IT2203

Network Reference Models

Network Topologies (Huawei, 2022)
It is a schematic description of a network arrangement, connecting various nodes (sender and receiver) through lines of
connection.
• Star Topology – in this type of topology, the computers are connected to a
single hub through a cable. This hub is the central node while all other nodes
are connected to it.
o Advantages: New nodes can be easily added to the network.
Communication data must be forwarded by the central node, which
facilitates network monitoring.
o Disadvantages: Faults on the central node affect the entire network's
communication.
• Bus Topology – a network type in which every computer and network device is
connected to a single cable. When it has exactly two (2) endpoints, then it is
called Linear Bus Topology. All nodes are connected through a bus (ex. coaxial
cable).
o Advantages: The installation is simple and cable resources are saved.
Generally, the failure of a node does not affect the communication of
the entire network.
o Disadvantages: A bus fault affects the communication of the entire
network. The information sent by a node can be received by all other
nodes, resulting in low security.
• Ring Topology – forms a ring as each computer is connected to another
computer, with the last one (1) connected to the first—exactly two (2)
neighbors for each device.
o Advantages: Cables resources are saved.
o Disadvantages: It is difficult to add new nodes. The original ring must
be interrupted before new nodes are inserted to form a new ring.
• Tree Topology – has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it
forming a hierarchy. It is also called hierarchical topology. It should at least
have three (3) levels to the hierarchy.
o Advantages: Multiple star networks can be quickly combined,
facilitating network expansion.
o Disadvantages: A fault on a node at a higher layer is more severe.
• Mesh Topology – a point-to-point connection to other nodes or devices. All the
network nodes are connected.
o Partial Mesh Topology – in this topology, some systems are connected in
the same fashion as mesh topology, but some devices are only connected
to two (2) or three (3) devices.
▪ Advantages: The cost of a partial-mesh network is lower than that of a
full-mesh network. PARTIAL
▪ Disadvantages: The reliability of a partial-mesh network is lower than
that of a full-mesh network.
o Full Mesh Topology – each node or device is connected.
▪ Advantages: It has high reliability and high communication efficiency.
▪ Disadvantages: Each node requires a large number of physical ports and
interconnection cables. As a result, the cost is high, and it is difficult to
expand.
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• Hybrid Topology – it consists of a mix of two (2) different types of topologies

merging as one network.
o In actual networking, multiple types of topologies may be combined
based on the cost, communication efficiency, and reliability
requirements.

Common Network Devices (Huawei, 2022)

Terminal device
It is the end-device of the data communication system. It provides the
necessary functions required by the user access protocol operations.
• This includes data terminal equipment (DTE) such as a PC,
phone, handsets, printers, and servers.
• A network interface card (NIC) is a key component that
connects directly to a device that allows access to a network
such as an internet or a local network.
Switch
It is the device closest to end-users, used to access the network and
switch data frames.
• Switches belonging at the access layer are usually Layer 2
switches, also known as Ethernet switches.
• A broadcast domain is a set of nodes that can receive broadcast
packets from a node.
• The Ethernet switch can implement the following functions:
o Data frame switching
o Access to end-user devices
o Basic access security functions
o Layer 2 link redundancy.
Router
It is a network-layer device that forwards data packets on the Internet.
• A modem is a device that connects a network to the Internet. It
takes signals from your Internet service provider (ISP) and
translates them into signals connected to the local devices.
• Gateway is a term for a router that provides functions such as
protocol conversion, route selection, and data exchange when
networks using different architectures or protocols
communicate with each other.
Firewall
It is a network security device used to ensure secure communication
between two networks.
o It monitors, restricts, and modifies data flows passing through it to
shield information, structure, and running status of internal networks
from the public network
o It is located between two (2) networks with different trust levels (for
example, between an intranet and the Internet).
o It controls the communication between the two networks and
forcibly implements unified security policies to prevent unauthorized
access to important information resources.

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Wireless Devices
It is a network that uses radio waves, laser, and infrared signals to replace
some or all transmission media in a wired LAN.
• Common Wi-Fi is a WLAN technology based on the IEEE 802.11
family of standards.
o Fat Access Point (Fat AP) applies to homes. It works
independently and needs to be configured separately. It has
simple functions and low costs.
o Fit Access Point (Fat AP) applies to medium- and large-sized
enterprises. It needs to work with the AC and is managed and
configured by the AC.
o Access Controller (AC) is generally deployed at the
aggregation layer of the entire network. The AC provides
wireless data control services featuring large capacity, high
performance, high reliability, easy installation, and easy
maintenance.

Networking based on Geographical Coverage

• Local Area Network (LAN)
o A LAN generally covers an area of a few square kilometers.
o The main function is to connect several terminals that are close to each other (within a family, within
one or more buildings, within a campus, for example). Technologies used: Ethernet and Wi-Fi.
• Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
o A MAN is a large-sized LAN, requiring high costs but can provide a higher transmission rate. It
improves the transmission media in LANs and expands the access scope of LANs (able to cover a
university campus or city).
o The main function is to connect hosts, databases, and LANs at different locations in the same city.
o Technologies used: Ethernet (10 Gbit/s or 100 Gbit/s) and WiMAX.
• Wide Area Network (WAN)
o A WAN generally covers an area of several kilometers or larger (thousands of kilometers for example).
o It is mainly used to connect several LANs or MANs that are far from each other (for example, across
cities or countries). Telecom operators' communication lines use HDLC and PPP.

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OSI Reference Model (Huawei, 2020)

The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is a descriptive network scheme. The OSI model describes how
information or data makes its way from application programs through a network medium to another application
program located on another network.

• LAYER 7: APPLICATION LAYER is the OSI layer that is closest to the user. It provides network services to the
user’s applications such as spreadsheet programs, word processing programs, and bank terminal programs.
o The application layer establishes the availability of intended communication partners, synchronizes,
and establishes agreement on procedures for error recovery and control of data integrity.
• LAYER 6: PRESENTATION LAYER ensures that the information that the application layer of one (1) system sends
out is readable by the application layer of another system.
o If necessary, the presentation layer translates between multiple data formats by using a common
format. Provides encryption and compression of data. Examples: JPEG, MPEG, ASCII, HTML.
• LAYER 5: SESSION LAYER defines how to start, control and end conversations (called sessions) between
applications. It also synchronizes dialogue between two (2) hosts’ presentation layers and manages their data
exchange.
• LAYER 4: TRANSPORT LAYER regulates information flow to ensure end-to-end connectivity between host
applications reliably and accurately. This layer segments data from the sending host’s system and reassembles
the data into a data stream on the receiving host’s system.
• LAYER 3: NETWORK LAYER defines end-to-end delivery of packets. It defines how routing works (identifying
endpoints) and how routes are learned so that the packets can be delivered.
o The network layer defines how to fragment a packet into smaller packets to accommodate different
media. Examples: Routers operate at Layer 3 - IP, IPX, AppleTalk.
• LAYER 2: DATA LINK LAYER provides access to the networking media and physical transmission across the
media and this enables the data to locate its intended destination on a network.
o The data link layer provides reliable transit of data across a physical link by using the Media Access
Control (MAC) addresses.
o This layer is concerned with network topology, network access, error notification, ordered delivery of
frames, and flow control. Examples: Ethernet, Frame Relay, FDDI.
• LAYER 1: PHYSICAL LAYER deals with the physical characteristics of the transmission medium. It defines the
electrical, mechanical, procedural, and functional specifications for achieving, maintaining, and deactivating
the physical link between end systems.
o Such characteristics as voltage levels, the timing of voltage changes, physical data rates, maximum
transmission distances, physical connectors, and other similar attributes are defined by physical layer
specifications. Examples: EIR/TIA-232, RJ45, NRZ.

TCP/IP Model
It is a networking model with a set of communication protocols for the Internet and similar networks. It is commonly
known as TCP/IP because its Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol (IP) were the first networking protocols
defined in this model. Internet Protocol (IP) provides basic communication. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) provides
key functions that applications need.
• APPLICATION LAYER represents an interface through a variety of protocols that enable services to be applied to
end-user application processes. These services include handling high-level protocols, issuing of representation,
encoding, and dialog control.
• TRANSPORT LAYER is responsible for reliable end-to-end data delivery from the source host to the destination
host.
• INTERNET LAYER (Network) is responsible for the delivery of service requests that respond from the transport
layer and have them arrive at their destination through the “virtual network” image of the Internet.
• NETWORK ACCESS LAYER is also called the host-to-network layer, which is concerned with all of the issues that
an IP packet requires to make a physical link to the network media. The network interface layer functions include
mapping the IP addresses to physical hardware addresses and encapsulation of IP packets.

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Comparison of OSI Reference Model to TCP/IP Model (Williams, 2021)

• The OSI Model is a logical and conceptual model
that defines network communication used by
systems open to interconnection and
communication with other systems. On the
other hand, TCP/IP helps you determine how a
specific computer should be connected to the
Internet and how you can be transmitted
between them.
• OSI follows a vertical approach, whereas TCP/IP
follows a horizontal approach.
• The OSI model’s, transport layer is only
connection-oriented, whereas the TCP/IP model
is both connection-oriented and connectionless.
• OSI model is developed by ISO (International
Standard Organization), whereas TCP Model is
developed by ARPANET (Advanced Research
Project Agency Network).
• OSI model helps you standardize router, switch,
motherboard, and other hardware whereas
TCP/IP helps you establish a connection
between different types of computers.

References:
Comer, D. (2019). The internet book: Everything you need to know about computer networking and how the Internet
works. CRC Press.
Huawei. (2020). HCIA-Datacom V1.0 Training Material.
Karumanchi, N., Damodaram, A., & Rao, S. (2020). Elements of computer networking: An integrated approach. Career
Monk.
Kurose, T & Ross, K. (2021). Computer networking: A top-down approach. Pearson.
Robertazzi, T. (2017). Introduction to computer networking. Springer International.
Williams, L. (2021). TCP/IP vs OSI model: What’s the difference? [Web Article]. Retrieved on January 21, 2020, from
https://www.guru99.com/difference-tcp-ip-vs-osi-model.html

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