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INTRODUCTION TO FORESTRY AND

NATURAL RESOURCES

INTRODUCTION TO Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier

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NATURAL RESOURCES
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Josef Grabner, who inspired my dreams, love of travel, Chappell, and other field foresters we have known, for
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Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding,
DONALD L. GREBNER, PHD changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.
Professor
Department of Forestry Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information,
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viii Contents

Contents
This page intentionally left blank 9.4 Tree respiration 239 12.6 Safety 308
9.5 Tree growth 240 12.7 Harvesting other products 308
9.6 Tree roots 240 Summary 309
9.7 Tree regeneration 242 References 310
9.8 Tree tolerance to shade 246
9.9 Tree nutrition 248 13. Forest and natural resource economics
9.10 Tree responses to signals 249
Summary 250 13.1 Introduction 314
References 251 13.2 Why forest and natural resource economics? 315
Preface xi 5.4 Succession and stand conditions 141
5.5 Edge versus interior habitats 142 13.3 Markets, efficiency, and government 317
5.6 Riparian zones and wildlife corridors 143 10. Forest dynamics 13.4 The time value of money 319
1. A brief history of forestry and natural resource 5.7 Direct and indirect management of habitat 144 13.5 Forest and natural resource investment
5.8 Habitat models 146 10.1 Forest communities 253 evaluation criteria 322
management 10.2 Interaction, competition, and strategy among tree 13.6 Economics of a forest rotation 323
5.9 Threats to wildlife habitat 147
1.1 What is forestry and natural resource management? 2 Summary 149 species 254 13.7 Nonmarket forest products 328
1.2 What are forests? 3 References 150 10.3 Gradients and niches 255 Summary 332
1.3 Why are forests important to humans? 7 10.4 Forest succession 256 References 333
10.5 Stand dynamics following major disturbance 259
1.4 A brief history of human interaction with forests 8 6. Ecosystem services
1.5 Forests in the current world political and 10.6 Gap dynamics 260 14. Forest disturbances and health
environmental context 13 6.1 What is an ecosystem? 153 Summary 261
6.2 What are ecosystem services? 157 References 262 14.1 What are forest disturbances? 335
1.6 Human developmental pressures on forests 15
6.3 Types of ecosystem services 158 14.2 Disturbances created by wind 336
1.7 What are the major challenges to forests in the future? 16
6.4 Trade-offs when managing for different forest 11. Common forestry practices 14.3 Disturbances created by fire 340
Summary 17
ecosystem services 168 14.4 Disturbances created by volcanic eruptions 345
References 18
Summary 169 11.1 Site preparation 266 14.5 Disturbances created by ice and snow 348
References 170 11.2 Forest regeneration 268 14.6 Disturbances created by floods 349
2. Forest regions of the world 11.3 Early tending 273 14.7 Disturbances created by diseases 350
11.4 Precommercial thinning 274 14.8 Disturbances created by insects 356
2.1 North America 24 7. Forest recreation
2.2 Central America 34 11.5 Pruning 275 14.9 Disturbances created by humans 359
2.3 South America 40 7.1 What is recreation? 174 11.6 Commercial thinning 276 Summary 360
2.4 Europe 48 7.2 What is forest recreation? 175 11.7 Fertilization 277 References 361
2.5 Asia 56 7.3 A brief history of forest recreation in the United States 178 11.8 Final harvest 278
2.6 Africa 63 7.4 Where are the forest recreational opportunities? 181 11.9 Group selection harvests 279 15. Forest policies and external pressures
2.7 Oceania 70 7.5 Recreation opportunity spectrum 187 11.10 Seed tree harvests 280
7.6 Factors that affect participation in forest recreation 188 11.11 Shelterwood harvests 281 15.1 What is a forest policy? 365
Summary 74
7.7 Recreational planning and development 191 11.12 Uneven-aged partial selection harvests 282 15.2 International forest policies 366
References 76
Summary 193 11.13 Partial selective harvests 283 15.3 National, state, and provincial policies 369
References 194 11.14 Salvage or sanitation harvests 283 15.4 Organizational and individual policies 371
3. Forest landowner goals, objectives, and 15.5 Forest certification programs 372
11.15 Prescribed burning 283
constraints 11.16 Forest fuel reduction treatments 284 15.6 Trade issues 376
8. Forest measurements and forestry related data
11.17 Understory cleaning 286 15.7 Forest carbon sequestration and markets 379
3.1 Introduction 82
8.1 Measuring trees and the forest 200 11.18 Biomass harvesting 286 15.8 Renewable energy and forest resources 383
3.2 Objectives of forest landowners 83
8.2 Measuring other resources 208 11.19 Agroforestry 287 Summary 384
3.3 Constraints of forest landowners 95
8.3 Geographic information systems 216 11.20 Clonal forestry 289 References 385
Summary 97
8.4 Global satelliteebased positioning and navigation 11.21 Forest protection 289
References 98
systems 218 Summary 290 16. Urban forestry
8.5 Aerial photographs and digital orthophotographs 219 References 291
4. Forest products 16.1 What is urban forestry? 388
8.6 Other remotely sensed imagery 221
8.7 Laser and LiDAR technology 225 12. Forest harvesting systems 16.2 A brief history of urban forestry 389
4.1 Commodities 102
8.8 Unmanned aerial vehicles: drones 225 16.3 The benefits of urban forestry 392
4.2 Nontimber forest products 119
Summary 226 12.1 Tree felling and processing in the woods 296 16.4 The environment of urban forestry 398
Summary 126
References 227 12.2 Primary transportation 299 16.5 The management of urban forests 399
References 127
12.3 Tree processing at a landing 304 Summary 404
12.4 Secondary transportation 306 References 405
5. Wildlife habitat relationships 9. Tree anatomy and physiology
12.5 Forest roads 307
5.1 What is wildlife? 131 9.1 Tree anatomy 231
5.2 What is wildlife habitat? 135 9.2 Transpiration and sap flow in a tree 236
5.3 Characterization of habitat types 141 9.3 Photosynthesis 237

vii
 Contents ix

Preface
17. Ethics 18. Forestry and natural resource management This page intentionally left blank
careers
17.1 Introduction 409
17.2 Philosophical approaches to land or 18.1 Forestry and natural resource management careers 430
conservation ethics 410 Summary 444
17.3 Ethical conduct from a business perspective 416 References 444
17.4 Example codes of ethics in natural resource
management 419 Appendix A 445
Summary 426
References 426
Appendix B 455
Glossary 461 Introduction to Forestry and Natural Resources arose activities. In Chapter 4, we describe the wide variety of
Index 477 through a desire to produce an introductory text on timber- and nontimber-based products that can be
forestry and natural resource management for first-year derived from forests. In Chapter 5, we highlight
college students. However, anyone with an interest in wildlifeehabitat relationships and discuss important is-
learning about these wide-ranging professions for the sues such as edge effects and habitat management stra-
first time may find this book enjoyable. Our professional tegies. In Chapter 6, we introduce the concept of
experiences in North America, South America, Europe, ecosystem services and provide a context for further
Asia, and Oceania provide us with regional, national, discussion regarding ecological concerns. In Chapter 7,
and global perspectives on forestry and natural resource we focus first on the evolution of forest recreation and
management, and these experiences have guided us in then describe the importance of recreational interests as a
the writing of this book. Throughout the book we have nontimber natural resource on the landscape. In Chapter
included numerous practical examples to help reinforce 8, we provide a summary of the basic forest measure-
key concepts of the application of forestry and natural ment techniques and the technology commonly
resource management in various locations around the employed in collecting information that will eventually
world. One challenge encountered in writing a book of help guide management decisions in forested land-
this scope is to adequately cover the vast array of bio- scapes. This discussion includes topics ranging from the
logical, social, and economic factors affecting forests and measurement of tree crown sizes and tree ages to the use
their natural resources while creating it to be accessible of global positioning systems and satellite imagery. In
for newly initiated and beginning practitioners. Along Chapter 9, we provide a synopsis of tree anatomy and
these lines, we made a concerted effort to balance the physiology, covering topics such as tree cell composition,
depth and scope of topics presented. We hope readers of sap flow, and photosynthesis. In Chapter 10, we describe
this text will be inspired to delve more deeply into topics forest dynamics, which includes treatments of forest
that interest or concern them, or into issues that they face communities, succession, disturbances, gradients, and
in their daily lives. We apologize in advance for any niches. In Chapter 11, we provide an outline of common
omissions or errors found within the text. They are solely forestry and natural resource practices for managing
our own. forested landscapes and provide a discussion of the di-
Introduction to Forestry and Natural Resources, Second versity of practices employed in meeting forest objectives
Edition, is divided into 18 chapters, two appendices, and around the world. In Chapter 12, we introduce basic
a glossary. In Chapter 1, we provide an introduction to harvesting systems for forested landscapes and describe
humankind’s interaction with forests and the natural the various systems in brief so that resource managers
resources commonly associated with forested areas. In will gain an understanding of the methods used to
Chapter 2, we provide a description of the varied forest extract commodities from forested areas. In Chapter 13,
regions around the world and then concentrate on the we introduce the application of economic theory in
socioeconomic and political issues that have influenced forestry and natural resource management decision-
forest development in selected countries. This discussion making, since key components of many public and pri-
is segmented by continent, although, given the potential vate decisions involve costs, revenues, and returns on
scope of this chapter, we could not provide a summary of investment. In Chapter 14, we discuss various types of
every country. Our intent is not to downplay the forest disturbances, ranging from wind and volcanic
importance of those countries not mentioned, as many of activities to insects and diseases. In Chapter 15, we
them play important roles in the development and use of summarize the types of forest policies and external
forests and natural resources. In Chapter 3, we outline pressures that can influence the management of forested
common objectives of forest landowners and the typical landscapes. Although each country will have a set of
constraints that they face. The differences in manage- pertinent policies that guide forest management, to
ment challenges by ownership type should be carefully illustrate the complexity and scope of these, we provide
considered, as these set the tone for forest management only a few North American examples. In Chapter 16, we

xi

xii Preface 2 1. A brief history of forestry and natural resource management

introduce the concept of urban forestry and the role it can Department of Interior, USDA Forest Service, US 1.1 What is forestry and natural resource objectives can involve providing wood products, pro-
play in the health and welfare of forests within towns, Geological Survey, US National Oceanic and Atmo- C H A P T E R management? moting the development of wildlife habitat, maintaining
cities, and metropolitan areas. In Chapter 17, we describe spheric Administration, USDA Natural Resources Con- or improving water quality, sequestering carbon dioxide

1
a portion of the vast realm of conservation and profes- servation Service, USDA Technology Development Throughout history, forests have been revered and (CO2) from the atmosphere, promoting the production
sional ethics, emphasizing the importance of these to Program, Wikimedia Commons, and Wikipedia. The championed through poems, proverbs, stories, and fairy of meat through grazing, creating recreational opportu-
our profession. Finally, in Chapter 18, we highlight photo credits for these images can be found in the figure tales. Some societies once believed, and some may still, nities, and facilitating spiritual experiences. In other
numerous potential career paths for forestry and natural captions throughout the text. that forests are a gift from a higher power (Zyryanova words, the field of forestry can involve the management
resource graduates. Of course, the list we provide of ca- We would like to take a moment to acknowledge and et al., 2010). Many people will agree that the role of of natural resources other than trees. Both fields, if one

A brief history of forestry and natural resource

reers mentioned is not exhaustive, yet it should provide thank a large group of people who made this effort suc- humans within the natural environment has changed concludes that they are different, still share a number
readers with an indication of the type of responsibilities cessful throughout both editions of our book. First, we over the last 50e100 years, and therefore an understand- of common characteristics. For example, each involves
each professional group accepts. would like to thank Brenda F. Grebner for her tireless ef- ing of the history of forestry and natural resource broad management principles that rely on economics
Two appendices are included with this book. In
Appendix A, we list the Latin and common names for
forts in critically reviewing the text of the first edition.
Second, we would like to thank A. Taylor Hall for his ef- management management helps develop a context for deeper investi-
gations into the associated environmental, social, and
and ecology, and each involves actions that can be
applied at various spatial and temporal scales. Each field
the various flora and fauna mentioned in the book, forts in the first edition in proofreading, converting mea- managerial issues. In addition, past experiences can also involves the examination of trade-offs among man-
organized by the typical regions of the world in which surement units, developing appendices, and assisting help foresters and natural resource managers develop agement alternatives, which are inherent in planning,
they are found. In Appendix B, we provide a list of with the development of the instructor’s manual. Third, methods for addressing complex forest and natural organization, policy development, and public relations
important forestry and natural resource organizations we would like to thank Krista Merry for developing O U T L I N E resource problems. The problem posed in this section activities.
around the world. These organizations are organized by several of our figures. We would also like to thank several of the book is very basic and is perhaps the motivation In a broad sense, forestry and natural resource man-
continent. Finally, we provide a glossary of many of the individuals who provided important information for 1.1 What is forestry and natural resource 1.5 Forests in the current world political and for individuals to read a book such as this one. The field agement can each be used to manage land to meet the
technical terms mentioned throughout the book and, as developing the manuscript and figures. These individuals management? 2 environmental context 13 of forestry may appear to some to involve only the trees various needs of humans and other species, and each
with Appendix B, this list is not intended to be include Armin Offer, David L. Evans, Jarrod H. Fogarty, growing on an area of land, while the field of natural can be viewed as fields of expertise in which profes-
1.2 What are forests? 3 1.6 Human developmental pressures on forests 15
exhaustive. Omkar Joshi, Andrew W. Ezell, Andrew J. Londo, Stephen resource management may appear to involve everything sionals must implement the actions necessary to main-
Many of the figures provided in this book are from our C. Grado, Zhaofei Fan, Isabelle Fahimi, Jeff Hatten, Dave 1.3 Why are forests important to humans? 7 1.7 What are the major challenges to forests in the else that is found in that area. In reality, the fields of tain or enhance biodiversity and ecosystem processes.
personal digital libraries or from those of friends and Godwin, Francesco Carbone, Federica Alisciani, Olga future? 16 forestry and natural resource management are inter- While this seems all-encompassing, it is not necessarily
1.4 A brief history of human interaction with forests 8
colleagues. We would like to acknowledge and thank Pechan, Richard Campbell, Duffy Neubauer, Matt Elliott, twined, often involving multiple types of resources so, since management practices vary from region to re-
1.4.1 The forest extraction perspective 9 Summary 17
several individuals for providing us with photographs Ikuko Fujisaki, Gabi Geyer, Scott Roberts, Robert K. Grala, and a diverse suite of expected outcomes. The terms gion based on differing social and economic conditions
1.4.2 The forest renewability and management
used in the second edition of our book. These generous Karen Brasher, Laurie Grace, Nancy Thomas, Susan forestry and natural resource management have existed and on differing policies. Further, the objectives and con-
perspective 12 References 18
individuals include Stephen C. Grado, Andrew J. Sán- Blanton, Hunter Miles, Sara Baldwin, and Matt Gaw. We for a very long time; however, their definitions have straints of managing forests and natural resources may
chez Meador, Kathy Freeman, A. Taylor Hall, Thomas would also like to apologize to anyone whom we may evolved owing to shifts in human perspectives toward change from one landowner (or land management orga-
O’Shea, Starling Childs, Samantha Langley, Florian have inadvertently forgotten to mention. natural resources. Chiras et al. (2002) defined a natural nization or government) to the next. As a result, we are
Geyer, Robert Crook, David W. Wilkinson, Joshua P. The goal of this work was to provide readers with a resource as “any component of natural environment, likely to find that certain resources are managed for a
With the human population exceeding 7.7 billion in- of forest uses and values later in the book. At the
Adams, Dawn M. Grebner, Kelly A. Bettinger, Francisco global and comprehensive overview of the exciting fields such as soil, water, rangeland, forest, wildlife, and min- single purpose (e.g., to produce timber, to maintain
dividuals in 2019, there is an increasing concern for completion of this chapter, readers should understand:
Vilella, Gustavo Peréz-Verdı́n, Zachary A. Parisa, Walter of study that center on forests. Although the develop- erals that species depend on for their welfare.” With the wildlife habitat, or to provide recreational experiences),
the world’s forests and natural resources due to stresses
Sekot, Enoki Yoshio, Jodi Roberts, Jessica Taylor, Lynn ment process was difficult at times, we were and • what forests are and why they are important to exception of minerals and petroleum resources, we while other resources are managed for multiple pur-
placed upon them. Forest ecosystems are often at the
Sheldon, J. Taylor Thomas, David Hobson, Hugh Bigsby, continue to be excited to have this opportunity to portray humans; address many of these components in this book. Natural poses (e.g., to produce some level of income while also
center of contentious and global debates concerning car-
David Jones, Dirk Stevenson, Amy Castle Blaylock, Jon the challenging image of evolving forested landscapes to • how human use of forests has progressed from resource management is thus the management of these re- improving wildlife habitat quality and providing recre-
bon sequestration, climate change, and biodiversity
D. Prevost, Stacey Herrin, Tibor Pechan, Alexis Londo, those interested in forestry and natural resource man- ancient to modern times; sources for consumption, conservation, and preservation ational opportunities; Anderson and Smith, 1976). While
(Gallardo et al., 2003). With a growing awareness of
Tor Schultz, Jack Chappell, Rich Reuse, Jean-Luc Peyron, agement. Environmental, social, and economic structures • what differences might exist between the extractive purposes. Management inherently involves forming deci- some may find the idea controversial, practical forestry
the role forests play in the global carbon cycle, including
Matt Elliott, Brenda F. Grebner, Erika Mavity, Catherine constantly change and continuously present us with a perspective of forest resources and the renewal and sions regarding the use of resources, including forming involves both the use and the preservation of forests,
the possibility of reducing carbon emissions and
Kirk, Mike Strange, Rachel Reyna, Brian Reed, Joe Bur- complex set of forest and natural resource problems. managed perspective; decisions to do nothing at all. According to the Society of as was noted by Pinchot (1905) over 100 years ago.
increasing carbon sequestration through forest growth
nam, Jason Hall, Wes Sprinkle, Andrew McCarley, Fortunately, numerous approaches have been successful • how the practice of forestry and natural resource American Foresters, forestry is defined as “the profession Forestry is also usually considered different from arbor-
processes, a broad segment of human society has devel-
Michael Brown, Rachel Martin, Kimpton Cooper, Colleen in addressing many of these issues, whether they are management is viewed in the current political and embracing the science, art, and practice of creating, man- iculture, as the former deals with collections of trees
oped an interest in forest and natural resource manage-
Sloan, Todd Tietjen, Mark Ducey, Paul Doruska, Michael silvicultural, mathematical, or social in nature. We hope environmental context; and aging, using, and conserving forests and associated re- while the latter deals with individual trees (Pinchot,
ment. Forests not only represent many of the most
Torbett, Steve Hunt, Kathleen Knight, Travis Howard, that our brief introduction to forestry and natural • what issues affect forestry and natural resource sources for human benefit and in a sustainable manner 1900). However, urban forestry concepts seem now to
diverse ecosystems on Earth, they also serve as refuges
Maralyn Renner, Pete Fulé, Evelyn Martin, Michael resource management will enhance your enthusiasm to management as they relate to human developmental to meet desired goals, needs, and values” (Helms, bridge the gap between the management of large collec-
for many species and provide sustenance and employ-
Starbuck, Zennure Ucar, and Travis McDonald. We delve more deeply into these fascinating fields. pressures and the juxtaposition of wildlands and 1998). Forestry is, therefore, the art, science, and busi- tions of trees and individual trees.
ment for a large portion of the human population
would also like to acknowledge that additional digital developed areas. ness of managing forests to achieve a diverse set of goals The role and importance of forests to human society
(Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
imagery was used from sources such as Bugwood.org, D.L.G. that range from timber production to ecosystem ser- continue to evolve. At one point in recent human history,
Nations, 2016). Forests also provide a number of As we noted, this chapter sets the stage for more
Goodfreephotos.com, Mississippi State University, Na- P.B. vices. From these definitions, it seems that natural forestry in Europe was associated with the protection of
inherent values (i.e., aesthetic, religious, and simply by comprehensive examinations of many of the issues asso-
tional Aeronautics and Space Administration, Pikrepo. J.P.S. resource management is broader in scope than forest Royal herds of deer. At other points in recent human his-
their existence) that are important to a wide range of so- ciated with the practice of forestry and natural resource
com, PresentationMaps, University of Georgia, US K.B. management (perhaps a valid conclusion), yet forests tory, forestry concentrated on the extraction of wood
cieties around the world. This introductory chapter was management. The development of a broad understand-
are natural resources, and forestry emphasizes the man- chiefly for the development of housing material and mil-
designed to provide an overview of some of the very ing of these issues will be of great benefit to new and
agement of these to address conservation, preservation, itary equipment, such as ships. The use of forestry prac-
broad themes in forestry and natural resource manage- experienced professionals as they encounter and address
and consumptive objectives defined by humans. These tices should not imply that forests will disappear; in fact,
ment in order to set the stage for more in-depth analyses complex management problems during their careers.

Introduction to Forestry and Natural Resources, Second Edition

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1.2 What are forests? 3 4 1. A brief history of forestry and natural resource management 1.2 What are forests? 5
the Sihlwald Forest in Switzerland was managed for plantations (e.g., rubberwood [Hevea brasiliensis] or
timber production for nearly 1000 years (Roth, 1902), cork oak [Quercus suber]) used primarily for fiber pro-
yet within the last 25 it has become a forested, recrea- duction or protection purposes are also included in
tional park. It is clear that there are differences in this definition of forests, as long as the criteria (land
opinion regarding how forests and natural resources area, tree heights, and canopy cover) are met. The
should be used. At times, these opinions can be traced same definition applies to windbreaks, shelterbelts,
to differences in human political or socioeconomic con- and corridors of trees, provided these are at least 20 m
ditions and, at other times, these opinions can be based (66 ft) wide. For better or for worse, this definition ex-
on differences in educational backgrounds. For example, cludes land uses that are designed predominantly for
German forestry professionals perceive changes in na- agricultural or urban purposes, such as fruit tree planta-
ture as predictable and long lasting; thus, they tend to tions or city parks; urban forests are discussed in greater
view nature in a manner differently than the general detail in Chapter 16.
public (Storch, 2011). The following section of this Forests can be established by humans or can be natu-
book provides a basic historical background on human rally regenerated after disturbances (e.g., hurricanes,
views of forests and natural resources, with examples fires, or logging operations). Tree seeds can also be FIGURE 1.9 Landscape view from the Waldsteinburg (also known
from ancient to modern times. Human interaction with dispersed by wind and animal action, and these may FIGURE 1.4 Alpine forests around Mount Baker, Washington, as the Red Castle), Fichtelgebirge, Oberfranken, Germany. Donald L.
United States. Kelly A. Bettinger.
forests, and the associated perceptions of forests and facilitate the establishment of forests in formerly open Grebner.
natural resources, has led to a number of opportunities areas. In fact, forests are continually changing due to
and challenges worldwide. These broad views on the environmental factors, natural disturbances, and human Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
value and use of forests have, in many ways, helped interactions. In essence, forests are constantly changing Nations (2004) defines a forest as being as small as
shape the development of modern forestry and natural systems of vegetation (at a slower pace in some areas 0.5 ha, in developed areas forests might be considered
resource management. and at a faster pace in others) that provide a wide variety FIGURE 1.2 Riparian and upland forests along the Sacramento FIGURE 1.7 Baldcypress (Taxodium distichum) forest in the Okefe- as small as 2 ha (about 5 acdimagine a rectangle con-
River in northern California, United States. Kelly A. Bettinger. nokee National Wildlife Refuge, Georgia, United States. Kelly A.
of functions. A forest can therefore be described as a Bettinger. taining approximately five American football or soccer
living community of trees (Fig. 1.1) within which plants fields), yet in undeveloped areas they might be as expan-
1.2 What are forests? and animals reside, reproduce, and forage, and from sive as 400,000 ha (1 million ac) or more.
which humans derive numerous economic, environ- For simplicity’s sake, many people think forests are
What are forests? may seem an odd question to ask, but mental, and social values. composed primarily of trees. However, a forest is a
it is one that must be addressed in order to inform the Forests can be located close to rivers or streams, and collection of woody, shrubby, and herbaceous vegetation
context and background of this book. The word forest when these types of water bodies flow through them that can extend vertically from a few centimeters off the
is said to arise from the Latin words foris (outdoors) they may be considered riparian forests (Fig. 1.2), as ground to as much as a 100 m (about 330 ft) or more
and forestis (unenclosed open ground or woods). Quite opposed to upland forests that are found further away vertically (e.g., the redwood [Sequoia sempervirens] for-
some time ago, Allen (1938) expressed the obvious to from water bodies. Often, a forested area of a few dozen ests of California). This collection of vegetation can be
an early generation of natural resource managersd hectares will usually have some type of stream (perenni- comprised of trees of various ages and shrub, vine,
FIGURE 1.5 Forests located on the steep mountain slopes of Maui,
forests are essential to human existence. A forest is a source ally flowing, intermittent, or ephemeral) flowing Hawaii, United States. Donald L. Grebner. and herbaceous material distributed in either a random
of food, fuel, shelter, and material, and, beyond that, it is through it, thus it may have both riparian and upland or systematic pattern over a defined land area. To grow,
a place within which people can travel and enjoy out- forests. Forests can be found next to large bodies of wa- forest vegetation uses light energy from the sun and nu-
door experiences, such as forest bathing (unwinding ter, such as lakes or oceans (e.g., coastal forests; Fig. 1.3), trients and water from the Earth. Light may be intercep-
and connecting with nature). Many have attempted to ted by the canopy (leaves and needles) of the trees but
categorize land as either forest or some other land use may also infiltrate through gaps in the canopy to the
FIGURE 1.8 Boreal forests of interior central Alaska, United States.
class. For example, the Society of American Foresters de- Kelly A. Bettinger.
shrubby or herbaceous vegetation below. As a result,
fines a forest as an ecosystem with a dense and extensive FIGURE 1.3 Windswept coniferous forests at Cape Perpetua, some interior forest areas are very dark and forbidding
Oregon, United States. Kelly A. Bettinger.
tree cover that varies by species composition, structure, (a value statement) while others are very open and
age class, associated processes, and which commonly in- have adapted themselves to heavy snow accumulation park-like (another value statement) owing to the pres-
cludes meadows, streams, fish, and wildlife (Helms, or high in the mountains (cloud forests, montane forests, or during winter (e.g., forests in Siberia, eastern Asia, and ence or absence of gaps in the tree canopy. Forest vege-
1998). The Food and Agriculture Organization of the alpine forests; Fig. 1.4). Forests can be found on flat lands northern North America; Fig. 1.8). Forests can currently tation absorbs carbon dioxide (CO2) from, and emits
United Nations (2004), a leading international source (e.g., the flatwoods of Florida) or steep terrain (e.g., the be found in every continent on Earth except in oxygen (O2) to, the atmosphere. Forest vegetation also
of information on agricultural, forestry, fisheries, and ru- Sierra Nevada or the mountains of Hawaii; Fig. 1.5). For- Antarctica, although forests also existed there millions holds soil in place and prevents it from washing away
ral development, defines a forest as an area of land ests can also be found in arid environments (e.g., the of years ago (O’Hanlon, 2004). The growth rate of forests during severe storms containing heavy rainfall. A forest
covering at least 0.5 ha (1.2 ac) containing trees taller xeric forests of northern Mexico and the southwestern varies considerably, from the fast-growing pines and eu- may contain the structure necessary to meet the nesting,
than 5 m (16.4 ft) and having more than 10% of the United States; Fig. 1.6) and in standing bodies of water calypts (Eucalyptus spp.) of the southeastern United roosting, and foraging requirements of numerous wild-
area covered by tree canopies. This definition also com- (e.g., the bottomland forests in the swamps and bayous States and South America, to the slower-growing spruce life species. Some of the more common species depen-
prises land areas recently reforested or currently under- of the southern United States; Fig. 1.7). Some forests and fir forests of northern Canada, Scandinavia, and dent on forests include animals, both big and small
stocked with trees and areas that are expected to achieve thrive in moist environments (e.g., forests along the Russia. Forests sometimes grow next to cities and towns (Table 1.1). The size and location of a forest can signifi-
these thresholds over time. Bamboo (e.g., Bambusa spp. FIGURE 1.1 Deciduous forest community in Indiana, United southern coast of Chile) and humid environments FIGURE 1.6 Pine forests in the arid environment of New Mexico, or are scattered across the countryside (Fig. 1.9) and cantly influence the types of wildlife that reside there.
and others), palms (e.g., Elaeis spp.), and other types of States. Donald L. Grebner. (e.g., forests in the Congo and Indonesia), while others United States. Donald L. Grebner. intermixed with agricultural land. Even though the Some animals, such as deer, prefer forests composed of
6 1. A brief history of forestry and natural resource management 1.3 Why are forests important to humans? 7 8 1. A brief history of forestry and natural resource management

TABLE 1.1 Examples of wildlife found in forested areas. certain fish species during the summer. Forests within ri- useful tools, some of which can be fashioned or created and expansion of forested areas around the world. As the
parian areas may also act as sources of coarse woody with relatively little effort. For example, young trees world’s human population approaches 8 billion, forested
Specific example
debris for aquatic systems, which can result in the devel- were once the main source of material for the creation areas face the difficult burden of meeting our increasing
Broad group Common name Scientific name opment of both food sources and shelter (pools) for fish of primitive spears, bows, and arrows used for hunting recreational (Fig. 1.12), conservation, and consumptive
populations. Within developed areas, whether urban, animals (e.g., elk or deer) or for the creation of rudimen- needs. Some may argue that our reliance on forest re-
Deer White-tailed deer Odocoileus virginianus
suburban, or rural residential areas, forests can abate tary baskets used to transport edible berries and roots. sources to meet these needs may be irrational and that
Mule deer Odocoileus hemionus noise pollution generated by vehicles, neighbors, and Among others, insects, birds, and fur-bearing animals changes in societal values (e.g., increasing funding to
Elk Rocky mountain elk Cervus canadensis nearby businesses. In arid regions, forests, planted as found in forests provide protein for human consump- expand forested areas, lowering expectations, or finding
windbreaks, may be able to mitigate the drying effect tion. The fur from some wildlife species was, and still other ways to meet our needs) may be necessary. Mather
Red deer Cervus elaphus
of winds and reduce the detrimental effects of blown is in some parts of the world, viewed as an important (1990) introduced a convenient conceptual model that
Bear American black bear Ursus americanus soil and snow, thus protecting crops, livestock, and source of clothing, especially in the cold climates. Over can be used to evaluate the relationship of humans to for-
Brown bear Ursus arctos homes. Further, the presence of forests can often time, humans became adept at using all parts of hunted ests and how this relationship may change over time.
enhance property values, and trees are frequently used wildlife species, either as consumable food or as tools This model suggests that when nonindigenous humans
Moose (Fig. 1.10) Eurasian elk Alces alces
as barriers designed to reduce glare and reflection used to enhance their lives. For instance, the stomach interact with and control forests for the first time, they
Beaver North American beaver Castor canadensis from structures made of glass or concrete (Anderson linings of some animals were once commonly used to tend to view forest and natural resources as unlimited.
Eurasian beaver Castor fiber and Smith, 1976). Therefore, while some simply view make water jugs, small bones were once sharpened FIGURE 1.11 Cabins such as this, in the Watoga State Park in West This perspective eventually leads to a philosophical
forests as collections of trees, these systems of vegetation and used as needles, and large bones were once used Virginia, were built by colonial settlers of the United States in the early contradiction regarding the value of forested areas, since
Otter Northern river otter Lontra canadensis 20th century. Kelly A. Bettinger.
provide a multitude of functions (water filtration, noise as weapons for hunting or for self-defense. Uses such initially people have little regard to sustaining the re-
Southern river otter Lontra provocax abatement, etc.) that humans and other species favor. as these may continue in some areas of the world. sources over the long term. A society in general views
Bobcat Bobcat Lynx rufus Forests have also provided humans with many types of North America, other products derived from forests the unlimited resource perspective in a favorable light
of plants used for medicinal or consumptive purposes. included cordage, mask, resin, rosin, tar, and turpentine. because of the need for materials related to basic human
Fox Red fox Vulpes vulpes
1.3 Why are forests important to humans? Two examples of medical drugs that are produced Some of these were further used to make lubricants, survival (e.g., food, fuelwood, and building materials).
Gray fox Urocyon cinereoargenteus from forest plants are taxol and quinine. Taxol is a paints, polishes, roofing materials, soaps, and varnishes Although warnings may arise, the potential problems
Wolf Gray wolf Canis lupus As noted in the previous section, forests are areas mitotic inhibitor used to treat ovarian cancer and is (Smith, 1940; Williams, 1989). of overconsumption may be overlooked given the abun-
where humans and other species of animals and insects derived from the bark of the yew tree (Taxus brevifolia) Over the last 100 years, a wide variety of wood prod- dance of the resource. Over time, as a human society be-
Snake Eastern diamondback Crotalus adamanteus
rattlesnake can forage and take shelter (Fig. 1.10). Since the birth of of the Pacific Northwest of North America. Quinine is ucts have been produced from wood, including pulp gins to deplete the forest and natural resources under
humankind, forests have played an important role in the an alkaloid used to reduce fevers and to treat malaria, and paper, books, newspapers, magazines, sticky notes, their control, they become more concerned with resource
Frog European tree frog Hyla arborea folders, personal hygiene products, and toilet paper.
survival of our species. The forest canopy provides lupus, and arthritis. Natural sources of quinine are trees reduction and destruction and may then take action (e.g.,
Salamander Red salamander Pseudotriton ruber cover during hot days or rainstorms, and individual of the genus Cinchona of South America. The complete Construction materials produced from forests include conservation, reduced consumption, or importing
Worm Earthworm Arctiostrotus trees have traditionally been used as a source of building list of forest plants that can be used by humans for nutri- lumber, plywood, oriented strand board, and other engi- goods) to address local issues. As conservation measures
vancouverensis materials for shelters in which people can protect them- tional consumption is extensive and includes a large neered woods. Recently, there has been significant inter- are put into place, at some point local forest growth will
selves. In addition, wood has always been a critical array of edible berries, nuts, leaves, shoots, roots, and est in using wood to produce energy pellets and liquid recover and forested areas will expand from their
Rabbit Forest rabbit Sylvilagus brasiliensis
source of energy for heating and cooking. Even today, mushrooms. For example, edible berries in North Amer- fuels such as butanol, ethanol, and syngas (Perez- depleted state. A society’s perception of this common
Eastern cottontail Sylvilagus floridanus
about half of the global wood harvest is consumed for ica include blackberry, blueberry (Vaccinium spp.), Verdin et al., 2009). Other forest products that are more trend (from consumption to conservation) may be
Chipmunk Eastern chipmunk Tamias striatus energy purposes (Food and Agriculture Organization dewberry (Rubus spp.), huckleberry (Gaylussacia spp.), important to us today than in earlier times (e.g., viewed either positively or negatively. Although Math-
of the United Nations, 2010). The woody material of raspberry, and salmonberry, all of which are popular 100 years ago) include sequestered carbon, recreational er’s (1990) conceptual model is simple, it illustrates
Siberian chipmunk Eutamias sibiricus
trees is amenable to the creation of many simple and nutritional sources for humans and other animal species opportunities, aesthetic values, wilderness experiences,
(e.g., bears). and wildlife habitats. The types of products or services
patches of trees interwoven with agricultural fields and significant, as the branches and leaves (or needles) of Following the arrival of early colonists in North facilitated by forests are extensive, and this discussion
open areas. Other animals, such as chipmunks, have trees act to mitigate the physical impact of rain through America, forests provided free forage or feed for animal has provided only a few examples of the broad range
habitat requirements that are smaller in scale and interception processes. Once precipitation reaches the stock. This forage included acorns, beechnuts, chestnuts, of important products derived from forests. In Chapter
perhaps linked to other resources (such as the character ground, forest litter and organic matter will absorb grasses, and roots and shoots of various plants (Wil- 4, we will delve further into the products and other
of the soil). Therefore, forests can be viewed as factories some of the water, mitigating surface runoff and facili- liams, 1989). Settlers used wood as a material to create inherent values derived from forests. It may be impos-
storing carbon, generating oxygen, and providing shel- tating seepage into the soil. Water will then move down- fences and homes (Fig. 1.11), as a fuel for cooking, and sible to predict the pressures that will be applied to for-
ter and subsistence to a variety of animals, including ward through forested soils at a slower rate than if it as a base for making potash and pearl ash (Williams, ests in the future, but it seems likely that nontimber
humans. were moving laterally over bare ground. This down- 1989). Potash could be used not only as a fertilizer but benefits of forested areas will become increasingly
Local climatic conditions can be affected by the ward movement of water through forest soils may allow could also be used in manufacturing processes, such as valued (McIntosh, 1995).
amount and character of forest vegetation. For example, suspended sediments to be filtered prior to the ground- in the production of bleached textiles, glass, gunpowder,
within a dense, closed-canopy, mature forest, air temper- water entering a stream system. In some areas of the and soaps. Further, during the colonial period in North
atures will generally be cooler in the summer and world, the condition and character of forests can also America, the British Navy reserved large white pines 1.4 A brief history of human interaction with
warmer in the winter than the surrounding areas. Hu- help reduce the rate of snow melting, which may pro- (Pinus strobus) having a diameter at breast height of forests
midity will also be higher there owing to lower evapora- long the period of runoff and facilitate seepage of water 61 cm (24 in) or greater for potential use as masts for
tion rates, and soils will be less subject to frost owing to into the soil system. Forests that provide shade to their ships. This reserve became known as the Broad Ar- Forests provide many resources that are useful to
the insulating effect of forest litter and organic matter. aquatic systems can also help mitigate stream tempera- FIGURE 1.10 Moose in the Kenai National Wildlife Refuge, row Policy and was extended to all of America by 1729 humanity’s survival, and the need for natural materials FIGURE 1.12 Day hikers along a trail near Mount Rainier, Wash-
The influence of trees on erosional processes is tures and thus provide a higher quality habitat for Alaska, United States. Kelly A. Bettinger. (Cubbage et al., 1993). During the early development to support human life has led to the ongoing contraction ington, United States. Kelly A. Bettinger.

1.4 A brief history of human interaction with forests 9 10 1. A brief history of forestry and natural resource management 1.4 A brief history of human interaction with forests 11
how forest management perspectives may change over charcoal, which was then used for home heating pur- further afield led to the clearing of forested areas not degraded their inherent productive capacity. Through centuries, large areas of the remaining native forests supply of mature white pine was decreasing rapidly in
time in relation to changes in human needs and con- poses as well as cooking and toolmaking (Mather, only for producing agricultural and metallurgical prod- the 14th century, the expansion of ore smelting and were felled to facilitate agricultural production as well the northern and Lake States and that most of the land
cerns. In addition, the evolution of human perspectives 1990). As city-states grew, more forest area was depleted, ucts, but also for the elimination of hiding cover used by glassmaking processes greatly depended on fuelwood as to provide wood commodities for export, to support of good quality was destined for agricultural uses. After
regarding the use of natural resources, as portrayed in while animal grazing was allowed unchecked in the the Picts and Scots during border raids. Roman and as the main source of energy. The construction of basil- gold mining enterprises, and to build homesteads the American Civil War and into the early 20th century,
this simple model, can influence the development and remnant forests. Greek city-states, such as Athens, even- other governments of this era also used large amounts icas (large public buildings) also played an important (Owen, 1966). This extractive perspective of forests the need for wood in various industrial processes led to
evolution of the forestry and natural resource profes- tually had to import wood and charcoal from locations of wood to build corduroy (wooden) roads (Fig. 1.14), role in forest depletion from the 10th century to the continued through the 19th century, but eventually, soci- a wave of exploitation that began in the Lake States and
sions. Ultimately, there are two main perspectives on as far away as Macedonia (i.e., at least 350 km or in part to help defend settlements. During the Roman 14th century (Westoby, 1989). By the 16th century, entire ety became increasingly concerned with the status and then moved to the southern region and eventually to the
the use of forests that shape societal views of the 217 mi). Wood was also important for the Greek navy’s Era, forests were constantly depleted during times of mountain ranges were deforested, and this depletion of condition of the diminishing resource. West Coast (Williams, 1989) after the completion of
resource: the forest extraction perspective and the forest need to build a fleet of ships large enough to defeat the war for producing weapons such as siege engines, for forestlands led to greater levels of soil erosion, which Although the extractive perspective was prevalent in transcontinental railroads and associated feeder lines
renewability and management perspective. Persian navy during a series of military conflicts in the the smelting of swords and spears, and for shipbuilding fostered landslides and abnormal flooding events the North American colonies since before the 1800s (Hessburg and Agee, 2003).
5th century BC (Meiggs, 1982). These ships, called triremes, purposes (Meiggs, 1982; Perlin, 1989). Both Greek and (Laarman and Sedjo, 1992). Deforestation spread to (Perlin, 1989), it accelerated after about 1810. About By the late 19th century, vast forested areas were be-
were a type of galley ship that used a series of wooden Roman governments were aware of the potential for eastern Europe by the 17th century, primarily due to this time, large sections of the American population ing utilized for human consumptive needs across the
oars for propulsion (Fig. 1.13). Alexander the Great of resource depletion, and in some ways they implemented the spread of wheat production and the conversion of began to emigrate from their settlements along the globe, and forest clearing became a major issue in coun-
1.4.1 The forest extraction perspective Greece (4th century BC) required wood for building ships governmental control over resources in an attempt to forests and other natural lands to support agricultural eastern seaboard in search of new homesteads west of tries such as Australia, eastern Asia, India, New Zea-
In a developing area, the initial depletion of forests and that were used to explore new and unknown territories minimize the rate of depletion and to maintain fiber sup- practices. Due to human use of wood, by the end of the Appalachian Mountains (Williams, 1989). This led land, South Africa, and the United States (Laarman
natural resources may be viewed by some as a natural and expand his empire (Meiggs, 1982). plies (Westoby, 1989). For example, the Roman govern- the 17th century, forests in England had declined to to a process of forest clearing for promoting small- and Sedjo, 1992). The pattern of rapid declines in
process, since resources may be considered to have little Similar patterns of forest use were observed during ment attempted to recycle items such as glass because around 8%, from about 60% of the land area prior to scale agricultural production (Fig. 1.15). In some cases, forested areas was similar in eastern Europe. For
value owing to their initial abundance. As human com- the rise of the Roman Empire, as wherever Roman settle- of the diminished wood supplies needed to manufacture the early Middle Ages (Holmes, 1975). Throughout it required a family’s entire generation to clear a tract example, in Ukraine, total forested area declined by
munities grow, forests and other natural areas may be ments existed, forests were cleared. Roman officials it (Perlin, 1989). In essence, early societies viewed forests this time, trees were often used in a discriminant of land for agricultural purposes (Williams, 1989). Be- about 30% during a 100-year period, primarily as a
converted to agricultural use or may be managed to pro- viewed the forested landscape north of the Alps as a lim- as strategic assets, yet unfortunately the dry Mediterra- manner, by the value that each species provided society tween 1810 and 1860, the United States transformed result of economic activity in the latter half of the 19th
vide better habitats for wildlife species used as food sour- itless resource (Perlin, 1989). At one point, the Roman nean environment posed a difficult challenge for forest (Filková et al., 2015). During the 18th century, the North from an agricultural economy to a more commercial century (Nijnik and van Kooten, 2000). In the mid-
ces in those communities. For instance, as early European government implemented incentive programs giving reestablishment via natural means. The resulting topsoil American colonies, Brazil, and the Caribbean islands one, leading to widespread and commonplace forest 1900s, technological change brought gasoline-powered
settlements were established, forests and natural areas landowners land tenure if they cleared 20 ha (about 50 ac) loss from erosional processes associated with these land became the centers of wood supply (Perlin, 1989), partly clearing for domestic fuel and construction lumber crawler-tractors and chainsaws to ground-based logging
were converted to agricultural fields to grow food from of forestland (Westoby, 1989), in part because the Roman uses still creates problems today (Butzer, 2005). In fact, due to the Napoleonic Wars in Europe. The British Navy use. Clearing methods involved both clearcutting and operations, which increased the efficiency of logging
seeds acquired from other communities across the Euro- navy needed wood to build ships in their pursuit of the Fertile Crescent of the Middle East, an area was very dependent on imported wood from Baltic na- girdling of trees, and if the removal of stumps were and thus enhanced productivity (Hessburg and Agee,
pean continent (Williams, 1989). When early European defeating the Carthaginian Empire (Meiggs, 1982). One composed of parts of Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, tions in eastern Europe (Perlin, 1989), but Napoleon necessary, this process could require nearly 5 person- 2003). With appropriate forethought, forest management
explorers traveled across what is now the southern location, known today as modern Spain, was largely Lebanon, and Syria, is still unable to respond well to eventually blockaded this resource. As a result, Britain weeks per ac using the technology of the time (Williams, practices can be applied to regenerate and reestablish
United States, forested landscapes were often described deforested by the Roman Empire because of both their deforestation because of existing climatic conditions had to look for alternative sources of wood fiber and, 1982). As forests were being cleared for agricultural pur- new forests after logging operations. However, in some
as having park-like characteristics, primarily due to the need to build ships and to support the metallurgy of (Diamond, 2005). Great Britain responded better to the as we mentioned earlier, their quest for alternative poses during this period of growth, the United States cases reestablishment does not occur (causing deforesta-
frequent fires initiated by aboriginal people to develop gold, silver, and iron using fuelwood (Perlin, 1989). effects of deforestation, in part due to the more favorable wood supplies stretched from eastern North America entered the Industrial Revolution, which required enor- tion) and in other cases land uses change after trees are
the forage necessary for potentially consumable wildlife Another location, southern England, was once covered rainfall patterns in northern Europe (Westoby, 1989). to India, Australia, and other Pacific Islands. Even as mous amounts of wood products for metal production removed. Despite the growing public concern over for-
populations (Walker, 1991). Over human history, by small farms dedicated to the export of food to major Forests in western and central Europe were largely recent as the late 19th century, some areas of Europe and mining enterprises (Williams, 1989). Various techno- ests and natural resources in many developed countries,
numerous factors have contributed to changes in the Roman cities (Perlin, 1989; Westoby, 1989). Efforts converted to agricultural lands by the 12th and 13th cen- were entirely dedicated to charcoal, fuelwood, and logical innovations, such as the iron plow (or plough) the pattern of deforestation and land use changes
character and condition of forests and natural areas, as turies (Laarman and Sedjo, 1992). The remaining forests lumber production (Ericsson et al., 2005). and the steam engine (used both in trains and boats), continued into the 20th century in developing countries
well as the natural resources that rely on the vegetative experienced intensive grazing, which subsequently When the first Australian state of New South Wales facilitated the reduction in forested areas and an in- such as Brazil, Indonesia, and the Philippines (Kummer,
structure and protection provided by forests. These fac- was founded in 1786, forests were viewed as obstacles crease in the speed of wood removal from forests (Perlin, 1991). In an estimate by the Food and Agriculture Orga-
tors include human population growth, influences of reli- to growth (Rule, 1967). From the first arrival of Euro- 1989). In the early 1900s, Green (1908) noted that the nization of the United Nations (1997), approximately 180
gious beliefs, iron ore smelting, political instability, peans in Sydney Cove, forests were cleared for settle- million ha (445 million ac) of forests were lost between
poorly designed governmental policies, warfare, fluctua- ments and for agricultural purposes, and wood 1980 and 1995, which represents an area larger than
tions in international trade, and a general lack of land derived from these forests was used for a wide variety Mexico or Indonesia. In the 1990s, 16 million ha (40
tenure, along with changes in climatic conditions. of purposes, such as cooking, home building, ship- million ac) of forests were lost annually. Since 2000, the
Humans have been affecting the landscape since as far building, and toolmaking. An important local tree spe- pace of global deforestation has slowed to about 13
back as 1.4 million years ago during the time of Homo erec- cies, the Australian red cedar (Toona ciliata), was also million ha (32 million ac) of forests each year (Food
tus (Westoby, 1989). Archeological evidence indicates that heavily exported. For the next 100 years, an extensive and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations,
humans used fire for cooking purposes and possibly for pattern of forest clearings and woodcutting extended 2010). While Brazil and Indonesia have managed to
influencing the types of vegetation found on the land- throughout Australia, from Tasmania to Queensland reduce their deforestation rates, Australia has lost vast
scape. Mesolithic peoples during the Bronze Age and western Australia (Carron, 1985). New Zealand fol- swaths of forests to severe droughts and fires. At the
(3300e1200 BC) used stone axes and saws for forest lowed a similar pattern of forest development. New Zea- same time, forest area gains through natural forest
clearing but also used forests to graze their domesticated land was the last large landmass settled by humans. regeneration and large-scale forest restoration efforts
animals, which led to the clearing of large areas of forests. Polynesian immigrants, later known as M aori, settled in countries such as China, which has embarked on a
During the Classical Era (18th century BC to 5th century FIGURE 1.13 Greek trireme. Source: Matthias Kabel, through Wiki- there about 800 years ago, and their activities led to massive forest plantation development effort, have
AD), the Greek and Roman societies were heavily depen-
media Commons, from a model located at the Deutsches Museum, Munich, FIGURE 1.14 Excavation of an ancient corduroy road near Oranien- the removal of 50% of the forested area and the extinc- reduced the net global forest area loss. More recently, be-
Germany. burg, Germany. Saxo, through Wikimedia Commons.
dent on wood from forests as a source of fuel (Meiggs, Image Link: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Model_of_a_greek_ Image Link: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Oranienburg-breite-strasse.
tion of several flightless bird species such as the Moa tween 2010 and 2015, an annual loss of forest area
1982; Perlin, 1989; Westoby, 1989; Mather, 1990). Greek trireme.jpg jpg (Perry et al., 2014). When European immigrants began FIGURE 1.15 Old farms and agricultural areas where deciduous amounted to 7.6 million ha (18.3 million ac) and an
city-states harvested wood from local forests to make License Link: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en License Link: Public Domain to settle in New Zealand in the late 18th and 19th forests once stood in West Virginia, United States. Kelly A. Bettinger. annual gain to 4.3 million ha (10.4 million ac), resulting

12 1. A brief history of forestry and natural resource management 1.5 Forests in the current world political and environmental context 13 14 1. A brief history of forestry and natural resource management

in a net forest area loss of 3.3 million ha (nearly 8 million Asian forests are part of a cultural landscape complex, advances in fire suppression, and decreases in per capita forests created through afforestation and reforestation ef- World leaders, concerned with the continued deple- evident human disturbance (Food and Agriculture Or-
ac) (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United and humans living there use traditional agriculture- consumption of timber products (Laarman and Sedjo, forts are an increasingly important aspect of the national tion of Earth’s natural resources, gathered at the ganization of the United Nations, 2016). The area of pri-
Nations, 2016). South America and Africa continue to ac- based management of the land (shifting agriculture), 1992). economy. Interestingly, the Canadian, United States, and 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and mary forests continues to decline, primarily in the
count for the vast majority of global forest area loss. which some view as an obstacle to effective forest con- In the United States, concern about forest renewal Australian experiences with respect to these two philoso- Development (or the Earth Summit) in Rio de Janeiro, tropics. While nearly 13% of forests are formally
servation efforts (Ramakrishnan, 2007). With regards to began about 200 years ago. In an early example from phies are very similar. Although the policies, legislation, Brazil. The theme of the meeting centered on the contri- reserved for the conservation of biological diversity, in
the Mediterranean experience, some widespread natural 1818, President James Madison expressed concern over and terminology used are different in the development bution of forests toward achieving sustainable develop- many cases the effectiveness of these conservation ef-
1.4.2 The forest renewability and management reforestation did occur at various points of time, espe- the wasteful destruction of timber in rural America of these countries, similar stages of forest exploitation, ment. One outcome of the meeting was a set of Forest forts is unknown. Forest insect and disease problems,
perspective cially following the fall of the Roman Empire (Westoby, (Williams, 1989). By the mid-1800s, novels and poems wood resource protection, multiple-use management, Principles for protecting the world’s forests. Following along with severe wildfires, complicate conservation ef-
1989). Unfortunately, the combination of arid or semi- written by American authors such as James Fenimore and ecosystem management are evident, particularly the Earth Summit, numerous countries developed forts. For example, since 1990 the mountain pine beetle
In describing the history of Kielder Forest in northern
arid climatic conditions and the frequent misuse of the Cooper and William Cullen Bryant were published, with regard to public lands (Lane and McDonald, 2002). criteria and indicators (C&I) to measure and monitor (Dendroctonus ponderosae) has affected 11 million ha (27
England, McIntosh (1995) suggested that the role of
land led to extensive soil erosion, which resulted in and these helped romanticize the beauty, virtue, and successes in achieving sustainable forest management million ac) of forests in Canada (Fig. 1.19) and the west-
forestry in England changed in the mid-20th century
many formerly forested sites becoming infertile and sub- wildness of the American forest (Williams, 1989). By (SFM) goals: criteria represent forest values that one de- ern United States in a vast outbreak traced in part to
from one of managing strategic reserves of timber and
sequently difficult to reestablish with a forest of any the late 1800s, the need to train foresters to address the 1.5 Forests in the current world political and sires to sustain while indicators measure the progress to- milder-than-average winters (Food and Agriculture Or-
facilitating employment for rural people to managing
type. This combination of conditions is also evident shortage of timber was being emphasized by Franklin environmental context ward sustaining these values. ganization of the United Nations, 2010).
forests for a broader set of values (timber production,
within the Fertile Crescent in the Middle East (Diamond, B. Hough and, later, by Gifford Pinchot. By the mid- The Montréal Process, initiated by the government of Progress in the development of national forest pro-
wildlife conservation, and recreational opportunities).
2005). 1900s, timber harvesting in the Pacific Northwest began Covering nearly one-third of the Earth’s landmasses Canada in 1993, is the largest of the resulting C&I initia- grams has been achieved by numerous countries since
Numerous examples such as this can be found at local,
Other parts of the world clearly followed the trajec- to slow because most of the original old-growth forest on (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United tives, encompassing 60% of the world’s forests, 35% of 2000. Many of these programs are designed to enable
regional, and national levels in North America and other
tory of Mather’s conceptual model. For example, three private land had been harvested and nontimber forest Nations, 2016), forests are prominently featured in the population, and 45% of the trade in wood and comprehensive legal, policy, and institutional frame-
continents. According to Mather’s conceptual model, as
locations that experienced widespread forest renewal af- resource values were rising. The value of habitat for pro- many national and international developmental and wood products (Montréal Process Working Group, work to support SFM and thus fulfill international forest
a society increasingly utilizes the resources of its forests,
ter the perceived depletion of the original resource tecting the northern spotted owl (Strix occidentalis caur- environmental policies. As described earlier, forests are 2005). The Montréal Process criteria include (1) conser- protection commitments. A Food and Agriculture Orga-
some members of that society become increasingly con-
became a concern were western and northern Europe, ina), and endangered species, is one example. essential for the conservation of biodiversity and water vation of biological diversity; (2) maintenance of the pro- nization of the United Nations (2010) report shows that
cerned by forest resource depletion and the loss of
North America, and Oceania. The renewal of European In New Zealand, public concern for the loss of forest and soil resources. Forests are meeting our needs for ductive capacity of forest ecosystems; (3) maintenance of nearly 75% of the world’s forests are now covered by na-
intrinsic values. Even though a few historical examples
forests is believed to a be result of several factors, and natural resources led to many advances in the affor- wood and nonwood products and significantly forest ecosystem health and vitality; (4) conservation tional forest programs. Throughout the world, forest
of this evolution in perspective were provided earlier,
including the migration of rural populations to urban estation of old pasturelands. In conjunction with the contribute to carbon cycles. Forests are home to millions and maintenance of soil and water resources; (5) mainte- policy for, and administration of, public land is primar-
this concept is as relevant today as it was in earlier times
areas, the afforestation of agricultural lands, the intensi- perceived need to afforest vast areas, numerous planting of people, whose livelihoods depend almost entirely on nance of forest contribution to global carbon cycles; (6) ily the domain of ministries or departments of agricul-
(Perlin, 1989). Unfortunately, while forests are widely
fication of agriculture, and the conversion to nonwood trials of a variety of exotic tree species were conducted the services they provide, and a multitude of other ani- maintenance and enhancement of long-term multiple ture. It is estimated that about 1.3 million people work
considered a renewable resource, the reestablishment
energy (Laarman and Sedjo, 1992). In the United States, throughout the country to meet the growing need for mal species (Fig. 1.18). Yet, too often forests are still socioeconomic benefits; and (7) development and main- for public forest institutions; however, this number has
of forests through natural or artificial means has not al-
widespread forest renewal was due to several similar forest products. Today, there still stands a magnificent perceived by humans as an obstacle to development. It tenance of legal, policy, and institutional frameworks for been declining in recent years. Another 20,000 people
ways been successful (Fig. 1.16). For example, tropical
factors, and is also believed to include the abandonment redwood forest in Rotorua, on the North Island of seems clear that a forest renewability perspective on conservation and sustainable management. As is work for public forest research institutions. Encourag-
of agricultural fields in the Northeast (Fig. 1.17), the New Zealand, a legacy of the early tree species trials the management of these areas could provide jobs in evident in these criteria, progress toward achieving ingly, the number of students worldwide graduating
afforestation of cotton and tobacco lands in the South, from the late 1890s (Rotorua District Council, 2019). Be- the logging and wood-processing industries, facilitate SFM seems to be consistent in many ways with the con- from university forestry programs is rising and exceeds
tween 1925 and 1935, nearly 400,000 ha (about 1 million certain forms of food production, and help alleviate servation of biological diversity and other life- 60,000 annually (Food and Agriculture Organization of
ac) of land were planted with exotic tree species in New poverty. However, the chief threat to the health and ex- supporting ecosystem functions within forests. the United Nations, 2010). Female graduates account
Zealand. Since then, the main emphasis has concen- istence of forests may be, interestingly, of human origin. Inspired by the Earth Summit, the United Nations for about one-third of all students, and this proportion
trated on afforesting pasturelands with radiata pine Therefore, it may be necessary to first address human Forum on Forests was established in 2000 and served to
(Pinus radiata) originally from the West Coast of North population problems before forests can be saved. promote sustainable management of all forests and
America. Oddly enough, radiata pine was first planted strengthen the political agreements developed to achieve
on the plains near Christchurch on New Zealand’s South this goal (United Nations Forum on Forests Secretariat,
Island where no trees had previously existed (Hegan, 2019). Goals of the United Nations Forum on Forests
1993) because, while deforestation was occurring else- are to reverse the loss of forest cover, to enhance a
where, this part of New Zealand was desperate for wide range of forest-related benefits, and to increase
wood. In the latter half of the 20th century, govern- the area of sustainably managed forests. The Forum is
mental reform led to a distinct classification of forests composed of all member countries of the United Na-
for two purposes: wood production and the preserva- tions. The United Nations General Assembly also
tion of native forests (Birchfield and Grant, 1993). declared 2011 as the International Year of Forests to pro-
The renewability perspective of forests combined with mote forest conservation and sustainable management.
the greater value placed on products they generate has Since the Earth Summit, the world achieved some
led to stable levels of forestland area in some countries, measures of success in reducing the deforestation rate,
and even positive growth in countries located in the although deforestation remains alarmingly high in
temperate regions of the world. Even though many trop- some countries. In China, massive tree planting efforts
ical countries continue to experience the negative aspects that began before the Earth Summit and have continued
FIGURE 1.16 Planted area in southern Georgia, United States, where FIGURE 1.17 Onset of the reversion of former agricultural lands to of deforestation and expanding human populations, a after it appeared successful and helped to reduce the net
reforestation success was relatively low. U.S. Department of Agriculture, forest vegetation in New England, United States. U.S. Department of FIGURE 1.19 Mountain pine beetle damage south of Field, British
Natural Resources Conservation Service, 2019. Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service, 2019. significant amount of research and international collabo- FIGURE 1.18 Golden-fronted woodpecker (Melanerpes aurifrons)
global deforestation rate (Li et al., 2012). However, only Columbia, Canada. Mark A. Wilson through Wikipedia.
ration has been focused on the afforestation and refores- located in a riparian forest along the Rio Grande in southern Texas, 36% of the world’s forests can be classified as primary Image Link: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:BarkBeetleDamageBC.jpg.
tation of denuded landscapes. In countries such as Brazil, United States. Kelly A. Bettinger. forests, which are composed of native species with no License Link: Public Domain
 1.6 Human developmental pressures on forests 15 16 1. A brief history of forestry and natural resource management Summary 17
is rising as well. These trends should help forestry and forest conservation commitments. However, if programs In the rural-urban fringe of North America, the main 1.7 What are the major challenges to forests in events such as hurricanes (typhoons), tornadoes, floods, resources such as timber and wildlife have been used
natural resource management organizations maintain a such as REDD succeed in making sustainable forestry concerns are fire behavior potential, at-risk human the future? droughts, and wildfires will drastically affect the struc- with little regard to their long-term sustainability. In
professional forest workforce necessary to address worth more, then there is a good chance that these pro- values, and the infrastructure to support firefighting ca- ture and function of forested landscapes by destroying both ancient and modern times, as human settlements
increasingly complex forest management problems. grams will achieve their broad range of goals. pabilities. Rural-urban fringe areas have become the Given the importance of forests to humankind, a ma- the canopy layer, altering the species composition, inhib- began to locally and regionally exhaust these resources,
In recent years, the world’s attention has turned to the central focus of a number of wildland fire policies, jor challenge to their well-being and ability to provide iting regeneration through extended drought condi- public consciousness toward sustainability grew. An
role of forests in addressing climate change. As trees particularly in the United States (Stewart et al., 2007). critical ecosystems services to modern societies is the tions, and salt desiccation from coastal flooding. The increased concern for renewability generally leads to
grow, they store carbon in biomass through the photo- 1.6 Human developmental pressures on forests Many resource management organizations are actively growing presence of climate change and its potential impact of extreme weather events associated with the development of policies and technologies aimed at
synthetic process. About one-quarter of a tree’s green working with local communities to help increase the impact on the world’s economy and terrestrial biomes. climate change will have the potential of diminishing expanding the supply of these resources. Current forests
weight is composed of carbon. Due to their vast expanse, As human populations continue to expand outward level of awareness of issues associated with the gradual The uncertainties surrounding the impacts of climate the ecosystems services that forest landscapes provide are a by-product of numerous landscape changes, either
forests store more carbon in biomass, litter, and soils from urban population centers, the ecological, economic, encroachment of human populations into areas that may change will make the management of forested land- to local and national communities and reduce the eco- natural or anthropogenic. The manner in which human
than does the entire Earth’s atmosphere (Food and Agri- and social pressures on outlying forests and natural now or in the future be characterized as having a high scapes more complex and difficult as changes in weather nomic outputs dependent on these natural resources. societies have valued forests and natural resources does
culture Organization of the United Nations, 2010). When areas will ultimately increase (Fig. 1.20) and perhaps fire risk. Fire behavior potential is a function of the con- patterns and projected human population growth stress in fact change. Today, our general perspective of the
forests are lost through development or land use change come into conflict with the broad scope of a region’s nat- dition of the landscape and the condition of wildland existing forested ecosystems. The potential impacts of role of forests is complicated, in part, by increased inter-
processes, massive amounts of carbon are returned to ural resource management objectives. The rural-urban fuels to support large fires, the frequency of fires, and climate change on forested landscapes are numerous Summary national trade and greater interactions between
the atmosphere. Carbon emissions resulting from forest fringe is a general term for human development near the effectiveness of firefighting agencies to control fires and include species shifts, changes in growth rates of dispersed communities through advances in communi-
loss account for about 13% of global greenhouse gas to, or abutting, forested or other natural areas. This once they have begun. Therefore, the condition, extent, existing plant species, changes in the prevalence of wa- Historically, humans have enjoyed, feared, used, and cation technology. As a result, emerging conflicts be-
emissions, about the same as the emissions of the entire area represents a transition zone between urban and ru- and proximity of fuel loads to homes and businesses ter availability due to greater frequency of drought con- conserved forests and natural resources. Forests and natu- tween developing areas and developed countries
global transportation sector (14%) but less than elec- ral land uses. Other names for this transition zone are ur- (Fig. 1.21) may need to be addressed if land develop- ditions as well as a decline in water quality, and ral resources have played important roles in the develop- regarding the use of forests and natural resources are
tricity and heat generation (25%) (Herzog, 2009). For ban hinterland and wildland urban interface. Some general ment is allowed to proceed into what were once rural increased vulnerability of forested landscapes to new ment and history of human society, dating back to early real and continue to grow (Vogt et al., 2010).
these and other reasons, the importance of managing factors that are important in defining the rural-urban areas. The values at risk include personal human posses- forest pests and invasive species. hunting and gathering communities (Ramakrishnan, As you may have gathered, the main focus of many
forests in a sustainable manner must be emphasized. fringe include the housing density, the human popula- sions, property, companion animals, and the potential Climate change is expected to have an extensive 2007). Forests have consistently provided humans with sections of this book is North American or European
To address these challenges, in 2008 the United Na- tion density, the distance from homes to wildland vege- for residents or businesses within a community to incur impact on the management of water resources in many a variety of consumable foods and medicines, as well as forestry and natural resource management in countries
tions launched the Collaborative Initiative on Reducing tation, and the condition of the current and future economic losses. Ecological values, such as the potential parts of the world. In particular, many climate models wood for cooking and heating and materials for building where ample documentation of forest management ac-
Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation wildland vegetation. for soil erosion or flooding after fires, may also be expect that rainfall patterns will change around the world shelters and homes. As human settlements have tivities is available. This limitation is recognized and,
Program, known formally as UN-REDD or informally In Europe, the rural-urban fringe is generally considered as a set of values at risk. Concerns about which could not only have an important impact on expanded, forests and their associated natural resources admittedly, we very likely have missed valuable knowl-
as simply REDD (United Nations REDD Programme described as landscapes where the majority of land is the infrastructure necessary to access water resources growing conditions, but also limit the ability of forests have increasingly been removed to provide land for agri- edge arising from countries that have not yet played a
Secretariat, 2019). This effort is designed to create finan- devoted to some sort of rural use, yet the presence of ur- and control fires, and the road systems that provide fire- to supply water to local communities. Numerous studies cultural activities, as well as to provide materials to sup- significant role in the global wood products market.
cial values for carbon stored in trees, with the goal of ban influences (e.g., shopping centers, manufacturing fighting equipment access, are also important. The loca- suggest that snow pack size and streamflow will port economies, defense activities, and trade. This Further, valuable knowledge disseminated through
preventing further losses of forest area and the associ- facilities, or dense human housing areas) is obvious. In tion and condition of these resources may directly affect diminish and the duration of and frequency of droughts phenomenon has occurred consistently around the non-English sources, journals of limited circulation,
ated increases in carbon emissions. Since benefits of the United States, three categories of land use have the ability of firefighting organizations to control fires will increase in some areas of the world (Ali et al., 2018; world. Generally, forest areas in relatively wet climates and unpublished reports has likely been overlooked.
avoided carbon emissions are global, and forest protec- been defined in relation to the rural-urban fringe: inter- within rural-urban fringe areas. Azmat et al., 2018; Pérez-Palázon et al., 2018). This situ- that have experienced widespread deforestation and These types of omissions should not be seen as a
tion costs are usually local, the underlying idea is that face communities, intermixed communities, and ation will be further challenged by the expected rise in degradation recover well through natural regeneration dismissal of the significant role that forestry and natural
rich countries should reimburse poor countries for their occluded communities (U.S. Forest Service, Bureau of global human population levels, as more people will de- processes or through active planting programs. Forest resource management has played in countries such as
preservation efforts. Saving forests from destruction, in Indian Affairs, Bureau of Land Management, Fish and mand more water from forested landscapes. areas in drier climates, such as countries around the Med- Venezuela (Kammesheidt et al., 2001), for example. An
addition to preventing carbon emissions, yields a range Wildlife Service, and National Park Service, 2001). Pop- Another impact of climate change on forested land- iterranean Sea (e.g., Italy, Greece, and Turkey), fare worse individual pursuing a career in forestry and natural
of cobenefits that include, among others, the conserva- ulation density, human structure density, and proximity scapes will be the introduction and spread of invasive due to greater human population pressure, steep topog- resource management is likely to encounter numerous
tion of biodiversity. An enhanced version of this pro- to wildland fuels are generally used to determine species. The introduction of any number of these plant, raphy, and challenging reforestation issues. interesting and challenging developments facing the
gram, REDDþ, reaches beyond deforestation and whether land belongs to these groups. animal, and insect invaders can have a dramatic effect For much of human history, forests and their associ- conservation and use of forests and natural resources,
degradation to encompass conservation and enhance- on the structure and function of forested landscapes ated natural resources have been viewed from an extrac- and prior examples of these are likely be found in other
ment of forest carbon storage through improvements and its natural resources. The spread of invasive grasses tive perspective. There are many instances where natural regions of the world.
in forest management. such as cogongrass (Imperata cylindrica L. [Beauv.]) into
Broad-ranging and multifaceted conservation pro- southern United States forested landscapes can outcom-
grams such as REDD encounter numerous challenges. pete natural vegetation which could displace the
For example, in these cases long-term program funding growing space from producing more traditional ecosys-
Questions
is uncertain, and when funds are available they flow to tems services such as timber production or wildlife
countries with the worst deforestation record. This, in habitat, but it could also change the system by making (1) Your daily life. Write a short essay describing how Is this what you expected prior to beginning this
turn, may create a moral hazard and induce other coun- it more dependent on fire. Other invasive species such forests affect your daily life. Look around your home exercise?
tries to accelerate deforestation processes in order to as the emerald ash borer (EAB) (Agrilus planipennis or school and describe things you use that come from a (2) Daily news. Examine either the paper copy or the
induce donors to pay them to cease these activities. Fairmaire), which kills over 95% of the ash trees it in- forest. Also describe those things you use that do not Internet version of your local newspaper and identify
Furthermore, many countries experiencing rapid defor- vades, greatly diminish the biodiversity of forest land- come from a forest. If you are unsure, place these in an articles that discuss forestry or natural resources.
estation suffer from endemic corruption, which raises scapes and the many ecosystems services it provides. “uncertain” category. The Internet may be helpful in Perform this task for five business days, or Monday
FIGURE 1.20 Development activities in Charlotte, North Carolina,
questions regarding how effectively funds will be spent United States. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Con- Climate change may also gravely impact forested determining the origin of some products. Of the three through Friday. Develop a short, professional
FIGURE 1.21 High-density housing area adjacent to the Jones State
and the extent to which governments will honor their servation Service, 2019. landscapes through the potential escalation of extreme categories, which category contains more items? Why? PowerPoint presentation that illustrates the sources of
Forest in Texas, United States. Douglas J. Marshall, from Marshall et al.
(2008). weather events. It is expected that extreme weather
Continued

18 1. A brief history of forestry and natural resource management References 19

Li, M.-M., Liu, A.-T., Zou, C.-J., Xu, W.-D., Shimizu, H., Wang, K.-Y., Roth, F., 1902. First Book of Forestry. Ginn & Company, Publishers, Bos-
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2012. An overview of the "Three-North" Shelterbelt project in ton, MA.
QUESTIONS (cont’d) China. Forestry Studies in China 14 (1), 70e79. Rotorua District Council, 2019. About the Forest. Rotorua District
Marshall, D.J., Wimberly, M., Bettinger, P., Stanturf, J., 2008. Synthesis Council, Rotorua, New Zealand. https://redwoods.co.nz/about/
these stories and the topics discussed. Describe how the project, and the location of the project. Once of Knowledge of Hazardous Fuels Management in Loblolly Pine (accessed 13.08.19).
many articles you found, and whether the topics developed, share this with another person or group Forests. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Rule, A., 1967. Forests of Australia. Angus & Robertson, LTD, Sydney,
varied throughout the week. who has done the same, and compare and contrast the Research Station, Asheville, NC. General Technical Report SRS- Australia.
(3) Criteria and indicators. Locate a land management two projects. 110. Smith, H.F., 1940. Primary Wood-Products Industries in the Lower South.
Mather, A.S., 1990. Global Forest Resources. Timber Press, Inc., Port- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Forest
organization that has developed a resource (5) Forest development. For either the place where you live
land, OR. Experiment Station, New Orleans, LA. Forest Survey Release No. 51.
management plan based on C&I. Either arrange a or a place of interest to you, develop a short report on McIntosh, R., 1995. The history and multi-purpose management of Stewart, S.I., Radeloff, V.C., Hammer, R.B., Hawbaker, T.J., 2007.
meeting (in person or over the phone) with one of the history of its forest development. Locate a person Kielder Forest. Forest Ecology and Management 79 (1e2), 1e11. Defining the wildland-urban interface. Journal of Forestry 105 (4),
the land managers knowledgeable about the plan or with intimate knowledge of the area and interview Meiggs, R., 1982. Trees and Timber in the Ancient Mediterranean 201e207.
obtain the plan itself. In a one-page memorandum them. You might also rely on both published literature World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, United Kingdom. Storch, S., 2011. Forestry professionalism overrides gender: a case
Montréal Process Working Group, 2005. The Montréal Process. Montréal study of nature perception in Germany. Forest Policy and Eco-
format, develop a briefing that summarizes the and anecdotal stories from other people with
Process Liaison Office, Tokyo. https://www.montrealprocess.org/ nomics 13 (3), 171e175.
use of the C&I in guiding the management of the knowledge of the area. You should define a time frame (accessed 13.08.19). United Nations Forum on Forests Secretariat, 2019. United Nations
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Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. https://www.abc.net.au/ United Nations REDD Programme Secretariat, 2019. UN-REDD
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science/articles/2004/11/09/1239175.htm (accessed 13.08.19). Programme. United Nations REDD Programme Secretariat, Geneva,
purpose of the project, the organization that funded presentation on the forest. Owen, R.E., 1966. New Zealand Forestry. Government Printer, Switzerland. https://www.un-redd.org/ (accessed 13.08.19).
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22 2. Forest regions of the world Forest regions of the world 23

need for the conservation and preservation of forest In describing forests of the world, we could use an North America, western and central Europe, eastern
C H A P T E R values. Some of the issues facing forestry and natural ecological approach to address the broad floristic prov- Asia, and parts of Australia, New Zealand, and Patagonia
resource management are specific to a certain locale or inces that correspond to widespread climatic and phys- all host temperate forest biomes. Temperate biomes are

2
culture. Ultimately, the regional, national, and interna- iographic conditions. For example, United States forests productive and dynamic ecosystems that continuously
tional issues that affect forests and natural resources can be categorized into three broad classes: coniferous change in response to climatic variation, diseases, and hu-
are rooted in the social, political, environmental, and (west coast, Alaskan, and interior west forests), mixed man alterations of the landscape (Willis, 2011). Seasonal
economic fabric of society. The challenges that social, coniferous and deciduous (southern and southeastern variation is determined mainly by changes in air temper-
political, environmental, and economic issues pose for forests), and deciduous (northeastern, midwestern, ature, and air temperature extremes are greater in this

Forest regions of the world

forests and natural resources is therefore highly perti- and Lake States forests). In this case, the outward biome than those that might be experienced in the tropical
nent to the conservation and use of forests and natural appearance (physiognomy) and structural condition of biome. Over the course of a year, air temperature ex-
resources. Upon completion of this chapter, readers forests are widely used in a relatively broad sense to tremes may range from
30 to 30 C (
22e86 F). During
should be able to understand describe the type of forest found in a region. winter, forests in this biome enter dormancy. This phase
• the historical aspects of forest use and development Using an ecological approach, forests can also be clas- of the year involves the cessation of tree growth, the
O U T L I N E on different continents; sified by their major ecological community, or biome loss of old leaves and needles through abscission (a total
(Fig. 2.1). Three major, broad types of forest biomes are FIGURE 2.2 White spruce (Picea glauca) forest in central Alaska, loss in the case of deciduous trees), and a series of
• some of the social, political, environmental, and United States. L.B. Brubaker, U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric
economic forces that have shaped the current found on Earth: boreal, temperate, and tropical. While biochemical changes that protect trees from frost damage,
2.1 North America 24 2.4.5 Russian Federation 54 Administration, through Wikimedia Commons.
composition and distribution of forested areas in a geographical latitude plays a significant role in defining Image Link: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Picea_glauca_taiga.jpg
drought, and starvation (Willis, 2011). The soils of
2.1.1 United States of America 27 2.4.6 Spain 55
number of nations; and where these biomes occur, elevation and climate also do. License Link: Public Domain temperate forests are generally richer in nutrient content
2.1.2 Canada 32 2.4.7 United Kingdom 55
• the range of tree species that inhabit various forested For example, the boreal forest (Fig. 2.2), or taiga, is gener- than boreal forest soils, and the decomposition rate of for-
2.1.3 Mexico 33
2.5 Asia 56 areas and the timber and some of the nontimber forest ally found in areas with relatively short, warm sum- form (snow or ice) in boreal forests, rather than liquid est litter and coarse woody debris (CWD; which varies by
2.2 Central America 34 products (NTFPs) that are available for internal and mers, and long, cold winters. Boreal forests compose form. These forests generally have a continuous tree species) is generally more rapid. Temperate decidu-
2.5.1 China 57
2.2.1 Costa Rica 35 exportable uses. the largest of the three biomes and are situated in North covering of snow in the winter, but there is no contin- ous and temperate coniferous forests are characterized
2.5.2 Indonesia 60
2.2.2 Guatemala 36 America, Europe, and Asia, as well as in a small strip of uous permafrost present in the soil resource (Hicks, as experiencing precipitation events that are spread rela-
2.5.3 Japan 61 The evolutionary development of natural forests
2.2.3 Honduras 37 South America along the Andes Mountains. Boreal for- 2011). However, the soil resources found in this biome tively evenly throughout the year. Subdivisions of
2.5.4 Republic of Korea (South Korea) 62 around the world is a function of climatic, edaphic (a
2.2.4 Nicaragua 38 ests are associated with (or are in proximity to) high are generally shallow and of poorer quality than soil re- temperate forests are based not only on changes in topog-
general term related to soil characteristics), and dynamic
2.2.5 Panama 39 2.6 Africa and low Arctic tundra conditions as climates get colder sources that might be found in other biomes. In addition, raphy, but also on differences in the intensity and timing
63 plant relationships, and these factors help explain why a
(generally in higher latitudes), and a transition from the decomposition rate of forest litter and coarse woody of climatic events. For example, dry coniferous forests are
2.3 South America 40 2.6.1 Democratic Republic of the Congo 63 certain type of forest is growing in a certain area (Barnes
northern to southern boreal forests occurs as climates debris is fairly slow due to primarily low temperatures. generally found at higher elevations, where annual pre-
2.3.1 Argentina 41 2.6.2 Ghana 67 et al., 1998). Several common, basic characterizations of
get warmer (generally in lower latitudes). Tundra en- Moisture is fairly abundant in boreal soils; thus, peat cipitation is low; moist coniferous or deciduous forests
2.3.2 Bolivia 43 2.6.3 Nigeria 68 forests are used and very generally suggest that forests
compasses treeless areas near the polar deserts, where bogs (or muskegs) are common throughout the biome. are found in areas lower in elevation, where there is a
2.3.3 Brazil 44 2.6.4 South Africa 68 are composed of
air temperatures are below freezing for about seven While this biome can accommodate forests, because of wet winter and a dry summer. Mediterranean forests
2.3.4 Chile 45 2.6.5 United Republic of Tanzania 69 • either softwoods (e.g., pines) or hardwoods (e.g., months of the year, and where continuous permafrost harsh environmental conditions, tree growth is gener- have precipitation events mainly in the winter months,
2.3.5 Colombia 46
oaks) or both; is present in the soil resource. Vegetation in a boreal for- ally slower here than in other areas of the world. the extent of which may be limited.
2.3.6 Peru 47 2.7 Oceania 70
• either coniferous (e.g., pines, cedars, cypress) or est is simple, when compared to the other forest types, The temperate forest biome (Fig. 2.3) covers approxi- The tropical biome contains a variety of forest types
2.3.7 Venezuela 47 2.7.1 Australia 72 deciduous trees (e.g., oaks, hickories, poplars) or and usually consists of hardy, coniferous tree species mately one-fifth of the available land areas in the mid to (Fig. 2.4), situated in terrestrial areas within the tropical
2.4 Europe 48 2.7.2 New Zealand 73 some mixture of tree species; in the overstory, low-growing ericaceous shrubs (e.g., upper latitudes and is generally situated in areas with a
2.4.1 Austria 51 2.7.3 Papua New Guinea 73 • trees that have either needles or leaves, in either pure blueberries, cranberries, and heather), and a thick well-defined, yet relatively mild, winter season. Eastern
2.4.2 Belarus 52 Summary or mixed stands; and ground layer of lichens and mosses (Hicks, 2011). The
74
2.4.3 Finland 53 • trees that are either gymnosperms (or naked seed plants, length of a typical tree-growing season in a boreal forest
2.4.4 Germany 53 References 76 since their seeds are not enclosed during pollination), is generally less than four months but varies depending
angiosperms (where the seeds are contained in fruits), on whether the forest is situated in the northern or
or, again, some combination of these. southern boreal zone. Precipitation often arrives in solid
A broad perspective on the distribution, composition, land) and the natural expansion of forests. However,
development, and use of forests around the world is a gains in forest areas have mainly been achieved in
necessary foundation for fully understanding the chal- higher global latitudes (temperate and boreal forests),
lenges facing forestry and natural resource manage- while losses continue to be incurred in tropical latitudes
ment. This is increasingly important today, given the (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
continued expansion of human populations and the Nations, 2010). In developed countries, domestically
ominous threat of global climate change. The world’s to- produced forest products and imported forest products
tal amount of forest area has been estimated to be from a wide variety of forest regions are used in the
around four billion hectares (ha; nearly 10 billion acres everyday lives of people. In developing countries, peo-
[ac]). While the rate of deforestation may currently be ple directly rely on immediately accessible forests for
high in some areas of the world, deforestation is slowing their daily consumptive needs, to heat or cook with, FIGURE 2.4 The Amazon rainforest, as seen from the Alto Madre
down on a global level due to large-scale afforestation and for generating income. It is indeed an understate- de Dios River, in Peru. Martin St. Amant, through Wikimedia Commons.
Image Link: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:7_-_Itahuania_-_Ao%
programs (planting trees on previously nonforested ment to note that in every country one can identify a
FIGURE 2.3 Temperate coniferous forests along the Columbia C3%BBt_2008.JPG
FIGURE 2.1 Major biomes of the Earth. Ville Koistinen, through Wikimedia Commons. River in the western United States. David W. Wilkinson. License Link: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/
Image Link: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Vegetation.png
Introduction to Forestry and Natural Resources, Second Edition License Link: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-819002-9.00002-X 21 © 2022 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
24 2. Forest regions of the world 2.1 North America 25
zone of the planet, at lower latitudes around the equator. does not completely close. Savannas can be found in Europeans and others. Approximately 20,000 years ago, landscape much more quickly than indigenous methods
In terms of plant and animal life, tropical forests are some any biome and represent a transition between closed- an ice sheet 3e4 kilometers (km; 1.9e2.5 miles [mi]) did. At one time in the development of North America,
of the most complex and diverse areas on the planet. canopy forests and prairies or deserts. Finally, steppe thick stretched from the North Pole southward, covering trees from New England forests were removed not only
However, in comparison to boreal and temperate biome forests are generally transition zones between boreal all of Canada and most of the northern United States to create agricultural land, but also to produce exports
forests, the soil resources found in tropical forests may and temperate biomes. Examples of these include the from Maine to Washington and as far south as Illinois, that would enhance the shipbuilding industry in England
be poor and the decomposition rate of forest litter and quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides) forests of Canadian Indiana, Iowa, New Jersey, Ohio, and Pennsylvania. and the sugar industry in Barbados (Perlin, 1989). More
CWD is fairly rapid. Thus, nutrients are continually prairie provinces and the birch (Betula spp.) and aspen This last period of glaciation stripped the landscape of recently, both developmental issues (aesthetics, housing,
recycled in these ecosystems. Interest in tropical forests groves of the Daurian forests between Siberia and all vegetation and lowered sea levels. The period also recreation, water, etc.) and external trade with other
is great because they contain an immense gene pool. Trop- Mongolia. Steppe forests contain not only parklike led to the formation of the Bering land bridge, which countries (e.g., China and Japan) have influenced the
ical forests have survived changing climates and geolog- stands of trees but also a grassy understory. was instrumental in connecting human populations in amount of pressure placed on North American forests.
ical upheavals and have expanded their ranges (e.g., An ecological approach is very useful for describing the Asia with the unpopulated American continents. As A large portion of North America is too arid to sup-
across land bridges) when opportunities became avail- natural forests of the world, and we allude to these biomes the ice sheets receded, plant and wildlife species spread port natural forest growth (Fig. 2.5). However, North

26
able (Morley, 2011). Tropical forests generally have two as individual countries are discussed in the next section of into the empty lands via natural processes such as ani- American forests are diverse, ranging from the tropical
seasons: rainy and dry. The availability of electromagnetic this chapter. We structured the remainder of the chapter in mal defecation, water, and wind. In addition, the sea forests of Mexico and the Caribbean, to the temperate
energy for photosynthesis (i.e., daylight) is very consis- a geographic manner to provide a synthesis of forests in level rose, and the Bering land bridge disappeared, leav- forests of the eastern and western United States, and
tent, and year-round variations in air temperature are countries based on the continent with which they are typi- ing the American continents with human occupants. the boreal forests of Canada and Alaska. Canada and
minimal. The average air temperature range is generally cally associated. Five countries (Brazil, Canada, China, the Among the different indigenous groups of North the United States each have over 900 million ha (over
20e25 C (68e77 F), rarely falling below 18 C, and these Russian Federation, and the United States) contain more America were nomadic and agrarian-based tribes. The 2.2 billion ac) of land area, and each is currently about TABLE 2.1 Demographic and physiographic data for North and Central America.a
parts of the world are basically frost-free. Subdivisions than half of the world’s total forest area, while over 50 nomadic tribes, which were basically hunter-gathers, one-third forested (Table 2.1). The other main North
Human population Total land area2 Total land area2 Forest area annual Per capita GDP (PPP)
of tropical rainforests are determined partly by the countries are less than 10% forested (Food and Agricul- included the Cheyenne, the Sioux, and agrarian-based American country, Mexico, is also about one-third Country 20181 (million) (1000 ha) (1000 ac) Forest cover2 (%) change 2010e152 (%) 171&b (1000 US$)
amount and duration of precipitation that occurs and ture Organization of the United Nations, 2015). This communities such as the Hopi and Navajo of the south- forested. Table 2.1 provides data for areas that the Belize <1 2281 5634 60
0.4 5.1
partly by physical habitat conditions. For example, chapter focuses on only a few of the major and perhaps western United States and the Iroquois of the northeastern Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Canada 37 909,351 2,246,097 38 e 45.0
monsoon rainforests have a prolonged dry season and a topically interesting (from a forestry perspective) coun- United States. Indigenous populations depended to a Nations (2015, 2020) considers to be integrally tied to Costa Rica 5 5106 12,612 54 1.1 11.7
short rainy season, whereas seasonal rainforests have a tries located within each continent. Although in general great extent on the forests and the natural resources that the continent of North America. In our geographical Cuba 11 10,644 26,291 30 1.8 8.4
short dry period every year. In contrast, evergreen rain- this chapter provides a positive, objective view of forest they encountered. For instance, in the southwestern approach to describing the forested areas of the world, Dominican Republic 10 4832 11,935 41 1.8 7.1
forests generally do not have a dry season. Semievergreen regions of the world, the use of land and the management United States, indigenous communities were often we discuss Central American countries separately in

2. Forest regions of the world

Guatemala 17 10,716 26,469 33
1.0 4.5
rainforests have a longer dry season than evergreen rain- of forests have been associated with their fair share of concentrated near pinyon-juniper (Pinus edulis, Juniperus the next section. Broadly speaking, the Food and Agri-
Honduras 9 11,189 27,637 41
2.4 2.5
forests, and some of the canopy is occupied by deciduous recent political and environmental controversies. As an spp.) forests because pinyon seeds were an important culture Organization of the United Nations estimates
Mexico 126 194,395 480,156 34
0.1 9.0
tree species. Mangrove forests are a form of tidal forest sit- introduction to forestry and natural resource manage- part of their diet. Further, diaries from early European ex-
Nicaragua 6 12,034 29,724 26 e 2.2
uated in brackish wetlands between land and sea, in river ment, we allude to and briefly discuss some of the plorers indicate that large populations of indigenous peo-
Panama 4 7434 18,362 62
0.4 15.1
deltas, and along sheltered coastlines. The tree species various conflicts, challenges, and national forest policies ple lived near the Mississippi River owing to the vast
United States of 327 916,192 2,262,994 34 0.1 60.1
found in some of these tropical forests (e.g., mangroves) of select countries. Forest and natural resource policies available areas of cultivable farmland. Southeastern indig- America
need to be very salt-tolerant, given their proximity to salt- arise from political, social, environmental, and economic enous groups were also known to burn large areas of the Other countries or 30 50,192 123,974 26 0.1 8.0
water bodies. Tropical lowland evergreen forests are problems. The following sections describe some of these forested landscape in efforts to improve wildlife habitat territories (28)c
perhaps the richest and most luxurious of all plant com- issues; however, delving deeply into the vast array of so- quality (Lavender, 1958). Unfortunately, explorers and North and Central 582 2,134,366 5,271,884 35 e 33.3
America (total)b
munities in the world. These forests are found in tropical cioeconomic and political controversies that face forest early colonists exposed vulnerable native populations to
areas that are relatively wet all year round. They are management throughout the world is beyond the scope several infectious diseases (such as chicken pox, measles, a
b
That are more than 20% forested and have more than 3,000,000 ac (about 1,214,100 ha) of forest.
Gross domestic product (GDP) expressed as purchasing power parity (PPP).
composed of a dense, evergreen tree canopy and multiple of this book. For example, critical social and political is- and smallpox), which killed approximately 80% of the c
Excludes Greenland and Saint Pierre and Miquelon.
layers of vegetation that form distinct vegetative strata. sues and events have shaped the profession of forestry existing indigenous human population (Lewy, 2004).
1
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations 2020.
2
FAO. Global Forest Resources Assessment 2015. Desk Reference. Rome, 2015.
These forests have also been characterized through books in Thailand (Usher, 2009) and, while these are intriguing, When European settlers began to colonize land in
and movies as the Jungle (Morley, 2011). they require extensive treatment in order to adequately what is now the United States and Canada, they believed
Other types of forests are found in the transition describe the actors, events, and issues related to the man- they had found an endless sea of forests that could be
zones between the three main biomes. Cloud forests, agement of the environment. Although explorations of used to build ships and heat homes, and land on which
for example, are often found in tropical or subtropical deeper issues in forestry and natural resource manage- they could grow agricultural crops. With the decline of
areas, where there is consistent low-level cloud cover ment are left for others to pursue, this chapter should the indigenous populations, due both to infectious dis-
that hangs in the sky at about the maximum height of broaden the reader’s perspective on the use and care of eases and to intermittent wars with European settlers,
the forest canopy. These forests are characterized as forests in different regions of the world. many indigenous lands devoid of trees reverted back to
having a significant amount of mossy vegetation, and a natural forested state, enhancing the image of an
many are located in Central and South America, Africa, endless sea of forests. Colonists from Europe generally
and Asia. Montane forests, on the other hand, are situ- 2.1 North America had a different perspective on how forests and natural re-
ated along mountain ranges, and can be characterized sources should be managed and utilized than did indig-
as boreal, temperate, or tropical, depending on the The history of forests in many parts of North America enous people, who managed forests and natural FIGURE 2.5 Satellite image of North and Central America.
National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Reto Stöckli, and Robert
prevailing climate of the region. Savannas are grassy has been shaped by the advances and retreats of ice resources under an informal communal model. European
Simmon, through Wikimedia Commons.
ecosystems that may contain a variable density forest sheets from the most recent ice age, the use of land by settlers brought with them a system of private property Image Link: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:North_America_satellite_
of trees that are widely spaced; thus, the tree canopy indigenous people, and the colonization of land by rights and more sophisticated agricultural and forest orthographic.jpg
management technologies that transformed the License Link: Public Domain

2.1 North America 27 28 2. Forest regions of the world 2.1 North America 29
that, as a whole, North and Central American countries the public grew concerned over the exploitation of forests US Department of the Interior (Muhn and Stuart, 1988). TABLE 2.2 Roundwood output in the Southern United States, 2015, by product (1000 Cubic
experienced negligible forest area change over the five- in numerous regions of the country, and conservation of This agency now administers about 109 million ha (270 Meters).
year period from 2010 to 2015. forests and natural resources became a significant issue. million ac) of forest and rangeland in the United States.
Product Softwood (coniferous) Hardwood (deciduous) Total
More recently, the rate of change in forested areas of the The US Forest Service administers about 78 million ha
United States over the 2010e2015 period was slightly (about 193 million ac) of predominantly forested land. Sawlogs 1,836,576 689,748 2,526,325
2.1.1 United States of America positive (Table 2.1). Finally, both the US Environmental Protection Agency Veneer logs or bolts 299,676 28,059 327,735
The United States of America (Fig. 2.6) contains about Of the forested land in the United States, about 57% is and the Department of Energy, neither of which directly
Pulpwood 2,708,699 834,637 3,543,336
916 million ha of land (about 2.263 billion ac), 34% of privately owned (Food and Agriculture Organization of manages land, currently have programs that promote
which is forested (Table 2.1). In the early development the United Nations, 2010), yet land ownership patterns increasing carbon sequestration by forests (Birdsey Composite panels 185,350 7,580 192,929
of the country, fire was used extensively in forested areas vary across the country, from high percentages of pri- et al., 2006). Poles and posts 72,754 100 72,855
by both indigenous people and early settlers to remove vate land in the eastern and southern states to relatively Forests of the southern United States, which encom-
Other 596,720 198,162 794,882
cover, provide firebreaks, facilitate hunting activities, even percentages of state, federal, and private land in pass a broad area ranging from Virginia to Texas, are
some of the western states. Private forest land in the naturally considered temperate broad-leaved (decidu- Fuelwood 374,808 e 374,808
and improve the condition of grassy vegetation for stock
feed (Lavender, 1958). From the early 15th to the late 19th United States is managed by company foresters, consul- ous) forest areas and subtropical forest areas. Historically, Total 6,074,584 1,758,286 7,832,870
centuries, forests both assisted and hindered the settle- tants, or the landowners themselves. Most of the larger naturally regenerated native coniferous forests could be
USDA. https://www.fia.fs.fed.us/program-features/tpo/. Forest Inventory and Analysis National Program. Website. US
ment of the United States by nonindigenous people. companies have, or are seeking, forest certification found in areas where natural or anthropogenic events Forest Service. 2015; Johnson, T.G., Bentley, J.W., Howell, M., 2011. The South’s Timber IndustrydAn Assessment of
Forests provided early settlers with fuel and building ma- through programs such as the Sustainable Forestry Initia- allowed successional stages to revert to states where coni- Timber Product Output and Use, 2009. US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station, Asheville,

terials, clothing, food, and medicine, yet were also cleared tive, which is described in Chapter 15. A large number of fers could capture resources and compete effectively with NC. Resource Bulletin SRS-182. 44 p.

for agricultural and grazing purposes (Anderson and private landowners also belong to the American Tree deciduous trees. In this regard, fire was one of the main
Smith, 1976). As settlers moved west across the United Farm System. Aside from the requirement to comply tools used by early settlers and Native Americans. Dur- maple (Acer saccharum), white spruce (Picea glauca), and McCaskill et al., 2011). In Minnesota, public forestland
States, early pioneers considered forests as an impedi- with federal and state regulations, private landowners ing the first part of the 20th century, fire was also the pre- yellow birch (Betula alleghaniensis), grown in even-aged ownership (56%) is the highest of any eastern state,
are relatively free to employ a wide variety of forest dominant tool used in the management of land in the FIGURE 2.7 Young and mature pine stands, as viewed from above, or uneven-aged, mixed species stands. In the Midwest and this is nearly evenly divided among state, county,
ment to progress and, since agricultural uses of the land in southern Alabama, United States. US Department of Agriculture,
predominated, little thought was given to the conserva- management systems. State lands are managed by rep- southern United States and was widely used to reduce Natural Resources Conservation Service (2020).
and Lake States of the United States, one might find for- and federal ownership. Forty-four percent of forestland
tion of natural resources (Muhn and Stuart, 1988). The resentatives (foresters and natural resource managers) tree stocking and enhance range conditions for livestock ests composed of American elm (Ulmus americana), black in Minnesota is privately owned, 37% by nonindustrial
clearing of land for agricultural uses increased from employed by each state. Each state also develops its (Birdsey et al., 2006). With the onset of fire prevention pol- ash (Fraxinus nigra), black spruce (Picea mariana), jack landowners, and about 7% by corporations. Corpora-
about 1700 to 1860 and then began to decline; however, own goals and objectives for state-owned forests, and icies, the development of pine plantations, and the estab- own distinct objectives and constraints, as we will see in pine (Pinus banksiana), paper birch, quaking aspen, red tions also own about 10% of the forestland in Wisconsin
fuelwood use peaked in the United States around 1875 these too are guided by certain aspects of applicable fed- lishment of forests on marginal agricultural lands, the Chapter 3. The larger landowners and the national for- pine (Pinus resinosa), and sugar maple, tamarack (Larix and 15% of the forestland in Michigan (Miles et al., 2011).
(Birdsey et al., 2006). Forest harvesting activities began eral and state regulations as well as the goal of the state broad-scale use of prescribed fire is now limited. Forests ests in this region have usually developed long-term laricina). When managed for commercial purposes, The central United States is composed of temperate
in the northeastern states and Lake States, then shifted lands. Much of the state forests in the western United of the southern United States now consist of a broad array management plans, yet very few of the smaller land- even-aged forests have relatively long rotation lengths broadleaved forest areas, and oak forests encompass
to the southern states, and finally moved to the western States are managed in a trust to generate revenues for of coniferous and deciduous forests, some managed very owners have developed these. Some states and local (80e100 years) compared to forests of the southern over 50% of the timberland in the region (Chapman
states by the early 20th century. Eventually, segments of the state schools. Federal lands (e.g., the Forest Service intensively and others very lightly. The pine plantation governments have developed policies and regulations United States (20e40 years). Forestland ownership et al., 2006). As in other areas of North America, Native
and Bureau of Land Management [BLM]) are managed forests (Fig. 2.7) of this region are among the most pro- that govern forestry activities but, for the most part, for- varies by state, but private land ownership dominates Americans influenced forest cover types through the use
by federal foresters and natural resource managers. A ductive in the world. Seventy-five percent of the pulp- est management activities are guided by state-level, the northern region of the country. As an example, in of fire to clear land for agricultural purposes and to
number of federal regulations guide the development wood produced in the United States arises from the voluntary Best Management Practices (BMPs) in the Maine, 93% of the forestland is privately owned, by in- drive wildlife game species during hunts (Drury and
of goals, objectives, and plans for federal forests in the southern states (Johnson et al., 2011b). Some important southern United States. The generation of commercial dividuals, corporations, timberland investment organi- Runkle, 2006). Lumber production activity began in
United States. Other types of landowner groups can tree species that are grown, harvested, and exported forest products from the southern United States is very zations, and real estate investment trusts (REITs; earnest in this region in the mid-19th century. In the
also be found in the United States, and these are both to other regions of the United States and internation- high, making it one of the most competitive markets in late 19th century large expanses of forests in this region
described in more detail in Chapter 3. ally include loblolly pine (Pinus taeda), slash pine (Pinus the world (Table 2.2). Coniferous tree species are mainly were cleared for charcoal production purposes and the
In 1905, Gifford Pinchot became the first chief of the elliottii), longleaf pine (Pinus palustris), and shortleaf used as pulpwood (for pulp and paper) and sawlogs (for production of pig-iron (Williams, 1982). Most of these
U.S. Forest Service under President Theodore Roosevelt. pine (Pinus echinata). In addition, southern forests contain lumber and other solid wood products) and, while de- areas regenerated naturally and, today, typical forests
Pinchot was a great advocate of conservation for forests numerous commercially important hardwood tree spe- ciduous tree species are also used mainly for pulpwood in the central states are composed of overstories of black
and their natural resources. He championed sustainable cies (e.g., black walnut [Juglans nigra], maples, oaks, and and sawlogs, these species are the main fuelwood sour- cherry (Prunus serotina), black walnut, oaks and hicko-
management of forests and coined the term conservation yellow-poplar [Liriodendron tulipifera]) that support ces for households equipped to utilize wood stoves. ries, red maple (Acer rubrum), sugar maple, white ash
ethic. His perspective on the use of forests clashed with furniture industries in states such as Mississippi, North In the northeastern and Lake States regions of the (Fraxinus americana), and yellow-poplar. American
those of preservationists such as John Muir, but Pinchot Carolina, and Tennessee. United States, forests are generally temperate broad- beech, blackgum (Nyssa sylvatica), and maples can be
was instrumental in the early development of the U.S. Forests of the southern United States face several leaved forests with some boreal forests in the higher el- found in the midstory of the forest canopy, and maples
National Forest System. Since the early 20th century, the challenges in the future, including those related to evations and latitudes. Forests generally regenerate and sassafras (Sassafras albidum) may be prevalent in
United States has developed a series of national policies climate change, human population growth, invasive naturally on harvested or disturbed lands and on mar- the understory (Chiang et al., 2008). As an overstory
and agencies to support the notion of sustainable forest species, and uncertainties in timber markets (Wear and ginal agricultural lands. However, these forests tree species, yellow-poplar prefers lower slopes and
management (SFM). For instance, the U.S. National Greis, 2011). Of the forestland in the southern United (Fig. 2.8) are generally managed less intensively than sheltered coves, while oaks are more abundant in ungla-
Park Service was created in 1916 to manage national States, over 68% is owned by private individuals and forests in the southern states (Birdsey et al., 2006). In ciated areas with drier conditions and thinner soils
parks and other historically significant areas for conserva- families (perhaps as family farms), around 19% is Maine and northern New England, one can find forests (Widmann et al., 2009). However, in some areas,
tion, education, and recreation purposes. Further, the owned by forest companies and corporate entities, and composed of tree species such as American beech (Fagus younger forests are composed of overstories of maple
FIGURE 2.6 Countries in North America. Modified image from BLM was formed in 1946 by the merger of the Grazing over 12% is owned and managed by various local, state, grandifolia), balsam fir (Abies balsamea), eastern white FIGURE 2.8 Forested landscape during the fall season in Maine, tree species (Drury and Runkle, 2006). Northern hard-
PresentationMaps.com. Service and General Land Office, two entities within the or federal public agencies. Each landowner can have its pine (Pinus strobus), paper birch (Betula papyrifera), sugar United States. Samantha Langley. wood forests also occur in some areas of the central

30 2. Forest regions of the world 2.1 North America 31 32 2. Forest regions of the world

United States, and these may typically be represented by states to Oklahoma and, after 1920, the frequency has these forests (McIntosh et al., 2009). Douglas-fir is the and over half is managed by the federal government. introduced from Polynesia (Mascaro et al., 2008). Mesic
overstories of American beech and sugar maple. In both risen from once every 10 years to once every 80 years dominant commercial tree species and is often found in Public ownership of California’s forests in 2005 was forests on the windward slopes of mountains consist of
types of forests, maples could very likely be the domi- or more in some areas (Guyette et al., 2006). Forest plantations, and is managed in a manner similar to about 60%, nonindustrial private landowners owned species such as koa (Acacia koa), one of the few endemic
nant understory tree species (Widmann et al., 2009). composition continuously changes and, as upland oak- loblolly pine in the southern United States, although about 26% of the forestland, and private corporations tree species that dominate the montane forests of Hawaii
The influences of agriculture, expanding deer popula- hickory forests in this area mature, large-scale oak with a few notable exceptions with regard to site prepara- owned about 14%. Most of the merchantable wood vol- (Baker and Scowcroft, 2005). Koa is also commonly
tions, fire, grazing, insect and disease outbreaks, and pe- decline and mortality has increased, a process closely tion (rarely mechanical), planting method (mainly by ume is located in the northern part of the state. Over the found in wet forests along with ‘
ohi’a lehua (Metrosideros
riodic seed crops can affect the future composition of associated with disease, drought, forest succession, hand due to an area’s steepness), the use of intermediate last 50 years, timber harvest levels have been declining polymorpha) and many other tropical tree species.
forest ecosystems in the central states (Drury and stress, and other factors (Fan et al., 2011). treatments such as precommercial thinning, and longer gradually on both federal and private land. Of the tree Further, of the native tree species, koa is perhaps the
Runkle, 2006). In fact, fire suppression in the last 80 Wood utilization reached its peak in 1899 in the Ozark even-aged rotation lengths (35e55 years). The Pacific species that are harvested, most are conifers: Douglas most ecologically and economically important.
years or so has favored fire-sensitive tree species over Mountains, which supported the industrialization of the Northwest is a very productive timber-growing region, fir (27%), true firs (21%), ponderosa pine (18%), and red- Currently, forestry operations in Hawaii are limited,
fire-adapted oaks, and in many areas oaks are being area. By 1920, much of the original mature forest cover and timber harvest levels over the last 50 years reached wood (16%). Recently, it was estimated that forest although there are areas managed as commercial forest
replaced by shade-tolerant, fire-intolerant tree species. had been harvested for wood products and a period of a peak in the late 1960s and early 1970s but hit a low point growth in California substantially exceeded harvest plantations and, along with short-rotation fiber planta-
Other important causes of forest disturbance include forest recovery began (Guldin, 2008). Fire control was in 2009. In 2010, 68% of the timber harvest in these two rates (Christensen et al., 2008). tions, agroforestry is also being considered. High-
droughts, ice storms, insects and diseases (e.g., Dutch one of the main tools used in the recovery process, states was produced from private forestlands and, of In Alaska, coniferous and mixed species boreal for- density biomass plantations have been tested in Hawaii
elm disease), land use changes, and logging, followed although the forest succession reaction is, as we noted the public land harvest, about two-thirds came from state ests are generally located in the central part of the state, using eucalypt (Eucalyptus spp.) (Whitesell et al., 1992)
perhaps by abandonment of the land (Widmann et al., a moment ago, complex. Since about the 1940s, the Mis- rather than federal lands (Warren, 2011). The land owner- along with large expanses of tundra, and montane and and loblolly pine (Harms et al., 2000) tree species, and
2009). In some areas of the central states, recent losses souri Ozark forests have experienced a demand for ship distribution is skewed more toward public owner- boreal coniferous forests are located in the southeast in some cases greater growth potential can be attained
of forestland to developmental land uses (e.g., urban products and services that range from lumber to wildlife ship in this region of the country than in the eastern part of the state. The boreal forest of Alaska occupies here than in these species’ native environments.
areas) have been more than offset by gains in forestland habitat and water. In the Ozarks and other areas of the United States. For example, in Washington State, about an area that spans from the Pacific Ocean to the Cana-
from the reversion of abandoned farmland to forests United States, a number of state-level and federal pol- 44% of the forests are controlled by the federal govern- dian border, and has perhaps the most severe climate
(Widmann et al., 2009). As with other regions, the distri- icies have been implemented over the last 70 years to ment and about 13% are owned by the state. The remain- conditions in the world, with air temperatures as low
2.1.2 Canada
bution of land ownership varies by state. For example, enhance the value of forests, physically protect some FIGURE 2.10 Ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) forests in south-central ing 43% are owned by private individuals, corporations, as
70 C and annual precipitation rates that rarely The 10 provinces and 3 territories of Canada amount
Washington, United States. Pierre Nordique, through Wikimedia Commons.
private family forest landowners own about 75% of the watersheds, and generally promote forest vigor and Image Link: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Pinus_ponderosa_
Timberland Investment Management Organizations exceed 50 cm. As a result, few tree species can be found to a little over 909 million ha of land (2.246 billion ac), of
forestland in Indiana (Woodall et al., 2011) and about health (Guldin, 2008). Manashtash_Ridge.jpg (TIMOs) and Real Estate Investment Trusts (REITs) here; some of these include balsam poplar (Populus balsa- which about 38% is forested (Table 2.1). The forests of
85% of the forestland in Iowa (Nelson et al., 2011). In the western United States, two general types of for- License Link: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/deed.en (Campbell et al., 2010). mifera), Alaska white birch (Betula neoalaskana), Kenai Canada represent about 10% of the total world forest
In Ohio, 12% of the forestland is publicly owned; 73% ests exist: wet forests and dry forests. The wet forests In northern California, one might find Douglas-fir, birch (Betula kenaica), quaking aspen, black spruce, white area, an area similar to that of the United States. Canada
is owned by private individuals and families (over (Fig. 2.9) are those generally to the west of the Cascade through precipitation. These temperate, and relatively redwood (Sequoia sempervirens), and western red cedar spruce, and tamarack (Anderson and Brubaker, 1994; is said to be represented by at least 10 major forest re-
336,000); and 15% is owned by corporations, nonfamily and Sierra Nevada mountains or in the coast ranges. dry montane forests can be found in Arizona, Colorado, forests in temperate coastal forests. Ferns, salmonberry, Liang, 2010). Since about 1990, the boreal forests of the gions (Drushka, 2003), including the extensive boreal
partnerships, Native American tribes, nongovernmental The dry forests (Fig. 2.10) are those generally to the Idaho, Montana, New Mexico, Utah, and Wyoming, and thistle can be found in the understory of these Kenai Peninsula and interior Alaska have experienced forest that stretches the entire width of the country,
organizations (NGOs), clubs, and other nonfamily pri- east of these ranges, due to the orographic lifting of air with minor amounts in South Dakota. In the drier south- lush forests. Douglas-fir, true firs, Jeffrey pine (Pinus jef- significant spruce beetle (Dendroctonus rufipennis) out- and the Great Lakes forests of the southern and eastern
vate groups (Widmann et al., 2009). masses over the mountains. As air from the Pacific western and interior western United States, one may freyi), lodgepole pine, ponderosa pine, and sugar pine breaks (Boucher and Mead, 2006). Forests in southeast half of the country. A large portion of the unforested
The Ozark Mountains are situated in an area between Ocean travels east across the landscape and gains alti- find grand fir (Abies grandis), subalpine fir or Rocky (Pinus lambertiana) forests are generally found in the and south-central Alaska contain Alaska yellow-cedar land in Canada lies in the northern territories, where
the southern United States and Lake States (mainly tude, it cools and the air masses lose water content Mountain fir (Abies lasiocarpa), lodgepole pine (Pinus inland northern forest areas of California. Southern Cal- (Chamaecyparis nootkatensis), Sitka spruce, western hem- the climate is too harsh to support forest growth.
Arkansas and Missouri), where temperate broadleaved contorta), pinyon pine (Pinus quadrifolia), and ponderosa ifornia has a number of pine species unique to this area lock, and western red cedar (Thuja plicata) at low eleva- Further, the prairies of the central provinces generally
forests naturally reside. Oak-hickory forests are the pine (Pinus ponderosa) forests and forests composed of and is quite different and composed of Mediterranean tions; mountain hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana) at higher lack the moisture necessary to support natural forest
dominant vegetation type in this area. Throughout the other tree species that are adapted to arid climates, vegetation and forests, where the climate is generally elevations; and some areas of aspen, birch, and Barclay’s growth. The dominant tree species of the boreal forests
early 20th century, this region had a long history of forest including an inland variant of Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga very dry during the summer months. These areas range willow (Salix barclayi), black spruce, and white spruce are black spruce, white spruce, and tamarack. The
fires and unregulated grazing activities (Chapman et al., menziesii). Wildfire and the suppression of fire have from the Central Valley and Sierra Nevada foothills to (Barrett and Christensen, 2011). The economies and Acadian forests of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and
2006). The understory and midstory vegetation of these shaped the historical and current character of the forests the central coast ranges of California, and south to communities of southeast Alaska are diverse and Prince Edward Island (Fig. 2.11) contain a mixture of
forests usually consists of dogwood (Cornus florida), of the interior western United States. In addition, recent Mexico (Fenn et al., 2011). Southern California forests affected by forest management direction, and while coniferous and deciduous trees, including aspen,
hickories, and oaks. The overstory vegetation may outbreaks of the western spruce budworm (Choristo- are diverse, and blue oak (Quercus douglasii), brittlebush southeast Alaska has an abundant supply of forest re- eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis), white pine, red ma-
consist of black oak (Quercus velutina), white oak (Quer- neura occidentalis) have caused massive defoliation and (Encelia spp.), coastal sagebrush (Artemisia californica), sources, they are primarily controlled by the federal gov- ple, sugar maple, jack pine, red pine, oaks, black spruce,
cus alba), and perhaps shortleaf pine. However, since fire dramatically changed the structure and vegetation dy- manzanita (Arctostaphylos spp.), and other plant species ernment (Crone, 2005). Most (about 75%; over US$100 red spruce (Picea rubens), white spruce, tamarack, yellow
suppression activities began around 100 years ago, namics of vast areas of interior northwest forests. are typically found in the understory. Chaparral and million) of the forest product exports from Alaskan for- birch, and others. Forests of the Rocky Mountain region
blackgum, dogwood, eastern hophornbeam (Ostrya vir- In the Pacific Northwest states (Alaska, Oregon, and oak woodlands are widespread throughout the Medi- ests are to Asian countries, and most of these are in log of Canada are composed primarily of conifers and
giniana), and red maple have become increasingly Washington), it is common to find Douglas-fir, red terranean forest areas of California. These areas are form, from private forestlands (Roos et al., 2011). aspen. In areas west of the Rocky Mountains, mainly
important and abundant tree species in these forests alder (Alnus rubra), Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis), and composed of evergreen shrublands that contain, among The islands of Hawaii contain over 200,000 ha of po- the province of British Columbia, the montane and
(Chapman et al., 2006). The influence of fire on forest western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) forests in the coastal those mentioned earlier and other plant species, big-leaf tential commercial forestland, currently consisting of alpine forests are composed of Douglas-fir, grand fir,
composition has always been closely associated with areas, along with other tree species such as Pacific yew maple (Acer macrophyllum), boxelder (Acer negundo), extensive coniferous, deciduous, and mixed forests; western hemlock, western redcedar, and other conifers
the anthropogenic use of the land (Guldin, 2008), which (Taxus brevifolia). These forests are also characterized as ceanothus (Ceanothus spp.), and perhaps Oregon ash however, some of this land is also (or was recently) (Drushka, 2003).
changes as human settlement patterns change. For temperate, montane forests. Bracken fern (Pteridium aqui- (Fraxinus latifolia) (Fenn et al., 2011). Sudden oak death, used for sugarcane production, and perhaps now lies Prior to widespread development of the country,
example, prior to 1820 the mean fire frequency was FIGURE 2.9 Coniferous forests in Yamhill County, western Ore- linum), salal (Gaultheria shallon), salmonberry (Rubus spec- caused by the fungus Phytophthora ramorum, is of great fallow (Whitesell et al., 1992). Coastal forests are very aboriginal people shaped the Canadian landscape by
gon, United States. M.O. Stevens, through Wikimedia Commons.
about once every 5 to 20 years. Yet between 1820 and Image Link: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Northern_Oregon_
tabilis), sword fern (Polystichum munitum), thistle (Cirsium concern for oak species in California and other states. diverse and may consist of alahe’e (Psydrax odorata), setting fires in order to develop meadows that would
1920, the frequency was once every 2 to 5 years due to Coast_Range_mountains.JPG spp.), and vine maple (Acer circinatum), among other A large portion of the forested area in California can hala (Pandanus tectorius), and kopiko (Psychotria hawai- attract the wildlife necessary to meet basic consumptive
the migration of American Indians from the eastern License Link: Public Domain plant species, are commonly found in the understory of be described as being composed of mixed conifers, iensis), or numerous other native tree species and species needs. Once widespread development of the country
 2.1 North America 33 34 2. Forest regions of the world 2.2 Central America 35
The development of railroads in the late 19th century while the forests are held in common trust. An ejido
further shaped the structure of the forests, as railroads manages the forested area for forest products and ser-
required large volumes of wood for the development vices detailed in plans submitted for approval to the
of bridges and the production of railroad ties. Nearly Environment and Natural Resources Secretary. The eji-
2000 railroad ties were needed per kilometer of railroad datarios are generally male heads of households, and
track, and these needed to be replaced every three or the right to become an ejidatario is passed down through
four years prior to advancements made in the develop- patrilineal family lines. Selected agricultural lands
ment of wood preservatives (Drushka, 2003). In the early within an ejido are given to individual ejidatarios for
20th century, agricultural uses of the land, primarily in cultivation. In 1991, with the enactment of a new
the eastern forests, reduced the amount of forest cover agrarian law and an amendment to the Mexican Consti-
and served to fragment the forests. Petroleum explora- tution, ejidatarios can, with the approval of the ejido,
tion, well sites, and access roads have served to frag- lease or sell land to individuals or corporations
ment some of the western forests. Forest conservation (Kiernan, 2000).
efforts began in the early 20th century but were tempo-
rarily hampered by World Wars I and II. Currently, over
half of the country’s forests are actively managed and, as
FIGURE 2.12 Pine forests in Mexico. Gustavo Perez-Verdin.
2.2 Central America
FIGURE 2.11 Forested coastline, Nova Scotia, Canada. Dylan Kereluk, in the western United States, firefighting policies have
through Wikimedia Commons.
Image Link: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Nova_Scotia_-_by_Dylan_
inadvertently contributed to the character of these for- The political and economic history of Central
Kereluk.jpg ests and have raised forest health concerns (disease balché tree (Lonchocarpus violaceus), caoba or mahogany America (Fig. 2.13) is integrally linked to the develop-
License Link: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/deed.en problems, high forest densities, high fuel loads, and in- (Swietenia macrophylla), cedro rojo (Cedrela odorata), mental history of neighboring countries to the north
sects). Canada has had the highest area of insect distur- guava (Terminalia oblonga), sapodilla (Manilkara zapota), and the evolution of various European countries who
began around the 17th century, fires initiated by steam bance among world countries over the past 10 years, and white olive (Terminalia amazonia). Forest plantations once acted to expand their empires across the Atlantic
engines had a significant role in shaping the structure with extensive outbreaks of the mountain pine beetle (eucalypts, pines, and teaks [Tectona spp.]) have also Ocean. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the
of the forests. Large volumes of wood were harvested (Dendroctonus ponderosae) and forest tent caterpillar become common throughout the country. United Nations (2015, 2020) groups countries in this
in the early development of the country to support the (Malacosoma disstria) (Food and Agriculture Organiza- About 90% of the forest production in Mexico arises area with those of North America, but because of its
buildings, docks, and warehouses needed to support tion of the United Nations, 2010). SFM is now a perva- from coniferous and deciduous forests located in the location it was important to discuss countries located
the burgeoning fur and fishing industries. Early forest sive theme in Canadian forestry, and by the end of the temperate climate zones, mainly in the states of Chiapas, here separately. Unlike Canada and the United States, FIGURE 2.13 Countries in Central America. Modified image from PresentationMaps.com.
policies concerned the reservation of trees for their 20th century most forest companies sought certification Chihuahua, Durango, Guerrero, Jalisco, Michoacan, and this region of North America was not adversely affected
potential use for masts and spars of ships. The use of through one of the main forest certification schemes Oaxaca. Tropical and subtropical forests, located in the by the last ice age period. When the first European ex-
wood was prevalent in the early colonization of Canada, (Drushka, 2003), which are described in Chapter 15. states of Campeche, Chiapas, Oaxaca, Quintana Roo, in an effort to remove dead and decaying grassy vegeta- caribaea) or pino costanero. A complete history of each
plorers found these lands, they discovered a vast indig-
as settlers required about 30 cords of firewood each Tabasco, and Yucatán, are about the same size, but ac- tion. Since the end of the 20th century, expanding hu- country in the region would be too extensive for this
enous human population. The two largest groups were
winter, and about 500 split rails per hectare to fence count for only about 10% of forest production. Most of man populations have applied pressure to the existing book. Therefore, our discussion of Central American
the Aztecs and the Mayans. Although the main center
fields for livestock production. As with the development
2.1.3 Mexico the softwood and hardwood timber produced in Mexico forests and natural resources, despite attempts by countries focuses briefly on only five: Costa Rica,
of those civilizations was located in Mexico, which we
of the United States, the predominant view of forests by is consumed within the country (Food and Agriculture several national governments to create forest protection Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Panama.
Mexico is located on the southern border of the discussed in the previous section, the influence of these
colonists was that they impeded the development of the Organization of the United Nations, 2020). Forest policy areas.
United States (Fig. 2.6). It has a land base of about 194 groups extended throughout the countries of Belize,
landscape (Drushka, 2003). at the federal level is currently guided by the Secretarı́a The forests of Central America are diverse and, while
million ha (480 million ac), with forests covering about Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras,
Forest policies in Canada in the mid-19th century pro- 34% or about 66 million ha (about 163 million ac). The del Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales (Environ- Nicaragua, and Panama. These indigenous people
most are broadly considered tropical rainforests, there 2.2.1 Costa Rica
vided the mechanisms for the development of temporary ment and Natural Resources Secretary), formed in are numerous ecoregions that span this isthmus,
forest types found in Mexico vary from tropical rainfor- formed mainly agrarian-based societies that had a Costa Rica (the rich coast in English) is a small country
leases and licenses for timber harvesting activities, with 1995, and the Comisión Nacional Forestal (the Mexican including the dry tropical forests, the moist Atlantic for-
ests to subtropical temperate forests. The tropical rain- similar impact on forests and natural resources as did covering an area of about 5.1 million ha (about 12.6
much of the land remaining in the control of the federal National Forestry Commission), formed in 2001. ests, the Chiapas highlands, the montane forests, the
forests are found on slopes near the Gulf of Mexico the indigenous groups that were located in the United million ac), wedged between Nicaragua to the north
government or individual provinces. Some land was Although about a quarter of the forested areas in pine-oak forests, and the Sierra Madre. The dry tropical
and the Pacific Ocean, the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, States and Canada prior to European settlement. and Panama to the south (Fig. 2.13). The human popula-
eventually transferred from the Crown to individuals to Mexico are privately owned (Food and Agriculture Or- forests stretch from the Pacific coast of Mexico south to
and the southern Yucatán Peninsula. Recent changes in Prior to the arrival of the European settlers, approxi- tion of the country is essentially an agrarian society
promote settlement. Currently, about 92% of the forested ganization of the United Nations, 2010), land tenure northwestern Costa Rica. The average rainfall in these
the area of forest cover have been slightly negative mately 90% of the land base (50 million ha or about 123.5 focused primarily on the production of agricultural
areas in Canada are publicly owned (Food and Agricul- can also consist of comuneros or ejidatarios. Comuneros areas is below 200 cm (78.7 in) per year. Tree species in
(Table 2.1), mainly due to wildfires and the conversion million ac) in Central America was still forested. With commodities such as bananas, coffee, pineapples, sugar-
ture Organization of the United Nations, 2010). The ma- are members of ethnic groups who have acquired collec- these areas are mainly deciduous and cactus is common
of forestland to agricultural uses. The forests of Mexico the arrival of the Spanish and British settlers, large areas cane, and beef. Local legend suggests that Christopher
jority of commercial forestland in Canada that is tive access to portions of land since colonial times, and in some forested understories. Some of the common tree
are very diverse; for example, across the country one of forestlands were converted to agriculture to support Columbus named the area the rich coast on his last
controlled by federal or provincial governments is ejidatarios are members of cooperatives called ejidos species found here include guanacaste tree (Enterolobium
can find 72 species, varieties, and forms of pines growing colonial civilizations. Later, many areas were voyage, despite the fact that few mineral resources could
licensed to companies, and representatives of these com- (Bocco et al., 2001). In 1917, in response to a strong cyclocarpum), mata ratón (Gliricidia sepium), and pochote
(Fig. 2.12). Other tree species found in more temperate converted to agricultural crops, such as bananas, coffee, be found on these lands. Costa Rica was part of the
panies develop management plans that are guided by agrarian reformist presence related to the Mexican Rev- (Pachira quinata). In the Atlantic forests, the average
areas of Mexico include Mexican beech or haya (Fagus and sugarcane that would be exported to the United Spanish Empire until 1821, the end of the Mexican War
provincial forest policies. The Canadian Forest Service olution that began in 1910, the common property ejido annual rainfall is over 400 cm (157.5 in) per year, and
mexicana), oaks, sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), States and Europe. In the 1980s, it was noted that for Independence. It was then considered a province of
is a research and policy organization of the government system of land tenure was established. This system there is no discernible change in season throughout the
and various coniferous species of cypress, fir, juniper, forested areas had declined to about 20 million ha (about the Federal Republic of Central America for almost
that is currently acting to promote both the sustainability applied to land in which the Mexican federal govern- year. Some common tree species found in this ecoregion
and pine. In the tropical regions, broad-leaved and semi- 49.4 million ac), partly due to the expansion of cattle two decades until it proclaimed itself a sovereign coun-
of Canadian forests and the economic competitiveness of ment once held title. A typical ejido has a small center include rosewood (Dalbergia retusa) and Spanish elm or
deciduous trees are more common, and tree species ranches (Myers and Tucker, 1987). It is not uncommon try in 1838.
the Canadian forestry sector. village and is surrounded by agricultural land and for- Ecuador laurel (Cordia alliodora). Montane forests
found here include breadnut (Brosimum alicastrum), today to drive along the Pan-American Highway and About 45% of the land in Costa Rica is under control
ests. The agricultural lands are assigned to individuals, include tree species such as Caribbean pine (Pinus
see large areas of pasture lands that are burned annually of the Costa Rican government, and about 55% is

36 2. Forest regions of the world 2.2 Central America 37 38 2. Forest regions of the world

privately owned. Although 70% of the country’s econ- assertive in promoting reforestation programs and Guatemala in the 1970s as a result of a land colonization users. A 1999 forest policy promoted the concept of pro- about 2300 feet [ft]) in elevation include Caribbean pine established the National Institute of Forest Conservation
omy is based on agriculture, the landscape is ill suited developing official forest protection areas. These forest plan developed by the government. This accelerated in ductive management of natural forests in order to (or pino costanero) and Mexican yellow pine (or pino (Instituto Nacional de Conservación y Desarrollo Forestal,
for most forms of agriculture because of the moun- protection areas have typically served as buffer zones the 1980s as large numbers of people sought refuge in both conserve biodiversity and improve living condi- ocote), which are commonly referred to as Honduran Áreas Protegidas y Vida Silvestre) that replaced the Na-
tainous terrain. Lowland areas on the Caribbean coast, for the numerous national parks found in the country. the rural areas during the Guatemalan Civil War (Inter- tions of forest-dependent communities. A formal com- yellow pines (Pool et al., 2002). Above 1500 m (about tional Corporation for Forestry Development for devel-
Guanacaste, and the southern portion of Puntarenas There is even one private preserve, Monteverde Cloud national Tropical Timber Organization, 2006). munity forestry program (Proyecto Fortalecimiento 4900 ft) and up to 1900 m (about 6200 ft) in elevation, oping forest management standards (Brown et al., 2008).
have been sites of extensive cultivation of exported com- Forest Reserve, created in 1951 by 44 Quakers from Guatemala is nearly 11 million ha (about 26.8 million Forestal Municipal y Comunal) was begun in 2001 to pro- mixtures of Caribbean pine, pino rojo (Pinus tecunuma- Honduran agencies have supported the development
modities (bananas, beef, and pineapples). Coffee is typi- Alabama, who settled the area (Monteverde Costa Rica ac) in size and is currently about 33% forested (Table 2.1). vide employment to local municipalities and to imple- nii), and thinleaf pine can be found (International Trop- of social agroforestry cooperatives in some communities
cally grown in the highlands around the central valley Cloud Forest Nonprofit Organizations, 2006). The About 52% of the forests are privately owned, but ment reforestation measures with the assistance of the ical Timber, 2006). Above 2000 m (about 6600 ft), with the intent that these communities would actively
where the capital city of San José is located. Costa Rica’s reserve is located on the Continental Divide and ownership rights are still obscure in some places in the National Institute of Forests (International Tropical Tim- Hartweg’s pine or pino de México (Pinus hartwegii), protect forests from problems associated with illegal log-
forests (Fig. 2.14) have declined from about 75% of the contains a cloud forest that is home to over 2000 plant aftermath of the civil war, which formally ended in ber Organization, 2006). Some community managed for- smooth-bark Mexican pine (or pinabete), Mexican white ging, overgrazing, shifting agriculture, and wildfires.
total land area in 1940 to about 39% in 2000, primarily species, hundreds of bird and mammal species, such 1996. About 42% of the forests are controlled by the gov- est concessions have been awarded to local villages, and pine or pino blanco (Pinus ayacahuite), and various spe- Most cooperatives operate within forests owned by the
due to demands for agricultural land and forest re- as the resplendent quetzal (Pharomachrus mocinno), and ernment, and indigenous communal lands (ejidales) have assistance has been provided by NGOs and the United cies of fir are commonly found in mixed stands government or within ejidal forests (Jones, 2003). The
sources. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the amphibians, such as the golden toad (Bufo periglenes). a special status by law. Nearly 60% of the forests States Agency for International Development to (International Tropical Timber Organization, 2006). Honduran government took steps to promote reforesta-
United Nations (2015, 2020) estimates that forest cover Costa Rica differs from other countries in the region (Fig. 2.15) are located in the Petén region (a flat low- improve the technical capabilities of community forestry With the exception of the influence of Mayan culture tion in the early 1990s by making large areas of
now stands at about 54%, with forest area increasing by its advanced economic and social progress that has lying region that borders Mexico) and provide wood managers. However, as with other areas of the world, near the border with Guatemala, Honduran history is government-owned land accessible to private investors
by about 1% per year (Table 2.1). enhanced health care services, living standards, and lit- for the manufacture of cabinets and the development local organizational commitment is essential to increase similar to that of other countries in Central America. (Merrill, 1995). This privatization of forests may help
Commercial wood products are derived from cedar, eracy rates (Pool et al., 2002). Along with the creation of of chemical extracts, dyes, gums, and oils. However, participation in these programs and is dependent on Honduras was part of the Spanish Empire until 1821, intensify the use of forest resources, yet restrictions on
laurel, mahogany, oak, and other tree species found in 26 national parks, there has been an extensive effort to most (86%) of the domestic roundwood production is sustained economic returns, secure land titles, and clear and then was considered a province of the Federal Re- exports are affecting growth in some industries. Since
Costa Rica. The wide variety of NTFPs include chicle promote nontimber products such as ecotourism. Recog- burned for fuelwood and about 7% is used in the manu- land tenure policies (Pool et al., 2002). Therefore, some public of Central America for almost two decades until 2000, sustainable development programs have been
(a gum from which Chiclets were named), ipecac (which nition of the potential of ecotourism has allowed this facture of charcoal (Pool et al., 2002). The forest area of local communities struggle with responsive leadership it became independent in 1838. Honduras was histori- funded to increase the ecological, economic, and social
induces vomiting and is prescribed after swallowing area of work to surpass agriculture as the leading earner Guatemala has been declining by about 1% per year at a variety of levels, and the success of these programs cally a source of precious hardwoods (mahogany and benefits of forestry in Honduras. The hope is that these
something poisonous), medicinal plants, and rubber. of foreign exchange (Pool et al., 2002). The national gov- over the last 5 years (Table 2.1). The main commercial may be problematic (Larson, 2008). Spanish cedar) that were exported for furniture produc- programs will modernize the agencies and policies
About two-thirds of the roundwood produced is used ernment has enacted numerous progressive policies tree species found in the Petén region are cypress, tion purposes to the United States and Europe in the that oversee forestry activities and bolster the role of
within the country for fuelwood purposes. Efforts to (including a National Forest Policy in 2000) to promote oaks, Mexican yellow pine (Pinus oocarpa), smooth- early 1900s (Pool et al., 2002). Land tenure is a persistent the National Forestry Administration. The United States
conserve forests outside of protected areas began in conservation and sustainable ecotourism opportunities, bark Mexican pine (Pinus pseudostrobus), thinleaf pine 2.2.3 Honduras concern in Honduras, owing to arson, cattle grazing, Agency for International Development’s Forestry Devel-
the 1970s (Pool et al., 2002). Natural forest management particularly within the national park system (e.g., bird- (Pinus maximinoi), and Spanish cedar (Cedrela odorata). and squatting, and obscure property rights claims. opment Project has assisted the Honduran forestry
has been promoted in Costa Rica through programs of watching, climbing volcanoes, and visiting tropical for- Coniferous forests can also be found throughout Guate- Honduras is located between Guatemala and One estimate of the distribution of land has about 36% sector by providing training and thereby increasing
the US Agency for International Development (Pool ests). Recent statistics suggest that over 1.7 million mala’s highlands. Pines and teaks, along with Gmelina Nicaragua (Fig. 2.13) and is the second largest country in government control, about 28% in ejidal control technical skills and helping the country to improve har-
et al., 2002) and, as with other Central American coun- people travel to Costa Rica each year, generating arborea (a white teak or beechwood), comprise most of in the region, with a land base of about 11 million ha (communal land administered by municipal govern- vesting practices (Pool et al., 2002). Collaborations such
tries, NGOs and local associations have been important US$1.7 billion in tourism revenue (Embassy of Costa the forest plantations in Guatemala. The Pacific plain (about 28 million ac). Forests cover about 41% of the ments), and about 36% in private ownership (Unidad as these are complemented by activities funded through
in this regard. Since the 1990s, Costa Rica has been Rica in Washington D.C., 2017). of Guatemala was once covered by tropical moist forests country (Table 2.1). Currently, the main forest types in de Reconstrucción Nacional, 1999). Unfortunately, NGOs and entities such as Scandinavian governments.
but now has been developed into banana, rubber tree, Honduras are cloud forests, coniferous forests, decidu- forestland was lost at a rate of over 3% per year in the
and sugar plantations and cattle ranches (International ous forests (Fig. 2.16), dry forests, and mangrove forests. late 20th century due to the agricultural use of land
Tropical Timber Organization, 2006). The International Tropical Timber Organization (2006) suitable for forests, land clearance for cattle ranching
2.2.4 Nicaragua
2.2.2 Guatemala The Forest Law of 1996 requires forest management indicates that tree species found below 700 meters (m; purposes, and mismanagement that focused more atten- Nicaragua contains about 12 million ha of land (about
Ancient Mayan civilizations were once prevalent plans to be developed by long-term forest resources tion on logging than on SFM (Merrill, 1995). The rate of 30 million ac) (Table 2.1) and is characterized by a warm
throughout Guatemala. The Mayan lowlands were char- forest loss for the last 5 years has been about 2.4% per tropical climate dominated by moist easterly trade winds.
acterized by shifting agriculture and terraced cultivation year (Table 2.1). The establishment of banana plantations The topography of the country leads to three distinct re-
and, although little of the forested areas were removed, was once a major contributor to forest loss. Some agro- gions: a warm Pacific coastal region (Fig. 2.17), a humid
the original cover was said to have been greatly altered forestry systems have been developed, but they rely on interior mountain region, and a Caribbean lowland area
by the 15th century (Myers and Tucker, 1987). European exotic species of legumes (e.g., mata ratón), English that has a warm and wet climate. Most of the forests in
influence began with Spanish colonists arriving in the beechwood (e.g., Gmelina arborea), eucalypts, and teaks Nicaragua are considered tropical rainforests, although
16th century. As with other Central American countries, (e.g., Tectona grandis) (International Tropical Timber several other forest zones have been classified (deciduous
Guatemala gained independence in 1821 and was briefly Organization, 2006). hardwood, evergreen hardwood [largely inaccessible],
a part of the Federal Republic of Central America. Dur- The Corporación Hondureña de Desarrollo Forestal (Na- lowland pine, and mountain pine). Compared to other
ing a good portion of the 20th century, the Guatemalan tional Corporation for Forestry Development) was Central American countries, a relatively small portion
government was embroiled in turmoil due to a number established in 1974 with the intent of increasing the man- of the land is controlled by the government (about
of coups and disputed elections. Guatemala has suffered agement of the forest sector and preventing exploitation 11%), while the remainder is mainly privately owned.
from nearly four decades of internal conflict, partly due by nondomestic companies (Merrill, 1995). However, About 96% of the roundwood production from Nicara-
to inequalities in land ownership and income between inefficient management practices and debt created by guan forests is for domestic fuelwood uses (Merrill,
the rural, indigenous population and the urban popula- military-dominated governments has limited the role 1994). In one study of the Masaya region of Nicaragua,
tion. Natural resources in Guatemala are threatened by of the National Corporation for Forestry Development, virtually all of the fuelwood was derived from natural
continued social and political problems, pressure from FIGURE 2.16 Deciduous forest in the mountains of Sierra de which was decentralized in the late 1980s but remains forests rather than forest plantations (McCrary et al.,
FIGURE 2.15 Forests in the Petén region of Guatemala, near Tikal. Agalta, Honduras. Dennis Garcia, through Wikimedia Commons.
vital to wildfire response and protection (Merrill,
FIGURE 2.14 Natural deciduous forests in Limón Province, Costa cattle and petroleum interests, and illegal logging Nerdoguate, through Wikimedia Commons. Image Link: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:MontanasdelaSierradeAgalta_
2005). Transportation issues in the Caribbean lowlands
Rica. Donald L. Grebner. (Pool et al., 2002). Large-scale deforestation began in Image Link: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:TikalTemples2015_02.jpeg Honduras.jpg 1995). In 2007, the new Forest Law was enacted, which are prominent and road systems are relatively
License Link: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en License Link: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/deed.en

2.2 Central America 39 40 2. Forest regions of the world 2.3 South America 41
investments. Unfortunately, implementation of the pro-
cess has been complicated by the unclear land tenure
rights, particularly in the Caribbean region of Nicaragua
(Castilleja, 1993; Weaver et al., 2003).
Deforestation in Nicaragua was slowed by internal
conflicts during the 1980s but was said to have resumed
again after these conflicts ended (Weaver et al., 2003).
However, current estimates suggest that the forested
area in Nicaragua is neither declining nor growing
(Table 2.1). Several institutions are involved in the
control and regulation of environmental activities
within the country. From a forest management perspec-
tive, the Nicaraguan Forest Authority (Instituto Nacional
Forestal) oversees and approves forest management
plans. The Ministerio Agropecuario y Forestal addresses
laws, policies, and regulations for forest management
FIGURE 2.17 Cloud forests on the island of Ometepe, in Lake within Nicaragua and was instrumental in the develop-
Nicaragua, Nicaragua. Adrian Sampson, through Wikimedia Commons.
Image Link: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Trees_on_Maderas.jpg ment of the National Forest Law (Law No. 462) in 2003
License Link: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/deed.en (Brown et al., 2008).

undeveloped, preventing intensive use of the hardwood

2.2.5 Panama FIGURE 2.18 Deciduous forest canopy in Barro Colorado, Pan- FIGURE 2.19 A satellite image of South America. National Aeronautics
tree species found there. Large areas of pine stands in Panama is a country comprising about 7.4 million ha ama. Christian Ziegler, through Wikimedia Commons. and Space Administration, Dave Pape, and Reto Stöckli, through Wikimedia
Image Link: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Forest_on_Barro_
the northeastern part of the country support a small of land (18.4 million ac), of which about 62% is forested Commons.
Colorado.png Image Link: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:South_America_-_Blue_
manufacturing industry (Merrill, 1994). (Table 2.1). Panama was once inhabited by indigenous License Link: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.5/deed.en Marble_orthographic.jpg
Nicaragua’s history with regard to natural resource populations of the Cuevas and Coclé tribes until Spain License Link: Public Domain
use is similar to other Central American countries. Inter- colonized the isthmus in the 16th century, controlling
nal struggles have also shaped the current management this country and others until 1821. Panama then became Panama. Most of the logging practices involve some sort little effect on this continent. The topography of South
situation. Spanish conquistadors founded cities on the a department of Colombia for the next eight decades un- of selection system, and about 95% of the roundwood America ranges from the relatively steep Andes moun-
western side of Nicaragua in the 16th century and til it declared independence. In a treaty with the United produced is used for fuelwood or charcoal. Planting trials tain range in the west, which stretches from Colombia
used forest resources for shipbuilding purposes. In the States in 1903, Panama granted a zone of land about of native tree species have provided some insight into in the north to the southern tip of Chile and Argentina,
17th century, the British occupied the eastern Miskito 16 km (10 mi) wide (thence called the Canal Zone) where their potential for establishing tree cover, stabilizing soils, to the relatively flat coastal areas of Brazil and other
coast and utilized the big-leaf mahogany (Swietenia mac- the Panama Canal would be developed. This zone and restoring forests (Wishnie et al., 2007). countries bordering the Atlantic Ocean. The ecoregions
rophylla) and Spanish cedar forest resources found reverted to Panamanian control in 1999. The current Panama passed a Reforestation Incentive Law in 1992 of the continent vary from montane and temperate rain-
throughout the region. From the 17th century until rate of forest loss in the country is about 0.4% per year to promote and increase reforestation efforts through forests in the southwest, to grass savannas in the south-
about 1950, large areas of forests in Nicaragua were con- (Table 2.1), and deforestation was once said to be most tax incentives and other means. The Forest Law of 1994 east, the rainforests of Amazonia in the northecentral
provides a framework for SFM and classifies land into FIGURE 2.20 Countries in South America. Modified image from PresentationMaps.com.
verted to coffee plantations; from about 1950 to 1980, pronounced along the Panama Canal, which may pose portion of the continent, and the coastal forests of
considerable areas of the western part of the country long-term water level issues (Meditz and Hanratty, protection and production classes. The General Environ- Ecuador, Venezuela, and Guyana. The largest areas of
were converted to cotton plantations; and from 1970 to 1989) due to sedimentation resulting from rainwater mental Law of 1998 also promotes the sustainable use of forests designated for the conservation of biological di- France) and the Falkland Islands, South Georgia, and the domestic and export uses. On a more current note,
1980 cattle production and small-scale agriculture influ- runoff. The Panamanian government has implemented natural resources. Decree Law No. 2 (2003) provides for- versity are found on this continent (Food and Agricul- South Sandwich Islands (all of which are associated with although deforestation in the Amazon rainforest is a
enced land conversion on the eastern (Caribbean) side of a program promoting reforestation practices, but the est management guidelines for Panamanian forests and, ture Organization of the United Nations, 2010). Species the United Kingdom). The land area covers approxi- continuing problem, afforestation of suitable forest
the country. Lately, tourism has been the fastest growing current pace of forest depletion exceeds that of replant- while most of the land is owned by the government, the richness is relatively high in South America, with mately 1.8 billion ha (a little over 4.3 billion ac) and hosts sites in Chile, Brazil, and other countries has greatly
sector in the Nicaraguan economy (Weaver et al., 2003). ing. Recent forest losses have occurred due to cattle 1972 constitution recognizes collective landholding units over 40,000 plant species; hundreds of mammalian, a population of over 385 million people (Table 2.3). expanded and challenges the timber production poten-
Before 1979, concessions provided by the Nicaraguan ranching, poor logging practices, shifting cultivation known as comarcas (indigenous reserves) (International amphibian, and bird species; and millions of insect spe- South America as a whole is about 53% forested, and tial of other countries due to faster tree growth and
government for logging on national lands led to forestry (rozas), and urbanization (International Tropical Timber Tropical Timber Organization, 2006). cies living on the continent (Da Silva et al., 2005). the annual rate of change in forested areas is currently favorable environmental conditions. Our discussion of
practices that degraded the resource. With the Sandi- Organization, 2006). Another area of great species richness is the Galápagos about
0.2% per year, a rate which is slower than South American countries briefly focuses on seven of
nista takeover, all concessions were revoked and the Forests of Panama are diverse (Fig. 2.18), and the most Islands, which are part of Ecuador, located off the west what was observed in the early 2000s. However, the the largest and heavily forested countries: Argentina,
concession system was abolished. The Nicaraguan prevalent forest types in Panama are the semideciduous 2.3 South America coast of South America. Charles Darwin studied the net loss of forest area in South America is estimated to Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Peru, and Venezuela.
government then took control of the forestry sector, tropical moist forests, lowland submontane forests, and large number of endemic species found here, which be about 4 million ha (10 million ac) per year since
and the Corporación Forestal del Pueblo was developed montane evergreen forests. The tropical moist forests As with North America, South America (Fig. 2.19) has inspired his development of the theory of natural selec- 2000 (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations, 2010). As with North America, the colonization
2.3.1 Argentina
to administer timber harvests on public lands. However, contain cuipo (Cavanillesia platanifolia) and wild cashew been heavily influenced by indigenous peoples that tion. One of the famous and unique species found in the
income from timber harvests on public land declined or espavé (Anacardium excelsum), along with some species crossed Beringia from Asia thousands of years ago. Galápagos Islands is the marine iguana (Amblyrhynchus of European settlements in South America led to Argentina is the second largest country in South
precipitously over the next decade or so. In 1990, after of palm. Oak forests can be found in the Talamanca South America has also been heavily influenced by cristatus), which lives and forages in the ocean. changes in the land uses that were employed by indige- America, about 274 million ha in size (about 676 million
winning the national election, the Chamorro govern- Mountains, and cativo (Prioria copaifera) forests can be European settlers, primarily arriving from Spain and South America includes 12 independent countries nous people. As European colonies grew, pressure was ac) yet is only about 10% forested (Table 2.3). It is
ment began to promote an economic role in the forestry found along rivers on inundated areas. Caribbean pine Portugal. Unlike North America, the last ice age had (Fig. 2.20), as well as French Guiana (a department of applied to forested areas to facilitate agricultural opera- bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the east and the
sector and created a forestry commission to oversee new and teak comprise over 80% of the forest plantations in tions, provide sustenance, and produce timber for Andes mountain range to the west and is composed
 2.3 South America 43 44 2. Forest regions of the world

of 23 states. The Inca Empire once ruled part of north- Tropical Timber Organization, 2006). Deforestation has
ern Argentina, and among the various indigenous been an important issue across Brazil; however, since
people who inhabited the remainder of the country the late 2000s the rate of forest loss due to deforestation
were the Guaranı́, Mapuche, and Sanavirones. Euro- has been significantly reduced to about
0.2% per year,
pean explorers arrived to settle Argentina in the early as compared to the activity of the 1990s (Food and Agri-
16th century, and the current composition of the coun- culture Organization of the United Nations, 2015). The
try was once part of the Viceroyalty of Peru, a Spanish Amazon region has received much attention owing to
colony. Argentina declared independence from Spain the rich diversity of plant and animal species found in
in 1816 but, through various conflicts (internally, and these tropical rainforests. It is speculated that many plant
with Brazil and Chile), did not enact a constitution until and animal species that inhabit these lands have still not
the mid-1850s. Since gaining independence, Argentina been identified. Since the late 20th century, much concern
has had periods of unstable leadership and economic has been raised over the clearing of Amazon rainforests

42
problems and has employed a variety of approaches for agricultural and livestock uses (Morton et al., 2006).
for governance that range from neoliberal to protection- The broad-leaved evergreen and semideciduous forests
ist (Gulezian, 2009). FIGURE 2.21 Tucuman region of northwestern Argentina. Susana of the tropical rainforests and the central plains of south-
There are four major biophysical regions in Mutti, through Wikimedia Commons. FIGURE 2.22 Forests and forested wetlands around a small lake in ern and eastern Brazil have been the most affected by
Argentina. The first, the Pampas, is an area of grasslands Image Link: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tafi_del_valle_(Tucuman- eastern Bolivia. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Con- deforestation.
Argentina).jpg servation Service (2020).
and plains in the center of the country, which forms the License Link: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/deed.en
In Brazil, there is a large and active forest manage-
TABLE 2.3 Demographic and physiographic data for South American countries. main agricultural area of the country. Over time, a good ment program that involves harvesting native and plan-
Total land area2 Total land area2 Per capita GDP (PPP) 20171&a portion of the forested area that once stood in the central patula) are the two tree species that comprise the major- tation forests. Some common native species harvested in
Human population
20181 (million) Forest cover2 (%)
Forest area annual change
2010e152 (%) 2.3.2 Bolivia
Country (1000 ha) (1000 ac) (1000 US$)
part of the country has been converted to agricultural ity of forest plantations. Brazil nut, cacao, and palm Brazil include cambara or cedrinho (Erisma uncinatum),
Argentina 44 273,669 675,962 10
1.1 14.3 use. Soy has become one of the major exports, and Prior to settlement of the country by people of Euro- hearts are the main NTFPs derived from Bolivian forests cow tree or amapa (Brosimum utile), faveira (Parkia
Bolivia 11 108,330 267,575 51
0.5 3.3 Argentina has an extensive livestock industry that is pean descent, Bolivia was part of the Inca Empire. (International Tropical Timber Organization, 2006). spp.), guanandi, and jatobá (or guapinol; Hymenaea cour-
Brazil 209 835,814 2,064,461 59
0.2 9.8 centered in the Pampas. The second major biophysical Bolivia was colonized by Spain in the 16th century, Recent estimates of forest loss are in the order of 0.5% baril) (International Tropical Timber Organization, 2006).
Chile 19 74,353 183,652 24 1.8 15.3 region, Patagonia, is a colder and drier place that is and silver eventually became the main commodity per year (Table 2.3) owing to planned and unplanned About one-third of the total amount of roundwood pro-
Colombia 50 110,950 274,047 53 e 6.3 located in the southern part of the country and shared derived from Bolivian mines. The country declared in- human settlement activities and agricultural activities. duced comes from plantation forests. Forest plantations,

2. Forest regions of the world

Ecuador 17 24,836 61,345 51
0.6 6.2 with Chile. Patagonia contains Tierra del Fuego, and dependence in 1809 but did not formally become an in- Large soybean plantations are prevalent in some areas, composed of eucalypts (Fig. 2.23), pines, or other species
Falkland Islands <1 1217 3006 e e e the dominant vegetation in this area is characterized as dependent republic until 1825. At various times in its and smaller-scale farmers also cause forest loss through (e.g., yopo [Anadenanthera peregrina]; Fig. 2.24), are
French Guiana <1 8242 20,358 99 e e shrubs and grasses. The third major biophysical region history Bolivia had direct access to the Pacific Ocean slash-and-burn agricultural practices (International mainly located in southern Brazil (Fearnside, 1999),
Guyana <1 19,685 48,622 84
0.1 4.6 is an area of subtropical dry forests in the northern but, as a result of military struggles with Peru and Chile, Tropical Timber Organization, 2006). About 53% of the
Paraguay 7 39,730 98,133 39
2.0 4.3 part of the country, where most of the commercial it is now a landlocked country (Fig. 2.20). Bolivia has forestland in Bolivia is controlled by the government,
Peru 32 128,000 316,160 58
0.2 6.6 forestry activity is located. Deciduous and semidecidu- three biogeographic zones: a high altitude, treeless about 31% is also publicly owned but has specific user
Suriname <1 16,066 39,683 95 e 6.8 ous forests are found throughout this region; however, area in the Andes Mountains; forested valleys on both rights, such as those allocated to indigenous people,
Uruguay 3 17,502 43,230 11 1.3 17.1 carob (Prosopis spp.) and palm grow naturally here, sides of the Andes Mountains that may also be associ- and about 16% is privately owned. The 1996 Forest
Venezuela 29 88,205 217,866 53
0.3 8.0
and pine and eucalypt plantations are also prevalent in ated with grass savannas; and tropical forest lowlands Law introduced the idea of sustainable use and develop-
South America (total) 424 1,746,599 4,314,100 53
0.2 9.4
this region. The fourth major biophysical region contains to the east that form part of the Amazon basin. With a to- ment of the forest resources and helped clarify ancestral
areas adjacent to the Andes mountain range in the west- tal land area of a little more than 108 million ha (about rights, although land tenure issues continue to be impor-
a
1
Gross domestic product (GDP) expressed as purchasing power parity (PPP).
Food and Agriculture Oraganization of the United Nations 2020. ern part of the country (Fig. 2.21). Here, broad-leaved 268 million ac), around 51% of Bolivia is currently tant obstacles to forest management in Bolivia (White
2
FAO. Global Forest Resources Assessment 2015. Desk Reference. Rome, 2015. evergreen and semideciduous tree species are common considered forested (Table 2.3). and Martin, 2002).
in forested areas. Most of the forested area in Bolivia is located in the
Nearly 80% of Argentine forests are privately owned eastern tropical forest lowlands (Fig. 2.22). This area
(White and Martin, 2002). The current rate of forest contains a wide variety of broad-leaved evergreen and 2.3.3 Brazil
change in Argentina is estimated to be about
1.1% semideciduous forests, and tree species that include Brazil is the largest and most populous country in
per year (Table 2.3). About 70% of the roundwood pro- big-leaf mahogany, Brazil nut (Bertholletia excelsa), South America. It has a landmass of over 836 million ha
duced from Argentine forests is consumed within the guanandi (Calophyllum brasiliense), rubber tree (Hevea (about 2.064 billion ac), of which forests cover about
country, and the remaining 30% is exported as various brasiliensis), and sandbox tree (Hura crepitans). The 59% (Table 2.3). Brazil was home to a number of indige-
wood products. Brazil, Chile, South Africa, Spain, and forested valleys along the Andes mountain chain ulti- nous tribes prior to colonization by Portugal at the begin-
the United States are the most important export markets mately transition into alpine tundra, yet can include ning of the 16th century. During colonization, the
for wood. Forest policies in Argentina prohibit the tree species such as curupay (Piptadenia macrocarpa), important exports from Brazil were gold and sugar. The
development of natural forests yet promote the develop- laurels (Lauraceae spp.), mahogany (Meliaceae spp.), country became independent in 1822, while Portuguese
ment of forestry sectors (Rubio, 2006). The 2007 Forest urundel (Astronium urundeuva), walnut (Juglans aus- continues to be the official language. Brazil is now
Law (Ley de Bosques) reinforced the country’s desire tralis), and Andean alder or aliso (Alnus acuminata). In composed of 26 states and one federal district, and across
FIGURE 2.23 Eucalypt (Eucalyptus spp.) plantation in Brazil. Denis
to manage its natural forests in a sustainable manner areas where plantations can suitably be established, these are five broad forest types which include Amazon Rizzoli, through Wikimedia Commons.
(Gulezian, 2009). blue gum (Eucalyptus globulus) and patula pine (Pinus rainforest, Atlantic rainforest, central cerrado grass Image Link: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Eucaliptal_Aracruz.JPG
savanna, arid caatinga, and the Pantanal (International License Link: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en

2.3 South America 45 46 2. Forest regions of the world 2.3 South America 47
that existed before European settlers arrived, approxi- the forestry sector (Food and Agriculture Organization 2.3.6 Peru communal forests for indigenous people (White and
mately 45% remains (Global Forest Watch, 2002). Chile, of the United Nations, 2003). Chile exports its products Martin, 2002). Peru passed a forestry law in 1975, but
like other countries in South America, has experienced to Germany, Japan, and the United States, among The Republic of Peru is about 128 million ha in size the Forestry and Wildlife Law (Law No 27,308) passed
a period of extensive land conversion for agricultural others. Chile has been active in developing eucalyptus (about 316 million ac) and about 58% forested. Over in 2000 and the General Law of the Environment (Law
and livestock production purposes (Donoso and Otero, and radiata pine (Pinus radiata) plantations in the cen- the past 5 years, the rate of forestland loss has been No 28,611) passed in 2005 now provide (along with other
2005). However, the rate of change in forested area since tral region of the country for quite some time (Scott, about
0.2% per year (Table 2.3). The land that now rep- laws) the primary legal bases for environmental compli-
2010 is about þ1.8% per year (Table 2.3). 1954). In addition to traditional forest products, Chile resents Peru was once home to the Inca Empire and the ance and management requirements for Peruvian for-
The northern portion of the country contains the Puna has also been active in exporting nonwood natural re- Norte Chico civilization. As with other South American ests (Portilla and Eguren, 2007). Although adherence
grassland ecoregion, which is extremely arid and boasts sources such as boldo leaves (Peumus boldus), soap countries, in the 16th century Peru became part of the varies for a number of reasons (Smith et al., 2006), under
the driest place on Earth. There is little vegetation in bark tree (Quillaja saponaria), sweetbriar rose (Rosa Spanish Empire and obtained independence in the early these laws, timber extraction rights on public lands are
some of this region except for tola (Proustia pyrifolia) and eglanteria), and wild mushrooms (Global Forest Watch, 1800s. The Amazon region of Peru harbors some of the assigned through concessions to logging operators.
grasses covering the mountain slopes. In the central region 2002). Forest policy in Chile is guided by the Compre- last uncontacted people in the world, who have chosen Currently, revisions to the forest laws are being debated.
of the country, one can find assorted species of cactus as hensive Environmental Law of 1994 and a Native Forest to remain isolated and are referred to by anthropologists
FIGURE 2.24 Planted yopo (Anadenanthera peregrina) forest in well as the monkey puzzle tree or Chilean pine (Araucaria Law (2008). The latter prohibits the clearing of native as indigenous people of voluntary isolation (Portilla and
Brazil. Zachary A. Parisa.
araucana), which has edible seeds. The capital, Santiago, is forests for any reason, including the establishment of FIGURE 2.26 Forests above the town of Taganga near Santa Marta, Eguren, 2007). The forests of Peru are home to about 2.3.7 Venezuela
located in the middle third of the country, which generally forest plantations. Some support for forest development Magdalena, Colombia. Juancplanb, through Wikimedia Commons. 2500 native tree species (Portilla and Eguren, 2007).
The history of Venezuela, from habitation by indige-
where the biomes are classed as grass savannas or sub- has a temperate climate. This is also where the majority of has been provided by the German government in an Image Link: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Taganga01.jpg The ecoregions include the dry steppe of the coastal
nous people to Spanish colonization, is similar to that
tropical rainforests. In 2006, it was estimated that there the Chilean population resides. The southern third of the effort to encourage the maintenance of farm families
License Link: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en plain (along the Pacific coast), the temperate Andes
of Colombia. Venezuela has had periods of political and
were 2 million ha (4.8 million ac) of pine and 3.3 million country, which includes Patagonia, is where the moist who use SFM to derive economic and environmental highlands (Fig. 2.27), and the extensive tropical forests
economic instability in the 20th century, some of which
ha (8.1 million ac) of eucalypt plantations in Brazil temperate and subtropical rainforests can be found among benefits and thus improve living conditions for this did not encourage people to take care of the land (van in the Amazon basin. In the arid plains along the Pacific
is tied to the development of its petroleum industry
(International Tropical Timber Organization, 2006). numerous canals, fjords, islands, and peninsulas that segment of the population (Food and Agriculture Orga- Bottenburg, 1952). Nearly two-thirds of the forestland coast, cattle ranches and soybean farms have been devel-
(Rodrı́guez, 2000). Venezuela contains about 88 million
A Forestry Code developed in 1965 is still in effect in stretch south to the Straits of Magellan. The forests in nization of the United Nations, 2003). in Colombia is privately owned and in the last five oped. Along the coastal plain are also found hualtaco
ha of land (about 218 million ac) and is now about 53%
Brazil, although recent controversial reforms to the code the southern part of the country (Fig. 2.25) are comprised years the deforestation rate in Colombia has been negli- (Lonopterygium huasango), huarango or mesquite (Proso-
forested (Table 2.3). Logging efforts beginning around
have been proposed. Since independence was declared, of various coniferous species, laurels, magnolias, and gible. However, deforestation may still be relatively pis pallida), and mangroves. However, gold mining and
1950 were aimed at transitioning land use from forests
most Brazilian forests have historically been controlled southern beeches (Nothofagus spp.). Numerous wildlife
2.3.5 Colombia high in the foothills of the Andes Mountains, where sig- petroleum exploration have affected the extent and
to agricultural or cattle production. In the 1980s, the
by the government, and property rights for some species inhabit this area, including the Andean wolf nificant settlement and land conversion has recently composition of Peru’s forests, and large areas of forests
The area represented by present-day Colombia annual rate of deforestation was among the highest in
forested areas in Brazil have been characterized as (Dasycyon hagenbecki); Andean fox (Lycalopex culpaeus); occurred and where most of the coca (from which the along the foothills of the Andes have been converted
(Fig. 2.20) was once inhabited by a number of indige- Latin America (Kammesheidt et al., 2001). Forestland
ambiguous (Banerjee and Alavalapati, 2010). In 2009, a the South American gray fox or gray zorro Lycalopex gri- stimulant cocaine is derived) is produced. Modern to coca plantations. The tropical forests of the Amazon
nous groups, including the Muisca and Tairona tribes. area has continued to decrease since 2010 at a rate of
large portion of the Amazon basin was made available seus); the guanaco, a camelid (Lama guanicoe); pudú, a spe- Colombian forest laws date back to the 1950s. The latest basin include cloud forests and other areas considered
Spanish colonization began around the 16th century about
0.3% per year (Table 2.3). Over 90% of the forest
for privatization to the settlers located there, who cies of deer (Mapudungun pudú); pumas; and various forest policy (Polı́tica de Bosques) stresses sustainable to be highly biologically diverse. From a commercial
and ended in the early 19th century. Colombia has area in Venezuela is owned by the government and
some suggest have been illegally using the land. A num- rodents, rabbits, birds, and lizards. forestry practices and improvements in the quality of perspective, some of the more important tree species
endured periods of unrest and instability over the last concessions are provided to forestry companies for the
ber of NGOs are active in Brazil and apply political pres- The predominant system of land tenure in Chile is life for the Colombian people. Indigenous groups and are ishpingo (Amburana cearensis), mahogany, marupa
200 years, and has been governed under several names, rights to harvest trees on public land. As with other
sure for action on natural resource conservation issues private ownership (about 75%), and the remaining Afro-Colombian communities can now register their (Simarouba amara), pumaquiro (Aspidosperma macrocar-
including the Viceroyalty of New Granada, the Republic of South American countries, a number of permanent forest
(International Tropical Timber Organization, 2006). 25% is publicly owned. Although laws allow communal rights to territories that they have historically occupied pon), Spanish cedar or cedro rojo, and Virola spp.
Colombia, the Granadine Confederation, and the United estates have been established to protect native forests.
ownership of land, it represents a minor system. Con- (White and Martin, 2002). Some of the broadleaved and About one-third of the country’s forests are privately
States of Colombia. Portions of Ecuador and Venezuela The ecoregions of Venezuela are numerous and com-
flict with indigenous communities with regard to land semideciduous forests common to this country are owned and, of the remainder, about 1% is assigned as
2.3.4 Chile were once politically tied to Colombia, as was current- plex. They range from mountain highlands to central
ownership continues today. The Chilean forest sector day Panama. Although Colombia is smaller today than managed under concessions or cooperatives between plains (Llanos) and coastal areas that include deltas
Located on the southwestern Pacific coast of South plays an important role in the economy, as one estimate it was immediately after the end of Spanish control, it the government and the forest industry. A Green Plan and islands located along or within the Caribbean Sea
America (Fig. 2.20), Chile is approximately 4300 km suggested that 13% of the country’s exports arose from is still the fourth largest country in South America and (Plan Verde) was developed in 1998 to promote refores- and Atlantic Ocean. In the western part of the country,
(2700 mi) long, and the Andes mountain range runs encompasses about 111 million ha of land (about tation efforts in degraded areas. The reforestation pro- in the area of Lake Maracaibo, the ecosystems range
the length of the country along its eastern border with 274 million ac), of which 53% is forested (Table 2.3). gram is now well developed, and forest plantations from arid to tropical over a relatively short distance
Argentina. Prior to Spanish colonization, Inca and Ma- Colombia has two distinct biogeographic zones: the An- include Caribbean pine, Mexican yellow pine, patula and can be composed of physiographic groups that
puche cultures shaped the Chilean landscape mainly dean mountain zone, which leads to alpine tundra; and pine, eucalypts, mangium (Acacia mangium), and white some might better recognize using the terms high plains,
through agricultural activities. In the early 16th century, the tropical plains that contain tropical rainforests and teak or beechwood. Most of the roundwood harvested low plains, mesas, or Piedmont (Henri, 2001). In the
the Spanish, after discovering what are now called the grass savannas. One of the three tropical plains contains within the country is consumed domestically (Interna- Piedmont areas, many forests are composed of semide-
Straits of Magellan, eventually colonized the country af- a portion of the Amazon basin and the Orinoco basin in tional Tropical Timber Organization, 2006), but some ciduous tree species. South of the Orinoco River in the
ter numerous confrontations with the indigenous popu- the southern portion of the country. Another tropical quantities of pulp, paper, and lumber are now exported eastern portion of the country (Fig. 2.28) are large ex-
lation and with other countries seeking the gold plain is located in the northern part of the country and (Mendell et al., 2006). Important NTFPs include palm panses of deciduous forests and plains that contain
resources that were thought to reside there. Indepen- faces the Caribbean Sea (Fig. 2.26). The third tropical fruits, rubber, and a neotropical species of bamboo vegetation that may still be considered precolonial in
dence came in 1818 after nearly a decade of attempts plain is located in the western part of the country and (Guadua angustifolia) that is used as a building material. character (Rodrı́guez, 2000).
to become autonomous from Spain. The extent of Chile faces the Pacific Ocean (International Tropical Timber Colombia is one of the most biologically diverse areas Nearly all of the roundwood produced in Venezuela is
has varied since colonization, and today Chile has a total Organization, 2006). in the world and the potential for ecotourism is very consumed in the country, and most (about 70%) is used
land area of about 74 million ha (about 184 million ac). Until recently, the description and registration of good, but security problems make the development of FIGURE 2.27 Countryside surrounding Pampas, in the Huanca- for fuelwood purposes. Cedar, mahogany, and saqui-
Moist temperate and subtropical rainforests composed land tenure and grants of land in Colombia, as in other these opportunities problematic (International Tropical velica region of Peru. Digary, through Wikimedia Commons.
saqui (Bombacopsis quinata) have historically been the
of broad-leaved or semideciduous tree species dominate countries of this region, was vague and this insecurity Timber Organization, 2006).
Image Link: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Anexo_de_Pamuri-3.JPG
main tree species harvested from native forests to
License Link: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/deed.en
the forested areas, although the country is currently only FIGURE 2.25 Forest along a river near Parque Nacional Vicente
about 24% forested (Table 2.3). Of the original forest area Pérez Rosales, Chile. Donald L. Grebner.

48 2. Forest regions of the world

TABLE 2.4 Demographic and physiographic data for European countries.adcont’d

FIGURE 2.29 Satellite image of Europe. National Aeronautics and Human population Total land area2 Total land area2 Forest area annual change Per capita GDP (PPP) 20171&b 50
Country 20181 (million) (1000 ha) (1000 ac) Forest cover2 (%) 2010e152 (%) (1000 US$)
Space Administration. TABLE 2.4 Demographic and physiographic data for European countries.a
Ukraine 44 57,938 143,107 17 0.2 2.5
Human population Total land area2 Total land area2 Forest area annual change Per capita GDP (PPP) 20171&b
United Kingdom 67 24,193 59,757 13 0.5 39.8
FIGURE 2.28 Deciduous forests along the Orinoco River in Country 20181 (million) (1000 ha) (1000 ac) 2
Forest cover (%) 2010e152 (%) (1000 US$)
clearing was further accelerated by the arrival of the Celts Other countries (23) 49 44,126 108,991 12 0.4 33.0
Venezuela. Pedro Gutiérrez, through Wikimedia Commons. Austria 9 8,244 20,363 47 e 47.7
Image Link: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Orinoco4.jpg and, later, the expansion of the Roman Empire. Europe (total) 746 2,213,945 5,468,444 46 e 27.2
License Link: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/deed.en The spread and contraction of forests after this period Belarus 9 20,748 51,248 42 0.2 5.7
a

have varied greatly due to ecological conditions, popu- Bosnia and Herzegovina 3 5,100 12,597 43 e 5.2 That have over 3,000,000 ac (about 1,214,100 ha) of forest.
b
Gross domestic product (GDP) expressed as purchasing power parity (PPP).
lation growth, and plague epidemics, as well as social Bulgaria 7 10,856 26,814 35 0.5 8.2
c
A large portion of the Russian Federation is located in Asia as well.
produce lumber products. Cinnamon, cumin, ginger, 1
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations 2020.
and political unrest. As human populations grew, peo- Croatia 4 5,596 13,822 34 e 13.2 2
FAO. Global Forest Resources Assessment 2015. Desk Reference. Rome, 2015.
nutmeg, palm nuts, resins, rubber, tonka beans, and other
ple cleared more land for agriculture, but the lands Czech Republic 11 7,722 19,073 35 0.1 20.3
NTFPs are also important. In the dry tropical region of
reverted to forests when whole communities perished Estonia 1 4,239 10,470 53 e 19.8
western Venezuela, forest plantations containing Carib-
as a result of the black plague (Loude, n.d.). Numerous Finland 6 30,390 75,063 73 e 45.7
bean pine, eucalypts, and teak have been developed
wars over the past several thousand years contributed France 65 54,766 135,272 31 0.7 38.4
2. Forest regions of the world

(Henri, 2001). In terms of natural resource policy,

greatly to the degradation of forests, which were used Germany 83 34,861 86,107 33 e 45.0
Venezuela passed a Forest Law in 1966 (Ley Forestal de
as a source of raw material for the development of weap-
2.4 Europe

Greece 11 12,890 31,838 32 0.8 18.2

Suelos y de Aguas) that integrated the uses of forests, water
onry and defenses. Some countries, such as the United Hungary 10 9,127 22,544 23 0.2 14.4
resources, and soil resources. A 1999 Organic Environ-
Kingdom, were able to withstand these dramatic Italy 61 29,414 72,653 32 0.6 32.7
mental Law placed jurisdiction of forest management
changes to their forested landscape because of their Latvia 2 6,220 15,363 54 e 15.6
under the Ministry of the Environment and Natural
higher annual precipitation levels. Unfortunately, some
Resources (International Tropical Timber Organization, Lithuania 3 6,268 15,482 35 0.1 16.4
Mediterranean countries were unable to withstand the
2006), and the 2013 Law of Forests further established Norway 5 30,427 75,155 40 e 75.3
dramatic changes in forest conditions due to their
the role of the ministry in forest management. Poland 38 30,622 75,636 31 0.2 13.8
more arid climate and experienced high levels of soil Portugal 10 9,026 22,294 35
0.4 18.9
erosion and subsequent losses of forested landscapes.
Romania 20 23,002 56,815 30 1.0 10.8
European forests are situated in the temperate and
2.4 Europe boreal biomes. The Iberian Peninsula hosts forests char-
Russian Federationc 146 1,637,687 4,045,087 50 e 11.0

Serbia 9 8,746 21,603 31 0.1 5.9

acterized as having Mediterranean vegetation. The Alps,
The history of modern forests in Europe, as in North Pyrenees, and other mountainous areas host montane
Slovakia 5 4,809 11,878 40 e 17.6

America, is highly dependent on the role that the last forests. The higher latitudes of Scandinavian countries Slovenia 2 2,014 4,975 62 e 23.3

ice age played across the European landscape host boreal forests as biomes transition from temperate Spain 47 49,880 123,204 37 0.2 28.4

(Fig. 2.29). As the ice sheets advanced south, they scoured broad-leaved and coniferous to taiga and then to tundra. Sweden 10 41,034 101,354 68 e 54.0

the landscape and destroyed all of the terrestrial vegeta- Some may argue that European forests are simpler, Switzerland 9 4,000 9,880 31 0.8 80.1

tion. The ice sheet covered all of Scandinavia, the north- in terms of the diversity of tree species, than other
49

Continued
ern half of central Europe, northern Russia, and the parts of the world. The vegetation in Europe has been
British Isles. As the ice sheet slowly retreated, vegetation managed fairly intensively for several centuries longer
recolonized the newly exposed landscape. The pioneer- than the vegetation in America. Nevertheless, their
ing tree species were coniferous because of their greater role in the world forestry sector is critical. Since
ability to retain water. Later, broad-leaved species spread 2010, Europe has experienced stability in forested area
and recolonized the European landscape. Mesolithic peo- (Table 2.4) and, while rates of change vary, many coun-
ples soon returned to these areas, but they had little tries with a significant forest area have had a positive
impact on the forests (Westoby, 1989). Later, stone ax- rate of change since late 2010 (Table 2.4). There are
wielding Neolithic peoples settled the land and cleared too many countries contained in this region to explore
large areas of forestlands for agricultural purposes. This in sufficient depth in this book. Therefore, we will
 2.4 Europe 51 52 2. Forest regions of the world 2.4 Europe 53
concentrate on a few (Austria, Belarus, Finland, Ger- sovereignty was restored. Austria is currently a federal the area of forests has been increasing at a rate of about 2.4.3 Finland produces valued-added wood products such as pulp
many, Russia, Spain, and the United Kingdom) to pro- state with nine provinces and, given its location in the 0.2% per year since 2010 (Table 2.4). and paper, furniture, wood-based panels, and other
vide an indication of the diversity of forest conditions Alps, forests (Fig. 2.31) are characterized as cool The forests of Belarus are controlled by the govern- Finland is located in the northeastern corner of products for export. Finland and Sweden are the two
and settings this region provides. temperate and boreal (montane or alpine), with varia- ment, and the Ministry of Forestry is the agency assigned Europe between Sweden and Russia on a strip of land largest producers of coniferous roundwood in the EU.
tions of these according to the elevation of the land. responsibility for the related activities on most of these it shares with Norway along the northern border Finland has also become a leading developer of forest
The forests are composed of various species of European lands. Roundwood is produced mainly from final har- (Fig. 2.30). Although ethnically a different language harvesting machines, industrial paper-making ma-
2.4.1 Austria beech (Fagus sylvatica), European larch (Larix decidua), vests (54%) and thinnings (35%) (Gerasimov and Karja- group, Finland historically was either a member of the chines, and innovative sawmilling technologies that
European silver fir (Abies alba), Norway spruce (Picea lainen, 2010). For the most part, thinnings and selection Swedish kingdom or the Russian Empire until 1918, are used throughout the world. Recreational use of for-
Austria is a land-locked, mountainous country in cen-
abies), alders, maples, oaks, and others. harvests are allowed in forests located along rivers and when it won independence. Human settlement spread ests in Finland is free under the Everyman’s Right (right
tral Europe, bordered by the Czech Republic, Germany,
Shortly after World War II, as with other countries, lakes, and around cities. Extraction of timber from widely into Finland in the 16th century with the advance of public access), which allows use of land owned by
Hungary, Italy, Liechtenstein, Slovakia, Slovenia, and
Austria’s most important agricultural and forestry ob- forested areas near the Chernobyl nuclear accident in of slash-and-burn cultivation practices (Parviainen et al., others for bicycling, hiking, horseback riding, skiing
Switzerland (Fig. 2.30). Of the 8.2 million ha (over 20
jectives were directed toward self-sufficiency of re- nearby Ukraine (Fig. 2.32) that occurred in 1986 is prob- 2010). Currently, Finland is a sparsely populated nation (provided these activities do not cause damage), tempo-
million ac) of land area in Austria, 47% is forested
sources. Austria has since developed a wood products lematic due to high levels of radiation (Krott et al., with over 30 million ha of land (over 75 million ac), of rary camping, and extraction of some NTFPs such as
(Table 2.4). The history of Austria includes periods
industry to the point that it now exports more products 2000). These areas represent about one-quarter of the which 73% is forested and most is considered to be taiga berries and mushrooms (Parviainen et al., 2010). The
where the country was an integral part of the Roman
than it consumes for development or fuelwood pur- country’s forests. Of the roundwood harvested in or boreal forests. A recent estimate of the rate of change concept of sustainable management of forests has been
Empire and the Holy Roman Empire, and periods where
poses. The Forest Act of 1975 (amended in 2002) pro- Belarus, about 43% is used for fuelwood and about 25% in forestland area indicates that it is neither increasing recognized in legislation since the Forest Act of 1886,
the country was associated with Hungary, forming the
vides guidance for forest management activities. The FIGURE 2.31 Mountain forests of the eastern Alps south of Vienna is exported. Over 80% of the harvested wood comes nor decreasing (Table 2.4). Northern Finland, also and private forest legislation of 1928 and 1966 has also
Austro-Hungarian Empire. After World War I, Austria
Forest Act also allows people access to all forests for rec-
in Lower Austria. Walter Sekot.
from coniferous tree species. NTFPs of importance known locally as Lapland, is a region containing tundra influenced how forests of Finland are managed (Siisko-
became an independent republic. The country was
reational purposes, with the exception of hunting, which include berries, birch sap, mushrooms, and turpentine and sparsely distributed boreal forests. Southern nen, 2007). The Forest Act of 1996 now guides and regu-
annexed by Germany during World War II and was
requires a permit for a specific hunting district. Austria joined the European Union (EU) in 1995 and, as with (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Finland, relatively warmer but cold by United States lates silvicultural activities on all Finnish lands. The
then occupied by the Allies for a few years until its
other European nations, a number of EU regulations Nations, 2016). A number of national plans have been standards, is heavily forested (Fig. 2.33) with numerous current law promotes ecological, economic, and social
also directly or indirectly affects the management of developed, such as the National Strategy for Sustainable inland water bodies that rival Minnesota’s 10,000 lakes. sustainability of forests and natural resources (Hirakuri,
forests (e.g., afforestation and protection activities) Socioeconomic Development of Republic of Belarus, the Finnish forests contain many common European tree 2003).
(Voitleithner, 2002). About 80% of Austrian forests are Forest Code of 2000, and the National Forest Program species, including birches, larches, pines, and spruces.
privately owned, and the remainder are publicly owned (Gerasimov and Karjalainen, 2010). These were designed Finnish wildlife includes numerous species of birds
and managed. Small-scale forestry (managing less than to promote a sustainable forest industry and to recognize and mammals such as the Eurasian eagle owl (Bubo
200 ha or about 500 ac) and the management goals important environmental and ecological aspects of bubo), Tengmalm’s owl (Aegolius funereus), martens, 2.4.4 Germany
of small forest holdings dominate forestry practices natural resource management. whooper swans, elk, reindeer, wolves, and wolverines.
Germany is located in central Europe (Fig. 2.30) and
(Kvarda, 2004). The area of forests has expanded since Over 75% of the forestland in Finland is privately
contains 16 states covering about 35 million ha (about
World War II, due to natural regeneration on abandoned owned, mainly by families or family groups. Forest
86 million ac). About 33% of the land area is currently
agricultural land and afforestation efforts. Although practices are generally based on even-aged management
forested (Table 2.4) and the recent rate of change in forest
most of the flat, arable land in Austria is used for agricul- principles that utilize a number of intermediate thin-
area has been negligible. Five land regions are recog-
tural purposes, since the late 2010s the forest area in nings (Parviainen et al., 2010). Given their location, Fin-
nized: the Bavarian Alps, Black Forest, the central high-
Austria has not really changed (Table 2.4). land’s forests have played an important role in
lands, the north German plain, and the southern
supplying forest products to European markets. This
German hills. Most of these areas support temperate
has allowed the country to develop a forest sector that
broad-leaved or coniferous forests, although the higher
2.4.2 Belarus elevations support montane forests. The state of Bavaria
Belarus is a landlocked country bordered by Latvia, has the largest forested area (2.6 million ha or 6.3 million
Lithuania, Poland, Russia, and Ukraine (Fig. 2.30) that ac), Baden-Württemberg has the second largest forested
was once inhabited by Baltic and Slavic tribes. Prior to area (1.4 million ha or 3.4 million ac), and Saarland has
the 16th century, portions of the country were governed the smallest amount of forested area (102,634 ha or
by Poland and Lithuania. After World War I, Poland and 253,614 ac) (German Federal Ministry of Food and Agri-
Russia governed parts of modern-day Belarus. In 1939, culture, 2012). Historically, German forests have been
the country became a republic within the Soviet Union, dominated by beech and oak forest communities, and
and in 1941 Belarus was embroiled in World War II. The currently 60% of German forest area is coniferous and
country and its natural resources were among those 40% is broad-leaved. The broad-leaved forests are
most ravaged from activities related to the war, and composed of tree species such as ash (Fraxinus spp.), En-
several decades were required to rebuild the infrastruc- glish oak (Quercus robur), European beech, horse-chestnut
ture. After the collapse of the Soviet Union (1991), it or conker tree (Aesculus hippocastanum), and silver birch
became an independent country, and of the nearly 21 (Betula pendula). The coniferous forests are composed of
million ha (a little over 51 million ac) that now comprise FIGURE 2.32 Radioactivity warning sign on a hill at the eastern spruce, fir, Douglas-fir, larch (Larix spp.), and Scots pine.
Belarus, temperate deciduous and coniferous forests end of Red Forest, Belarus, which received the highest levels of radi- Germany provides a good example of the history of
ation following the Chernobyl nuclear power plant accident. Timm
cover about 42%. About two-thirds of the forests of Suess, through Wikimedia Commons. European forest use and its development. For example,
Belarus are composed of coniferous tree species (e.g., Image Link: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Red_Forest_Hill.jpg FIGURE 2.33 Forests typical of southeastern Finland. Thomas one event of historic importance to forests suggests
FIGURE 2.30 Countries in Europe. Modified image from PresentationMaps.com. Norway spruce and Scots pine [Pinus sylvestris]) and License Link: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0/deed.en O’Shea. that Germanic tribes repelled three Roman legions in

54 2. Forest regions of the world 2.4 Europe 55 56 2. Forest regions of the world

desolate forested areas during the rule of Caesar Augus- 2.4.5 Russian Federation about the 5th century, noted the importance of forests for the Pyrenees supports montane forests, and a small 20th century, included nearly one-quarter of the land
tus, thus preventing the expansion of the Roman Empire hunting and obtaining honey. Ownership of land and portion of land along the Atlantic Ocean supports area in the world. Within these four countries, 90% or
into parts of modern-day Germany. Another example in- Forests in Russia compose over one-fifth of the property rights was introduced into legislation around temperate broad-leaved deciduous forests. Many forests more of the natural forests were cleared by the start of
cludes the fuelwood famines of the 12th and 13th cen- world’s total forest area and, although a good portion the 12th century and was debated through other legisla- in Spain are composed of dwarf beech (Fagus sylvatica), the 15th century, as the demand for agricultural and ran-
turies, which shaped the character of European and of Russian forests are technically located in Asia, we tion for another 700 years. Since 1918, most forests are eucalyptus or blue gum, Mesogean or maritime pine geland increased, along with an expansion of the human
German woodlands over time. Germany was also discuss the forests of the Russian Federation in this Eu- considered to be owned by the state and nearly all are (Pinus pinaster), radiata pine, mixed forests of English population. England, Scotland, and Wales each had 10%
involved in several wars over the last 200 years that ropean section. The Russian Federation (Fig. 2.30) covers administered by the Forest Fund (Teplyakov et al., oak and sessile oak (Quercus petraea), Pyrenean oak of their land composed of forests at about this time.
greatly impacted its natural resources. The current about 1.638 billion ha of land (about 4.045 billion ac), and 1998). Some forests continue to be privately held (Quercus pyrenaica) (Fig. 2.36), and European silver fir. Plantations of European larch, Norway spruce, and
German landscape is therefore a by-product of peaceful about 50% of the total land area is covered by forests through an exemption to the 1997 Forest Code. During European silver fir is commonly found in the Pyrenees Scots pine were begun in the 17th century, and later
and wartime manipulations by humans over many cen- (Table 2.4). Forest areas in Russia consist of the northern the period of Civil War (1917e23) and during World bordering France. Stone pine (Pinus pinea) is also found Douglas-fir and Sitka spruce were introduced from
turies (German Federal Ministry of Food and Agricul- boreal forest (containing Norway spruce, Scots pine, and War II, Russian forests sustained heavy damage, espe- in Spain and is commonly used to provide edible pine North America. The United Kingdom relied heavily on
ture, 2011). Land tenure has recently been undergoing Siberian pine [Pinus sibirica], among others) and the cially along waterways. The 1997 Forest Code promoted nuts used in salads and other culinary dishes. There imported wood for its domestic use, but the shipping
a transition in some parts of the country. For example, southern temperate deciduous and mixed forests (con- the sustainable use of forests, and a new Forest Code, are few forests in the southern portion of the Iberian blockade associated with World War I underscored the
some state-owned lands in eastern Germany are revert- taining alders, aspen, birches, and oaks), although implemented in 2007, facilitates the development of Peninsula, which is characterized as having scrub and country’s vulnerability with regard to forest resources
ing to the previous ownership status (private or public) various ecoregions are found within each of these. long-term leases to forested areas for production pur- other low-lying Mediterranean vegetation. Although and a large-scale afforestation program was begun
that existed prior to expropriation in the mid-20th Active forest management is concentrated mainly in poses (Teplyakov et al., 1998). Given the size of the the Spanish forest products sector is significant and around 1919 with the passage of the Forestry Act of
century. the north European region of the country (Fig. 2.35) country and the vast resources contained within, illegal per capita consumption of wood is lower here than in 1919. However, nearly two-thirds of the woodlands in
German concern for agricultural and forest sustain- and the far eastern region. The majority of old-growth logging is a concern in some areas (Torniainen et al., other European countries, Spain is a net importer of the United Kingdom were felled to meet the needs of
ability has significantly altered the current landscape forests that remain are located in the boreal region of 2006). Lately, wildfire has become a major issue in west- wood products. NTFPs of importance in Spain include World War II. As a result, a renewed afforestation
to the point where nearly all of the forested area has northern Russia. The rate of change in forest area has ern Russia as unusually hot and dry weather precipi- cork, fruits, medicinal plants, mushrooms, and nuts. program was begun in 1948 to encourage private land-
been influenced by humans’ activities at some point in been negligible in the last few years (Table 2.4). Wood re- tated a rash of fires in 2010. Ecotourism is also becoming increasingly important, owners to restock their woodlands (Richards, 2003).
history (German Federal Ministry of Food and Agricul- movals in Russia account for only 6% of the world’s total although wildfire is a particular concern in the southern The recent rate of change in forest area has been positive, FIGURE 2.37 Bluebell (Hyacinthoides non-scripta) flowers under a
ture, 2011). Increasing demands for forestlands and production (Food and Agriculture Organization of the portion of the country. The 2003 Forest Law (Ley 43/2003) about 0.5% per year (Table 2.4).
deciduous forest canopy in Buckinghamshire, England, United

wood have led to the planting of coniferous trees, but ef- United Nations, 2010), yet Russia is the largest exporter 2.4.6 Spain provides the current regulatory framework for the man- The four countries of the United Kingdom contain a
Kingdom. Keith Hulbert and Paul Zarucki, through Wikimedia Commons.
Image Link: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bluebells-2005-05-02-2p.jpg
forts are under way to convert the character of current of roundwood in the world, with European and Asian agement and conservation of forests in Spain. little over 24 million ha of land (almost 60 million ac),
Spain has a land base of about 50 million ha (about License Link: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en
forests to one that represents the natural vegetation markets as the main customers (Solberg et al., 2010). and forests now cover approximately 13% of the land
123 million ac), of which about 37% is currently forested
found historically on German land. German forests NTFPs of importance include berries, mushrooms, area (Table 2.4), three-quarters of which are plantations.
(Table 2.4). The country is located on the Iberian Penin-
and those who work with them have been at the fore- pine nuts, turpentine, and a large number of medicinal 2.4.7 United Kingdom Agriculture dominates the various land uses of the developed, which outlines priorities for forest resources
sula of western Europe between France to the northeast
front of forestry development for a very long time and plants. United Kingdom, but the use of land for the extraction for the next 50 years in England. Similar policies have
and Portugal to the west (Fig. 2.30). The original people The history of the United Kingdom (Fig. 2.30) is com-
currently forests are managed for a variety of commer- The vast forests in the western part of the Russian of other resources (e.g., coal, chalk, iron ore, and others) been developed in Northern Ireland and Scotland to
who inhabited the Iberian Peninsula were the Basques, plex but perhaps no more so than other countries in
cial and noncommercial uses (Fig. 2.34). A number of Federation were initially inhabited by ancient Slavs, is important as well. The climate of the United Kingdom promote sustainable use of the resource.
Celts, and Iberians, and through its long course of his- Europe. Inhabitants of this island nation included the
German foresters have had important influences on who were hunter-gatherers and fishermen, and Slavic is temperate, and the prevailing winds are from the
tory, this area of the world has been ruled by various original Celts, as well as descendants of Anglo-Saxon,
the forest sciences. In fact, the environmental concept and Byzantine cultures influenced what would eventu- southwest; thus, the eastern portion of the island of Great
Christian, Muslim, and Roman empires and kingdoms. Norman, and Roman invaders. The four countries that
called sustainable management was developed in 1713 ally become Russian culture. The importance of forests Britain (containing England, Scotland, and Wales) is drier 2.5 Asia
As already mentioned, countries in the Mediterranean now comprise the United Kingdom (England, Northern
by H C. von Carlowitz, a German forester (Niekisch, to the region has been emphasized in many laws dating than the western portion. As it pertains to forests, the
region have experienced periods of serious deforestation Ireland, Scotland, and Wales) are the remnants of a
1992). back over 1500 years. Early Russian laws, beginning in entire country can be said to support temperate broad-
dating back to ancient times. In Spain, forestland was much larger British Empire that, at its height in the early Asia (Fig. 2.38) is the largest continent on Earth and its
not only cleared to facilitate agricultural purposes but leaved and coniferous forests. Currently, about 80% of history has gripped the human imagination for thou-
also to provide fuel for metallurgical operations as far the rural land in the United Kingdom is privately owned sands of years, including periods influenced by (among
back as during Roman rule. During the 15th and 16th and the remainder is in various public ownership classes. others) the Ming Dynasty in China, the Mongolian
centuries, Spain was expanding its empire around the From a forest management perspective, the rural coun- hordes led by Genghis Khan, and the Japanese Samurai.
world, and this expansion led to the clearing of large tryside of the United Kingdom is urbanizing, and the The continent is the site of the Sphinx, Angor Wat, adven-
forested areas to provide timbers for the development public in general now expects rural land to produce mul- tures of Marco Polo along the Silk Road, the Trans-
of the Spanish Armada (Oosthoek, 1998). The expansion tiple goods and services (Fig. 2.37) (Munton, 2009). Siberian rail line, Gandhi’s silent protest (India), and oil
of the empire eventually led to conflicts with other na- Community forest programs were begun in the production (the Middle East). Within this continent there
tions. In 1588, Spain tried to invade England, but the United Kingdom in 1989 to help restore derelict portions are 51 countries that cover about 43.8 million square kilo-
Armada was destroyed, which heralded the decline of of the urban fringe and promote the creation of jobs meters (km2; 11.9 million square miles [mi2]) of land and
Spanish supremacy (Oosthoek, 1998). Currently, the for- (Richards, 2003). Interestingly, the area of deciduous for- support over 4.1 billion people. Given the diverse cli-
est area in Spain has been increasing in size (about 0.2% ests planted annually in the United Kingdom now ex- matic, developmental, and topographic history of the
per year; Table 2.4) with the aid of various governmental ceeds the area of coniferous forests planted (Richards, continental region, the extent and character of forested
assistance programs. 2003). However, most of the roundwood produced in areas vary by country. For example, eastern Siberia,
About two-thirds of the forestland in Spain is pri- the United Kingdom comes from coniferous plantations. which is part of the Russian Federation, is still largely
vately owned, while the remainder is publicly owned. The production of roundwood represents about 2% of forested due to poor infrastructure and a low population
A small portion of the public lands are considered com- FIGURE 2.36 Pyrenean oak (Quercus pyrenaica) forest in central that produced in Europe, excluding the Russian Federa- density. Older civilizations such as China and India have
FIGURE 2.34 Forest trail near the Waldsteinburg, also known as Spain. Luis Fernández Garcı́a, through Wikimedia Commons.
the Red Castle, Fichtelgebirge, Oberfranken, Germany. Donald L. FIGURE 2.35 Russian forest situated on the northwestern border munity or municipal forests. Most of the Iberian Penin- tion, and the United Kingdom is essentially a net each experienced similar patterns of forest use due to
Image Link: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Quercus-pyrenaica-
Grebner. with Finland. Thomas O’Shea. sula supports temperate, Mediterranean vegetation 20071110-c.jpg
importer of wood products (Eurostat, 2019). In 2007, A repeated expansions and contractions of human settle-
and coniferous forests. A small portion of land along License Link: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.5/es/deed.en Strategy for England’s Trees, Woods and Forests was ments over thousands of years. Burgeoning populations

2.5 Asia 57 58 2. Forest regions of the world

TABLE 2.5 Demographic and physiographic data for Asian countries.a

Human population Total land area2 Total land area2 Forest area annual change 2010 Per capita (PPP) 20171&b
Country 20181 (million) (1000 ha) (1000 ac) Forest cover2 (%) e152 (%) (1000 US$)

Bangladesh 161 13,017 32,152 11
0.2 1.5

Bhutan <1 3812 9416 72 0.4 3.2
Cambodia 16 17,652 43,600 54
1.3 1.4

China 1459 942,530 2,328,049 22 0.8 8.6

Democratic People’s Republic of 26 12,041 29,741 42
2.3 0.7
Korea
FIGURE 2.38 Satellite image of Asia. National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Georgia 4 6949 17,164 41 e 3.9
India 1353 297,319 734,378 24 0.3 1.9

in these countries over the past half century have acceler- species such as Japanese cypress (Chamaecyparis obtusa), Indonesia 268 171,857 424,487 53
0.7 3.8

ated the need for afforestation, restoration, regeneration Korean pine (Pinus koraiensis), and Mongolian oak Japan 127 36,450 90,032 69 e 38.2
2.5 Asia

programs, and environmental programs (such as those (Quercus mongolica). Wildlife species commonly found Loa People’s Democratic Republic 7 23,080 57,008 81 1.0 2.5

aimed to prevent or mitigate soil erosion) that promote in temperate regions include the golden snub-nosed Malaysia 32 32,855 81,152 68 0.1 10.0

increased self-sufficiency. monkey (Rhinopithecus roxellana), the Manchurian hare Myanmar 54 65,755 162,415 44
1.8 1.3

While the loss of forested area is a concern in some (Lepus mandschuricus), and the giant panda (Ailuropoda Nepal 28 14,335 35,407 25 e 0.8

Asian countries, on the whole, the forested area has melanoleuca), which is currently endangered. In tropical Philippines 107 29,817 73,648 27 3.3 3.0

increased in China since 2010 due to massive afforesta- forests, numerous tree species exist such as kemenyan Republic of Korea 51 9710 23,984 64
0.1 30.0
tion efforts (Food and Agriculture Organization of the (Styrax benzoin), Philippine mahogany (Shorea almon), Sri Lanka 21 6271 15,489 33
0.3 4.2
United Nations, 2015). The forest vegetation and associ- and sal (Shorea robusta). Other plants include the kitul Thailand 69 51,089 126,190 32 0.2 6.6
ated wildlife species stretch across numerous ecore- palm tree (Caryota urens) and nutmeg (Myristica fra- FIGURE 2.39 Countries in Asia. Modified image from PresentationMaps.com. Turkey 82 76,963 190,099 15 0.9 10.5
gions, ranging from tundra and taiga forests in Siberia grans). Wildlife species may include the hog badger Viet Nam 96 31,007 76,587 48 0.9 2.3
to temperate forests in China, Japan, and Korea, to grass- (Arctonyx collaris), Indian cobra (Naja naja), or the Sri
the Industrial Revolution, and intermittent wars and have been distributed to people through a variety of Other countries (30) 600 1,275,131 3,149,574 3
0.2 7.0
lands in Kazakhstan, Mongolia, and Uzbekistan, and Lankan elephant (Elephas maximus maximus). While a
disorder led to economic decline. After the Chinese Civil contractual arrangements (Chen and Kurokawa, 2005), Asia (total) 4561 3,117,640 7,700,571 19 0.1 6.5
tropical forests in India, Indonesia, the Philippines, good portion of Asia includes the eastern part of the
War (1947e49), a socialist state developed and since the and a 1984 Forest Law, revised in 1998, legalized private a
That are more than 10% forested and have over 3,000,000 ac (about 1,214,100 ha) of forest.
Thailand, and Vietnam. Precipitation patterns range Russian Federation, which we discussed in the previ- b
1980s a number of economic reforms have helped the ownership of trees (but not land) (Keliang et al., 2010). Gross domestic product (GDP) expressed as purchasing power parity (PPP).
greatly from the more arid regions in Middle Eastern ous section, our discussion of Asian forests will center
1.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations 2020 2.FAO. Global Forest Resources Assessment 2015. Desk Reference. Rome, 2015.
country to now become the second largest economy in However, the 2007 Property Law affirms ownership of
countries such as Israel, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, and on China, Indonesia, Japan, and the Republic of Korea.
the world. A land reform law was enacted right after land to the collectives but does not address who actually
Turkey to the moist climatic environments found in
the founding of the People’s Republic of China in has control over the land (whether the collectives or in-
59

eastern China, Indonesia, Japan, and Thailand.

1949, which allowed peasant ownership of land, but in dividuals given contract to part of the collectively
In the Asian boreal forests, it is common to find tree 2.5.1 China 1956 this changed to collective ownership of land owned land). The absence of a rural land registry affects
species such as the Siberian fir (Abies sibirica). Siberian
China (Fig. 2.39) has one of the world’s oldest human (Keliang et al., 2010). Today, the majority of land in management of the land and leaves unsolved the ques-
larch (Larix sibirica), and Siberian spruce (Picea obovata).
civilizations, with nearly 4000 years of documented his- China is owned by these collectives (townships and vil- tion of prior ownership. As a result, in some areas there
Other plants include Siberian ginseng (Eleutherococcus
tory. Shang, Zhou, Han, Wu, Tang, and Song dynasties lages) and the remainder is controlled by the central or is no system that can, by title, protect a landowner and
senticosus) and numerous plant species associated
ruled the various empires of China from about the state governments. State forest management is more their forest investment (Ho, 2006).
with peat bogs. Wildlife species include brown bears,
17th century BC to the 13th century AD. Chinese dynasties prevalent in the northeastern provinces. Southern China China is a vast and diverse country that encompasses
mink, moose, reindeer, the Siberian tree frog (Rana
were the first to develop paper and books, and the first and northecentral China are the major regions for col- over 942 million ha of land (almost 2.3 billion ac)
amurensis), and the Siberian tiger (Panthera tigris tigris).
governmental bodies to use and distribute paper money. lective forest management enterprises (Rozelle et al., (Table 2.5). The current forest area in China is estimated
In more temperate forests, it is common to find tree
Other dynasties followed, but China effectively missed 2003). Some forested lands that are collectively owned to be about 207 million ha (about 511 million ac), which
60 2. Forest regions of the world 2.5 Asia 61 62 2. Forest regions of the world

represents about 22% of the total land area. The largest Prior to 1950, most of China’s forests were naturally 2.5.3 Japan large areas of the country, imports of wood into Japan (Table 2.5), between 1946 and 2000 nearly 100,000 ha of
forest areas are located in the northeast (formerly called regenerated. Since then, reforestation of cleared areas began to rise significantly in the 1960s due to high silvi- land (about 247,000 ac) was planted annually (1% of
Manchuria, now called Dongbei), eight southern prov- has been accomplished using Chinese fir (Cunninghamia Japan is a nation comprised of over 3000 islands that cultural and logging costs, low import prices, and the the land annually). During this period, nearly 5.3 million
inces (Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Hubei, Hunan, lanceolata), larch (Larix spp.), and poplar (Populus spp.) form an archipelago in the Pacific (Fig. 2.39). The char- need for a stable supply of wood with uniform charac- ha (13 million ac) was reforested.
Jiangxi, Sichuan, and Yunnan), and mid-China (Shaanxi) (Chen and Kurokawa, 2005). Northeast China has one acter of the country has evolved considerably from the teristics (Iwamoto, 2002). As a result, about 80% of the Today, diverse forests (Fig. 2.43) cover about 64% of the
(Ho, 2006). Given its size, the physiographic zones of the most important forest areas in the country due original Jomon culture (hunter-gatherer) that ended wood product demand in Japan is met with imports, land area of Korea and the recent rate of change is
within China are also diverse, ranging from arid deserts to the size of the natural forests contained there. Forests around 300 BC to shogunates, clans, and dynasties of mainly from Canada and Russia (Tóth et al., 2006). Japan about
0.1% per year (Table 2.5). While most of the
to dry humid forests. For example, the Xinjiang region of are characterized as mixed broad-leaved Korean pine recent centuries. Currently, Japan is a constitutional enacted a Basic Forestry Law in 1964 and amended it in peninsula can be described as an area containing
northwest China is mainly arid, but certain areas can and larch forests. Korean aspen (Populus davidiana), monarchy that has evolved over the last 100 years into 2016 (now the Forest and Forestry Basic Act), aimed to temperate deciduous forests, of the forested area about
support forest vegetation (Fig. 2.40). Northern forests Korean pine (which is similar to white pine), Mongolian the third largest economy in the world. Reforms in promote sustainable forestry and the development of 30% is now comprised of plantations, some of which
are mostly temperate coniferous or mixed coniferous- oak, and Olgan larch (Larix olgensis) are among the many forestland ownership began at the turn of the 20th cen- multifunctional forests. are composed of coniferous tree species. Originally, alder
deciduous, while some southern forests are lowland tree species found in this region (Chen, 2006). In the tury and now about 31% of the land in Japan is consid- (Alnus spp.), black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia), pitch pine
subtropical rainforests or monsoon forests (Ho, 2006). southwestern region of the country, the main tree spe- ered national forest, 11% is owned by local governments, (Pinus rigida), and sawtooth oak (Quercus acutissima) plan-
A broad expanse of temperate coniferous, semidecidu- cies in these temperate forests are Chinese Douglas-fir and 58% is privately owned. Japan covers over 36 tations were created. Since then, chestnut, hybrid aspen,
ous, and mixed forests currently resides in southern (Pseudotsuga sinensis), camphor laurel (Cinnamomum
FIGURE 2.41 Tidal forests typical of Indonesia. U.S. Department of million ha of land (about 90 million ac), of which about 2.5.4 Republic of Korea (South Korea) hybrid poplar, larch, and Korean pine plantations have
Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service (2020).
China. About 61.7 million ha (152.5 million ac) of Chi- camphora), dragon spruce (Picea asperata), nanmu 69% is now forested (Table 2.5). Vast areas of forest were also been established (Lee and Lee, 2005). While rapid
The Korean Peninsula (Fig. 2.39) has a long and rich
nese forests are planted forests. Desertification is a (Konishi nathaphoebe, Nantou litsea, Phoebe nanmu and devastated during the conflicts of the mid-20th century; economic growth since the late 20th century may be
human history dating back nearly 4000 years. The region
serious environmental and social issue in the country others), teak, Yunnan pine (Pinus yunnanensis), and zitan as light red meranti (Shorea albida) and ramin (Gonystylus however, a large-scale reforestation effort has been very straining South Korea’s native environmental resources,
was ruled by several dynasties until 1910, when Japan
and, although logging of native forests has been banned, (Pterocarpus santalinus). As a country, China is among the bancanus) (Brown, 1998). In forest plantations, acacias successful and the rate of change in forested area has the Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) seems to be an unlikely
annexed the peninsula. After World War II, the Korean
the rate of forest loss has been, at times, high (Chen and top five producers of wood products, particularly fiber- (Acacia spp.), eucalypts, Sumatran pine (Pinus merkusii), been negligible since the late 2000s (Table 2.5). Japan exception. Running horizontally across the Korean Penin-
Peninsula was divided into two countries, North Korea
Kurokawa, 2005). During China’s Cultural Revolution board, particleboard, and plywood. About two-thirds of and teak comprise the majority of species grown. has three broad forest regions. One is a subtropical forest sula, the DMZ has separated North Korea and South Ko-
and South Korea. Like many other countries around the
(1966e76), large areas of forests were cleared for agricul- the roundwood produced is used for fuelwood pur- Bamboo, copal, rattan, and many medicinal plants are zone that includes many species of oak and beech (also rea since the cease-fire armistice in 1953. The DMZ is
world, South Korea has experienced periods of severe
tural production and, by the onset of economic reforms poses, and internal consumption of wood exceeds pro- a few of the NTFPs derived from these tropical forests known as stone oak; Lithocarpus spp.) (Fig. 2.42) and roughly 4 km (2.5 mi) wide and 250 km (155 mi) long,
deforestation. However, unlike many countries that
(1978), a large portion of China’s forests were depleted duction; thus, the country is a net importer of wood (International Tropical Timber Organization, 2006). other broad-leaved and coniferous evergreen tree spe- crossing coastal areas, high mountains, plains, rivers,
have experienced deforestation, South Korea has
or in poor condition (Hyde et al., 2003). More recently, products (Ho, 2006). Indonesia experienced a significant expansion in its cies. The second is a temperate zone dominated by and wetlands. It serves as a buffer between the two coun-
achieved remarkable success in restoring its forests.
the Chinese government has placed a great deal of economy from the mid-1960s through to the end of the beech, fir, and pine tree species, along with several tries to prevent further hostilities. This area has been
Deforestation was most rampant in the 20th century
emphasis on wood supply and high-profile afforestation 20th century. The petroleum industry, along with ad- important Japanese conifers that include hinoki or Japa- closed to civilians since its inception. In addition, South
during the Japanese occupation (1910e45) and the
projects, such as the Upper/Middle Yangtze River Val- vancements in manufacturing, helped improve the stan- nese cypress (Chamaecyparis obtuse), and sugi or Japanese Korea maintains the Civilian Control Zone (CCZ) that ex-
Korean War (1950e53). Following the war, the impover-
ley afforestation campaign and the Great Green Wall in
2.5.2 Indonesia dard of living in the country. Nearly two-thirds of the cedar (Cryptomeria japonica). The third broad forest re-
ished nation relied heavily on its forests for food, tends another 10e20 km (6e12 mi) and in which human
Inner Mongolia (Rozelle et al., 2003). These large-scale roundwood produced is for fuelwood purposes, yet gion is a cold zone that includes montane forest species access is extremely restricted. The combined area of DMZ
Indonesia consists of over 17,000 islands and forms a fuelwood, and timber. As a result, vast expanses of
afforestation programs have allowed the country to Indonesia is a net exporter of manufactured wood prod- such as fir, hemlock, and spruce. and CCZ within South Korea amounts to nearly
large archipelago in Asia (Fig. 2.39). The largest of the forestland were denuded and, with heavy monsoon
show a positive rate of change in forest area, estimated ucts (mainly to China, Japan, and Korea). Individual tree Japan actually began developing forest plantations in 98,000 km2 (37,833 mi2), 71% of which is forested (Korea
islands are Sulawesi, Sumatra, the western half of New rains, soil erosion became a major problem. One mea-
to be about a 0.8% increase per year since 2010 selection cutting is the main silvicultural technique due the late 17th century. Currently, about 40% of the forest
Guinea, and the Indonesian portion of Borneo (Kaliman- sure of forest resource conditions, the average growing
to the wide range of species found in the tropical forests. area in Japan is composed of plantations, and sugi and
(Table 2.5). Recent reforms have stimulated forest man- tan). Indonesia has been a major trading region since stock volume of forests, reached its nadir of only 6 m3
A 1999 Forest Law defines two types of ownership, one hinoki are two of the main tree species currently being
agement by providing farmers property rights to trees around the 7th century, and Indonesian society has per ha (about 86 ft3 per ac) in 1952 (Chun, 2010),
planted on contracted forestland (Petry et al., 2010). in which land is registered by title and the other in grown for commercial purposes (Fujikake, 2007).
been influenced over time by Buddhist, Hindu, and Is- implying that vast areas of forestland were devoid of
which land belongs to the state, although White and Although significant efforts have been made to reforest
lamic cultures. The Dutch colonized portions of the ar- trees. The driving force behind forest degradation was
Martin (2002) suggest that nearly all of the forestland
chipelago for nearly 350 years, then Japan occupied a tremendous demand for fuelwood to meet more than
is controlled by the government. Community forest
the country during World War II, after which Indonesia 60% of the country’s energy needs (Lee, 2010). In 1960,
rights (adata) are also recognized, and the administration
became independent. Of the 172 million ha of land an estimated 42% of forestland area was still unstocked.
of forests for production and protection purposes has
(nearly 424 million ac), about 53% is currently forested Land reform in the mid-20th century affected the land
been decentralized to the provinces and districts within
and the rate of change has been about
0.7% per year tenure system and currently most of the forestland in
the country. Forest concessions are granted to companies
since 2010 (Table 2.5). Deforestation has been an impor- Korea is privately owned. The South Korean economy
or cooperatives and, in some cases, ownership is shared
tant issue for Indonesia; however, as with Brazil, the rate has grown significantly since the Korean War and is
with villagers who have rights to the forest resources
of forest loss due to deforestation since the late 2000s has now an important economic power in Asia. With
through cooperatives (Pirard and Irland, 2007). Given
been significantly reduced compared to the 1990s (Food growing wealth, people could afford to switch to coal,
the widespread geography of the country and the decen-
and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, slash-and-burn practices were abandoned, and rural res-
tralized administration of the forest resources, illegal
2010). Most of the forestland in Indonesia is character- idents moved to rapidly growing cities, all of which
logging is seen as a major problem. Another controversy
ized as a tropical moist forest, consisting of broad-leaved reduced pressure on the forests and natural resources.
associated with the rapid advancement of the Indone-
evergreen or semideciduous forest trees. Subtypes of This growth has been overshadowed by an impressive
sian economy is the issue of land conversion. As produc-
forests include monsoon forests, and montane forests, reforestation effort and, by 2009, the average growing
tion and exportation of wood products have increased,
swamp forests, and tidal forests (Fig. 2.41) (International stock volume of forests had increased considerably to
the area of palm oil and rubber plantations has also
Tropical Timber Organization, 2006). The largest areas of FIGURE 2.42 Deciduous forest in Japan. Enoki Yoshio.
103 m3 per ha (about 1472 ft3 per ac) as a result of these
expanded (Gellert, 2005).
FIGURE 2.40 Herdsman in the forest/range interface of the Xin- tropical peat swamp forests are found in coastal Borneo efforts. To illustrate the point, while South Korea is
jiang region of China. Pikrepo.com. and Sumatra, which contain valuable tree species such about 10 million ha in size (about 24 million ac) FIGURE 2.43 Coniferous forest in the Republic of Korea. Jacek P. Siry.

2.6 Africa 63 64 2. Forest regions of the world

Forest Research Institute, 2010). While this area was Unfortunately, locations further south, such as Af-
heavily damaged during the war, since the armistice it rica, had climatic, managerial, topographic, and vegeta-
has been virtually a no-man’s land. As a result, it has tive barriers that made the exchange of technologies
evolved into a unique nature reserve teeming with a more difficult. Early attempts to domesticate animals
wide variety of plants, mammals, fishes, and birds, were largely unsuccessful in Africa, given the abun-
such as the extremely rare white-naped crane (Grus vipio) dance of cheetahs, hyenas, lions, and other carnivores.
and red-crowned crane (Grus japonensis). This decreased the potential set of transferable technol-
ogies and slowed the initiation of development of the
modern state of Africa until the period of colonization
2.6 Africa that began in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
During the colonization period, European nations
Africa (Fig. 2.44) is commonly referred to as the cradle created territories in Africa from land that they thought
of mankind. Although human ancestors slowly evolved they could control, with little concern for traditional TABLE 2.6 Demographic and physiographic data for African countries.a.
from the area we now know as the Horn of Africa, Afri- tribal or ethnic boundaries. Unfortunately, many Human population Total land area2 Total land area2 Forest area annual change Per capita GDP (PPP) 20171&b
ca’s development by today’s standards has been rela- regional and local wars have since occurred, which Country 20181 (million) (1000 ha) (1000 ac) Forest cover2 (%) 2010e152 (%) (1000 US$)

tively slow. Diamond (2005) asks a basic question: why have acted to delay the development of some African Angola 31 124,670 307,935 46
0.2 4.2

did some nations advance faster than others? The answer societies. Further, high birth rates and political unrest Benin 11 11,062 27,323 39
1.1 0.8
largely depends on the initial set of natural resources have led to governmental policies that have not always Botswana 2 56,673 139,982 19
0.9 7.6
available to each country. Therefore, the physical location favored sustainable management of forest and natural Burkina Faso 20 27,360 67,579 20
1.1 0.6
of Africa influenced the rate of development on the conti- resources. These circumstances have resulted in exten- Cameroon 25 47,271 116,759 40
1.1 1.5
nent. In contrast, countries located in Europe and Asia sive deforestation in some parts of Africa, as well as the Central African Republic 5 62,298 153,876 36
0.1 0.4
had a competitive advantage in that several species of an- exploitation and degradation of natural resources such Congo 5 34,150 84,351 65
0.1 2.1
imals and plants (e.g., wheat) were domesticated in the as gorillas in the mountains of Rwanda. In addition to Côte d’Ivoire 25 31,800 78,546 33 e 1.6
Fertile Crescent, the arch of land encompassing Iraq, political and societal problems, some of the highest per- Democratic Republic of the Congo 84 226,705 559,961 67
0.2 0.5
Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, and Syria. In addition, since a centages of forest areas burned by wildfire since the late Equatorial Guinea 1 2805 6928 56
0.7 9.9
large portion of the European and Asian continents are 2000s were associated with African countries (Food and Eritrea 3 10,100 24,947 15
0.3 1.1
located along the same set of global latitudes and natural Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2010),
Ethiopia 109 109,631 270,789 11 0.3 0.7
resources were abundant, the transfer of technologies further complicating the natural resource management

2.6 Africa
Gabon 2 25,767 63,644 89 0.9 7.2
across the landscape was easier. situation on this continent. In this section, we describe
Ghana 30 22,754 56,202 41 0.3 2.0
five African countries with important forest resources:
Guinea 12 24,572 60,693 26
0.6 0.8
the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ghana, Nigeria,
Guinea-Bissau 2 2812 6946 70
0.5 0.7
South Africa, and Tanzania.
Liberia 5 9632 23,791 43
0.7 0.6
Madagascar 26 58,154 143,640 21
0.1 0.5
Malawi 18 9428 23,287 33
0.6 0.3
2.6.1 Democratic Republic of the Congo Morocco 36 44,630 110,236 13
0.1 3.1

The Democratic Republic of the Congo is located in Mozambique 29 78,638 194,236 48
0.5 0.4

the center of Africa (Fig. 2.45) and is considered to be Nigeria 196 91,077 224,960 8
5.0 2.0

the most heavily forested country on the continent. It Senegal 16 19,253 47,555 43
0.5 1.3

has a land area of about 227 million ha (about 560 million FIGURE 2.45 Countries in Africa. Modified image from PresentationMaps.com. Sierra Leone 8 7162 17,690 43 2.2 0.5

ac) and forest cover of 67% (Table 2.6). Former names of Somalia 15 62,734 154,953 10
1.2 0.1

this country are Congo Free State, the Belgian Congo, Sudan 42 186,665 461,063 10
0.9 3.0

and Zaire. Early villages consisted of people of the more than 11,000 plant species, 1150 bird species, 450 of poor infrastructure, but some forested areas have Uganda 43 19,981 49,353 10
5.5 0.6
Imbonga, Ngovo, and Urewe cultures. Indigenous mammalian species, 300 reptile species, and 200 now been degraded due to slash-and-burn agriculture. Continued
pygmy populations and Bantu-speaking cultures also amphibian species that inhabit areas of the Democratic The state is the sole owner of land in the Democratic

65
were found in the area this country now occupies. As Republic of the Congo. In general, the forests are mostly Republic of the Congo, which was reinforced by the For-
many as 250 ethnic groups have been distinguished composed of savannas and tropical rainforests. A est Code of 2002 (Law 11/2002) (International Tropical
and named in the country; some of the larger are the closed-canopy, broad-leaved, tropical rainforest encom- Timber Organization, 2006). Although foreign logging
Anamongo, the Kongo, and the Luba. The Democratic passes the Congo River basin and moist evergreen and companies have increasingly purchased concessions
Republic of the Congo was colonized by Belgium in semideciduous forests can be found in the west and cen- from the state, a serious threat to forests in this country
1908 and gained independence in 1960 (U.S. Central ter of the country (Fig. 2.46). Montane forests consisting are the periodic wars that have occurred in its recent his-
Intelligence Agency, 2019). It is believed that some of of deciduous broad-leaved tree species can be found in tory. These wars have led to the displacement of millions
FIGURE 2.44 Satellite image of Africa. National Aeronautics and the terraces and plateaus of the mountainous part of of people and resulted in increased degradation of plant
Space Administration. the forested areas in this country have continuously
Image Link: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Africa_(satellite_image).jpg reproduced and survived since before the ice age nearly the country. Compared to other developing countries, and wildlife populations. Since the end of the last war in
License Link: Public Domain 12,000 years ago. Butler (2006) indicates that there are deforestation was slow to arrive to this region because 2002, more effort has been expended to protect the

2.6 Africa 67 68 2. Forest regions of the world

(Fig. 2.47); moist and dry deciduous and evergreen for- 2.6.3 Nigeria mangrove forests, and swamp forests. These are
ests, most of which are located in the southern part of mainly broad-leaved deciduous forests or broad-leaved
the country along the Atlantic coast; and savannas in Nigeria is located in western Africa near the equator evergreen forests. The savannas mainly contain riparian
the central and northern portion of the country. Com- (Fig. 2.45), is a federal republic of 36 states and one fed- forests that consist of elolom or subaha (Mitragyna ciliata)
mon tree species include danta (Nesogordonia papaveri- eral capital territory (Abuja), and is the most populous and yeye (Uapaca spp.) tree species. African walnut
fera), ebony (Diospyros spp.), guarea (Guarea cedrata), country in Africa. Nigeria contains a little over 91 (Lovoa trichilioides), agba (Gossweilerodendron balsamife-
Lagos mahogany (Khaya ivorensis), makore (Tieghemella million ha of land (225 million ac), and about 8% of rum), and Lagos mahogany are characteristic tree species
heckelii), mangroves, mansonia (Mansonia altissima), this area is forested (Table 2.6). Nigeria has the highest of the rainforest areas, while iroko, obeche (Triplochiton
palms, and wawa (Triplochiton scleroxylon) (International deforestation rate of African countries, as nearly 5% of scleroxylon), and otutu (Nesogordonia papaverifera) are char-
Tropical Timber Organization, 2006). forest has been lost per year since 2010. The area con- acteristic tree species of the other coastal forests (Interna-
Illegal occupation, land use changes, and wildfire are tained within Nigeria is thought to have been the home- tional Tropical Timber Organization, 2006).
all concerns in cutover forest areas. Human population land of the Bantu people who eventually migrated The forests of Nigeria are either locally owned as
TABLE 2.6 Demographic and physiographic data for African countries.a.dcont’d
across the continent. Indigenous people included the
66

growth and poverty, along with infrastructure (e.g., communal forests or owned by the state as forest re-
Human population Total land area2 Total land area2 Forest area annual change Per capita GDP (PPP) 20171&b
road construction) and economic development pro- Fulani, Igbo, Kano, Nok, and Yoruba, each of which serves (or both in some cases), some of which were
Country 20181 (million) (1000 ha) (1000 ac) Forest cover2 (%) 2010e152 (%) (1000 US$)
grams, contribute to the pressures placed on the coun- have shaped the culture of the country. Colonization delineated through the Land Use Decree of 1978. Con-
United Republic of Tanzania 56 88,580 218,793 52
0.8 0.9 FIGURE 2.46 Forest located along a river in the Democratic
Republic of the Congo. Kathy Freeman. try’s forest and natural resources (International Tropical by the British Empire occurred early in the 20th century, cessions for forest harvesting activities are awarded by
Zambia 17 74,339 183,617 65
0.3 1.5
Timber Organization, 2006). Forest policy is codified in although British, Portuguese, and Spanish explorers had the state, yet illegal logging activities are a concern. A
Zimbabwe 14 38,685 95,552 36
2.1 1.1
a number of acts, decrees, laws, regulations, and state- visited the area earlier and developed trade with local new National Forestry Policy was adopted in 2008 to
country’s forests. Unfortunately, increasing population
Other countries (28) 369 1,225,137 3,026,088 3
0.4 5.0
ments, and responsibility for developing these is central- tribes along the coast. In 1960, Nigeria gained indepen- address problems related to the conservation of forest
growth rates are expected to generate greater pressure
Africa (total) 1276 2,986,544 7,376,764 21
0.5 1.8
ized in the governmental structure (Wiggins et al., 2004). dence from the United Kingdom. A number of internal resources. Federal, state, and local governments admin-
on forested areas over time. Since the late 2000s, the
a
All of the land in Ghana is held by the government in conflicts have since troubled the country, and the rich ister various aspects of the forestry sector, and a number
rate of forest loss has been about 0.2% per year (Table 2.6).
That are more than 8% forested and have over 3,000,000 ac (about 1,214,100 ha) of forest.

oil reserves of the country have both positively and

b
Gross domestic product (GDP) expressed as purchasing power parity (PPP).
1
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations 2020.
Some of the wide variety of tree species located in trust for the people, although traditional lands that of NGOs have also assisted with the management of
2
FAO. Global Forest Resources Assessment 2015. Desk Reference. Rome, 2015.
were previously under control by tribal chiefs continue negatively influenced the course of Nigeria’s natural forest resources in the country. Over 300 tree species
the Democratic Republic of the Congo include afrormo-
to be used by those communities as long as the resource resource development (Maconachie et al., 2009). found in Nigeria could be utilized, yet only a handful
sia (Pericopsis elata), bilinga (Nauclea diderrichii), bossé
is not degraded (Owubah et al., 2001). While timber har- For the most part, the forests of Nigeria are located in are actually harvested. These include agba, iroko, ofun
(Guarea cedrata), bubinga (Guibourtia pellegriniana), iroko
vesting contracts rather than concessions are now the the southern half of the country. About 70% of the (Mansonia altissima), sapele (Entandrophragma cylindri-
(Chlorophora excelsa), kosipo (Entandrophragma candollei),
2. Forest regions of the world

norm in the country, illegal harvesting is still a concern. forested area is considered savanna and the remainder cum), teak, and English beech, the latter mainly from
longhi (Gambeya africana), sapelli (Entandrophragma
Although 93% of the wood harvested in Ghana is for along the coast is considered tropical rainforest, consist- planted forests. While some of these tree species are
cylindricum), sipo (Entandrophragma utile), tiama (Entan-
fuelwood purposes, fromager (Ceiba pentandra), teak, ing of coastal forests (Fig. 2.48), lowland wet forests, used to develop lumber and veneer products, over
drophragma angolense), tola (Gossweilerodendron balsamife-
rum), and wengé (Millettia laurentii) (International and wawa are common tree species harvested for indus- 85% of the roundwood harvested from Nigeria’s forests
Tropical Timber Organization, 2006). For many people trial purposes. NTFPs that are integrally associated with is used for domestic fuelwood purposes. Some of the
of the country, forests are the main source of food, fuel- Ghana’s forests include fruits, honey, medicinal plants, important NTFPs derived from Nigeria’s forests include
wood, and medicine. Wood products from tola and tubers, wild meat, and seeds that facilitate the production bark, gum arabic (used in the food products industry as
wengé trees are the most valuable export products. For- of margarine, oils, and sweeteners (International Tropical a stabilizer), leaves, mushrooms, nuts, rattan, resins, and
est plantations are also being established and species Timber Organization, 2006). other medicinal plants (International Tropical Timber
such as cypress, dibétou or African walnut (Lovoa trichi- Organization, 2006).
lioides), eucalypts, filao tree (Casuarina equisetifolia), Gold
Coast bombax (Bombax flammeum), kapok (Ceiba pentan-
2.6.4 South Africa
dra), limba (Terminalia superb), sipo, and southern silky
oak (Grevillea robusta) are commonly used to establish Although it has less than 1.2 million ha (over 3 million
these plantations. In some cases, plantations were estab- ac) of forest and is less than 10% forested (thus not listed
lished in order to stabilize the soil and to prevent further in Table 2.6), South Africa (Fig. 2.45) is important for
erosion (International Tropical Timber Organization, 2006). forestry purposes because the development of forestry
science here is perhaps the most advanced in Africa,
and commercial forestry operations are important to the
2.6.2 Ghana country’s economy. The topography of South Africa is
Ghana is a republic that lies on the western coast of very diverse, yet the country generally has a temperate
Africa (Fig. 2.45). Prior to initial contact by Portuguese climate. The interior is mainly flat and arid and supports
and Dutch explorers in the 15th and 16th centuries, savannas and associated trees and grasses. In this area, a
Ghana was inhabited by people of the Akan kingdoms. number of agricultural and game-based enterprises can
Formerly known as the Gold Coast, Ghana obtained in- be found (Shackleton et al., 2007). Forests along the
dependence in 1957. Ghana lies near the equator and is eastern coast with the Indian Ocean are wet and lush,
FIGURE 2.48 Kwa Falls along the Kwa River in Cross River State,
nearly 23 million ha in size (a little over 56 million ac). Nigeria. Shiraz Chakera, through Wikimedia Commons. and forests in the interior east are composed of mixed
FIGURE 2.47 Tropical forests along Lake Volta, Ghana. Jurgen,
Currently, the landscape of Ghana is about 41% forested, Image Link: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Kwafalls.jpg tree species and occupy relatively dry sites. Mangrove
through Wikimedia Commons.
although forest cover is increasing at a rate of over 0.3% Image Link: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Lake_Volta_Ghana.jpg License Link: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0/deed.en and swamp forests also occur in small patches along
per year (Table 2.6). Ghana contains tropical rainforests License Link: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/deed.en
 2.6 Africa 69 70 2. Forest regions of the world

the low-lying areas of the eastern coast. There are virtu- grown steadily since World War II with active govern- a model for the British programs that replaced them after Shelves. The Sunda Shelf was basically a land bridge
ally no forested areas along the western Atlantic Ocean ment support (Tewari, 2001). However, since the transi- World War I. However, due to a number of factors, that extended from Asia through much of Indonesia,
coast. However, some Mediterranean-type forests can tion to democracy, concerns about the commercial side including the relative weakness of the colonial state, a and the Sahul Shelf bridged Australia with Papua
be found along the coast near Cape Town (Fig. 2.49). of forestry have arisen from a diverse network of stake- low commitment to forest conservation, unfamiliarity New Guinea. As in the case of Beringia, the sea level
Indigenous Bantu, Khoikhoi, San, Xhosa, and Zulu holders (Tewari, 2001). Natural limits on the productive with African timber characteristics, and resistance from rose when the ice sheets receded, covering these two
tribes once settled the area now known as South Africa. range of forests and some uncertainty in ownership local citizens, scientific forestry has been a less than suc- shelves, isolating numerous islands (Hanebuth et al.,
Some of these tribes were agriculturists and used iron rights are hindrances to further expansion of the sector cessful endeavor. African teak (Milicia excelsa) is one of 2000), and stranding numerous species of plants, ani-
tools to manipulate the ground, while others were (Grundy and Wynberg, 2001). the principal tree species found throughout central Africa mals, and insects. Scientists have noted a distinct differ-
hunter-gatherers. The Portuguese first reached the that provides wood for charcoal, construction, furniture, ence between species originating from Asia and those
southern tip of Africa in the late 15th century. The Dutch and shipbuilding uses among others. Copal, a resin that originating from Australia, which occurs along what is
established what would become Cape Town in the mid- 2.6.5 United Republic of Tanzania resembles amber, was widely collected from Hymenaea ver- known as the Wallace line (Mayr, 1944). Diamond
17th century. Once gold and diamond resources were Tanzania is a country on the eastern coast of Africa rucosa forests in east Africa in the 18th and 19th centuries (2005) suggests that the two shelves facilitated the move-
found, a struggle over control of the area prompted (Fig. 2.45) that has nearly 89 million ha of land (nearly and was highly prized as a source of varnish for carriages ment of humans from Asia to the Australian continental
wars between Britain and Boer colonists (Dutch, French, 219 million ac), of which about 52% are forested and furniture. Rubber-bearing shrubs, trees, and vines in landmass during the last ice age or perhaps earlier.
German, and Portuguese) that lasted over 20 years in the (Table 2.6). The forests of Tanzania transition from a coastal forests of east Africa also produce resinous mate- The land area of Oceania (Fig. 2.51) is at least 850
late 19th century and early 20th century. In 1931, inde- thin strip of mangroves along the coast to the subtropi- rial that was highly valued in the early 20th century. The million ha (2.099 billion ac) (Table 2.7) and is inhabited
pendence was granted from the United Kingdom. A cal, dry forests called coastal hinterland forests that stretch coastal mangrove forests were also a source of bark and by about 33 million people (United Nations Department
transition to democracy began in 1991 and rising public about 200 km (124 mi) inland, and the upper montane wood for construction, local fuelwood, and shipbuilding of Economic and Social Affairs, 2008). Stretched across
awareness of environmental concerns has since occurred forests (Fig. 2.50) that reach further west into the Tanza- enterprises (Sunseri, 2009). For many local populations this landmass lies approximately 187 million ha (462
in the current, postapartheid period (Tewari, 2001). nian Eastern Arc Mountains. Much of interior Tanzania, in Tanzania, forests currently provide commercial value, million ac) of forestland. The ecosystems within this
Currently, land in South Africa is about 40% privately however, is composed of grassy savannas that host spiritual value, and refuge from political changes. In addi- continent vary widely. For example, in New Zealand
owned and 60% publicly owned. A National Forests broad-leaved evergreen or deciduous tree species. tion, charcoal derived from forests is the most important one might find tropical and temperate rainforests and
Act (Act No. 84 of 1998) provides measures for protect- Mount Kilimanjaro and part of Lake Victoria are con- domestic energy source, with annual consumption esti- highland grasslands on the South Island and subtropical TABLE 2.7 Demographic and physiographic data for Oceania.
ing and managing forests and prohibits cutting natural tained within this country’s boundary. Tanzania has a mated to be 1 million tons (Sander et al., 2010). forests on the North Island. In Australia, the interior of
Total land area2 Total land area2 Per capita (PPP) 20171&a
forests without a license. rich and diverse, and perhaps the longest, human his- Almost all of the land in Tanzania is now owned by the nation is extremely arid; thus, forests are commonly Country
Human population
20181 (million) (1000 ha) (1000 ac) Forest cover2 (%)
Forest area annual change 2010
e152 (%) (1000 US$)
Among the commercial tree species in natural forests, tory. Early indigenous people were hunter-gatherers, the state and, in accordance with the 1999 Village Land found along the eastern, northecentral, southern, and Australia 25 768,230 1,897,528 16 0.2 57.6
hard pear (Olinia ventosa), ironwood (Olea capensis spp.), and migrants from western Africa, India, and Persia Act, about 75% is administered by village councils (Hau- southwestern coasts. When European settlers arrived,
New Zealand 5 26,331 65,038 39 e 42.9
stinkwood (Ocotea bullata), white alder (Platylophus trifo- gen, 2010). Land use rights and ownership status are they altered much of the forested landscape for many

2.7 Oceania
(now Iran) have influenced Tanzanian culture. The Papua New Guinea 9 46,312 114,391 73 e 2.7
liatus), and yellowwood (Podocarpus latifolius) comprise coastal area of the country was controlled by the Portu- often unclear or unknown to village officials and, as a of the reasons mentioned in conjunction with the devel-
Solomon Islands <1 2799 6914 78
0.3 2.0
the majority of roundwood harvested. Black wattle guese from the early 16th century to the late 19th cen- result, few village councils proactively manage their for- opment of other continents. Given the island nature of
Other countries or territories (21) 3 6007 14,837 48 0.2 7.0
(Acacia mearnsii), pines, and eucalypts comprise over tury, and afterward by the Omani Sultanate. Germany ests (Sander et al., 2010). Although the development of the countries in this region, increased human population
Oceania (total) 42 849,679 2,098,707 20 0.2 41.0
95% of the tree species in forest plantations. In terms took over administration of the area in 1891, and this Tanzanian forests has been influenced by British and growth and the overuse of forests have prompted the
of annual value, forest product exports are important, control lasted until the end of World War I. The country German systems of forest management, some forest re- development of active reforestation and management a
1
Gross domestic product (GDP) expressed as purchasing power parity (PPP).
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations 2020.
but fall behind coal, gold, and other mineral ores was then part of the British Empire until autonomy serves in certain parts of east Africa are now managed programs. Since 2010, Oceania has reported a net gain 2
FAO. Global Forest Resources Assessment 2015. Desk Reference. Rome, 2015.

(Grundy and Wynberg, 2001). The forest industry has became effective in 1961. by local communities through community forest man- of forest (about 0.2% per year), despite climatic condi-
Germans introduced state-administered forestry pro- agement programs, with assistance from NGOs. One tions and wildfires in Australia.
grams to Tanzania in the late 19th century, which provided side effect of this policy is that local people are often
confined to poorer quality lands between the boundaries
of the reserves. As a result, the authority over the use of
forests is constantly negotiated according to shifts in po-
wer structures and global events (Sunseri, 2009). The for-
est management situation in Tanzania continues to
evolve; however, the recent rate of forest loss is about
0.8% per year (Table 2.6).

71
2.7 Oceania

Oceania (or Australasia) includes the countries of

Australia, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, and
several other small island nations such as Fiji, the
Solomons, and New Caledonia. During the last ice age,
FIGURE 2.51 Satellite image of Oceania. National Aeronautics and
FIGURE 2.49 Assegai tree (Curtisia dentata) on the eastern slopes when the mean sea level was lower, there were two
of Table Mountain, South Africa. Abu Shawka, through Wikimedia Commons. FIGURE 2.50 Highland forests in the Usambara Mountains in Space Administration.
eastern Tanzania. Joachim Huber, through Wikimedia Commons.
land formations that extended and connected the Asian Image Link: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Oceania_satellite.jpg
Image Link: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Curtisia_dentata_-_Assegai_
tree_-_Table_Mountain_slopes_5.JPG Image Link: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Usambara_Mountains.jpg and Australian landmasses: the Sunda and Sahul License Link: Public Domain
License Link: Public Domain License Link: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0/deed.en

72 2. Forest regions of the world 2.7 Oceania 73 74 2. Forest regions of the world

2.7.1 Australia (Australian Bureau of Agriculture and Resource Eco- most of the indigenous forests are owned by the govern- over 800 indigenous languages and is currently experi- tree selection logging is the main silvicultural practice
nomics and Sciences, 2018). However, the current rate ment for conservation purposes, and harvesting opera- encing rapid population growth. Early inhabitants and, of the over 200 tree species found here, some of
Australia (Fig. 2.52) was originally inhabited by over of forest change is about þ0.2% per year (Table 2.7). tions are restricted or prohibited. These forests are were Austronesian people. Since about the 16th century, the commonly harvested species are eucalypts, kwila
200 distinctly different groups of indigenous people. Australia is composed of both closed and open forest found mostly in mountainous areas on the west coast a series of countries, including Australia, Germany, (Intsia bijuga), and taun (Pometia pinnata). Butterflies,
Australia was discovered by the Dutch in the early areas (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United of the South Island (New Zealand Ministry of Agricul- Portugal, and Spain, have claimed or administered parts rattan, and sandalwood oil are important NTFPs (Inter-
17th century and was colonized by the British in the Nations, 1979). Most (98%) of the forests are broad- ture and Forestry, 2009). The type of forest, which New of the current country. Independence was gained from national Tropical Timber Organization, 2006). It is
late 18th century. In 1901, the Commonwealth of leaved, composed of about 1000 species of Acacia, 13 spe- Zealanders commonly refer to as “bush,” range from Australia in 1975. The standard of living in Papua believed that many of the plant species that exist in the
Australia became a dominion within the British Empire cies of Callitris, 59 species of Casuarina, about 800 species subtropical kauri forests on the North Island, to New Guinea is very low compared to developed coun- interior region of the island of New Guinea have yet to
in 1907, where it remained until most of the formal ties of eucalypts, and numerous mangrove, Melaleuca, and temperate rainforests on the west coast, and alpine for- tries and the major land use is subsistence-based agricul- be discovered and documented.
were severed in the late 1930s and is now a member of rainforest tree species (Australian Bureau of Agriculture ests in the Southern Alps, located in the interior of the ture. Forests are within the tropical biome and are
the Commonwealth. The largest landmass and country and Resource Economics and Sciences, 2018). The domi- South Island. Some of the native tree species found in generally considered to fall into four groups that include
in Oceania contains over 768 million ha of land (about nant species groupings are eucalypts (78%), acacias these forests include cabbage tree (Cordyline australis), moist forests, montane forests, savannas or woodlands, Summary
1.898 billion ac), yet only about 16% is considered (7%), and melaleucas (5%). Of the plantation forests, hinau (Elaeocarpus dentatus), horoeka or lancewood and tropical rainforests (International Tropical Timber
forested (Table 2.7). Of the forested area, about 98.6% approximately 50% are composed of exotic conifers (Pseudopanax crassifolium), kapuka or broad-leaf (Griseli- Organization, 2006). For the most part, forests are With the basic socioeconomic, land, and forest infor-
is native forests and 1.4% is plantation forests (Austra- such as radiata pine and the other 50% are composed FIGURE 2.53 Eucalyptus plantation near Mount Gambier, South nia littoralis), karaka or New Zealand laurel (Corynocar- composed of broad-leaved evergreen or semideciduous mation for world regions presented in this chapter, an
lian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics of native hardwood species (Fig. 2.53). Australia, Australia. Donald L. Grebner. pus laevigatus), kauri (Agathis australis), manuka or tea tree species. Some forest areas are regularly flooded with understanding of the relative availability of forest re-
and Sciences, 2019a). Australian forests are primarily About 70% of the land in Australia is publicly owned, tree (Leptospermum scoparium), puka (Meryta sinclairii), either freshwater or saltwater. sources (forest area, forest cover, forest area change,
located along the coastlines in New South Wales, about 20% is privately owned, and about 10% is northern r at
a (Metrosideros robusta), southern r
at
a (Met- Nearly 97% of the land is owned by communities or and per capita forest area), demands placed on these re-
and other products. In addition, Australia’s native for-
Queensland, South Australia, southwestern West controlled by community or indigenous groups (White rosideros umbellate), rimu (Dacrydium cupressinum), tawa cooperatives, while the remaining 3% is owned by the sources by human populations, and resulting outcomes
ests are important to the apiary industry as a source of
Australia, Victoria, and throughout the island of Tasma- and Martin, 2002). A National Forest Policy Statement (Beilschmiedia tawa), and titoki (Alectryon excelsus). Most government (White and Martin, 2002). Of the over 46 (forest area change) should be apparent. While it may
nectar for honeybees (Montreal Process Implementation
nia. These include tropical, subtropical, and temperate that provides the vision for sustainable management of of the common names of these trees are M aori in origin. million ha of land area (almost 114 million ac; Table 2.7), have been mentioned in passing, little emphasis was
Group for Australia, 2008).
rainforests, with dry forests and savannas further forests and associated goals and objectives was issued The slow growth of native tree species and the gen- some estimates suggest that there are only 7 million ha placed on the current economic climate of different
inland. The interior of the country consists of xeric in 1992. The forest sector is small but regionally impor- eral domestic demand for wood resources prompted (about 17 million ac) of operable forest area, with 10 countries and the effect of a populace’s standard of
shrublands and arid deserts, and forests are therefore tant. Australia is a net exporter of wood, mainly to 2.7.2 New Zealand New Zealand forest managers to search alternative million ha (about 25 million ac) being unsuitable owing living on the character of today’s forest resources. One
relatively rare in interior Australia owing to the arid China, Japan, and New Zealand (Australian Bureau of tree species for afforestation purposes. A variety of spe- to mountainous or swampy terrain (Brunton, 1998). The measure of economic climate, the per capita gross do-
environment. Some Mediterranean-type vegetation can New Zealand has a landmass of about 26 million ha
Agricultural and Resource Economics and Sciences, cies such as black walnut, redwood, and others were amount of forest cover is around 73% (Table 2.7). mestic product (GDP), is a useful indicator of economic
be found along the southern coasts of the country. A se- (about 65 million ac) and is comprised of two large
2019b). Of the NTFPs derived from Australia’s forests, planted, but the most successful species was radiata Currently, 40% to 65% of the original forest cover still ex- wealth or standard of living. The GDP represents the
vere drought and numerous forest fires exacerbated the islands and several smaller ones (Fig. 2.52). Forests cover
a growing arts and crafts industry uses wood, bark, pine. About 80% of the land is privately owned (the ists (United Nations Department of Economic and Social market value of final goods and services produced per
loss of forest area in Australia from 2000 to 2013 about 39% of the country (Table 2.7), and most are
and chemicals from trees for carvings, dyes, weavings remainder is managed by the state), and forests consid- Affairs, 2008). A 1991 Forestry Act defined two objec- person in a country and it is measured as either the
located in areas considered to be representative of sub-
ered to be industrially managed are to a large extent tives for the forests of Papua New Guinea: recognition sum of income or the sum of expenditures. In essence,
tropical or temperate rainforests or temperate steppes.
controlled by foreign companies. Douglas-fir has been of forests as renewable natural resources and utilization it represents the income and expenditures of the average
Prior to the Maori settlements about 800 years ago,
planted at higher elevations on the South Island and eu- of these resources to obtain economic growth (Fig. 2.55). person in the country, and it is used by economists to
most of the land below the natural tree line was forested
calypts have also been planted there. However, A number of subsequent regulations have stressed other compare the standard of living over time and across
(New Zealand Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry,
currently radiata pine forests occupy 90% of the planta- aspects of forest management, including conservation, countries. For international comparisons, GDP is
2009). Pastoral agriculture now comprises approxi-
tion area, while Douglas-fir forests occupy about 6% reforestation, and export of wood products. Individual expressed at purchasing power parity (PPP) prices to ac-
mately 50% of the land area, while indigenous forests
(New Zealand Ministry for Primary Industries, 2019). count for the differences in the cost of living in different
occupy 23% and plantation forests (Fig. 2.54) account
The remaining 4% is distributed among a variety of countries.
for 7%, or 1.8 million ha (about 4.4 million ac). Currently,
tree species, including eucalypts. As a result of reforesta- The relevance of using per capita GDP in considering
tion and afforestation efforts, much of the country is the state of forest resources may be significant. In exam-
composed of coniferous or mixed coniferous- ining global occurrences of environmental problems, it
deciduous forests. Currently, New Zealand is a net could be argued that they are much more common in
exporter of wood products, which are therefore impor- poorer countries that have lower per capita GDP. Nigeria,
tant to the economy. Exports are primarily directed to with per capita GDP of US$2,000, is an example of a
Australia, Japan, and Korea (New Zealand Ministry of very poor country experiencing rampant deforestation
Agriculture and Forestry, 2009). Since the late 20th cen- (Table 2.5). Poor people often have no choice but to rely
tury, tourism has become a significant sector of eco- on forests for their basic subsistence needs. In poor coun-
nomic importance to the country. tries, forests are the main source of food, wood, and many
other of life’s necessities. With no other option, forests
may be cleared to grow food. Human poverty levels,
combined with expanding human populations, can thus
2.7.3 Papua New Guinea influence the character of forests and natural resources.
Papua New Guinea is a nation in the South Pacific, At the other end of the spectrum is the United States,
located north of Australia, that occupies the eastern FIGURE 2.55 Hikers traversing the Kokoda Track, Papua New with a per capita GDP of US$60,100 (Table 2.1). While
Guinea, which was a battlefield during World War II. Luke Brindley,
FIGURE 2.54 Coniferous plantations on the South Island, New half of the island of New Guinea and a number of not without its own environmental problems, it can be
through Wikimedia Commons.
Zealand. Donald L. Grebner. smaller islands to the east (Fig. 2.52). This nation has Image Link: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Kokoda_track_Papua_ argued that both public and private forests in the United
New_Guinea.JPG States have now been sustainably managed for decades
FIGURE 2.52 Countries in Oceania. Modified image from PresentationMaps.com.
License Link: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ (depending on your definition of sustainability), and

Summary 75 76 2. Forest regions of the world References 77

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