CENTRAL UNIVERSITY

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 SWINE PRODUCTION
A MANUAL GUIDE FOR UNDERGRADUATES
BY

Dr. Saidu Kanu

Faculty of Agriculture and Food sciences
University of Makeni

PART ONE – SWINE MANAGEMENT

INTRODUCTION
Swine production in Africa including Sierra Leone is not new and is dated as far back as time
immemorial. Pigs are produced in almost every part of the country. Different production systems have
been adopted and these largely depend on the locality and the farmer’s production outlay. In urban areas
like Freetown, pockets of pigs mostly hybrid exotic breeds ranging from five to twenty in number are
usually managed intensively. The sources of feeds provided for these animals are erratic and mostly
compose of household refuse and kitchen leftovers. In the central part of Freetown around Kroo Bay,
Susan’s Bay, Mo Wharf and Mabella, small numbers of pigs are seen foraging along sea clearing every bit
of feed and human excreta. These pigs have been very active in maintaining the infection rate of most
cyclo-zoonoses including Taeniasis.

In rural areas, the West African Dwarf pig is mostly the preferred choice. These pigs are extensively
raised on free range with minimum or no housing facilities neither food is provided for them. They roam
everywhere in the village in search of food and along the way may pick up human excreta and other
sources of infection.

Malnutrition is prevalent in Sierra Leone and other parts of Africa. This is due to the fact that there is a
prevalent condition of proteins-energy (P-E) imbalance. This is a condition where there is a high
consumption of energy feedstuffs (cassava, potatoes, yam, rice, etc) at the expense of protein rich ones
(meat, eggs, milk, beans, etc). This dietary imbalance is often the root cause of nutritional deficiencies.

Pigs can provide a rich source of animal proteins from kitchen leftovers and other marginal foodstuffs hat
are usually not needed by other livestock. In other words, pigs are efficient converters of feeds to proteins.
However, to realize their full potentials, pigs should be provided with the right nutritional status and
health with improvements on their general management according to their genetic potentials.

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 1.1 Origin of the Pig
Historically, pigs have been domesticated about 4000 years ago and many species have evolved since
then. The present breeds of pigs are believed to originate from two sources of domesticated pigs; Sus
scrofa from the European wild pig and Sus Vittalus, the wild pig from India, China and South East Asia.
Both breeds have gradually diffused and spread to other parts of the globe giving rise to many present
breeds.

1.2 Breeds of Pigs

The present day breeds of pigs are the carefully selected exotic and indigenous breeds. With the advance
in Science and Technology, pigs have been purposely selected to fulfil specific needs (meat, fat, etc).
Some of these breeds have been imported and acclimatized in Africa.

1.2.1 Indigenous Breeds

Indigenous or local breeds are those pigs that exist and adapted to the local environment subsisting on
feeds and crop residues. Their genetic make-up remains intact or with little alterations within the same
population although some possess useful production traits such as resistance to diseases, adaptation to the
local environment especially in the tropics. Some indigenous breeds of pigs include:

Table 1 Some Global Indigenous Pig Breeds

Pig Breed Climate of
or Type Specialty Country Origin
Ashanti Pork Ghana Tropical dry/humid
Bakosi Pork Cameroon Tropical/humid
Balinese Lard Indonesia Tropical/humid
Pelon Tabosqueno Lard Mexico Tropical, dry/humid
Bantu Bacon South Africa Tropical dry/humid
Hainan Lard Thailand Tropical/humid
Kirin Black Bacon China Temperate
Source: Pig Production in the Tropics

1.2.2 The West African Dwarf Pig

Pigs have existed in Africa from time immemorial but there is no specific African breed. However, in
West Africa a small pig breed has been described as hardy and resistant to trypanosomiasis. It is also slow
growing and has small litters (5-7 piglets per farrow). It is mainly reared for meat.

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1.2.3 The European Breed
European exotic breeds have been in extensive use due to the fact that indigenous breeds are relatively
smaller in size and have poor production characteristics including slow growth rate, poor efficiency of
feed conversion and poor carcass quality. Exotic breeds, in many instances, have been carefully selected
and bred to respond to specific production goals (meat, lard, etc). Invariably, there full genetic potentials
can be manifested only when subjected to improved production facilities and environment. Exotic breeds
have also been used to upgrade local breeds through cross breeding initiatives.
i. Berkshire – This is a black pig with white face and feet. It is an English breed and provides pork-type
carcass. This breed is hardy and early maturing. Two types are identified: The British pork type and the
Canadian bacon type which is later maturing.
ii. Duroc Jersey – This is an American breed used for pork production. It is a derivative breed from the
Jersey and Duroc. It is predominantly red. It is mainly a bacon-type pig.
iii. Hampshire – These are black pigs with a distinct white belt that entirely circles the body and includes
both front legs and feet. They are of medium size and produces good pork carcasses. Sows are good
mothers and they can utilize pastures very well.
iv. Landrace – This has a Danish origin. It is mainly white and has a long smooth body and long legs. Its
main distinctive characteristic is the forward-pointing droopy ears. Landrace sows are prolific ith an
average litter of 11 piglets and their progeny are fast-growing.
v. Large Black – This is a very hardy multi-purpose British pig. It has a long body and the black skin can
prevent sun burn associated with white pigs. The sows are very docile and make excellent mothers.
vi. Large White – This is a popular breed in Africa. It is a large, white, late maturing bacon pig. The white
skin, however disadvantages it by suffering from sun burn if directly exposed to sunlight. They are very
prolific and are also good mothers.

2.0 Pig Production Enterprises

Pig meat can be sold in a variety of forms depending on the size of the animal at slaughter, its carcass
composition and the processing of the carcass.
i. Porkers - Fresh pork production is the most important product of the pig industry. Pigs intended for
pork may be killed with weights between 40-60 kg live weights to yield a carcass weight between 25-45
kg. The pork is used for grilling, frying and roasting.
ii. Baconers – Pigs reared for bacon are slaughtered at around 70-90 kg. The carcass is split, the
backbone removed and chilled. The ham and shoulders are cured and used for ham and bacon production.
The carcass required is one with a well-developed ham and “eye muscle” (longissimus dorsi) without too
much fat.

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iii. Manufacturing pigs – These pigs of all kinds are used for making sausages, pies, tinned meat and
pre-packed foods. Pigs usually attain between 80-120 kg live weights to yield a carcass weight between
60-90 kg). Requirements in terms of fat inclusion is not strict.
iv. Lard Producers – Lard (pig fat) is obtained from pigs that have been grown to heavy weights
typically between 120-150 kg. They are fed diets which promote fat deposition and at slaughter, the fat is
removed and rendered edible.

3.0 Advantages and Disadvantages of Swine Production

3.1 Advantages
i. Efficient converters of animal feeds – Pigs can efficiently convert animal feeds to rich animal proteins
especially when high quality animal feeds are provided for the animals. In terms of feed conversion, pigs
are superior to cattle, goats and sheep when feeds have been carefully compounded and fed at the right
time. However, where marginal feedstuffs such as rice bran, grass or hay are fed, the pig is not as efficient
as ruminant livestock.
ii. Financially rewarding – The capital invested in pig production can be realized in a relatively short
time. It takes 5-7 months feeding with optimum management conditions to raise a weaning pig to a
market weight of 90 kg. Where the consumption of tender pig is in high demand, fattening pigs can be
achieved with a short reasonable time.
iii. Omnivorous animals – Pigs are omnivores. This means they can eat both plant and animal sources of
feeds. They are voracious eaters of farm crop wastes products and offal of livestock which are converted
into edible high quality proteins of high caloric value.
iv. Production of large litter sizes – are very fertile and prolific and can produce an average litter size of
8-12 piglets per farrow after a short gestation period of 112-120 days. However, litter size may vary
depending on the type of breed and the age of the sow. Normally, litter sizes of gilts are comparatively
smaller but progressively increase as the frequency of pregnancy increases.
v. Space requirement – Pigs especially those under intensive management require a small space to grow.
Unlike beef and dairy cattle which normally require at least one hectare of natural pasture per head, pigs
can be reared on a small area either in enclosed confinement within a building or a small area of pasture.
vi. Finished pigs – Finished or spent pigs are animals that have outlived their usefulness. In other words
they are not economic productive as far as their production objective is concerned. Spent pigs can yield
between 70-75 kg of dressed carcass. In addition, the entrails and blood can be used for sausages and the
hair can be made into brushes while the hooves are used to produce glue.
vii. Improvement of soil fertility – Pigs can produce considerable amount of organic manure (Pig dung)
which can be used to improve soil fertility. A matured pig can produce approximately between 600-700
kg of manure annually. In urban areas where vegetable production is very intensive, organic pig manure
can be perfectly substituted for expensive artificial fertilizers which are often scarce in supply.
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viii. Profitable small-scale livestock farming enterprise – Many poor rural families in Sierra Leone
usually keep one or two pigs in their backyard as “A Saving Bank on the Hoof”. The production of such
animals is timely scheduled to meet the payment of important or fulfil pressing financial obligations such
as payment of trips abroad, procurement of valuables, payment of school fees and medical bills or to
accomplish important traditional ceremonies.
ix. Source of Feeds for other animals – In many parts of the world especially in Asia, pig-fish farming is
a common practice. Pig dung is used to feed fishes in ponds. The pig effluents discharges directly into the
fish pond. In return, fish are used as the main source of proteins in pig rations.
3.2 Disadvantages of Swine Production
i. Religious concerns –Pork is not internationally accepted and its consumption is forbidden in Islamic
countries but accepted in Christian communities. In Sierra Leone, 60%-70% of the population are
Muslims, however, pigs are produced in almost all communities without restriction.
ii. Sub-urban pollution – The pig has a simple monogastric stomach which makes it quite adaptable and
tolerant to different foodstuffs. As already mentioned, pigs can discharge a huge amount of waste which
has to be constantly cleared and properly disposed of. In situations where the farmer fails to accomplish
such daily routine, pig wastes may attract swarms of flies, vermin and wild birds due to the pungent foul
smell which may also be inconvenient to neighbors.
iii. Sources of diseases and parasites – In Sierra Leone, many rural pigs are extensively reared gaining
easy access to offal and leftovers and pigs reared extensively in urban areas are seen very busy grazing
huge refuse dumps and clearing unhygienic backyards. Such animals are not only susceptible to diseases
and parasites but also serve as a steady source of infection in humans. The incidence of Taeniasis has
increased drastically in the country due to change in lifestyle. Many barbecue parties facilitate the
consumption of under-cooked meat from which many helminth infections are initiated.
iv. Competition with humans for grains – Pigs are voracious eaters of feeds and their basal feeds
constitute mainly of grains (corn, wheat, etc). In intensive pig production systems and where animals are
fed ad libitum, pigs can pose serious challenges with humans for the consumption of grains.
4. Economics of Swine Production
The swine production industry in Sierra Leone is practically divided into two categories: Commercial
intensive production and the Local or extensive subsistence pig farming. Commercial production involves
large scale intensive production systems with the ultimate aim of maximizing profit, hence efficient
production and management practices are adopted. The initial capital involved is usually high and feeding
alone may account between 60% and 80% total costs of production. On the other hand, local production
of extensive subsistence pig farming is common in rural areas where pigs are allowed to roam freely and
the main objective for production is for home consumption but extra may be sold to raise cash for
exigencies. The initial capital involved is low. The farmer depends on the animal’s adaptability to the

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 local environment and its ability to forage local available pastures. Virtually little or no health and
nutrition facilities are provided.
4.1 Production Standards or Production Coefficients
Swine production can be a lucrative business provided the farmer strictly adheres to standard
recommended practices and pay attention to the health of the animals. There are certain parameters
which can be used as a guide in practical pig production and they indicate whether the production system
is good or bad. These parameters are called Production Standards or Production Coefficient.

Table 2 Production Standards or Coefficient

Production Performance
Production Parameter Average Good Excellent
1. Breeding Herd
 In-Pig Parturition and Weaning
 Piglets farrowed/Litter 10 11 14
 Piglets weaned/Litter 8.5 9.5 12.5
 Nursing Pig and Weaning
 Weaning at 3 weeks 2.20 2.35 2.45
 Weaning at 5 weeks 2.00 2.15 2.35
 Weaning at 6-7 weeks 1.90 2.05 2.15
 Weaning at 8 weeks 1.80 1.90 2.05
 Piglets Weaned
 Weaning at 3 weeks 19 21 24
18 20 21
 Weaning at 5 weeks
17 19 20
 Weaning at 6-7 weeks
15 17 19
 Weaning at 8 weeks
2. Nutrition
 Feed Consumption and Conversion
 Feed Consumption/weaner/day 1.9 1.6 1.2
 Feed Conversion Ratio (FCR) – Bacons and Lards 5.4 4.0 3.5
 Feed Conversion Ratio (FCR) – Grower Piglets 3.4 3.1 2.9

3. Mortality (%) 3 2 1

FCR=¿ Feed Consumed in a Period (kg) , FCR = FC

Weight Gained in Same Period (kg) WG

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5. Factors Affecting Pig Production

1. Land – Any infertile, well-drained land can be used for swine production. The identified land should
be located very close to the market to minimize cost of transportation.

2. Labor – Labor is crucial in pig production as one man can take care of twenty or more pigs. However,
where technical issues are involved then technical labor is required especially for nutrition and health
purposes. In this regard, both manual and technical labor is required in pig production.

3. Capital – Capital is the driving force or lubricant for all profit making enterprises. It is the most
important factor of production since it is used to purchase animals, construct pig pens, buy feeds, hire
labor and pay for technical services. Proper management and allocation of capital resources can
contribute positively to profitable pig production.

4. Marketing – In Sierra Leone like many other African countries, pigs are slaughtered and the meat is
sold immediately. This is due to the fact that meat processing facilities are almost absent therefore timely
consideration for slaughter is absolutely necessary. Large quantities of pork and other sources of meat are
often in high demand for special occasions like Christmas and other festive seasons. Occasionally, very
limited processing and curing of pork is found in urban areas but such meat can be accessed by special
orders to the processor.

6. Housing and Equipment

Although pigs can be raised in almost every housing condition, this should not be an excuse for
deplorable accommodation often provided for pigs in the tropics. It should be remembered that the
physio-anatomical disposition of the pig is incompatible with the harsh and hot tropical weather to which
they are usually exposed. In providing accommodation, the weather condition and the type of land used
should be carefully considered for adequate housing facilities.

6.1 Building

As already stated, buildings can be located on any infertile and well-drained land at least 30 feet (10
meters) from the buildings. The building should be erected in an East-West (E-W) orientation to avoid
direct sunlight penetration into the building that may cause heat stress and sun burn on the pigs.
Moreover, the building can absorb adequate sunlight and gradually dissipate the heat at night when the
weather is seemingly cold. The pillars of the building should be at least 8 feet (2.5 meters) high and the
walls 3.5 feet (1 meter) high to allow maximum ventilation. The building should also be provided with a

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corridor to enhance easy movement animals and equipment such as wheelbarrow, scales, farrowing and
breeding crates.

The roof should be of unequal sides and the roofing materials could either be corrugated zinc or
aluminum sheets and any local materials such as grass. Farmers who wish to take pig farming as a full
time business are advised to have Farrowing houses. The farrowing crate/house is equipped with several
farrowing crates. The essential features of a farrowing crate is that there should be a separate
compartment for each sow with farrowing rails to confine the sow and prevent her lying on the piglets. In
addition, a creep (nest) should be fitted to provide warmth and used to serve creep feed to the piglets. It is
important that the piglets have access to their mother when they want to suckle and the mother should not
have access to the creep feed which is enriched with ingredients that will encourage the piglets to start
eating much earlier. In addition, the piglets are likely to find refuge in the creep when the sow behavior is
noticed to be dangerous and erratic.

E W

Fig 1 Layout of Pig Building

Corridor

Creep Pigs Creep Area

Corridor

Fig 2 Farrowing Crate Light

6.2 Equipment
As the demand for pork and other related products increases, producers are forced to engage in fierce
competition. This in turn demands the use of highly sophisticated equipment and implement good
management practices and proper Bookkeeping. Choice of equipment becomes critical when modern
husbandry practices are being employed. The following are some of the equipment used in modern pig
production facilities:

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6.2.1 Drinkers (Waterers) – These are used to provide clean drinking water for the pigs. It is important
for the animals to recognize the source of water. There are two types of Drinkers:

i. Troughs – These are simple bore holes on the ground usually fitted with a suitable container or the
walls of the hole properly cemented.

ii. Automated Nipple Bowls – These consists of a nipple and a bowl. They are very efficient in providing
water but quite expensive. They supply water when the nipples are pressed in and the in-fitted valves
release the water.

WATER

Fig 3 Water Trough

Nipple WATER Source of H2O

Valve Bowl
Nipple Nipple
Fig 4 Automated Nipple Bowl

Advantages of Automated Nipple Bowl Over the Trough

1. Unlike the automated Nipple Bowl, pigs can easily defecate or urinate in the trough. Animals
infected with diseases can transmit the disease to healthy ones.
2. Water is comparatively less wasted in the automated nipple bowl compared with the trough
3. In hot weather, pigs can easily gain access to trough and wallow in it but can be done in
automated nipple bowls.
4. Pigs can have equal access with automated nipple bowls and hence less fighting for drinking
water
Disadvantages of Automated Nipple Bowl Over the Trough

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 1. Automated Nipple Bowls are expensive
2. Pigs are required to gain knowledge how to use the automated nipple bowls
3. When required, troughs can be easily cleaned compared with the automated bowl

6.2.2 Feeders – These are used to feed pigs. Similarly, there are two types of feeders: Trough and
automated feeders.
i. Troughs – These are holes dug in the ground in which feed is placed. They also have the disadvantage
of being contaminated with urine and excreta and when not properly maintained could serve as reservoir
and breeding site for many pathogens.
ii. Automated feeders – The automated feeder contains a hopper and a trough. Feed is placed in the
hopper and travels down to the trough for the animals to feed. These type of feeders are hygienic and
cannot be easily be contaminated. However, they have the disadvantage of developing blockage such that
the animals cannot easily access the feed. This problem can be remedied by attaching chains on the feeder
and place them in strategic position where the animals can come in contact with them when feeding.

Feed Chain

Hopper

Fig 5 Automated Hopper Feeder

6.2.3 Breeding Crates – These are devices used for breeding pigs. It has both an inner and outer
compartment. These are very useful especially when breeding animals of different weights and aggressive
boars. They reduce the effects of size incompatibility and assist in breeding shy and reluctant sows.

Sow
SS

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 Entrance

In Boar Out
Fig 6 Farrowing Crate

6.2.4 Farrowing Crate – This is a device in which pregnant sows or gilts are first placed before giving
birth (farrowing). This consists of a chamber into which the sow/gilt is restricted and a creep area
equipped with a lighting system where the piglets are brooded for some time after farrow (See Fig 2). The
advantages of using the Farrowing crate are that it minimizes the possibility of the sow overlying the
piglets. In addition, it facilitates the handling of brooding sows that may prove aggressive due to
parturition stress. The crates also minimizes space requirement per sow.

7. Pig Production Systems (Pig Husbandry)

Pig production has been carried out under three production systems; small-scale subsistence production
system also called Scavenging village production system, intensive management system and the semi-
intensive management system.

7.1 Small-scale Subsistence Production (Scavenging) System – This is a system where pigs reared
are left loose day and night on a self-supporting system. The pigs are allowed to roam freely where they
will and they decide where to pass the night. As scavengers, they are sometimes useful cleaning up human
and domestic animal feces and always picking offal where they can. Usually native or upgraded strains of
pigs are predominantly used because they are tolerant to low quality feeds and many endemic diseases
especially Ascarisis and Lung Worms. The quality of meat produced by scavenging pigs is inferior with
regards to meat deposition. They can successfully withstand varying environmental stresses than exotic
breeds.

7.2 Intensive Production System – Under this system, pigs are either raised on concrete floors or
slates that can be easily cleaned up. Concrete floors should not be too smooth otherwise the pigs may skid
and fall. Litter may or may not be provided. The pen should provide a suitable shelter and due
consideration given to free circulation of air and prevent cold driving rain. It is advised that the pen
provides farrowing, fattening and breeding crates for pigs. Feeders and drinkers should be designed such
that minimum labor is used for feeding and watering and to avoid feed wastage.

7.3 Semi-Intensive Production System –This system incorporates both the extensive and intensive
system of management. Usually breeding pigs are raised on grass and fattening pigs are intensively
managed in pens. Sows with litters are housed in portable sheds and are rotated across the grazing. In the

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tropics, most pigs are allowed to fend for themselves with minimum supplementation of feeds and basic
accommodation at night.

7.4 Space Requirement

Pigs are very curious animals and they do exploit their environment very much. Different categories of
pigs need specific space requirements (space required per animal) to ensure their free movement. This is

very important for intensively managed pigs. Table 3 shows the space required for different categories of
pigs.

Table 3 Space Requirements for Different Categories of Pigs

Space Requirement
Category of pigs (M2/Animal) Recommended Area
1. Starters (weaners) 6 2x3
2. Growers/Finishers 10 2x5
3. Boars 70 10 x 7
4. Barrow 10 2x5
5. Gestation sows 56 8x7
6. Sow with litter 75 5 x 15
Source: Pig production in the Tropics

8. Management of Pig Production Enterprises

8.1 Administration – This the financial management of the enterprise. It involves financial
transactions of the business. Prudent financial management and an efficient Bookkeeping system is
required.

8.2 Routine Management (Day-to-Day) - These are the day-to-day management of the animals and
it involves the following:

i. Cleaning – The pig pens need to be cleaned every day. All waste materials including feces and urine
should be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected with Dettol. Cleaning will reduce the presence of flies and
considerably reduce the foul odor. Always keep the pens clean and dry to prevent the mothers from
contracting pathogens that may cause mastitis and piglets should never be allowed to suckle from infected
milk. In situation where the mother cannot suckle the piglets, artificial milk comprising of eggs and cod
liver oil

ii. Feeding - After cleaning, the cleaned feeders and drinkers will then be filled with fresh feeds and
water. Ensure that the correct amount of feed is provided to avoid in fighting and over-crowding during
feeding

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iii. General supervision- Sustained supervision involving the regular visit to the pig pens is absolutely
necessary. This may avert any potential accident and institute immediate remedy. During visitations,
minimal disturbance should be ensured and to allow the animals to rest after feeding.

8.3 Occasional Management – These are husbandry practices which are occasionally undertaken
and they involve:

i. Care of piglets and Teeth Clipping – Immediately after birth, each piglet should be exposed to
colostrum milk. Both incisors and canine teeth, if present, should be clipped and on the third day, pigs

should be injected with organic iron compounds (Fe(NO 3)2 or Fe (SO4)2. The iron will present nutritional
anemia especially for intensively managed pigs which they would have picked up if extensively managed.

ii. Docking – This operation involves cutting of the pigs tail and reducing it to half an inch from the main
body. This is usually done when the pig is about three days old. This may help prevent potential
cannibalism and will also facilitate easy servicing of reluctant sow.

iii. Castration – This involves the removal of the two testicles of the boar by surgical means. It is
common practice to castrate all pigs not intended for breeding, and castration should be done between1-3
weeks of age. It is much easier to handle young pigs during castration and their rate of recovery is much
faster than older ones. Also, old boars that are no longer useful for breeding purposes may be castrated
before they are slaughtered for meat. This prevents the perpetuation of undesirable genetic traits and
improves meat quality by reducing the unique “Boar Taint/odor”.

8.4 Indigenous Versus Imported Breeds of Pigs

The use of local breeds of pigs has been debated by farmers in local urban areas. It is often argued that
local breeds of pigs cannot meet the desired production objectives and they should therefore be replaced
by imported ones. There are many reasons why local pigs may be preferred:

i. They are abundantly available and comparatively cheap

ii. By virtue of their small size, they may have small appetite or small litters that are suitable for
small-scale extensive management
iii. They are more resistant and tolerant to local conditions
iv. Their meat is preferred because it tastes better than the imported breeds

9. Effects of climate on pig production in the Tropics

9.1 Physio-Anatomical Characteristics of the Pig

The adult, well-fed and fully developed pig is generally a large, bulky and fat animal with sparse hair.
These characteristics emanate from both the physiological and anatomical characteristic of the animal

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which to a greater extent determines its performance in the locality it finds itself. The following are
physio-anatomical characteristics of the pig:
1. The pig is huge and bulky in size. By virtue of its large size has a smaller surface area that directly
communicates with the external environment. This implies that in a hot weather the pig cannot easily
loose heat.
2. Thick layer of back fat – A matured pig has an estimated back fat of 1 in to 2.5 inches thick. This may
serve as an insulator and in hot weather this may prevent loss of heat to the external environment and
stress the animal. However, this characteristic may be an advantage in cold weather conditions.

3. Voracious eater of feeds and efficient feed conversion – Pigs are voracious eaters of feeds. Such feeds
when subjected to tissue respiration may digest the carbohydrates component to yield energy and
alongside produce heat as a by-product
CH2O + O2 = Energy +
4. Sparse hair on the skin – pig has parse hair on the skin as compared with sheep and goats that possess a
thick fur coat. This is an advantage to the pig that survives under hot tropical weatherbecause it can
readily exchange heat with the external environment through “Evaporative Cooling”. This scientific
phenomenon can be enhanced by wetting the animals during the hot day.
5. Very little sweat pores – Pigs have very little sweat pores that are mostly concentrated in the snout. The
normal process of vasodilation and vasoconstriction are restricted to the snout where these sweat pores
are in abundance. The pig, as a result, cannot benefit much from the biological process of “Evaporative
Cooling”
9.2 Effects of Climate on the Pig Performance in the Tropics
Climate has a significant effect on the performance of the pig. Different categories of pigs respond to
different climatic situations. Adult pigs in the tropics can easily survive mild cold weather often prevalent
during harmattan. Although they possess sparse hair on their skin, this has been neutralized by the thick
layer of back fat under their skin. Young pigs at birth virtually have no sub-cutaneous fat which makes
them much sensitive to the effects of cold weather. The body temperature of the baby pig falls by 2-7 °C
immediately after birth and takes 1-2 days to return to normal.

At high temperatures, say between 27-33 °C, the pig is equally stressed because of its very limited ability
to loose heat by sweating. These two limitations on the pig’s ability to live comfortably in adverse
conditions means that its environmental requirements are probably more stringent than those of most
other farm animals. Adverse climatic stresses are not simply produced as a result of difference in
temperature above normal, it is the combination of high temperatures, direct solar radiation, high
humidity and still air that creates the most stressful conditions of heat. Conversely, the coldest
environment are those that combine a low air temperature and high winds with a lack of direct sunlight on

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buildings and cold surroundings to which the pig radiates heat. The cumulative effects of such stresses
can be disastrous as discussed below:
i. Effects of climate on feed intake
There is a remarkable effect of climate on pig performance and this can be viewed from two distinct
perspectives:
 Cold weather – As already stated, young pigs can be easily stressed in cold draft weather because of
the lack of back fat and the fast drop in their body temperature which cannot be easily recovered. As a
result, piglets will tend to suckle more frequently and through tissue respiration are able to generate
more heat. In addition, the breast milk is also warm and this can assist to sustain the piglets. Have also

exploited their natural instinct of huddling (lying parallel to each other with bodily contact). By
huddling, pigs will evenly distribute and share equal body temperatures. This phenomenon is best
described in the “First principle of thermodynamics” With adult pigs, extreme cold weather will force
the pigs to consume more feeds. The thick back fat layer which serves as an insulator is not sufficient
to sustain the animal. The feed, after digestion, will provide additional heat generated as a by-product.
Pigs known as voracious eaters will convert carbohydrates feeds into glycogen which will deposited in
the carcass making it extra fatty. This will be very suitable for lard production but produces less lean
meat. Suckling and gestation pigs will equally eat more feeds as explained. Invariably, suckling pigs
will produce more milk for the piglets to suckle and gestation pigs tend to be fatter and this may pose
problems giving rise to difficulty in parturition. Similarly, boars may also consume more feeds and if
uncontrolled may lead to deposition of excess fat and make them unsuitable for servicing of sows due
to size incompatibility although their libido may be high.
 In very hot weather, all categories of pigs will be stressed and react accordingly:
 Growers – These are pigs that have been weaned and subjected to diets that encourage fast growth. In
hot weather, Growers will drastically reduce their feed intake to avoid excessive digestion and
additional production of heat. This invariably will affect their growth and may not attain the expected
market weight at the stipulated time. The farmer will either decide to slaughter underweighted animals
or force to prolong the feeding period all of which will lead to losses to the farmer.
 Suckling/Lactating Sows – A good mothering sow may farrow between 10 – 15 piglets. This, no doubt,
is a huge burden on the dam as she must produce enough milk to satisfy the litter. Unfortunately,
during hot weather, suckling or lactating sows also drastically reduce their feed intake. The implication
is that the sow will produce less milk which will only be available among the strongest in the litter
leaving the weaker ones deprived and malnourished. In other words, it is survival of the strongest. The
associated adverse effects are increased piglet mortality and social conflict among the stronger ones.
 Gestation/Pregnant Sows/In-pigs – These are pregnant animals carrying developing fetuses. For the
fetuses to grow normally may require adequate nourishment. Unfortunately, during hot weather,
pregnant sows are stressed and their first reaction is to drastically reduce feed intake to minimize
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 digestion and production of heat. The consequences are that the developing fetuses will be deprived of
the essential nutrients needed for normal growth and this may lead to fetal abortion and dystocia
among inexperienced gilts.
 Boars – Boars are sexually active male animals who will not stop at anything, under normal
circumstances, to service sows on heat. Unfortunately, during hot weather, boars also drastically
reduce their feed intake. This may lead to the production of less sperms with poor quality to fertilize
the ovules or not suitable for Artificial Insemination. In addition, boars lose their libido and tend to be
disinterested in the females.

9.3 Environmental Requirements of Different Categories of Pigs

The thermos-neutral temperature for any particular animal depends on a number of factors including the
feed intake (e.g. restricted, appetite or ad libitum), the size of the group it find itself (e.g. Singly housed or
group of 10 or 20 piglets) and other aspects of the environment (radiation, wind, type of flooring, etc).
Considering all these, it is difficult to temperatures that will be correct in all circumstances.

Table 4 Environmental Temperatures for Optimum Pig Performance

Weight range (Kg) Temperature Required °C

At Birth 1-2 35
2-5
5-40 25-34
40-90 18-24
12-22
Pregnant Sows 130-250 14-20
Lactating Sows 130-250 5-18

9.3 Control/Modification of Environmental Conditions in Pig Houses

The complete control of the environment is almost impossible and far too expensive to be economical.
Therefore, it is prudent to modify the house in which the animals stay. There are practical ways the
environment within animal houses have been manipulated and these include the following:
9.3.1 Modification of Hot Tropical Climate
The most severe and stressful tropical climate is the combination of high temperatures and direct sunshine
and these can be modified as follows:
i. Provision of shade – Animal dwelling houses can be protected from direct sunlight through the use of
simple locally-available materials such as leaves, grass, straw or split bamboos. A thick layer (2-3 cm) can
be spread on the roof of animal houses. In addition, trees with nice canopies can be planted near and

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around animal houses to provide shade. It is good to practice to plant nitrogen-fixing trees or highly
nutritious trees like Moringa olifera which leaves can be harvested and served to livestock like pigs,
poultry and ruminants. These trees are economical and environmentally friendly.
ii. Cooling by Increased Air Movement – Many livestock production facilities are equipped with fans to
provide cooling but these are expensive and not effective. Houses should be constructed taking advantage
of the natural wind movement.
iii. Evaporative Cooling – When water evaporates from a warm surface it takes with it a great deal of
latent heat, a process referred to as “Evaporative Cooling”. Human and animals use this principle of
evaporative cooling when they sweat. Various methods have been used to harness this principle by
wetting for the benefit of the poorly-sweating pig.
iv. Construction of Wallows – Given access to wet places, pigs habitually wallow (Dip in water) to wet
their skins and the subsequent evaporation provides the cooling they seek. Wallows can be constructed
using different materials but adequate care of sanitation (Regular cleaning) must be adopted to avoid
wallows serving as breeding places for microbes.
v. Sprinklers – Sprinklers can be directed to provide a light shower of water on the pigs at intervals say
every 45 minutes. They are useful for boars and pregnant sows. They are very effective but quite
expensive to operate.
Water
Water tank

Sprinkler
Fig 7 Water sprinkler

9.3.2 Modifying Cold Tropical Climates

In those part of the world like South and Central America and Southern Africa which are subjected to cool
winters or extreme low temperatures there is need to provide vulnerable classes of pigs with some
protection from the cold. The vulnerable groups are the young piglets particularly those at birth, those
subjected to plane nutrition, suffering from diseases or immediately after weaning can be a critical one.
i. Creep Area – Pigs at birth or at their early stage of development can be provided with a creep area in the
farrowing pen. As already noted, the creep is provided with a lighting system which may provide the
necessary warmth (25°C-30°C) the pigs desire.
ii. Enclosed heating system – Pigs can be confined in an enclosure and provided with heating system
which can be regulated when necessary.

10. Nutrition and Feeding of Pigs

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Pigs are voracious eaters of feeds efficient converters of feeds to high quality animal proteins. Feed is by
far the most costly item in pig production usually accounting between 70% and 80% total costs of
production. The profitability of pig production therefore depends greatly on the efficient conversion of
feed to meat.
10.1 The Nutrients
Pigs require nutrients for two main purposes: to maintain the essential functions of their body and to
allow them to grow or to produce young or milk. We therefore consider nutrient requirements for
maintenance and for production. These nutrients can be grouped into proteins, energy, vitamins and
minerals (trace elements and water).

10.1.1 Proteins - Protein molecules contain nitrogen atoms in addition to carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. The
fundamental components of protein are nitrogen-containing amino acids. Essential amino acids cannot be
made by the animal. Some of the amino acids are convertible (with the expenditure of energy) to glucose and
can be used for energy production just as ordinary glucose. The lean meat of pigs consists largely of proteins
and water. Amino acids are liberated when proteins are digested and re-assemble in a different form to make
the proteins of muscles and other tissues.
10.1.2 Carbohydrates – Energy is provided by the carbohydrates and by the fats and oils used in the feeds.
The sugars and starches of common feeds are generally highly digestible. The local feed resources used as
carbohydrates are corn, sorghum, cassava, potatoes, etc,
10.1.3 Vitamins – Some vitamins cannot be made by the body except supplied in the diets. These vitamins are
necessary for many physiological processes to take place and may cause serious nutritional deficiency diseases
when absent in the diets.
10.1.4 Minerals – Pigs require chemical elements such as calcium, phosphorus, sodium and potassium as
components of the tissues.
10.1.5 Water – Water is an essential media in many physiological processes and must be provided ad libitum.

10.2 Feeding of Pigs

The way feed ingredients are processed and presented to the pigs can considerably affect the efficiency with
which they are used.
10.2.1 Feed Processing – Feeds are presented as either meals or pellets. Meals are known to improve
digestibility but pellets provide better performance partly by reducing feed wastage and improving digestibility
and feed conversion.
10.2.2 Methods of Feeding and Presenting Feeds to Pigs
Apart from its composition, the way feeds are presented to the animals can also considerably influence the
efficiency with which it is utilized. Feeds can be presented wet or dry. Wet feeding means mixing the dry feed
with water immediately before feeding. Wet feeds improve performance of pigs and reduces feed wastage. In
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addition, it reduces the chances of respiratory diseases mostly associated with dusty meal feeds. There are
different ways of feeding pigs:
i. Restricted
In restricted feeding, pigs are offered feeds at specific times with specific quantities that will last them a day.
The total quantity of feed approximately 1.5-2.0 kg of feed per pig is provided and the next feeding will
commence on the following day:
Advantages
1. Less feed wastage
2. Feed conversion efficiency is improved
3. Possibility of over-feeding is slight

Disadvantages
1. Restricts the growth potential of the animals
2. Some pigs may be deprived as the strongest will take a greater share of the feed
3. May lead to social friction among pigs
4. It is labor intensive
ii. Appetite
In this feeding method, pigs are fed depending on their appetite. A specific quantity of feed, say 10 kg, is
provided for the animals are is judged to be finished within a specific period of time. If the feed is cleared
before time, then more feed is added in subsequent feeding, otherwise it is reduced accordingly if not finished
before the stipulated time.
Advantages
1. Reduces feed wastage
2. Efficiency of feed conversion is good
3. Over-feeding and chances of constipation is reduced
Disadvantages
1. Some pigs may be deprived as those with good appetite may consume all the fees
2. Social friction among the pigs
3. It could be labor intensive where large number of pigs are involved
iii. Ad libitum
Ad libitum feeding involves providing excess feeds for the animals at all times without restriction. The pigs are
presented with more than they require and feed to their appetite at all times.
Advantages
1. Pigs will fulfil their full growth potentials
2. Less labor intensive
3. Non-feeders can be easily detected
Disadvantages
1. Over-feeding and constipation is possible

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 2. Pigs may select feeds
3. Wastage of feeds is high
4. Over-weight and fatty carcass is produced
11. Reproduction of Pigs
The choice of a breed for a particular purpose is critical. All efforts should be geared towards selecting the
right breed for the specific purpose. It is essential that careful breeding records are kept to ensure that a sow is
mated to the boar of the appropriate breed.
11.1 Selection of Breeding Stock
Improvement of pigs with best performances can be achieved by continuous selection of superior pigs with the
desired characters. Some characters particularly in reproductive performance are poorly heritable but others

like growth rate, feed conversion and carcass quality are reasonably highly heritable so good progress can be
made.
11.2 Selection Criteria of Breeding Stock
i. The sow should be completely healthy
ii. It must have minimum of 12 teats
iii. The sow should be physically built and strong to accommodate the male
iv. Sow with consistent large litter sizes should be selected
v. Boars selected for breeding should have both testicles fully descended into the scrotum
vi. The breeding stock must be devoid of bad genetic traits
11.3 Reproduction
The breeding cycle of the sow is approximately six months and piglets are traditionally weaned at the age of
eight weeks. A matured gilt with the requisite mental and physical maturity in addition to biological maturity
should be mated for the first time at 8-9 months. Two major aspects are considered for successful breeding:
i. High fertility which implies the ability to conceive regularly
ii. High prolificacy which means the ability to produce large litters

Table 5 Reproductive Characteristics of Pigs

Reproductive characteristic Time

Length of estrus cycle 21 days
Duration of heat 2-3 days
Time of ovulation 35 hours after onset of estrus
Life of sperm in female genitalia 24 hours
Gestation period 112-114 days
Age at first mating (gilts) 9 months
Age at first mating (boars) 8 months
Source: Tropical Livestock Production and Marketing (Accessed 2018)

Sows are normally mated naturally and are brought to the boar’s pen or a special mating pen, and
after mating are returned to their own pens.

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Secondary signs of estrus include:

o Red, swollen vulva which is usually more pronounced in gilts than in sows.
o Increased nervous activity.
o Desire to seek the boar.
o Loss of appetite.
o Male-like sexual behavior (pursuing, nosing and mounting other females).
o Change in vocalization (grunts and growls).
o Increase in vaginal mucous (thumb check).

Length of estrus or heat is variable and may last only 12 hours in gilts or up to 60 hours or more
in sows. Since the actual time of the onset of estrus is rarely known, it is recommended that a
female receive at least two matings during estrus. This helps insure that sperm are present at an
optimum time relative to ovulation for fertilization to occur.

11.4 Farrowing

Two schools of thought have advocated for supervised or unsupervised farrowing in pigs.
Whatever the argument, it depends on the experience of the sow. One or two days before
farrowing, the pig pen should be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected. A thin layer of litter can
also be provided especially in the creep area. The sow should be given enough water and served
fresh vegetables

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12 MEAT PRODUCTION AND CARCASS QUALITY

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As pigs grow there is a change in their body proportion and changes in the different tissues such as lean, fat
and bone. Pigs are born with only 1% of its body weight as fat but increases rapidly to 10% at weaning and
thereafter to between 20% and 35% at weights between 60kg and 120kg. The pig carcass consists of three
fractions:
i. The internal organs
ii. The lean meat (muscles and bones)
iii. The fat
It is the changes in these three fractions which determines the quality and hence the value of the carcass.
12.1 Killing-Out (Dressing) Percentage
During slaughter, the pig carcass is bled, dehaired by scalding and eviscerated. The head and the feet may or
may not be removed. Killing-out percentage is the weight of the dressed carcass as a percentage of the live
weight before slaughter. It is therefore a measure of the yield of saleable meat from a pig of given weight.
11.2 Factors Affecting Killing-Out Percentage
i. It increases with body weight
ii. The bulkiness of the diet
iii. The length of fast before slaughter
12.2 Factors Affecting Carcass Quality
i. Genetic factors
ii. Dietary
iii. Sex
iv. Conformation
12.3 Meat Quality
i. Color
ii. Odor
iii. Flavor
iv. Texture
v. Pale, Soft and Exudative (PSE) mea
vi. Quality of the fat
12.4 Slaughter Procedures/Harvesting of Meat
i. Pre-Slaughter
ii. Stunning
iii. Bleeding
iv. De-haring
v. Evisceration
vi. Hygiene and Meat Inspection

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