: r<a
surface having radius r <a.
! !
The charge density ρ = =!
" #$"
"

The charge inside the Gauss surface is

4 ' 𝑄𝑟 '
𝑄
! 𝑞!" = 𝜌𝑉#$%&& = 𝜋𝑟 = '
4 ' 3 𝑎
3 𝜋𝑎
𝑄𝑟 '
1 ∑ 𝑞!" ' 𝑄𝑟 𝑄𝑟
𝐸= = 𝑘 𝑎+ = 𝑘 ' ⇒ 𝐸!" = 𝑘 '
4𝜋𝜀, 𝑟 + 𝑟 𝑎 𝑎

∑) ∑) ∑)
∮ 𝐸/⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝐴⃗ = * !" ⇒ 𝐸 ∫ 𝑑𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠0 = * !" ⇒ 𝐸 4𝜋𝑟 + = * !"
# # #

2- Region 2: a<r<b ∑ 𝑞"5 𝑄 𝑄

C 𝐸,⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝐴⃗ = ⇒ 𝐸 3 𝑑𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠0 = ⇒ 𝐸 4𝜋𝑟 - =
𝜀. 𝜀. 𝜀.

1 𝑄 𝑄 𝑄
𝐸= -=𝑘 -⇒𝐸=𝑘 -
4𝜋𝜀. 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟

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3- Region 3: b<r<c ∑ 𝑞"5 𝑄

C 𝐸,⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝐴⃗ = ⇒ 𝐸 3 𝑑𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠0 =
𝜀. 𝜀.

2𝑄 − 𝑞′
𝐸 4𝜋𝑟 - =
𝜀.

8
𝑄 4 9 9)
𝑄(𝑟 9 − 𝑏 9 )
𝑞 = 𝜋(𝑟 − 𝑏 =
4 (𝑐 9 − 𝑏 9 )
𝜋(𝑐 9 − 𝑏 9 ) 3
3

𝑄 (𝑟 9 − 𝑏 9 )
1 𝑄 − (𝑐 9 − 𝑏 9 )
𝐸=
4𝜋𝜀. 𝑟-

4- Region 4: r>b

∑ 𝑞"5 𝑄
C 𝐸,⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝐴⃗ = ⇒ 𝐸 3 𝑑𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠0 =
𝜀. 𝜀.

2𝑄 − 𝑄
𝐸 4𝜋𝑟 - =
𝜀.

1 𝑄 𝑄 𝑄
𝐸= -=𝑘 -⇒𝐸=𝑘 -
4𝜋𝜀. 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟

The variation of
field with respect
to r.

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