Normal Conditions in Power System

Chapter 1: Faults in a Power System
Normal Conditions in power system:
1. It is a state of network in which the current flowing through it is the rated current
provided that the voltage and frequency is constant.
2. The current is not diverted to the other path that is generally towards the earth then the
condition is said to be normal condition.
Abnormal Condition in power system:
1. It is the defect in the any part of the system which produce abnormalities like over
current, over voltage, disturbance and elements are likely to be damaged and the
system is disturb.
2. It is the defect in part of the power system due to which the current is diverted from the
desired path with increase in magnitude called fault.
3. Due to abnormalities following are the defects observed:-
 Voltage and Current unbalanced
 Over Voltages
 Reversal Power
 Power Swinging
 Under Frequency
 Temperature Rise
 Instability of System
 Unbalance of phases
Introduction to Electrical Faults:
A fault in an electric power system can be defined as , any abnormal condition of the system that
involves the electrical failure of the equipment, such as , transformers, generators, busbars, etc.
Due to fault a no. of power system variable such as current, voltage, frequency, power factor etc
changes from the predefined range of values.
The fault inception also involves in insulation failures and conducting path failures which results
short circuit and open circuit of conductors.
Usually power system networks are protected with switchgear protection equipments such as
circuit breakers and relays in order to limit the loss of service due to the electrical failures.
Different Types of Fault in Power System are:

1. Open circuit faults
2. Inter turn faults
3. Short circuit faults
1. Open Circuit Faults
These faults occur due to the failure of one or more conductors. The figure below illustrates the
open circuit faults for single, two and three phases (or conductors) open condition.
The most common causes of these faults include joint failures of cables and overhead lines, and
failure of one or more phase of circuit breaker and also due to melting of a fuse or conductor in
one or more phases.
Open circuit faults are also called as series faults. These are unsymmetrical or unbalanced type of
faults except three phase open fault.
Consider that a transmission line is working with a balanced load before the occurrence of open
circuit fault. If one of the phase gets melted, the actual loading of the alternator is reduced and this
cause to raise the acceleration of the alternator, thereby it runs at a speed slightly greater than
synchronous speed. This over speed causes over voltages in other transmission lines.
Thus, single and two phase open conditions can produce the unbalance of the power system
voltages and currents that causes great damage to the equipment’s.
Causes
Broken conductor and malfunctioning of circuit breaker in one or more phases.
Effects
 Abnormal operation of the system
 Danger to the personnel as well as animals
 Exceeding the voltages beyond normal values in certain parts of the network, which
further leads to insulation failures and developing of short circuit faults.
Although open circuit faults can be tolerated for longer periods than short circuit faults, these
must be removed as early as possible to reduce the greater damage.
2. Inter turn faults:
In the devices such as transformer, generator, motor etc. there is insulated winding, if one or
more turn of winding got insulation fails then inter turn fault occurs. Due to this types of faults,
current drawn by the device increases from nominal rated value. If this types of fault is not
prevented for a long time then it may result short circuit fault.
3. Short Circuit Faults
A short circuit can be defined as an abnormal connection of very low impedance between two
points of different potential, whether made intentionally or accidentally.
These are the most common and severe kind of faults, resulting in the flow of abnormal high
currents through the equipment or transmission lines. If these faults are allowed to persist even for
a short period, it leads to the extensive damage to the equipment.
Short circuit faults are also called as shunt faults. These faults are caused due to the insulation
failure between phase conductors or between earth and phase conductors or both.
The various possible short circuit fault conditions include three phase to earth, three phase clear of
earth, phase to phase, single phase to earth, two phase to earth and phase to phase plus single phase
to earth as shown in figure.
The three phase fault clear of earth and three phase fault to earth are balanced or symmetrical short
circuit faults while other remaining faults are unsymmetrical faults.
Types of Short Circuit Fault:
1. Symmetrical faults
2. Unsymmetrical faults
Symmetrical Faults
A symmetrical fault gives rise to symmetrical fault currents that are displaced with 1200 each
other. Symmetrical fault is also called as balanced fault. This fault occurs when all the three
phases are simultaneously short circuited. Such types of fault remain balanced even after the
fault. The symmetrical types of fault mostly occurs at terminal of generator.
These faults rarely occur in practice as compared with unsymmetrical faults. Two kinds of
symmetrical faults include line to line to line (L-L-L) and line to line to line to ground (L-L-L-G)
as shown in figure below.
A rough occurrence of symmetrical faults is in the range of 2 to 5% of the total system faults.
However, if these faults occur, they cause a very severe damage to the equipment’s even though
the system remains in balanced condition.
The analysis of these faults is required for selecting the rupturing capacity of the circuit breakers,
choosing set-phase relays and other protective switchgear. These faults are analyzed on per phase
basis using bus impedance matrix or Thevenins’s theorem.
Unsymmetrical Faults
The most common faults that occur in the power system network are unsymmetrical faults. This
kind of fault gives rise to unsymmetrical fault currents (having different magnitudes with unequal
phase displacement). These faults are also called as unbalanced faults as it causes unbalanced
currents in the system.
Up to the above discussion, unsymmetrical faults include both open circuit faults (single and two
phase open condition) and short circuit faults (excluding L-L-L-G and L-L-L).
The figure below shows the three types of symmetrical faults occurred due to the short circuit
conditions, namely phase or line to ground (L-G) fault, phase to phase (L-L) fault and double line
to ground (L-L-G) fault.
L-G Fault: A single line-to-ground (LG) fault is one of the most common faults and
experiences show that 70-80 percent of the faults that occur in power system are of this type. This
forms a short circuit path between the line and ground. These are very less severe faults compared
to other faults.
L-L fault: A line to line fault occur when a live conductor get in contact with other live
conductor. Heavy winds are the major cause for this fault during which swinging of overhead
conductors may touch together. These are less severe faults and its occurrence range may be
between 15-20%.
L-L-G fault: In double line to ground faults, two lines come into the contact with each other
as well as with ground. These are severe faults and the occurrence these faults is about 10% when
compared with total system faults.
Unsymmetrical faults are analyzed using methods of unsymmetrical components in order to

determine the voltage and currents in all parts of the system. The analysis of these faults is more
difficult compared to symmetrical faults.
This analysis is necessary for determining the size of a circuit breaker for largest short circuit
current. The greater current usually occurs for either L-G or L-L fault.
Representation of fault conditions through Single Line Diagrams:

Objective questions:
1. The most common fault on an overhead transmission line is

a. L-G fault b. L-L-G fault c. L-L fault d. all of above
2. The most severe fault on the power system is

a. L-G fault b. L-L-G fault c. L-L fault d. L-L-L fault
3. Reactor are used at various locations in the power system to

a. Increase short circuit current
b. Avoid short circuit current
c. Limit short circuit current
d. None of above
4. Which of the following is not abnormal condition in power system.

a. Over current b. under current c. under voltage d. under frequency
5. A 3-phase transmission line operating at 10kv has a 1% impedance. The percentage impedance
of the line at 10,00 KVA base is
a. 10% b. 100% c. 20% d. 30%
6. When a short circuit occurs in a power system

a. The voltage at fault point is zero
b. A very large current flows in the system
c. It results in overheating of equipment
d. All of above
7. The fault on a power system that gives symmetrical fault current is

a. L-G fault b. L-L-G fault c. L-L fault d. L-L-L fault
8. Unsymmetrical faults
a. Introduce unbalance in the system
b. Indicate abnormal condition in the system
c. Are more frequent than symmetrical faults
d. All of above
9. The most severe unsymmetrical fault is

a. Single line to ground fault
b. Line to line fault
c. Double line to ground fault
d. None of above
10. System is balance even after the fault is known as……………………………………
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Prepared by: Er. Keshab Khatri 1
Current transformers definition:

4/8 /2 0 2 3
Working of current transformer
• CT is connected in series, whose current has to be measured.

• Whenever AC supplies throughout the primary winding, then alternating magnetic flux can be generated, then AC will
be induced within the secondary winding due to mutual induction .
• So the current within the secondary winding depends on the current in the primary winding
Characteristics of CT
Specification characteristics of CT
• Current ratio: Is/Ip=Np/Ns
• Polarity: generally, subtractive polarity
• Accuracy class: maximum burden that can be allowed
• Metering accuracy CT: maximum rated capacity
•The emf induced in the CT secondary winding is,
E=4.44*flux*f*N2
Where, flux is maximum magnetic flux in Wb, N2 is the number of
turns of secondary winding, f is the frequency of the system.
2
• Flux in the core is produced by excitation current (Ie).We have

non linear relationship between excitation current and magnetic
flux. After certain value of excitation current, flux will not further
increase so rapidly with increase in excitation current. This non-
linear relation curve is also called B-H curve.
• Again from the equation above, It is found that secondary voltage of a current transformer is directly proportional to
flux. Hence typical curve can be drawn from this relation between secondary voltage and excitation curve shown in figure.
• It is clear from curve, linear relation between V and Ie is maintained from the starting point known as ankle point and end
point of linear relation is known as Knee point. Prepared by: Er. Keshab Khatri 4
4/8 /2 0 2 3
Application of CT:
• Measuring current and monitoring the operation of the power grid
• Metering and protection circuit
Standard Ratio of CT:

• CT ratio is expressed as Rated primary current to the rated secondary current
• E.g. 300:5 CT, it produce the 5 amp current on secondary side when 300 amp current following from primary
CT burden
The circuit or load connected to the secondary winding of CT is called ‘CT burden’ which is expressed in ‘VA’
The burden on a protective CT comprises of the individual burdens of associated relays, trip coils, connecting leads etc.
total burden is calculated by adding all of these individual loads.
Burden (in ohms) = CT secondary resistance+ lead wires resistance+ meter/relay resistance
Errors in CT
Current ratio error:
• Primary current is not exactly equal to the secondary current multiplied by turn ratio which is due to the primary
current contributed by the core excitation current.
• Error in CT introduced due to this different is called ratio error in current transformer.
3
Phase angle Error:
• Ideally the angle between the primary current and secondary current must be exactly in phase by 180
degree. However, in the actual output there is some deviation from 180 degree. This deviation is called
phase angle error.

4/8 /2 0 2 3
• Error in current transformer is due to fact

that the primary current has to supply core
loss and magnetizing components of the CT
for which it losses some phase angle. Due to
this, current would not be in exact phase
opposition.
• We can say that error in CT is due to

excitation current developed on CT.
Common faults that could be occurred in current transformer are:

(1) two side open circuit.
(2) overheated at work.
(3) internal smoke or odor.
(4) the coil screws are loose, turn or interlayer short circuit.
(5) internal discharge, abnormal sound, or discharge spark between the lead wire and the shell.
(6) oil filled current transformer has serious oilPrepared
leakage or
by:oilEr.surface
KeshabisKhatri
too low. 7
What ate safety precautions to be taken when working

with energized CTs?
Precautions while connecting the CT:
if you have a solid core current transformer, you have to break the high voltage circuit to thread a wire through the
core. Turn it off first.
If you have a split core CT, you can just clamp it around the wire, which in principle can be done without turning it off,
but one does need to be careful.
4
The most important thing about CTs is NEVER LEAVE THE SECONDARY OPEN CIRCUIT. Always have a load across the
CT. It can develop very high voltages if left open circuit.
Other safety precaution= write yourself……………………………..i will check your note

4/8 /2 0 2 3
What happen if we open the secondary of CT?

• Basically, a Current Transformer is a step up transformer.
• Where on the secondary side, current is decreased and Voltage is increased.
• A current transformer should never be open-circuited while main current is passing through the primary
winding.
• If the load is removed from the secondary winding while the main circuit current is flowing, most of the
primary winding current becomes magnetizing current.
• But the vector angles change in such a way as to keep the total current in the primary the same as before.
• Because the main circuit is now mostly magnetizing current, the flux in the core shoots up to a high level and
a very high voltage appears across the secondary.
• Due to the high turn ratio usually found in these transformers, the voltage in this condition can reach a
dangerously high level, which can break down the insulation.
• It also becomes a hazard to personnel.
• The high flux can saturate the core and result in strong residual magnetism left in the core, thereby
increasing magnetization current and introducing error in the transformation ratio.
• One has to put a short the secondary winding to operate a Current Transformer.
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Potential transformer:
Definition: Potential transformer is instrument transformer which
is used to measure the high voltage across the line using low
range of voltmeter. This types of transformer is generally step
down transformer.
Construction:
• Winding : Primary winding is connected to across the line whose
voltage is required to measure & secondary winding is connected to
voltmeter.
• Core: The core may be of shell or core type of construction.
• Insulation: Hard fiber separators are used to separate the coils
• Oil-filled bushings are used to connect the high voltage potential

transformers (above 7KV) to the main lines.
• Yoke: it carries and protect the internal part of
transformer
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Working of Potential transformer:
We have, V1/V2 = N1/N2

V1=V2*N1/N2,
Here, N1 and N2 are number of turn in primary and secondary winding
V2 is voltmeter reading
V1 is primary line voltage
This formula is used to measure the voltageby:
Prepared across the line
Er. Keshab using PT
Khatri 3
Application of potential transformers:

• Used for protection and measuring purpose
• Used in relay and metering circuits
• Used in power line carrier communication circuits
• Used in substation etc.
Standard ratio of potential transformer

• the standard ratio of a potential transformer (PT) is the ratio of the high voltage or primary side voltage to the low voltage
or secondary side voltage. It is usually expressed in a fractional form such as 1000:1 or 10,000:1
• Ratio of total no. of primary turn to no. of secondary turn
• The secondary voltage of PT is generally 110V,120V
• 100:1 or 120KV:120=standard ratio of PT?
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Errors in Potential transformer:
In an ideal potential transformer, the primary and the

secondary voltage is exactly proportional to the primary
voltage and exactly in phase opposition. But this cannot be
achieved practically due to the primary and secondary voltage
drops. Thus, both the primary and secondary voltage is
introduced in the system.
Voltage error:
If there is a difference between the ideal voltage and actual voltage,
then the voltage error occurs. Deviation of primary voltage with
secondary voltage multiplication with turn ratio of PT is called voltage
error.
Percentage of voltage error =[(Vp-KtVs)/Vp]*100%
Phase Angle Error – The phase angle error is the error between the
secondary terminal voltage which is exactly in phase opposition with
the primary terminal voltage
Causes of Errors: due to the internal impedance, the voltage drops in

the primary and it is transformed proportional to its turns ratio and
secondary winding.
Burden of a Potential Transformer

• The burden is the total external volt-amp load on the secondary at rated secondary voltage.
• The rated burden of a PT is a VA burden which must not be exceeded if the transformer is to operate with its rated accuracy.
• The rated burden is indicated on the nameplate.
Characteristics of Potential transformer:

• Effect of secondary current:
Is increases, burden in secondary increases, Ip increases, voltage drop increases, Vs decreases, ratio
increases, error increases.
• Effect of power factor on secondary burden:

As pf increases, phase angle increases, lagging increases, Ep decreases relative to Vp, turn ratio increases,
error increases
• Effect of frequency:
As frequency increases, flux decreases and leakage reactance increases, drop decreases, ratio increases,
error increases
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Specification characteristics:
• Standard ratio: Vp/Vs, Np/Ns

• Permissible voltage ratio error: +-0.2, +-0.5
• Accuracy
• Permissible phase angle error: +-10,+-20
Common faults & their detection techniques in potential transformer

Common faults Their detection techniques
Inter turn fault in winding It can be detect by checking insulation resistance between the winding. If
high insulation resistance, then there will be no fault.
Leakage current on body of PT It can be detect by measuring the insulation resistance between winding
terminal and body using measuring instruments like megger. If high
resistance obtain, there will be no leakage current
Winding or conductor break down It can be detect by continuity test
Oil leakage It can be detect by checking oil level
Insulator break down We can detect the bushing or insulation break down by observing
(add 2 to 3 yourself)
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Circuit Breaker
Circuit Breakers:
Definition:
A circuit breaker is an automatically operated electrical switch designed to protect an electrical circuit from
damage caused by overload or short circuit.
A circuit breaker is a piece of equipment which can

• Make or break a circuit either manually or by remote control under normal conditions.
• Break a circuit automatically under fault condition
• Make a circuit either manually or by remote control under fault conditions.
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Operating principle of circuit breaker:
Why circuit breaker is preferred over fuse?

• Biggest advantage of circuit breakers is that you don't have to replace them after every time they break
circuit due to overload or short circuit, you have to just reset circuit breaker after u remove or rectify the
fault which caused circuit breaker to trip. Whereas fuses blows out to isolate faulty circuit from distribution
system so every time you will have to replace them.
• Consistence performance: performance of fuse decreases over time with repeated operation than CB
• Faster operation: speed of operation of CB is faster than fuse
• Enhanced operation: fuse required skill operator because it required to replace at each operation. But
CB is not required to replace at each operation.
• Cost saving: CB reduces the replacement cost than fuse although having higher initial cost.
• Great functionality: CB has greater function like ground fault detection, selectivity, discrimination
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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CIRCUIT BREAKER AND ISOLATOR

• isolator is used to isolate a circuit for maintenance or repair, while a circuit breaker is used to protect a circuit from damage caused
by overcurrent or short circuit conditions.
• Isolator is no load or off load operation device . CB is generally operated on load condition
Purpose: An isolator is used to electrically isolate one part of a circuit from another, while a circuit breaker is
used to protect an electrical circuit from damage caused by overcurrent or short circuit conditions.
Operation: An isolator is typically a manually operated switch that can be opened or closed to allow or prevent
the flow of current through a circuit. A circuit breaker is typically an automatically operated switch that can be
opened or closed by a sensing device.
Activation: An isolator is typically activated by a person manually opening or closing the switch. A circuit breaker
is activated automatically by a sensing device that detects an abnormal current flow.
Reset: An isolator typically requires manual resetting after it has been opened. A circuit breaker can typically be
reset automatically or manually, depending on the design of the device.
Rating: An isolator is typically rated for a specific voltage and current, and it is designed to handle the normal
load current of a circuit. A circuit breaker is typically rated for a higher current than an isolator, and it is
designed to protect the circuit from overcurrent or short circuit conditions that could cause damage.
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Arc Phenomena of circuit breaker:
High resistance method:

• In this method, resistance of the arc required increases to high value. So that current is reduced to a value insufficient
to maintain the arc.
• One limitation is that it requires a relatively high resistance value to effectively extinguish the arc. This can result in
increased power loss and reduced efficiency in the circuit breaker.
Resistance of the arc can be increased by:

• Lengthening the arc: this can be done by increasing the gap length between the gap which increases the resistance of
arc
• Cooling the arc: cooling the arc increases the resistance of the arc which deionize the ionize particles between the
contacts
• Reducing the cross section of the arc: Resistance of the arc path is increases with reducing the cross section of the arc
path. Cross section area of arc can be reduced by letting the arc pass through narrow opening.
• Splitting of the arc: resistance of the arc can be increased by splitting the arc into number of smaller arcs in series.
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Low resistance or current zero Method:

• It involves interrupting the current at or near the point where it reaches zero, which minimizes the arc that is generated
when the circuit is opened.
• the current is not allowed to rise again after a zero occurs.
• To make the current zero between the contact at the time of arc initiation, it is required to remove the ion and electrons
either by causing them to recombine into neutral molecules or by swapping them away.
• Current zero can be obtained by following methods:
1.Lenghtening of the gap: higher dielectric length can be achieved by lengthening of the gap.
2. High Pressure: with increasing the pressure, rate of particles deionization increases, which increases the dielectric
strength of the medium
3. cooling : it increases the deionization rate of particles, which increases the dielectric strength of the medium
4. Blast effect:
if the ionized particles between the contacts are swept away and replace by unionized particles, the dielectric
strength of medium can be increased. Which is obtained by blast effect.
• If the heat dissipation between the contacts>heat generation, arc will

extinguished, which is energy balance theory.
• Dielectric strength generation rate should be more rapidly then the voltage
build up across the contacts, current will be interrupted. Which is recovery
rate or slepian’s theory
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Rating of circuit Breaker:
Additional rating of CB:

Rated Voltage: Rms voltage of CB for which the circuit breaker is designed and is the upper limit for operation.
Rated current: Rms value of current which the circuit breaker shall be able to carry at rated frequency and at rate voltage
continuously.
Rated Frequency: The frequency at which CB is designed to operate. Standard frequency is 50HZ
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Classification of circuit breaker:
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Air Break Circuit Breakers

• These are suitable for high current interruption at low voltage
• Available in the voltage ranges from 400V to 12KV
• These breakers can interrupt up to 90 KA at 12 KV
• Air at atmospheric pressure is used as arc quenching medium.
• Arc interruption process is based on the natural deionization of gases by cooling action.
Construction of Air Break Circuit Breaker:

Housing: The housing is the outer casing of the circuit breaker
Main contacts (fixed and moving contacts): carry current when the breaker is in closed
position. They are typically made of copper or other conductive material
Arcing contacts: current is shifted from main contacts to arcing contacts after
separation of main contacts.
Arc runners: arc moves along the arc runner after arcing contacts separate
arc splitter plates: arc is split by arc splitter plates
Arc Chute: arc-quenching components to help prevent electrical arcs from forming. It is
Figure: air Break circuit breaker
insulating materials
Air compressing system: The air compressing system is responsible for generating the
high-pressure air that is used to open and close the Prepared
contacts ofKeshab
by: Er. the circuit
Khatri breaker. 1
Working or operation of air break circuit breakers:
Application:
This CB is used in
power system at
the voltage ranges
from 400V to 12KV
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
1.Their installation and testing are easy
2.Less cost and easy installation. • Uneconomical for high voltage system
3.They do not require oil. • Limited current carrying capacity
4.Their operation is effortless. • Less
5.Their maintenance cost is low.
6.The cost of their installation is more minor.
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Air Blast Circuit Breaker:
Construction of Air Blast Circuit breaker:

Housing: The housing is the outer casing of the circuit breaker
Main contacts (fixed and moving contacts): carry current when the breaker is in
closed position. They are typically made of copper or other conductive material
arc splitter plates: arc is split by arc splitter plates
Arc chutes: These are metal channels that are used to guide and shape the arc.
Compressed air tanks: These tanks store compressed air, which is used to extinguish
the arc. Figure: air blast circuit breaker
Nozzles: These are openings through which the compressed air is directed towards
the arc.
Insulators: These are used to isolate the live components of the circuit breaker from
the ground and other equipment Prepared by: Er. Keshab Khatri 3
Working principle or Operating principle of air blast CB
Application of Air Blast circuit Breaker:

Air Blast circuit breaker is suitable for operating voltages of 132 KV and above.
Advantages of air Blast Circuit Breaker: Disadvantages of Air blast CB:
• Cheap and free availability of arc interruption medium • Air compression plant is required
• High speed operation • Produce high level of noise
• Elimination of fire hazard • Problem of current chopping
• Less maintenance • Problem of restriking voltage.
• Suitable for frequent operation. Prepared by: Er. Keshab Khatri 4
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Oil Circuit Breaker:
Bulk Oil Circuit Breaker

• Oil is used as arc quenching media as well as insulating media between
current carrying contacts and earthed parts of the breaker.
• Oil used here is same as transformer oil.
• If the output rating of the voltage is 110 KV, then it requires 8 to 10 thousand kg of
oil, and if their output rating is 220 KV, then breakers need 50 thousand Kg of oil.
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Advantages, Disadvantages and Application of bulk oil CB

Advantages of bulk oil circuit breaker
1. In the bulk oil circuit breaker production of carbonized gases are less due to the bulk quantity of oil.
2. The bulk oil circuit breaker is suitable for frequent operations.
3. In the Bulk oil circuit breaker, it is easy to remove gases between the fixed and moving contacts in time.
Disadvantages of Bulk oil circuit breaker

1. As system voltage increases maintenance costs increase as compared to the minimum oil circuit breaker.
3. Size of bulk oil circuit breaker more so, transportation of bulk oil circuit breaker is very difficult.
4. It requires more space area as compared to the minimum oil circuit breaker.
5. The bulk oil circuit breaker has larger tanks so the weight of the bulk oil circuit breaker increases.
6. High risk of fire hazard.
Applications of bulk Oil circuit breaker

1. The bulk oil circuit breaker used up to 33Kv.
2. These circuit breakers are only used for low voltage applications only where high breaking capacity is not important.
Construction:
Minimum Oil Circuit Breaker (MOCB) – Operation and working principle

• Contacts open during fault.
• Arc is struck between contacts.
• Arc vaporizes the oil around it .
• Hydrogen gas is released at high pressure.
• Turbulence of oil is created.
• Deionization starts and hence arc is cooled.
• Arc is quenched at current zero.
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Advantages, Disadvantages and Application of minimum oil CB
Advantages Minimum oil circuit breaker:

•It requires a small quality of the oil.
•There is less risk of fire.
•It requires small space since the quality of oil required is less
•Maintenance problems are reduce.
•The smaller in size then bulk oil circuit breaker.
Disadvantages of Minimum oil circuit breaker:

•There is difficulty in removing the gases from the contact space in time.
•The dielectric strength of the oil deteriorates rapidly due to the high degree of canonizations.
•Due to the smaller quantity of oil, the degree of carbonization is increased.
Application:
Minimum oil circuit breakers are now available for all voltages and for the highest breaking capacity hence preferred in
most of the protection schemes. Mainly at voltage ranges from 3.3 KV to 220KV
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Sulphur Hexafluoride (SF6) CB operation (working

principle):
• The contacts are surrounded by SF6 gas at a pressure

about 3-5 kg/cm^2
• When abnormal condition (overcurrent arise in the
system), contact are opened, an arc is struck between
them.
• Valve between reservoir and arcing chamber opens up
to allow SF6 gas at 14 kg/cm^2 to arc interruption
chamber.
• High pressure SF6 gas absorbs the free electrons in the
arc.
• Free electron become immobile negative ions which
are ineffective.
• Medium between the contact recovers dielectric
strength and arc is extinguished.
Advantages, Disadvantages and Application of SF6 CB

Advantages of SF6 CB:
1.SF6 gas has excellent insulating, arc extinguishing properties
2.The gas is non-inflammable and chemically stable.so, no risk of fire or explosion.
3.Electric clearance is very much reduced because of the high dielectric strength of SF6.
4.Its performance is not affected due to variations in atmospheric condition.
5.There is no reduction in dielectric strength because no carbon particles are formed during arcing.
6.It requires less maintenance and no costly compressed air system is required.
Disadvantages of SF6 circuit breakers

1.SF6 gas is suffocating to some extent.
2.Cost of sf6 breaker for lower voltage level is not economical.
3.The internal parts need cleaning during periodic maintenance under clean and dry environment.
4.The special facility requires for transportation and maintenance of quality of gas.
The applications of SF6 circuit breakers include the following.

•These CBs are used to protect very high voltage-based circuits up to 800 kV. Generally used above 33kv voltage level.
•It can depower & break a high voltage-based circuit for any type of maintenance & inspection.
•These CBs protect distribution systems & power transmission.
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Vacuum circuit breaker (VCB):

• A breaker which used vacuum as an arc extinction medium is called a vacuum circuit breaker
• In this circuit breaker, the fixed and moving contact is enclosed in a permanently sealed vacuum
interrupter. The arc is extinct as the contacts are separated in high vacuum.
• It is mainly used for medium voltage ranging from 11 KV to 33 KV.

• The pressure inside the vacuum interrupter is approximately 10-4 torrent and at this pressure, very few
molecules are present in the interrupter.
Vacuum has following properties:
Vacuum Circuit Breaker (VCB)- Construction
• Fixed contact and moving contact made of high conducting

materials
• Outer envelop is made up of glass and ceramic
• Ceramic is the insulating material which provide the
mechanical support.
• Vacuum chamber consists of vapor condensation shield
and bellow shield
• Bellow shields made of stainless steel and used to move
the moving contact
• Pressure of vacuum is maintain at 10^-4 torr.
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Working or operation of VCB

• At normal condition both contacts remains closed to each other
• When fault occurs in system both contacts far to each other
• When moving contact moves, an arc generates between the
contacts
• While contact in vacuum, main reason of form arc is:
 tip(edge of contact) of contacts overheated due to high
temperature of conductor
 Metal contact release the positive ion as a vapor
 When vapor accumulate between both contacts, vapor ionize due to
high temperature
 Due to which arc appears.
• Value of arc depends upon rate of produces the vapor
• With the presence of vacuum, vapor reduction rate will decreases
• Which increases the dielectric strength within the contact
• Then, arc extinguished.
Advantages, disadvantages and application of vacuum CB(VCB)

Advantages
•The vacuum has high dielectric strength.
•Reliable, have longer service life than other types of circuit breakers.
•They are compact in size.
•There is no chance of fire hazard.
•No generation of gas after the operation.
•Silent and less vibrational operation.
•It is much environmentally friendly than the SF6 Circuit breaker.
•Can interrupt any fault current.
•Replacement of vacuum interrupter is much convenient.
Disadvantages
•Vacuum circuit breakers are uneconomical above 36 kV.
•The high technology used in the generation of vacuum.
Applications
The vacuum circuit breaker is used to disconnect power in the medium voltage range from 11 kV to 33 kV.
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SUMMARY OF VARIOUS TYPES OF CIRCUIT BREAKER
Type Arc Quenching medium Voltage range and breaking capacity
Miniature circuit breakers Air at atmospheric pressure 400-600V, for small current rating
Air break circuit breaker Air at atmospheric pressure 400V to 11 KV; 5-750 MVA
Minimum oil breakers Transformer oil circuit 3.3 KV-220KV; 150-2500 MVA
Vacuum circuit breakers Vacuum 3.3 KV-33KV; 250-2000 MVA
SF6 circuit breakers SF6 at 5 kg/cm^2 pressure 3.3-765KV; 1000-50000 MVA
Air Blast circuit breakers Compressed air at high 66KV-1100 KV; 2500-60,000 MVA
pressure
Selection of Circuit Breakers

Rated Voltage Choice of Circuit Breakers Remarks
Below 1 KV Air Break CB
3.3 KV -33KV VCB, SF6 CB, Minimum oil CB Vacuum preferred
132 KV – 220 KV SF6 CB, Air Blast CB, Minimum SF6 Preferred
oil CB
400KV-765 KV SF6 CB, Air blast CB SF6 Preffered.
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Chapter 5: Protective Relay

A protective relay is a switchgear device that detects the fault and initiates the operation of the
circuit breaker to isolate the defective element from the rest of the system.
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Function of protective relay:

The function of a protective relay in a power system is to detect and isolate faults or abnormal conditions in the
electrical network, such as overloading, short-circuits, and ground faults, to prevent damage to equipment and
ensure the continued and safe operation of the power system.
Protective relays compare electrical quantities, such as current, voltage, and frequency, with set values and
operate a circuit breaker to isolate the faulty section of the network and restore normal conditions as quickly as
possible. Prepared by: Er. Keshab Khatri 3
Classification of Protective relays on the basis of construction and operating principle:

Electromechanical Relay
An electromechanical relay is a type of relay which function using a magnetic field produced by an electromagnetic
coil when a control signal is applied to it. It is called as electromechanical since it has moving contacts in the output
circuit which are operated by applying an electrical signal.
Static or solid state relay:
• Static Relay is an electrical relay in which the response or action is developed by electrical/magnetic/optical or other
without mechanical motion of components.
• uses solid-state components (such as transistors or microprocessors) rather than mechanical components (such as
electromechanical relays
• The relay which does not contain any moving parts is known as the static relay. In such type of relays,
the output is obtained by the static components like magnetic and electronic circuit etc.
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Numerical relay :
• It is a type of protection relay that uses microprocessors and digital signal processing techniques to analyze
system conditions and make decisions on whether to trip a circuit breaker.
• It can also provide more advanced functions such as monitoring and metering, and can be programmed to
respond to specific system conditions.
• Numerical relays are considered to be more accurate and reliable than traditional electromechanical relays
Electromechanical Relay
An electromechanical relay is a type of relay which function using a magnetic field produced by an electromagnetic
coil when a control signal is applied to it. It is called as electromechanical since it has moving contacts in the output
circuit which are operated by applying an electrical signal.
Electromagnetic relay classify as:

a. Electromagnetic relay: relay which is activated by electromagnetic force
i. Electromagnetic attraction type relay:

An electromagnetic attraction-type relay is a specific type of electromagnetic relay that uses an electromagnet to
physically attract a moving contact towards a stationary contact, in order to make or break an electrical connection.
When an electric current flows through the coil, it generates a magnetic field that attracts the moving contact
towards the stationary contact. works on ac as well as dc quantities
ii. Electromagnetic induction type relay: An electromagnetic induction-type relay is a specific type of
electromagnetic relay that uses the principle of electromagnetic induction to make or break an electrical
connection. Works only on ac quantities.
b. Thermal relay: A thermal relay is a type of overcurrent protection device that uses a bimetallic strip to open or
close an electrical circuit in response to changes in temperature.
When an overcurrent flows through the circuit, it generates heat that causes the bimetallic strip to bend. As the
strip bends, it moves a set of contacts that make or break the electrical connection.
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i. Electromagnetic attraction type relay:

An electromagnetic attraction-type relay is a specific type of electromagnetic relay that uses an electromagnet to
physically attract a moving contact towards a stationary contact, in order to make or break an electrical connection.
When an electric current flows through the coil, it generates a magnetic field that attracts the moving contact
towards the stationary contact. works on ac as well as dc quantities. Some of electromagnetic attraction type relay
are:
I. Attracted armature type relay
II. Balance beam type relay
III. Hinged armature type relay
The electromagnetic force exerted on the moving element is proportional to the square of the current flow through
the coil.
General construction of electromagnetic attraction type relay:

Coil: The coil is an electromagnet that is energized by an electrical current. It creates a magnetic field when energized.
Armature: The armature is a metal component that is attracted by the magnetic field of the coil. It is attached to the moving
contact of the switch.
Moving contact: The moving contact is connected to the armature and is used to close or open the circuit when the armature is
attracted by the coil.
Stationary contact: The stationary contact is fixed and is used to complete the circuit when the moving contact comes into
contact with it.
Yoke: The yoke is a ferromagnetic component that surrounds the coil. It provides a return path for the magnetic field and helps
to concentrate the magnetic field around the armature.
Frame: The frame is a mechanical component that holds all the other parts together.
spring: A spring is used to provide a restoring force for the armature and to ensure that the relay returns to its original position
when the coil is de-energized.
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General operating principle of electromagnetic attraction type relay:

In electromagnetic attraction type relay:
The relay operates by applying a voltage to the coil, creating a magnetic field that attracts the armature and
causing it to move, closing or opening the switch contacts. When the voltage is removed from the coil, the
armature is released, and the switch contacts return to their original position.
General Construction of Electromagnetic induction type relay:
Coil: This is a coil of wire that surrounds an iron core. When an electrical current is passed through the coil, it creates a
magnetic field that induces an electromotive force (EMF) in the secondary coil.
Secondary coil: The secondary coil is positioned near the primary coil, but is not in direct contact with it. The magnetic
field created by the primary coil induces an EMF in the secondary coil, which in turn generates a current in it.
Moving iron core: This is a metal bar or plate that is positioned in the secondary coil. The current generated in the
secondary coil causes the moving iron core to be attracted or repelled by the primary coil, creating motion in the
armature.
Contacts: These are the electrical connectors that complete or break the circuit. The contacts are typically made of metal
and are attached to the moving iron core. When the moving iron core moves, the contacts come into contact with each
other, completing the circuit.
Spring: A spring is used to maintain a force that pushes the moving iron core back to its original position when the current
to the primary coil is turned off.
Frame: The frame holds the primary and secondary coils, moving iron core, contacts, and spring in place. It is typically
made of metal and is designed to provide mechanical protection and electrical insulation.
Terminal: The relay has at least two terminal where the power supply is connected and also the load is connected to it.
Enclosure: The relay is enclosed in a case or box that protects the internal components from damage and provides
electrical insulation
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General working principle of electromagnetic induction type relay:

In electromagnetic induction type relay, The relay operates by applying a voltage to the coil, creating a magnetic field
that induces a current in the relay core, this current causes the armature to move, closing or opening the switch
contacts. When the voltage is removed from the coil, the armature is released, and the switch contacts return to their
original position.
Different types of electromagnetic attraction type relay:
Balanced beam type relay:

• Beam carry two electromagnet.
• Under normal condition, restraining torque and operating torque are equal and beam remains in
horizontal
• Under fault condition,
if operating torque greater than restraining torque, contact closed , trip circuit energized, CB operates
• If the relay is set for fast operation, then it will tend to overreach on a fast operation
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Hinged Armature relay:

• In this case sensitivity of the relay can be increased by adding the permanent magnet for dc operation.
• Restoring force is produced by spring
• At normal condition, spring holds the moving contacts, moving and fixed contacts are not in closed.
• Under abnormal condition:

high current produced magnetic force, which attract the moving contact toward fixed contact and CB operate
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• Operation can be controlled by opening or closing the secondary

winding circuit
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Induction Cup Relay:

• These type of relay has two or more electromagnet which is energized by the relay coil
• Static iron core (cup rotor) placed between the electromagnet
• Coil on electromagnet generate rotating magnetic field
• Because of rotating field, current induced on rotor cup and torque produces
• Rotor cup start to rotate
• These relay are fast in operation and operating time is less approximately 0.01 sec.
Static or solid state relay:

• Static Relay is an electrical relay in which the response or action is developed by electrical/magnetic/optical or other
without mechanical motion of components.
• uses solid-state components (such as transistors or microprocessors) rather than mechanical components (such as
electromechanical relays
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• The output of the current transformer is given as an input to the rectifier which rectifies the input AC signal into the
DC signal. This DC signal is given to the measuring unit of a relay.
• Measuring unit consists of comparators, level detector, filter etc.
• The measuring detecting the input signal level throughout the level detectors and evaluating the magnitude & phase
of the signal throughout the comparators.
• The relay measuring unit o/p is given to the amplifier so that it amplifies the signal’s magnitude & transmits it to the
o/p device.
• For the operation of the amplifier, the measuring unit of the relay & the o/p device requires an extra DC supply. So this
is the main drawback of this static relay.
Numerical relay:
• It is a type of protection relay that uses microprocessors and digital signal processing techniques to analyze system conditions
and make decisions on whether to trip a circuit breaker.
• It can also provide more advanced functions such as monitoring and metering, and can be programmed to respond to specific
system conditions.
• Numerical relays are considered to be more accurate and reliable than traditional electromechanical relays
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A relay using digital device like microprocessor for decision making based on digital numbers representing
instantaneous values of the signals is called numerical relay, digital relay, microprocessor based relay or
computer based relay.
• The voltage and current signals in the power system are brought down to suitable level using C.T and P.T.
• The signals from C.T and P.T are given to the filters which are low pass filters. This removes the unwanted
frequency components.
• The signals from the signal conditioning circuits are sampled using sample and hold circuit. With the help
of analog multiplexer and ADC, the equivalent digital form of analog input signal is achieved.
• The analog multiplexer gives the facility to accommodate a larger number of input signals.
• The digital output of ADC is given to microprocessor where it is stored in the memory.
• This signal is processed with the help of numerical relaying algorithm and accordingly trip decision is
made.
• The trip signal is digital signal hence converted to analog using digital to analog converter (DAC).This
tripping analog signal is given to the trip coilPrepared
of a by:
relay.
Er. Keshab Khatri 21
Plug setting and time setting of relays
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Calculation of Relay Operation Time

Step-1
From CT ratio, we first see the rated secondary current of CT. Say the CT ratio is 100 / 1 A, i.e. secondary
current of CT is 1 A.
Step-2
From current setting we calculate the trick current of the relay. Say current setting of the relay is 150 %
therefore pick up current of the relay is 1 × 150% = 1.5 A
Step-3
Now we have to calculate PSM for the specified faulty current level. For that, we have to first divide primary
faulty current by CT ratio to get relay faulty current. Say the faulty current level is 1500 A, in the CT primary,
hence secondary equivalent of faulty current is 1500/(100/1) = 15 A
Step-4
Now, after calculating PSM, we have to find out the total time of operation of the relay from Time/PSM
curve. From the curve, say we found the time of operation of relay is 3 second for PSM = 10.
Step-5
Finally that operating time of relay would be multiplied with time setting multiplier, in order to get actual time of
operation of relay. Hence say time setting of the relay is 0.1.
Therefore the actual time of operation of the relayPrepared
for PSM 10, is 3 × 0.1 = 0.3 sec or 300 ms.
by: Er. Keshab Khatri 26
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1. An IDMT Type overcurrent relay is used to protect a feeder through 500/1 A CT. relay has current
setting of 125% and TMS=0.3. find the time of operation of the relay if the fault current through of
5000A through the feeder. use following characteristics.
PSM 2 3 5 8 10 15
Time for unit 10 6 4.5 3.2 3 2.5
TMS
Overcurrent Relay:
Induction type overcurrent relay
• This type of relay works on the induction principle. And will initiate corrective measures when the
current in the circuit exceeds a predetermined value.
Construction of induction type overcurrent
relay(non-directional)
In this type of relay, there is a metallic (aluminum) disc.
Which is free to rotate between the poles of two
electromagnets. There are two windings in the upper
electromagnet, one primary and the other secondary
winding.
The primary is connected to the secondary of a C. T. in the

line to be protected and is tapped at intervals. The
tapping are connect to a plug-setting bridge. By which the
number of active turns on the relay operating coil can be
varied, giving the desired current setting.
The secondary winding is energized by induction from the

primary and is connected in series with the winding on the
lower magnet. The controlled torque is provided by a spiral Fig: non-directional overcurrent relay
spring. Prepared by: Er. Keshab Khatri 28
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Operation of induction type overcurrent relay

The driving torque on the aluminum disc is set up due to the induction principle. This torque will be opposed by
the stopping torque provided by the spring. Under normal operating conditions, the stopping torque produced by
the relay coil current is greater than the driving torque.
Hence the aluminum disc remains stationary. However if the current in the protected circuit will exceed a pre-
determined value. So the driving torque will be greater than the stopping torque.
As a result, the disc rotates and the moving contact bridges the fixed contacts when the disc rotates through a pre-
set angle. The trip circuit operates the circuit breaker that isolates the faulty section.
What is induction type directional overcurrent relay?
Construction of induction type directional overcurrent relay

So it consists of two relay elements mounted on a common case. The first is
the directional element and the second is the non-directional element.
Directional elements:
It is essentially a directional power relay that will operate when power
is flowing in a specific direction. The potential wire of this element
will be connect to the system voltage through a potential transformer
(P. T.).
The current coil of the element is energized by the circuit current

through a (C. T.). This winding is taken to the upper magnet of the
non-directional element. The trip contacts (1 and 2) of the directional
element are connect in series with the secondary circuit of the
overcurrent element.
Therefore, the letter element does not start working until its
secondary circuit is complete
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Non-directional element
This is the same overcurrent element in all cases of the described non-directional overcurrent relay. The disc axis
of this element has a moving contact which closes the fixed contacts (trip circuit contact) after the directional
element has operated.
It should be note that a plug-setting bridge is also provide in the relay for current setting. Tapping is provided on
the upper magnet of the overcurrent element and is connected to the bridge.
Operation of induction type directional overcurrent relay
Under normal operating conditions, power flows in the normal direction in the circuit protected by these
relays. Therefore, the directional power relay (upper element) does not operate leaving the overcurrent element
(lower element) inactive.
However when a short circuit occurs there is a tendency for current or power to flow in the opposite direction. If
this happens the disc of the upper element rotates to bridge the fixed contacts 1 and 2. This completes the circuit
for the overcurrent element.
The disc of this element rotates and the moving contact connected to it closes the trip circuit. It isolates the
faulty section which operates the circuit breaker.
Classifications based on characteristics (time characteristics) (Instantaneous relays, inverse relays, IDMT relays )
1. Definite Time overcurrent relay:
• These relay operate after a predetermined time when current exceeds its pick up value
• Operating time of the relay does not depends upon the magnitude of pick up value
• Constant tripping time independent of in feed variation and fault location
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2. Instantaneous over current relay:
• It does not have intentional time

delay
Inverse time overcurrent relay:

• Operating time of the relay reduces as the fault quantity increases in
magnitude.
Inverse definite minimum time (IDMT) overcurrent relay
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Very Inverse time over current relay
• Gives more inverse characteristics than that of IDMT

• Time current characterstics lies between an IDMT and extremely inverse characteristics
• It gives better selectivity than IDMT
• It can be used where an IDMT relay fails to achieve good selectivity
• It is recommended where there is a substantial reduction of fault current as the distance form the power
source
Extremely Inverse Time overcurrent relay:
• This relay gives a time current characteristics more inverse than that of the very inverse and IDMT
• When IDMT and very inverse relay fail in selectivity, this relay used
• It is suitable for the protection of machine against overheating
• For protection of alternator, power transformers, earthling transformer, railway trolley wire, cable etc.
Basic Concept of Directional relays

Definition: A protection relay in which the tripping decision is dependent in part upon the direction
in which the measured quantity is flowing
Directional power relay:

• Directional Power Relay operates when power in the circuit flows in a specific direction Unlike a non-directional
overcurrent relay
• directional power relay is so designed that it obtains its operating torque by the interaction of magnetic fields derived
from both voltage and current source of the circuit it protects.
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Constructional details:
• Fig. 21.18 shows the essential parts of a typical induction type directional power relay.
• It consists of an aluminum disc which is free to rotate in between the poles of two electromagnets.
• The upper electromagnet carries a winding (called potential coil) on the central limb which is connected through a
potential transformer (P.T.) to the circuit voltage source.
• The lower electromagnet has a separate winding (called current coil) connected to the secondary of C.T. in the line to
be protected.
• The restraining torque is provided by a spiral spring
Working or operation of directional power relay:

• Potential coil of relay is connected across the output or secondary side of potential transformer
• Current coil is connected with secondary side of the current transformer
• At normal condition, power in the circuit flow in normal direction and hence relay remains inoperative.
• At abnormal condition, power flow in reverse direction.
let Ø1 is the flux produced by potential coil which is nearly 90 degree lagging behind the applied voltage and Ø2 be
the flux produced by current coil which is nearly in phase with operating current.
• Produced torque rotate the disc of the relay.

• Which energized the relay circuit and circuit breaker will trip.
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Basic concept Differential Protection relay
• Differential protection is a method of protection in which an internal fault is identified by comparing

electrical conditions at the terminals of electrical equipment to be protected.
• The relay that operates when the phasor difference of two or more similar electrical quantities exceeds a
predetermined value.
• It is called unit protection

• The differential protection relay is used for the protection of the generator, transformer, feeder, large
motor, bus-bars etc.
• Types of differential protection:

1. Current differential protection
2. Biased beam relay or percentage differential relay
3. Voltage balanced differential relay
• In the normal operating condition, the magnitude of current in the secondary of the CTs remains same. The zero
current flows through the operating coil. For external fault, also the magnitude of current in Secondary side of CTs are
remains same.
• On the occurrence of the fault (internal fault), the magnitude of the current on the secondary of CTs becomes unequal
because of which the relay starts operating.
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Biased beam relay or percentage differential relay
• This is the most used form of differential relay.

• Their arrangement is same as that of the current differential relay the only difference is that this system consists an
additional restraining coil connected in the pilot wires as shown in the figure below.
• The ratio of current in the current transformer becomes unbalance in

current differential relay because of the fault current. This problem is
resolved by the use of the restraining coil.
• In this relay, ratio of net current in operating coil to restraining coil is fixed
percentage.
• At normal condition, i1 and i2 is same, operating torque is less than
restraining torque produced by restraining coil, no relay is operated.
• At abnormal condition, i1 and i2 is not same, net current is following
through relay coil, when operating torque become greater than restraining
torque, relay starts to operate.
Voltage Balance Differential Relay
• The current differential relay is not suitable for the protection of the feeders.
• For the protection of the feeders, the voltage balance differential relays are used.
• The relays are connected in series with the secondary of the current transformer.
• The voltage balance differential relay uses the air core CTs in which the voltages induces regarding current.
• At normal condition, emf induced on CT1 and CT2 is same, so no current following through the relay coil and
relay is inoperative
• At abnormal condition:
The fault(internal fault) occurs in the protection zone,
the current in the CTs become unbalance because of emf induced of coil of CT1
and CT2 is different due to which The current starts flowing through the
operating coil. Thus, the relay starts operating and gives the command to the
circuit breaker to operates
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Basic Concept of Distance relay and its types

• There is one type of relay which functions depending upon the distance of fault in the line.
• Relay operates depending upon the impedance between the point of fault and the point where the relay is
installed
• Operation depends upon ratio of voltage and current which is expressed in terms of impedance.
• Basically, Distance relay is also called impedance relay
Three types of distance relay:

1. Impedance relay: which is based on measurement of impedance Z. For medium transmission line(80
KM to about 240 KM )
2. Reactance relay: which is based on measurement of reactance X, for short transmission line (less
than 80 km)
3. Admittance or mho relay: which is based on measurement of components of admittance Y, for long
transmission line (more then about 240 KM )
Impedance Relay:
• Restraining torque produced by the voltage

coil connected on PT
• Operating torque is produced by the current Fig: general signal line diagram for distance
coin connected with CT protection
• When fault occurs on line, fault impedance is
less then predetermine impedance
• which increases the operating torque than
restraining torque
• hence trip circuit energies and sends the
signal to CB for trip or break
Fig: general signal line diagram for impedance relay

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Reactance relay:
In Reactance Relay the operating torque is obtained from the current
and the restraining torque by the current and voltage of the
directional element. This implies that Reactance Relay is an over-
current Relay with directional Restraint.
The operating torque is developed by the interaction of fluxes due to

current carrying coils, i.e., the interaction of fluxes of 2, 3 and 4 and
the restraining torque is produced by the interaction of fluxes due to
poles 1, 2 and 4.
Admittance or mho relay:

In MHO Relay, the operating torque is obtained by the V-I element and Restraining torque by the Voltage
element. This means MHO Relay is Voltage Restrained Directional Relay.
A mho relay using the induction cup structure is shown in the figure
below. The operating torque is developed by the interaction of fluxes
due to pole 2, 3, and 4 and the controlling torque is developed due to
poles 1, 2 and 4.
Torque produced by this relay is given by:
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Chapter 6: Protection Schemes of Generators, Transformers, Motors and Feeders -10 marks
Protection scheme of generator:
A protection scheme of an alternator is a system of protective devices and measures designed to ensure the safe
and reliable operation of the alternator, as well as to protect it from electrical and mechanical faults.
Different types of faults on alternator:

1. Stator winding faults
2. Rotor faults
3. Mechanical faults:
• Vibration
• Mechanical shock
• Bearing failure
4. External faults
1. Stator winding faults:

• Stator winding faults in generators refer to any defects or failures in the stator winding that can cause disruptions in
the normal operation of the generator.
• These faults occur mainly due to the insulation failure of the stator coils. The main types of stator winding faults are
Phase to earth faults, Phase-to-phase faults, and inter-turn faults .
Main causes of stator winding faults:

There are several reasons why stator winding faults can occur in generators. Some of the most common causes include:
1. Electrical insulation failure: The electrical insulation used in stator windings can deteriorate over time due to several
factors, including heat, moisture, and chemical exposure. Insulation failure can lead to short circuits or grounds in
the winding.
2. Overvoltage: High voltages can cause insulation breakdown in stator windings, resulting in short circuits or grounds.
3. Overloading: Operating a generator at or beyond its rated capacity can cause excessive heat in the stator winding,
leading to insulation breakdown and winding faults.
4. Mechanical stress: Mechanical stress on the stator winding, such as vibration, thermal expansion, or misalignment,
can damage the winding and cause faults.
5. Manufacturing defects: Poor manufacturing processes or faulty materials can result in stator winding faults in newly
installed generators.
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Effect of stator faults of alternator:
Stator faults occur due to failure of the winding insulation. The heat generated by these faults can cause serious damage
to the laminated core of the Stator. This may require expensive re-insulation and rebuilding
Stator winding faults can have several negative effects on an alternator, including:
1. Reduced output voltage: This is because the winding faults can cause an imbalance in the magnetic fields that
produce the electrical power.
2. Increased temperature: This is because the faults can cause more current flowing through the wire and more heat
being generated.
3. Reduced efficiency: This is because the winding faults can cause additional losses in the magnetic fields and increase
the amount of energy needed to produce the same amount of electrical power.
4. Increased vibration: This is because the faults can cause an imbalance in the magnetic fields, which can lead to
mechanical vibrations in the stator.
5. Increased noise: This is because the faults can cause an imbalance in the magnetic fields, which can lead to
mechanical vibrations that produce audible noise.
Protection of stator winding faults

1. Differential Protection scheme:
Differential protection is a protection method that detects any phase-to-phase fault in the stator winding by comparing
the current entering and leaving the winding. If there is any difference, it trips the generator.
• The Mertz-Price protection scheme is a differential protection
scheme used for protecting large generators and transformers
against internal faults, such as winding-to-winding faults or
winding-to-ground faults.
• The CTs are placed at opposite ends of the stator winding, so
they measure the current entering and leaving the winding. CTs
compare the currents entering and leaving the winding.
• Under normal operating conditions, the currents entering and
leaving the stator winding should be equal, and differential relay
will not trip.
• However, in the event of a fault, such as a winding-to-winding
Fig: differential protection (Mertz price protection) of alternator
fault or a winding-to-ground fault, the currents will become
unbalanced, and the differential relay will trip to isolate the
fault.
• The Mertz-Price protection scheme is designed to be sensitive
enough to detect even small internal faults, while also being
selective enough to avoid tripping for external faults, such as
faults in the transmission system.
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2. Overcurrent Protection: Overcurrent protection is a basic protection method that detects any overcurrent in the stator
winding and trips the generator before any further damage occurs.
3. Overvoltage and Under voltage Protection: Overvoltage and under voltage protection are protection methods that
protect the alternator from overvoltage and under voltage conditions in the stator winding.
4. Thermal Protection: Thermal protection is a protection method that detects the temperature of the stator winding and
trips the generator if the temperature exceeds the allowable limit
5. Earth Fault Protection: Earth fault protection is a protection method that detects any fault between the stator winding
and earth. It trips the generator if any fault is detected.
Figure: earth fault protection scheme
Rotor faults of alternator:
• A rotor fault in an alternator refers to any type of problem or malfunction that occurs in the rotor assembly, which
is a key component of the alternator.
• The rotor is a rotating part of the alternator that consists of a core, winding, and slip rings.
• Its main function is to generate a magnetic field that interacts with the stator winding to produce electrical power.
Faults in the rotor circuit may be either earth faults (conductor to earth faults) or inter- turn faults The main causes
of the rotor faults include:
1. Earth faults or inter-turn faults, which are caused by severe mechanical and thermal stresses on the winding
insulation.
2. Overheating of the rotor, which can result from unbalanced currents, low power factor, high stator voltage, or
low cooling fan speed.
3. Insulation breakdown, winding deformation, or rotor cracking, which can occur due to thermal cycling,
vibration, or corrosion.
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Rotor earth fault protection system

Effect of rotor earth fault:
-non-uniform production of flux in
A rotor earth fault in an alternator refers to an electrical fault that occurs when a part
rotor
of the rotor winding makes contact with the metal frame of the alternator, causing a
-non uniform production of emf
current to flow to the earth. This fault can occur due to insulation failure, damage to
on stator
the winding, or other reasons.
-vibration produced in rotor.
Rotor earth fault protection method:

i. Rotor earth fault protection by using high resistance method:
• When one earth fault occurs in the rotor then it is not

necessary that the system completely trip, only the relay
indicates the fault has occurred.
• As a result, generator is taken out of service.
• Figure shows the high resistance method for protection of
alternator,
in this method, high resistance is connected across the field
winding of rotor
• Mid point of the resistor is grounded through sensitive relay
• When the fault occurs the relay detects the fault and send
tripping command to the CB.
ii. Rotor earth fault protection by using AC and DC injection method:
• The Rotor Earth Fault Protection Device consists of a current

injection device that applies a DC or AC voltage to the rotor
winding by means of a slip ring fitted on the rotor.
• The current is applied to the rotor through a current

limiting resistor (In case of a DC injection) or capacitor (in
case of an ac injection).
• In normal conditions, No current through resistor or

capacitor is zero, relay is inoperative.
• when earth fault occurs, earth fault will senses by the relay
and relay operates.
The relay can be made more sensitive in the case of

DC injection as there is no issue of leakage current
through capacitance as in the case of AC injection
through the capacitor
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2. Loss of excitation (Or field failure) Protection:
Loss of excitation can be following cause:

• Loss of field to main exciter
• Accidently tripping to the field breaker
• Short circuit in the field winding
• Loss of ac supply to excitation system
Due to loss of excitation, speed of rotor increases, as the magnitude of flux decreases and machine operate as induction
generator and also reverse reactive power flow in generator.
Protection from loss of excitation:

When the voltage regulator detects a loss of excitation, it sends a signal to the protection relay. The protection
relay then initiates the necessary protection action, which may include tripping the generator or reducing the load
on the generator. The excitation system may also be shut down to prevent further damage to the generator.
3. Protection against rotor overheating (Temperature sensor and alarm)
Protection of alternator against mechanical failure

Mechanical conditions can have a significant impact on the operation of an alternator, and as a result, protection systems
are required to detect and prevent any damage caused by these conditions. Here are some common mechanical conditions
that can affect alternators and the corresponding protection systems:
1.Vibration:
• Vibration can cause damage to the alternator's stator winding, rotor, bearings, and other components.
• To protect against this, vibration sensors can be installed to detect excessive vibration and alert the operator of the issue.
2.Mechanical shock:
• Mechanical shocks can occur due to sudden changes in the load or due to external impacts.
• To protect against this, shock sensors can be installed to detect sudden impacts and alert the operator of the issue.
3.Bearing failure:
• Bearing failure can cause the rotor to move out of alignment, leading to vibrations and potential damage to the
alternator.
• Regular maintenance:
• Avoid overloading the alternator:
Bearing failure • Replace the belt and pulleys when necessary:
can be protect • Ensure proper cooling:
by • Check for misalignment:
• Use high-quality bearings
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External faults that can occur on an alternator include:
• Overloading: This occurs when the alternator required to supply more load then limit load. This can cause the
alternator to overheat and fail.
• Overvoltage: due to lightning or switching of system
• Short circuit: due to short circuit occurs outside of alternator of the system. This can cause the alternator to
overheat and fail.
• Loose connections: This can cause a drop in voltage
• Broken or worn belts: The alternator is powered by a belt that connects it to the engine. If the belt breaks or wears
out, the alternator will not be able to produce electricity.
• Damaged wiring: If the wiring in the electrical system is damaged , it can cause a drop in voltage or a short circuit,
which can affect the performance of the alternator.
• Failure of the regulator: The regulator is responsible for regulating the voltage produced by the alternator. If the
regulator fails, it can cause the alternator to produce too much or too little voltage, which can damage the electrical
system it is powering.
These external faults can be caused by various factors such as age, wear and tear, poor maintenance, and
environmental conditions. Regular maintenance and inspection can help prevent these issues and ensure the
alternator operates correctly.
Protection of power transformer: Types of faults and protective schemes: Over current, Earth fault, Differential protection,
Buchholz devices, Winding Temperature Protection
Power transformer:
A power transformer is a device that is used to transfer electrical energy from one circuit to another, typically by means of
electromagnetic induction. It is a static electrical device that is designed to transform electrical power from one voltage
level to another, without changing the frequency.
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Protection of power transformer

Protection of power transformers refers to the use of various measures and devices to prevent the transformer
from being damaged or destroyed due to various electrical faults that can occur in the power system.
There are many possible faults that can occur in a transformer, but some of the most common faults include:
• Overloading: This occurs when the transformer is subjected to a current or power level beyond its rated capacity.
Overloading can cause overheating and damage to the transformer windings. Protection against overloading is typically
provided by a thermal relay or an overcurrent protection device.
• Short-circuit: This occurs when two or more turns of the transformer windings are electrically connected, resulting in a
large current flow that can damage the transformer. Protection against short circuits is provided by a differential
protection relay or an overcurrent protection device.
• Open-circuit: This occurs when a part of the transformer winding is disconnected or broken, resulting in no current flow.
Protection against open circuits is provided by a ground-fault relay or a transformer protection relay.
• Insulation failure: This occurs when the insulation between the transformer windings or between the windings and the
transformer core breaks down. Protection against insulation failure is provided by an insulation monitoring device or a
transformer protection relay.
• Overvoltage: This occurs when the voltage across the transformer exceeds its rated value. Overvoltage can damage the
transformer windings and insulation. Protection against overvoltage is provided by a surge arrester or a transformer
protection relay.
• Under voltage: This occurs when the voltage across the transformer drops below its rated value. Undervoltage
can cause the transformer to draw excessive current and overheat. Protection against undervoltage is provided by
a voltage monitoring relay or a transformer protection relay.
• Overheating: This occurs when the temperature of the transformer windings or core exceeds its rated value.
Overheating can damage the insulation and cause the transformer to fail. Protection against overheating is
provided by a temperature monitoring device or a thermal relay.
• Moisture ingress: This occurs when moisture enters the transformer and causes the insulation to deteriorate.
Protection against moisture ingress is provided by a breather or a dehumidifier.
• Mechanical damage: This occurs when the transformer is subjected to physical damage, such as impact or
vibration. Protection against mechanical damage is provided by appropriate mechanical supports and vibration
dampers.
• Lightning strike: This occurs when the transformer is struck by lightning, which can cause high voltage surges
that can damage the transformer. Protection against lightning strikes is provided by a lightning arrester or a surge
protection device.
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Differential protection of transformer:
• The power transformer is star connected on one side and

delta connected on the other side.
• The CTs on the star connected side are delta-connected and
those on delta-connected side are star-connected.
• The neutral of the current transformer star connection and
power transformer star connections are grounded
• Normally, the operating coil carries no current as the current are

balanced on both the side of the power transformers.
• When the internal fault occurs in the power transformer

windings, the balanced is disturbed i.e. current measured by CTs
of two side of transformer is different from normal range.
• and the operating coils of the differential relay carry current
corresponding to the difference of the current among the two
sides of the transformers.
• Thus, the relay trip the main circuit breakers on both sides of the
power transformers.
Over current protection of transformer:
• Overcurrent protection of a transformer is a scheme used to detect and isolate

faults that result in high currents flowing through the transformer.
• The main purpose of overcurrent protection is to prevent damage to the
transformer and safety of personnel working with or around the transformer.
• Generally, IDMT relay is used for overcurrent protection of transformer.
• Arrangement of overcurrent protection is shown in figure.
• At normal condition, no overcurrent in the system, overcurrent relay is remains
inoperative.
• When overcurrent occurs on transformer due to any of caused by overload,
internal faults within the transformer itself, or external faults in the system
then overcurrent relay coil energized and relay operate.
Earth Fault Protection or Leakage Protection

• Earth fault protection is a system designed to detect and protect transformers
from the damaging effects of earth faults.
• An earth fault occurs when a conducting path is created between the winding of a
transformer and the ground.
• Figure shows the arrangement of earth fault relay to protect the transformer from
earth fault. Prepared by: Er. Keshab Khatri 16
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Restricted Earth Fault (REF) Relay:

• REF relay is a protective device that detects earth faults in a specific section of the transformer winding known as the
restricted zone.
• The relay measures the current flowing in the star point (neutral) of the transformer and compares it with the current
flowing in the phase conductors.
• If the current in the neutral is less than a certain percentage of the current in the phase conductors, it indicates an earth
fault in the restricted zone.
• The REF relay then trips the circuit breaker to isolate the transformer from the system, preventing damage to the
transformer and ensuring the safety of personnel and equipment.
Unrestricted Earth Fault (UEF) Relay:

• UEF relay is a protective device that detects earth faults in the entire winding of the transformer, including the restricted
zone and the neutral.
• The relay measures the total current flowing to ground through the fault and activates when the current exceeds a certain
threshold.
• The UEF relay is less sensitive than the REF relay and requires higher levels of fault current to operate.
• UEF relays are commonly used for large transformers with higher fault currents.
Note: earth fault protection and overcurrent protection of transformer is generally known as backup
protection of power transformer.
Buchholz protection or protection of transformer using buchholz relay:

• The Buchholz relay is a protective device that is used in oil-immersed transformers to
detect and alert of internal faults such as insulation breakdown or partial discharges.
• It is essentially a gas-actuated relay that is installed between the transformer tank and the
conservator tank.
• It is an essential protection scheme for transformers installed in high-voltage power
systems.
• The relay contains a mercury switch that is used to detect the movement of the float
caused by the rise of gas bubbles.
• The relay operates on the principle that any fault that occurs inside the transformer
generates gases, such as hydrogen and methane, which rise to the top of the oil-filled
tank.
• When a fault occurs in the transformer, gas is generated and rises to the top of the
conservator tank. The gas displaces the oil and causes the float to rise. This movement of
the float is detected by the mercury switch, which triggers an alarm and trips the
transformer's circuit breaker.
The Buchholz relay is designed to operate in two stages:

In the first stage, a small amount of gas is generated due to a minor fault, such as a partial
short circuit. The gas accumulates in the conservator tank and causes the float to rise slightly,
triggering an alarm(upper part is operated).
In the second stage, a larger amount of gas is generated due to a major fault, such as a
complete short circuit. The gas causes the float to rise rapidly, triggering the mercury switch
and tripping the transformer's circuit breaker(lower part is operated).
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Winding temperature protection of transformer:
• Winding temperature protection is an important aspect of transformer protection, as it helps to prevent

damage to the transformer caused by overheating.
• Transformers generate heat during operation, and this heat must be dissipated to prevent the transformer
from becoming too hot.
• The winding temperature protection system typically consists of sensors that are placed within the
transformer windings to monitor their temperature. These sensors can be thermistors, resistance
temperature detectors (RTDs), or other types of temperature sensors.
• The temperature sensors send signals to a protection relay, which monitors the temperature of the
windings and triggers an alarm or a trip signal if the temperature exceeds a predetermined threshold.
• The threshold temperature is usually set based on the insulation class of the transformer, the rated
temperature rise, and other factors.
Motor Protection
• A motor protection scheme refers to a set of measures or devices used to protect an electric motor from various
types of electrical and mechanical stresses that can cause damage or malfunction.
• A motor protection scheme can include various devices such as overload relays, thermal relays, differential relays,
phase-failure relays, and other protective devices.
• These devices are designed to detect abnormal conditions such as overloading, overheating, voltage fluctuations,
short circuits, and phase imbalance, and take appropriate actions to protect the motor.
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Different types of fault on Motor:

The types of faults that occur in 3-phase induction and synchronous motor are summarized below
• Stator faults:
Stator faults include phase-to-phase faults, earth faults, and inter-turn faults, Faults in the motor windings occur
chiefly due to insulation failure that may occur due to excessive temperature rise.
• Overheating: Overheating can be caused by several factors, including high ambient temperatures, insufficient
cooling, excessive loads, or bearing failure.
• Rotor faults: Such faults are more likely to occur in wound rotor motors. Faults in wound rotors may be either
earth faults or inter-turn faults. which are caused by severe mechanical and thermal stresses.
• Mechanical faults: These are faults that occur in the mechanical components of the motor, such as the
bearings, shaft, or rotor.
• Environmental faults: These are faults that occur due to the motor's operating environment, such as excessive
heat, humidity, or vibration, moisture.
• Control faults: These are faults that occur in the motor's control system, such as the motor drive or power supply.
• Human faults: These are faults that occur due to human error, such as improper installation, maintenance, or
operation.
Protection scheme of motor:
• Figure shows the general arrangement of motor control

circuit with protection equipment.
• When NO button is pressed, the relay coil is energized and

the magnetic action of iron piece lying in the relay will pull
auxiliary contact inward.
• The supply to the motor will start instantly when the supply
to relay is given.
• The contactors will move back to their original (off) position
• When any fault occur such as short circuit, overload occurs

on motor. Then, overload relay, fuse unit disconnected the
motor from supply and motor will stop from operation.
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Thermal overload relay for protection of motor:

A thermal relay is a type of protective device used to prevent damage to motors due to overheating caused by overload
or phase failure. It works by monitoring the temperature of the motor and tripping the circuit when the temperature
exceeds a predetermined value.
• The thermal relay consists of a bimetallic

strip, which is made up of two different
metals that have different coefficients of
thermal expansion.
• When the temperature of the motor
increases, the bimetallic strip expands,
causing the contacts of the thermal relay
to open and interrupt the circuit.
• This prevents the motor from drawing
excess current and overheating, which
can cause damage to the motor
windings.
Fig: normal and abnormal condition of thermal relay

Under voltage protection of motor
• Under voltage protection of a motor is a mechanism that prevents the motor from operating when the input voltage
falls below a certain threshold.
• When a motor operates at a voltage lower than its rated voltage, it draws more current than it is designed to handle.
This can cause overheating, which can damage the motor windings and reduce its lifespan.
• To protect a motor from under voltage conditions, an under-voltage relay can be used. This relay is connected to the
motor control circuit and monitors the incoming voltage. If the voltage drops below a preset level, the relay will trip
and disconnect the motor from the power source.
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protection of small motors

Generally, motors up to 30 hp are considered in the small category. The small motor protection, in this case, is arranged
by HRC fuse, bimetallic relay and under voltage relay – all assembled into the motor contactor – starter itself.
Here are some basic equipment of protection that can be used for small motors:
• Overload Protection: Small motors can be protected from damage due to excessive current by using overload
protection devices, such as thermal overload relays or current sensing relays. These devices are designed to trip the
motor circuit when the current exceeds a certain level for a specified time period.
• Short Circuit Protection: Small motors can also be protected from short circuit conditions by using circuit breakers or
fuses. These devices are designed to detect and interrupt electrical faults that can cause damage to the motor or
other components in the circuit.
• Overvoltage and Under voltage Protection: Small motors can be protected from overvoltage and under voltage
conditions by using voltage monitoring relays or surge protectors. These devices can detect and interrupt electrical
faults that can cause damage to the motor due to excessive or insufficient voltage.
• Ground Fault Protection: Small motors can be protected from ground faults by using ground faults protection
devices, such ground fault relays. These devices are designed to detect and interrupt electrical faults that can cause
dangerous electrical shock
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Protection of feeders:
• Feeder circuits are used to transmit electrical energy from distribution to the end-users or consumers.
• So it is essential to protect the feeder from the various type of fault.
• Feeder protection is defined as the protection of the feeder from the fault so that the power grid continue supply
the energy.
The main requirement of the feeder protection are;
1. During the short circuit, the circuit breaker nearest to the fault should open and all other circuit breakers remain
in a closed position.
2. If the breaker nearest to the fault fails to open then, backup protection should be provided by the adjacent
circuit breaker.
3. The relay operating time should be small to maintain the system stability without necessary tripping of a circuit.
Time graded protection

This is a scheme in which the time setting of relays is so consecutive that in the event of a fault, the smallest
possible part of the system is isolated.
The applications of time graded are:
• Protection of radial feeder
• Protection of parallel feeder
• Protection of ring main system
Protection of radial feeder:

• The main characteristic of a radial system is that power flow only in one direction, i.e. from the generator or
the supply end to the load end.
• Here definite time overcurrent relay is used where operating time is independent of fault current.
• Total line is divided into different section and each section is provided with definite time relay.
• Operating time of relay is adjusted in order to operate far end of relay first and accordingly.
• In a radial system when the number of feeders is connected in series as shown in the figure.
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• The time setting is such that it is least for the relay of the
last substation and is maximum for that of the generating
station.
• Relay 5 has an operating time of 0.5 seconds and there will

be a successive increase in the time by 0.4 seconds while
moving towards generating station. Normally the time delay OC5
step lies between 0.3 sec and 0.5 sec.
• Suppose any fault occurs at fault point shown in figure, OC5

operate with time setting 0.5 second and it isolate faulty part
from the system. If any reason relay OC5 fails to operate,
then OC4,OC3 and other relay act as backup protection. So
relay OC4 will operate after time delay 0.4 sec. Advantages of Radial Type Feeder :
•Radial feeders are simple in construction.
• Therefore, it can be observed that if a fault occurs then the •The initial cost required is minimum.
relay nearer to that fault will operate first than any other •They are very easy to operate.
relay.
Disadvantages of Radial Type Feeder :
• Less reliability.
• Continuity of service cannot be maintained.
• The end of the distributor nearer to the feeding point is
heavily
Prepared loaded.
by: Er. Keshab Khatri 29
Protection of Parallel Feeders

• In a power distribution system, a parallel feeder is a configuration where multiple feeders are connected in parallel to
supply power to a load.
• When the fault occurs on the protective feeder, the protective device will select and isolate the defective feeder
while the other instantly assume the increased load.
• One of the simplest methods for the protection of the relay is the time graded overload relay with inverse time
characteristic at the sending end and instantaneous reverse power or directional relays at the receiving end as shown
in the figure below.
If a fault F occurs on feeder 2, the power is fed into the fault

through two paths ACDF and BF. Here we can see that the
power flow at relay C is in the normal direction, but the power
flow at relay D is reversed. Thus the relay at D operates
instantaneously.
Also due to excess fault current, the overload relay at B

operates. Thus the circuit breaker trips and isolates feeder 2, F
whereas feeder 1 maintains the continuity of supply.
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Protection of Ring Main System

The ring main is a system of interconnection between a series of the power station by a different route
• The elementary diagram of such a system is shown in the figure.

• where G is the generating station, and A, B, C, and D are substation.
• At the generating station, the power flow only in one direction and hence no
time lag overload relays is used.
• The time grade overload relay (directional relay) is placed at the end of the
substation.
• Going round the ring in the direction GABCD the relay on the further
side of each station are set with decreasing time lags shown in figure.
• At generating station 2 seconds at station A, B, C and 1.5 seconds,
1.0 second, 0.5 second and instantaneous respectively. Similar case
going through another direction.
• If the fault occurs at point F, the power F is fed into the fault through Advantages of Ring Main Type Feeder :
two paths ABF and DCF. The relay to operate is that between • Ring-type feeders are more reliable.
substation B and fault point F and substation C and fault point F. • Continuity of service can be maintained.
Disadvantages of Ring Main Type Feeder :
• Thus the fault on any section will cause the relay on that section to • the design of ring loop feeders is more
operate, and the healthy section will be operating uninterruptedly. complicated.
Prepared by: Er. Keshab Khatri • The cost of installation is high 31
Current graded protection scheme of feeder:

A current-graded protection system of a feeder is a type of overcurrent protection that uses different current settings for
different sections of the feeder.
The current-graded system is used where the impedance between substations or sections is sufficiently large to create a
noticeable difference in fault current.
• The working of the current graded protection system of the
feeder is based on the principle of inverse definite minimum
time (IDMT) relays. The relays are set to operate at different
current values for different sections of the feeder.
• When a fault occurs on the feeder, the fault current flows

through all the relays. The relay that has the lowest current
setting will operate first, followed by the relay that has the
next lowest current setting, and so on.
• The relay that operates first will isolate the faulty section
from the rest of the feeder, and the other relays will reset.
This way, the current graded protection system of feeder
ensures selective and fast clearance of faults
If the relays are set to operate at a progressively higher current towards the supply end then drawback of long time delays
occurring in time grade system can be partially overcome. This is known as current grading.
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Differential protection of feeder

• In this scheme of line protection, identical CT is connected
to each of the both ends of the feeder or line.
• Secondary of these current transformer and operating coil

of two instantaneous relays are formed a closed loop as
shown in the figure below.
• In the loop pilot wire is used to connect both CT secondary

and both relay coil as shown.
• Under normal condition, there would not be any current

flowing through the loop as the secondary current of one CT
will equal and cancel out secondary current of other CT.
• If any fault occurs in the portion of the line between these

two CTs, the secondary current of one CT will no longer
equal and opposite of secondary current of other CT. then, Disadvantages:
current will flow through relay coil and trip the circuit • If there is break of pilot wire, system will not operate
breaker which will isolate the feeder from system. • It is expansive due to requirement of long length of
Prepared by: Er. Keshab Khatri pilot wire 33
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Chapter 7: Substation 5 marks

Introduction of substation:
• A station in the power transmission system at which electric power is transformed to a conveniently used form
is called substation.
• The electrical substation is the part of a power system in which the voltage is transformed from high to low or
low to high for transmission, distribution, transformation and switching
• The substation typically includes a variety of components such as transformers, switchgear, and control
systems that are used to control and protect the electrical power system.
• Basically an electrical substation consists of incoming circuits and outgoing circuit connected to a common bus
bar system.
Classification of substations:
1. Classification of Substations by Nature of Duties or on the basis of application:
• Step-up or Primary Substations or generating substation – Such types of substations generate low voltage like 3.3,
6.6, 11, or 33kV. This voltage is stepped up by the help of a step-up transformer. It is located near the generating
substation
• Primary Grid Substations – receive the power at EHV Such as 400KV, 220KV, 132KV and transform to 66kv, 33 KV
The output of the primary grid substation acts as the input of the secondary substations.
• secondary substations: receive the power at 66kv, 33kv and usually converted to 11 KV
• Step-down or Distribution Substations :The secondary distribution transformer feeds the consumer through the
service line. Convert 11kv to normally 400/230V.
2. On the basis of operating voltages of substations

• Low voltage substation: voltage level 400/230V
• Medium voltage substation: 11KV
• High Voltage substation : voltage level 33KV and 66 KV. Located in industries or near the consumers.
• Extra High Voltage Substation :These substations are operated under the voltage between 132kV and 400 kV.
• Ultra High Voltage Substation :These substations are operated under the voltage above 400kV.
• High voltage dc substation
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3. On the basis of construction or design:

• Indoor Type Substations – In such type of substations, the apparatus is installed within the substation building. Such
type of substations is usually for the voltage up to 11 KV but can be raised for the 33 KV or 66 KV when the surrounding
air is polluted by dust, fumes or gasses, etc.
• Outdoor Substations – These substations are further subdivided into two categories
Pole Mounted Substations – Such Substations are erected for distributions of power in the localities. Single s
pole or H-pole and 4-pole structures. Voltage upto 11kv or 33kv.
Foundation Mounted Substations – Such types of substations are used for mounting the transformers having
capacity 33 KV or above.
• Underground sub-stations: In thickly populated areas, the space available for equipment and building is limited and the
cost of land is high.
4. Classifications of Substation by Importance

• Grid Substations – This substation is used for transferring the bulk power from one point to another. If any fault
occurs on the substation, then the continuity of whole of the supply is affected by it.
• Town Substations – These substations step down the voltage at 33/11 kV for more distribution in the towns. If
there is any fault occurs in this substation, then the supply of the whole town is blocked.
5. Classification of substation on the basis of configuration or insulation:
• conventional air insulated outdoor substation: the main circuit is insulated from the ground with the usage of
porcelain and other insulators.
• SF6 Gas insulated substation: A gas insulated substation is a high voltage substation in which the major
structures are contained in a sealed environment. It consists of dielectric gases such as SF6 as the insulating
medium.
• composite substation having combination of the above two: Having both air insulation and gas insulation.
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Single line diagram of a substation

A single line diagram of a substation is a simplified graphical representation of the electrical system of the substation, which
shows the flow of power and the interconnection between the different components of the substation.
Prepared
Fig: general single line by: Er. Keshab
diagram Khatri 11KV Substation
of 33KV/ 5
There are different types of components used in substation. They are:

• Power transformer: The main purpose of the power transformer is to step-up the transmission voltage at the generation
unit & step-down the transmission voltage at the distribution unit.
• Instrument transformer: Main propose is metering and protection of the system

current transformer: Measures the high value of current using low range meter and gives the signal to relay for
protection purpose.
potential transformer: Measures the high value of voltage using low range voltmeter and gives the measured
value to relay for protection purpose.
• Lighting arrestor: Discharge the overvoltage surge to the ground and connected between phase conductor and ground.
• Wave trapper : The wave-trapper is located on incoming lines to trap the high-frequency signal. This component trips the
high-frequency signal and redirects them to the telecom board.
• Circuit breaker: Design to protect the circuit damaged cause by overload and short circuit. It makes and break the circuit
under fault condition.
• Bus bar: It is a kind of current carrying conductor where many connections are made. In other terms, it can be defined as
it is one type of electrical connection where the incoming current and outgoing current take place. It is generally
aluminum tubes supported on porcelain insulator.
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• Isolator: The isolator is one type of electrical switch, used to isolate the circuit whenever the flow of
current has been disrupted. it works under a no-load condition.
• Relay : relay is a switchgear device that detects the fault and initiates the operation of the circuit breaker to
isolate the defective element from the rest of the system.
• Switchyard: it shows incoming and outgoing power lines arrive and the electrical power operating
equipment is located.
• Capacitor bank: Capacitor bank consists capacitors connected either in series or parallel. it increases the
power factor of the network and also the power transfer capability of the system increases.
• Battery : Battery bank in substation used for supply to switchgear (110V), communication equipment (48V),
emergency lighting system (110KV). Generally lead acid battery is used.
• Earthing switch: transmission line has capacitance which stores electric charge and there is static electricity
in the system even circuit breaker open the circuit. Earthing switch protect from this condition.
Layout of substation:
The layout of a substation refers to the physical arrangement of its components, including the switchyard, transformers,
control room, and other facilities, in order to ensure efficient and reliable distribution of electrical power.
It shows the ground clearance required for each components, distance and space requirement between the each
components of substation.
It has to be consider the factors:

• Site location
• Type and amount of power being transmitted
• Security and safety
• Easy of maintenance and repair
• Minimization of energy loss
• Maximize reliability and efficiency
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Reactors: types of reactors ,uses of reactors

Introduction:
A reactor in a substation is a type of electrical equipment that is used to limit and control the flow of electrical current in a
power system. Reactors are essentially inductors that are designed to provide a certain level of impedance to the flow of
electricity.
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Types of reactor:
1. According to specific function and purpose:
• Shunt reactors: Shunt reactors are used to compensate for capacitive loads in a power system. It is connected in
parallel to the system
• Series reactors: Series reactors are used to limit the flow of current in a power system. By limiting the current, series
reactors can help prevent damage to equipment and minimize the risk of power outages and other problems.
• Neutral grounding reactors: Neutral grounding reactors are used to limit the flow of current in the neutral grounding
circuit of a power system.
• Arc suppression reactors: Arc suppression reactors are used to limit the impact of electrical arcs in a power system.
These arcs can cause damage to equipment and pose a safety risk to workers, so arc suppression reactors are an
important safety feature in many substations.
• Filter reactors: Filter reactors are used to filter out unwanted harmonics and other high-frequency electrical
disturbances in a power system.
2. According to cooling purpose:
• Dry type reactor: open and relies on the air to circulate and dissipate the heat
• Oil immersed : placed in tanks and required to prevent from eddy current loss. So it is magnetic shielded.
3. According to location of reactor: Tie bar system:
Bus bar reactors: In this system, the generators

• Generator Reactors: Feeder reactors: These reactors are connected are connected to a common
When reactor is It is when a reactor is with bus bars. Bus bar bus bar through the reactors
connected between bus connected in series with a reactors divide the bus bar in and feeders are fed through
bar and generator, it is feeder smaller sections. the generator side of the
called a generator reactors.
reactor
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Applications Of Reactors
• Reactors are used in the substation to limit the fault currents and the short circuit currents.
• Reactors are also used as the protective element for the substation equipment.
• The reactors limit the currents according to the capacity of the circuit breaker
• Voltage stabilization: Reactors can be used to stabilize voltage levels in a power system by providing a certain level
of impedance to the flow of electricity.
• Harmonic filtering: Reactors can be used to filter out unwanted harmonics and other high-frequency electrical
disturbances in a power system
• Capacitive load compensation: Reactors can be used to compensate for capacitive loads in a power system
Capacitor banks
Capacitor bank is mainly a grouping of several capacitors of the same rating. Capacitor banks may be connected
in series or parallel, depending upon the desired rating.
• A capacitor bank can help to correct this problem

by introducing reactive power into the system,
which helps to balance out the inductive load
and improve the power factor.
• Capacitor banks are commonly used in

substation applications because they are able to
provide reactive power support to the entire
electrical system
Main function of capacitor banks:

• A capacitor bank is used for reactive power compensation and power factor correction in the power
substations.
• Capacitor banks are mainly used to enhance the electrical supply quality and enhance the power systems
efficiency. Prepared by: Er. Keshab Khatri 14
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Connection of capacitor bank
• Phase voltage =line voltage • Phase voltage is less than line voltage
• Mostly used • Less voltage appears across the capacitor
Definition of substation earthing or grounding :
• Connection of neutral point of system i.e. neutral point of transformer to the ground and also connecting non current
carrying metal part such as structures, overhead shielded wire, tanks, frames etc. to the earth.
• Substation earthing is a process of connecting all metallic parts of the substation equipment and electrical conductors to
the earth to create a low resistance path for the fault current to flow to the earth in case of any electrical fault or surge.
• Substation Earthing of a circuit can be defined as physically connecting the circuit with the ground
• Main purpose of substation earthing/ grounding is to protect the equipment from the surges and lighting strikes and to
protect the operating persons in the substation.
The function of substation earthing or grounding mat below the earth are:
• Ensure safety to personnel in substations against electrical shocks.
• Provide the ground connection for connecting the neutrals of stat connected transformer winding to earth ( neutral
earthing ).
• Discharge the overvoltages from overhead ground wires or the lightning masts to earth. To provide ground path for surge
arresters.
• Provide a path for discharging the charge between phase and ground by means of earthing switches.
• To provide earth connections to structures and other non-current carrying metallic objects in the sub-station (equipment
earthing). Prepared by: Er. Keshab Khatri 16
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Major consideration for substation grounding are:

• Earth resistance
• Step potential
• Touch potential
Earth resistance:
The resistance offered by the earth electrode to the flow of current in the ground. Generally low resistance
is preferable but for certain application following earth resistance are considered to satisfactory:
• Large power stations- 0.5 ohm
• Major Power stations-1.0 ohm
• small substation - 2 ohm
• in all other cases - 8 ohm
Step & Touch Potential
Step-Potential
Step potential is the potential difference between the feet of a
person standing on the floor of the substation, with 0.5 m
spacing between the one step, during the flow of fault current
through the ground system.
Touch-Potential
Touch potential is a potential difference between the fingers of
a raising hand touching the faulted structure and the feet of
the person standing on substation floor. The person should not
get a shock even if the ground structure is carrying fault
current, i.e.; the touch potential should be very small
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Grounding methods in substations

There are several method of grounding in substation. Connection to the earth can be done in three ways:
1. Radial system:
• The radial system consists of one or more grounding electrodes with connections to each device in the
substation.
• It is the most economical, but the least satisfactory because, when a ground fault occurs, it produces
enormous surface potential gradients.
2. Ring system
• The ring system consists of a conductor placed around the area occupied by the substation equipment and structures
and connected to each one by short links.
• It is an economical and efficient system that reduces the significant distances of the radial system.
• The surface potential gradients decrease because the ground-fault current travels through several prearranged paths
3. Grid system:
• It involves grounding a substation where all the equipment in the substation should be grounded creating an
earth mat about at 0.5m below from surface.
• An earth mat is an earthing system where all conductors are buried horizontally forming a grid like structure to
dissipate the fault current into the earth and also form an equipotential bonding conductor system to maintain
earth resistance below specified value.
General construction :
• Horizontal mesh of steel rods and vertical

electrodes welded to the mesh is buried.
• These horizontal mesh of steel rods in which

vertical electrodes (spikes) are welded to it is
called earthing mesh.
• The vertical risers and the galvanized steel

earthing strips or copper bars are connected
between the earthing mesh and the points to
be grounded.
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Grounding of line structure and substation equipment
• The line structure refers to the towers, poles, or other supports that hold the power lines that transmit electricity
from power generation sources to substations or distribution systems.
• Line structures also include insulators, which are used to support the electrical conductors.
• Substation Equipment: The substation is a key component of the electrical power system that helps to regulate and
control the flow of electricity. Substations typically include transformers, circuit breakers, switchgear, protective
relays, and other equipment that is used to step up or step down the voltage of the electrical system, to regulate the
flow of electricity, and to protect the system from electrical faults
Grounding of Line: it means connecting the electrical conductor that carries electricity from one location to another to the
earth. This is done to provide a path for the fault current to flow safely to the ground, protecting the electrical equipment
and the people working on or around it from electrical hazards.
Grounding of Structure: The grounding of structures involves connecting the metallic structure of an electrical system to the
earth to provide a low-impedance path for any fault current that might flow through the structure. This is done to prevent
damage caused by lightning strikes, power surges, or other electrical disturbances.
Grounding of Substation equipment : In a substation, connecting the non-current carrying metallic part of substation
equipment such as transformers, circuit breakers, switchgear, protective relays, and other equipment and neutral point of
system in substation to earth which provide a low-impedance path for any fault current that may occur within the
substation. This helps to protect the substation equipment from damage and ensures the safety of people who work in or
around the substation.
In summary, grounding of line, structure, and substation involves connecting the electrical equipment, conductors, and
structures to the earth to provide a low-impedance path for any fault current that might flow through them, ensuring safety
and protecting the equipment from damage.
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Neutral grounding:- types of grounding (solid grounding, reactance grounding etc.) of substation
Neutral grounding of a substation refers to the process of connecting the neutral point of a power transformer or
generator to the earth. The neutral point is the midpoint of the winding of a transformer or generator, and is typically
connected to a ground electrode buried in the earth. This is done to provide a low-impedance path for fault currents
to flow in the event of a ground fault.
Neutral grounding can be classified into three types: solid grounding, impedance grounding, and resistance
grounding.
Figure , definition, working of each neutral grounding of

substation is same as chapter 4
Concept of G.I.S. (Gas Insulated Substation)

A gas insulated substation is a high voltage substation in which the major structures are contained in a sealed environment.
It consists of dielectric gases such as SF6 as the insulating medium.
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• Space saving
• Reduced maintenance cost
• Complexity
• Cost
• Maintenance difficulty
• Environmental concern
• Safety concern
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Bus bar arrangements of a substation
1. Single bus bar scheme 2. Sectionalize single bus bar scheme
• In the single bus-bar arrangement with bus sectionalized we divide

• This single bus – bar arrangement consists of a single bus – bar into two sections with the help of a circuit
only one bus – bar and all the incoming feeders breaker and isolator switches and the load is distributed equally
and outgoing distributors are connected to this among both sections.
bus – bar only. Advantages of sectionalized single bus – bar arrangement:
Advantages of single bus – bar arrangement: • If any of source is out of system, still load can be fed by other section.
1. It is easy in operation. • If one section under maintenance, other section can fed.
2. Initial cost s less. • The fault level can be reduced by adding a current limiting reactor.
Disadvantages of sectionalized single bus – bar arrangement:
Disadvantages of single bus – bar arrangement:
• We are using extra isolators and circuit breakers so that the cost will be
1. When damage occurs then there will be the whole
high.
interruption of power supply.
• maintenance
Prepared by: Er. Keshab Khatriof any section is not possible without shut down
28 of that
2. Flexibility is very less.
section.
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3. Main and Transfer Bus Arrangement:
• In main and transfer bus arrangement we have two buses

one is the main bus and the other is transfer bus.
• With the help of isolator switches, it is connected to the
transfer bus which is called by pass isolators
• with the help of circuit breakers and isolator switches it is
connected to the main bus.
• There is also bus coupler as shown in figure.
Merits or advantages:
• No interruption of power supply because in case of
fault load can be shifted to transfer bus.
• The load can be divided into two groups since they
can be feed from either of the buses
• Any breaker can be taken out of service for
maintenance.
Demerits or disadvantages:
• Requires one extra breaker coupler.
• Switching is somewhat complex when maintaining a
breaker.
• Two bus – bars are used which increases the cost.Prepared by: Er. Keshab Khatri 29
4. Double Bus Double breaker arrangement scheme:
• two circuit breakers are employed for each circuit
• Such a bus-bar arrangement does not require any bus-coupler

and permits switch-over from one bus to the other whenever
desired, without interruption.
• This bus arrangement is very costly and its maintenance cost

is also high.
• A circuit breaker can be opened for repairs and usual checks

and the load can be shifted on the other circuit breaker easily.
• because of its higher cost, this arrangement is seldom used

at the substations.
• For 400 kV switchyards two main buses plus one transfer bus
scheme is preferred.
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5. Ring bus bar scheme:
• In such type of arrangement, the end

of the bus bar is connected back to the
starting point of the bus to form a ring.
a. Merits
• Bus bars gave some operational flexibility.
b. Demerits
• If fault occurs during bus maintenance, ring gets separated into two sections.
• Auto-reclosing and protection complex.
• Most widely used for very large power stations having large no. of incoming and outgoing lines and high
power transfer Prepared by: Er. Keshab Khatri 31
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Chapter 8: System Earthing

and Overvoltage Protection
(7 marks)
8.1 Earthing: Definition, purposes, classification, methods of

earthing, earthing resistance
Definition of earthing:
• In power system, *grounding or earthling means connecting frame of electrical equipment (non-current carrying
part) or some electrical part of the system (e.g. neutral point in a star- connected system, one conductor of the
secondary of a transformer etc.) to earth i.e. soil.
• It is the process of instant discharge of electrical energy into the earth through a low resistance wire
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Purpose/ importance or need of earthing:
1. To protect human lives as well as

provide safety to electrical devices
and appliances from leakage
current.
2. To keep voltage as constant in the
healthy phase (if fault occurs on
any of one phase)
3. To protect electrical system and
building from lightning
4. To avoid the risk of fire in electrical
installation system
Classification of Electrical earthing:

1. System earthing
2. Equipment earthing
System earthing:
 Connection of neutral points of star connected three phase winding of generators, transformers,
motor to ground is called system earthing.
 The system earthing is employed to restrict the voltage of line conductors with respect to the
potential of the ground mass of earth to a value consisting with the insulation level
 System earthing insure the system security and protection.
Equipment earthing:
 Intentional connection of non-current carrying metallic parts of electrical equipments to ground is called
equipment earthing
 Sometimes is called body earthing (safety earthing) ensures personnel safety and protects against lightning
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Components of earthing system:
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 Earth Continuity Conductor or Earth Wire

That part of the earthing system which interconnects the overall metallic parts of electrical installation e.g. conduit, ducts, boxes,
metallic shells of the switches, distribution boards, Switches, fuses, Regulating and controlling devices, metallic parts of
electrical machines and the metallic framework where electrical devices and components are installed is known as earth wire or
earth continuity conductor as shown in the above fig.
 Earthing Lead or Earthing Joint
The conductor wire connected between earth continuity conductor and earth electrode or earth plate is called earthing joint or
“Earthing lead”. The point where earth continuity conductor and earth electrode meet is known as “connecting point” as shown in
the above fig.
 Earthing Electrode or Earth Plate
A metallic electrode or plate which is buried in the earth (underground) and it is the last part of the electrical earthing system. In
simple words, the final underground metallic (plate) part of the earthing system which is connected with earthing lead is called
earth plate or earth electrode.
 Earth: The proper connection between electrical installation systems via conductor to the buried plate in the earth is known
as Earth.
 Earthed: When an electrical device, appliance or wiring systems connected to the earth through earth electrode, it is known
as earthed device or simple “Earthed”.
Components must be earthed:
 The frames, tanks and enclosures of electrical machines, transformers, equipment
 The operating mechanism of switchgear
 Frame work of switch boards, control panels
 Metallic structure of indoor/outdoor substations, cable sheaths, metal conduits etc.
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 Earth Resistance:
This is the total resistance between earth electrode and earth in Ω (Ohms). Earth resistance is the algebraic sum
of the resistances of earth continuity conductor, earthing lead, earth electrode and earth.
Numerically, it is equal to the ratio of the potential of the earth electrode to the current dissipated by it.
Factor affecting earth resistance:

• Size of earth electrode
• Material of electrode
• Moisture of soil
• Temperature of soil
• Depth of electrode employed
Here, V is voltmeter reading

I is ammeter reading
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Methods and Types of Electrical Earthing

1. Strip or wire earthing
2. Rod earthing
3. Pipe earthing
4. Plate earthing
1. Strip or Wire Earthing:

• strip electrodes of cross-section not less than 25mm x 1.6mm if of copper & 25mm x 4mm is used if it’s a
galvanized iron or steel. which is buried in a horizontal trenches of a minimum depth of 0.5m
• If at all round conductors are used, their cross-section area should not be too small, say less than 3mm^2 if it is
copper and 6.0mm2 if it’s a galvanized iron or steel.
• Length of strip or wire depends upon requirement of earth resistance however it shall be not less than 15m
• This types of earthing is used at places which have rocky soil earth bed .
2. Rod Earthing
• A copper rod of 12.5mm (1/2 inch) diameter or 16mm (0.6in) diameter of galvanized steel or hollow section
25mm (1inch) of GI pipe of length above 2.5m (8.2 ft) are buried upright in the earth manually or with the
help of a pneumatic hammer.
• Suitable which have sandy in character.
Fig: rod earthing
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3. Pipe Earthing:
• A galvanized steel and a perforated pipe of approved length and diameter is placed vertically in a wet soil in this
kind of system of earthing. It is the most common system of earthing.
• The size of pipe to use depends on the magnitude of current and the type of soil.
• The dimension of the pipe is usually 40mm (1.5in) in diameter and 2.75m (9ft) in length for ordinary soil or
greater for dry and rocky soil. The moisture of the soil will determine the length of the pipe to be buried but
usually it should be 4.75m (15.5ft) (3.75 minimum).

Fig: pipe earthing
4. Plate Earthing:
In plate earthing system, a plate made up of either copper with dimensions 60cm x 60cm x 3.18mm (i.e. 2ft x 2ft x 1/8
in) or galvanized iron (GI) of dimensions 60cm x 60cm x 6.35 mm (2ft x 2ft x ¼ in) is buried vertical in the earth (earth
pit) which should not be less than 3m (10ft) from the ground level.

Fig: Plate Earthing
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8.2 Classification of Neutral or System earthing
1. Isolated neutral system

2. Grounded neutral system
a. Solidly grounding
b. resistance grounding
c. reactance grounding
d. Peterson coil or arc suppression grounding
Isolated neutral system:
Low fault current limited by

the system’s capacitance to
ground.
Normal Condition, capacitive current Under fault condition, the capacitive current
are balance and no fault current are unbalance and the fault currents flows
through the line through faulty line
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Solid Grounding
In this method, the neutral point of a three phase system(generator, transformer) is directly connected to the earth
through a wire of negligible resistance and reactance.
Applicable for low voltage system usually below 3.3 kv
Advantages:
• The neutral is effectively held at earth potential. Good control of over voltage, both transient and temporary.
• Allows the application of lower rated surge protective equipment (surge arrestors or capacitors).
Disadvantages:
Very high and potentially destructive fault currents for internal faults. Complete interruption and possibility of equipment
damage. May cause greater interference with neighboring communication lines.
Resistance Grounding:
In Resistance Earthing, the neutral point is not directly grounded, instead, it was done by using a current limiting
resistor. During abnormal condition, the fault current flows through the neutral through the current limiting resistor.
The healthy phases remain healthy and don’t get affected by fault current
Advantages of Resistance Earthing

• The neighboring system interference can be minimized.
• The arcing ground hazards are minimized.
• The system stability can be improved.
This method is suitable for the systems with voltages in the
range between 2.2KV and 33KV
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Reactance Earthing or earthing:

• In Reactance Earthing, the neutral point is grounded through a reactance.
• During the abnormal conditions, the fault current flows through the reactance which is connected between
neutral and earth.
Drawbacks of Reactance Earthing

• The increase in reactance will increase the transient.
• This method is only used in case of a satisfactory purpose
and Less budget.
Resonance (Peterson coil) Grounding

• It operates on the principle that if an inductance of appropriate value is connected in parallel to the
capacitance, the fault current can be reduced significantly if operates at resonance.
• Hence the inductance required depends on capacitive current to ground.
• The arc suppression coil is an iron core tapped reactor connected to neutral to ground connection.
Advantages
• It is completely effective in preventing any damage by an arcing ground.
• This method of grounding technique is used in the high-end transmission
line
Disadvantages
• Due to varying operational conditions, the capacitance of the network
changes from time to time. Therefore, inductance L of Peterson coil
requires readjustment.
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Comparison chart between grounding and earthing

Basis for Grounding Earthing
comparison
Definition The current carrying part is The body of the equipment is connected to
connected to ground. the ground
Location Between the neutral of the Between the equipment body and earth pit
equipment and ground. which is placed under the earth surface.
Protection Protect the power system Protect the human from electric shock.
equipment.
Use For balancing the unbalance For avoiding the electric shock
load
Examples Neutral of the generator and Enclosure of the transformer, generator,
power transformer connected motor etc.
to the ground
8.3. Substation earthing: safe value of current through human body, soil resistivity and resistance, step and
touch potential, grounding methods in substations
Definition of substation earthing:

• Connection of neutral point of system i.e. neutral point of transformer, generator to the ground and also
connecting non current carrying metal part such as structures, overhead shielded wire, tanks, frames etc. to
the earth.
• Main purpose of substation earthing/ grounding is to protect the equipment from the surges and lighting
strikes and to protect the operating persons in the substation.
• The function of substation earthing is to provide a grounding mat below the earth surface in and around
substation which will have uniformly zero potential with respect to ground and lower resistance to insure that
- to provide discharge path for lightning overvoltage
- to provide safety for operating overvoltage limiting voltage gradient.
- to provide lower resistance path to the earthing switch terminals.
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Major consideration for substation grounding are:

• Earth resistance
• Step potential
• Touch potential
Earth resistance:
The resistance offered by the earth electrode to the flow of current in the ground. Generally low resistance
is preferable but for certain application following earth resistance are considered to satisfactory:
• Large power stations- 0.5 ohm
• Major Power stations-1.0 ohm
• small substation - 2 ohm
• in all other cases - 8 ohm
Step & Touch Potential
Step-Potential
Step potential is the potential difference between the feet of a
person standing on the floor of the substation, with 0.5 m
spacing between the one step, during the flow of fault current
through the ground system.
Touch-Potential
Touch potential is a potential difference between the fingers of
a raising hand touching the faulted structure and the feet of
the person standing on substation floor. The person should not
get a shock even if the ground structure is carrying fault
current, i.e.; the touch potential should be very small
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Grounding methods in substations

There are several method of grounding in substation. Connection to the earth can be done in three ways:
1. Radial system:
• The radial system consists of one or more grounding electrodes with connections to each device in the
substation.
• It is the most economical, but the least satisfactory because, when a ground fault occurs, it produces
enormous surface potential gradients.
2. Ring system
• The ring system consists of a conductor placed around the area occupied by the substation equipment and structures
and connected to each one by short links.
• It is an economical and efficient system that reduces the significant distances of the radial system.
• The surface potential gradients decrease because the ground-fault current travels through several prearranged paths
3. Grid system:
• It involves grounding a substation where all the equipment in the substation should be grounded creating an
earth mat about at 0.5m below from surface.
• An earth mat is an earthing system where all conductors are buried horizontally forming a grid like structure to
dissipate the fault current into the earth and also form an equipotential bonding conductor system to maintain
earth resistance below specified value.
General construction :
• Horizontal mesh of steel rods and vertical

electrodes welded to the mesh is buried.
• These horizontal mesh of steel rods in which

vertical electrodes (spikes) are welded to it is
called earthing mesh.
• The vertical risers and the galvanized steel

earthing strips or copper bars are connected
between the earthing mesh and the points to
be grounded.
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safe value of current through human body
General overview of effect of magnitude of current through body

Current Effect
1mA Just a faint tingle
Up to 5 mA Slight shock fail ( no feel pain)
5 to 30 mA Pain feel on muscles
50 mA to 150 mA Extremely painful shock, may effect the breathing
1 to 4A Muscle contraction, heart pumping action is not in rhythmic,
may damage the nervous system
10 A No blood circulation, cardiac arrest
soil resistivity and resistance
Soil resistance is the resistance of the soil which opposes the flow of current.
Soil resistivity is the properties of soil which resist the flow of current through the soil.
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Importance of measurement of soil resistivity for substation earthing:

• Measurement of soil resistivity is important for the substation earthing because it provides information on the electrical
resistance of the soil, which is a key factor in the design and performance of the substation earthing system.
• The earthing system provides a low-resistance path to the earth, ensuring the safety of personnel, equipment and the
stability of the power system.
• Design of earthing system: The measurement of soil resistivity helps in determining the size and placement of earthing
electrodes.
• Ground fault protection: The measurement of soil resistivity is used to calculate the ground fault current levels and to
design the ground fault protection system.
• Value of soil resistivity is required for the calculation of touch potential and step potential which is necessary for design of
substation earthing.
• Soil resistivity gives the condition of soil which is crucial factor for earthing design.
Method of measurement of soil resistivity:
Wenner’s four-electrode method is popularly used to measure soil resistivity. In this method Four electrodes are
driven into the earth along a straight line at equal intervals, S. The depth of the electrodes in the ground is always of
the order of 10 to 15 cm. The earth megger is placed on a steady and approximately level base.
Electrode are placed flowing ways:
The current I flowing into the earth produces an electric field

proportional to its density and to the resistivity of the soil. The
voltage V measured between the inner electrodes is, therefore,
proportion to the field.
If the separation distance of the electrodes , S, is much greater

than the depth of burial, e, of electrodes, then equation 1
above reduces to :
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8.4 Definition of Overvoltage; Causes of over-voltages in electricity supply system: Internal and external overvoltage
Definition of overvoltage:
Increase in voltage on the power system that exceeds from the normal range of the voltage is called overvoltage.
For transmission line, tolerance for voltage is 10%, and distribution line, tolerance of voltage is 5%. If voltage of the
system exceeds from this tolerance value due to any cause then, we can said overvoltage on the system.
Some of the effects of overvoltage include:

Equipment damage: Overvoltage can cause damage to electrical equipment such as transformers, generators, and capacitors.
Insulation degradation: Overvoltage can cause insulation material in electrical equipment to degrade, leading to decreased
insulation resistance and possible electrical failure.
Arcing and fire hazards: Overvoltage can cause electrical discharge, arcing, and sparks, which can pose a fire hazard and pose
a threat to the safety of personnel and equipment.
Interference with communication systems: Overvoltage can cause interference with communication systems, including radio
and television reception, and can impact the performance of computer and other electronic equipment.
Reliability issues: Overvoltage can cause reliability problems in the power system, resulting in power outages, system
disturbances, and increased maintenance costs.
Causes of over-voltages in electricity supply system:
1. External cause of overvoltage:

a. lightning (transient overvoltage)
b. electrostatic discharge
2. Internal cause of Overvoltage

a. switching overvoltage(transient overvoltage)
b. temporary over voltage
i. Unsymmetrical fault
ii. Ferranti effect
iii. Ferro resonance
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1. External cause of over voltage:

External causes of overvoltage refer to sources of overvoltage that are not directly related to the power system itself,
but rather originate outside of the system. It does not depends up on system overvoltage.
a. Lightning strikes: Lightning strikes can generate high voltage surges that can enter a power system through
overhead lines or underground cables and cause overvoltage.
a. Electrostatic discharge (ESD): ESD can occur when two objects with different electrical charges come into close
proximity, resulting in a discharge of electrical energy. This can cause overvoltage in a power system if it enters
through an electrical conductor
2. Internal Overvoltage:
Internal overvoltage refers to sources of overvoltage that are within the power system itself. It depends upon the
system voltage.
General different between transient and temporary overvoltage
Transient and temporary overvoltages both are harmful to the electrical equipment, but they differ in their causes, durations,
and effects.
Transient overvoltages
• They are short-duration, high-magnitude voltage spikes that are caused by external factors such as lightning strikes,
switching operations, and faults on the power system.
• These surges can last from a few microseconds to several hundred milliseconds.
• Transients can have significant impacts on the electrical equipment, causing damage, malfunctions, and failure of
the components.
Temporary overvoltages
• They are relatively low-magnitude voltage increases that can last for a longer period, typically a few seconds to
several minutes.
• Temporary overvoltages are mainly caused by events such as load changes, starting of induction motors, and other
internal system disturbances.
• Although temporary overvoltages are not as severe as transient overvoltages, they can still cause problems if they
persist for a long enough time, as they can damage sensitive electronic equipment, cause malfunctions, or disrupt
normal operation.
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switching overvoltage
• Switching overvoltage is a type of electrical overvoltage that occurs in power systems during certain switching
operations, such as the opening or closing of a switch, the disconnection or reconnection of a capacitor bank, or the
tripping of a breaker.
• These actions can result increase in the voltage at a particular point in the power system, which can damage
electrical equipment and cause power outages if not properly controlled.
• Switching over voltages can occur due to several factors, including the inductance and capacitance of the power
system components, the rate of change of current during the switching operation, and the impedance of the power
system.
Overvoltage due to unsymmetrical fault:
• An unsymmetrical fault in a power system refers to a fault condition where the current is not balanced between the
phases in a three-phase electrical system.
• when an unsymmetrical fault occurs, the current flow becomes imbalanced, with one phase carrying a higher
current than the other two phases. This can result in an imbalance in the distribution of voltage, causing
overvoltage.
Over voltage due to Ferranti effect:
• The Ferranti effect refers to the phenomenon where the voltage at the receiving end of a long power transmission
line is higher than the voltage at the sending end.
• In a long transmission line, the energy stored in the line's inductance and capacitance gets transferred from the
sending end to the receiving end, increasing the voltage at the receiving end.
Over voltage due to Ferro Resonance:
• Ferro resonance is an electrical phenomenon that can occur in power systems where an inductive load, such as a
transformer, is connected to a non-linear capacitive load, such as a capacitor bank. This combination of components
can create an unstable electrical system that can lead to overvoltages
• Ferro resonance can cause overvoltage in a power system by creating a resonant circuit between the inductive
and capacitive components. The resonant circuit will amplify any fluctuations in voltage and current, leading to
excessive voltages in the system.
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8.5. Overhead Earth wire, angle of protection, lightning arrestor, Horn gap, Rod gap and Metal Oxide Lightning
Arrestors; Surge Absorbers
Overhead earth wire & angle of protection:
• A wire which is provided at the topmost of transmission or

distribution tower for the protection of phase conductors
from direct lightning strokes is called ground wire or earth
wire.
• A ground wire is a connected tower to tower of transmission

line and it is earthed at regular intervals for discharging the
lightning current & usually made of aluminum or steel.
• A ground wire provides a shield to the phase conductors by attracting direct lightning strokes on it. If the ground
wire is not available then lightning strikes directly on phase conductors and damage the transmission line phase
conductors.
• When lightning strikes on the earth wire at any place between the two towers, heavy current waves ( having a current of
10 kA to 50 kA) produced in-ground wire and travelled in the opposite directions along the transmission line. This current
wave reached at the adjoining tower and it safely discharge the current wave to earth.
• The protection provided by the ground wire or earth wire depends upon the tower footing resistance. The tower footing
resistance is as low as possible for safely discharging heavy
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Keshab Khatri 37
Angle of protection or shielding angle:

• An angle between the vertical earth wire which is provided at the topmost of the transmission tower and the phase
conductor which is to be protected from the direct lightning strokes.
• The lower the shielding angle, the protection will be greater. The shielding angle is calculated from the outermost top
conductor to the earth wire.
• For reliable and safe protection of transmission line from direct lightning stroke protective or shielding angle should be
from 20 - 30 degree. Shielding angle should be within 30 degree.
• This method of protection is used for the protection against external overvoltage is called shielding method.
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What is Lightning?
Lightning is a phenomenon of electric discharge of a charged cloud to ground. During thunderstorms, the potential of the
cloud is raised significantly higher than the ground potential and the surrounding air loses its insulating property.
Essentially, the cloud and ground form a capacitor with air as its dielectric.
For a lightning to occur, the potential gradient of the air must be broken, which is around 30kV/cm. if the potential
difference between the cloud and ground is high enough to break the potential gradient of air, then a huge discharge
occurs in the form of lightning strike.
Lightning arrestor
• The most common device used for protection of the power system against the high voltage surge is surge diverter
which is connected between the line and earth, and diverts the incoming high voltage wave to earth. Such a diverter
is called lightning arrestor.
• This method of protection is called non-shielding method.
• Lightning arrestor drive abnormal high voltage to the ground without affecting the continuity of the supply.
Location of Lightning Arrester

• The lightning arrester is located close to the equipment that is to be protected. They are usually connected between
phase and ground in an AC system. i.e parallel to system
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Different types of Lightning arrestor:

1. Rod gap Lightning arrestor:
• It consists of two 1.5 cm diameter rods, which bent at right angle with
the gap.
• One rod is connected to the line circuit and other is connected to
ground
• Distance between the gap and insulator must not be less than 1/3 of
the rod gap
• Under normal condition, the gap is non-conducting

• On the occurrence of high surge voltage , the gap sparks over the
surge current to earth.
• It has advantage of low cost and easy adjustment on the site.

• But,
 The rods may melt or get damaged due to excessive heat
produced by arc.
 The climate condition like rain, humidity, temperature etc. may
affect the performance.
2. Horn Gap Lightning Arrestor:
• This types of lightning arrestor consists of two horn shaped metal rod
separated at a small gap.
• Horn are so constructed that distance between them gradually increases

towards them.
• Horn are mounted on porcelain insulator.
• One of the horn is connected to the line through resistance and chock coil
& other end is connected to the ground.
• Resistance helps to limit the flow of current
• Coil is designed to offer small reactance at normal frequency & on the Or

occurrence of over voltage, it allows only normal frequency to equipment Equipment to
& other is divert the ground by conducting horn gap. be protected
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3. Metal Oxide Lightning Arrestors
Construction:
• Gapless surge diverter
• Zinc oxide used as metal oxide
• It is semiconducting N-type material
• Material is doped by some fine powder
• Disc is enclosed in a porcelain housing
• SF6 is generally filled in porcelain housing.
Under normal operating conditions,

System voltage is less then barrier potential, so no
current flow throw arrester i.e. the surge arrester will
have a high resistance (almost infinite) to earth i.e., it
acts as an open circuit.
On the occurrence of overvoltage, voltage is higher

than barrier potential of arrester and high current is
discharge to ground becoming low resistance path. i.e.
surge diverts to ground.
4. Surge Absorbers
A surge absorber is a protective device which reduces the steepness of wave front of a surge by absorbing surge energy.
Although both surge diverter and surge absorber eliminate the surge, the manner in which it is done is different in the
two devices. The surge diverter diverts the surge to earth but the surge absorber absorbs the surge energy.
Types of Lightning Absorbers or Surge Absorbers :
1. Surge Absorption Using Capacitor or Condenser
• In this type of surge absorption, a capacitor is connected

between the line and the earth as shown in figure (a)
• capacitor reactance Xc is inversely proportional to the

frequency i.e., Xc ∝ 1/f. At high frequency i.e., under fault
conditions, the capacitor reactance will be low and act as a
short circuit to the surges shown in figure (b)
• At low frequency i.e., under normal operating conditions,

the capacitive reactance is high and acts as an open circuit
as shown in figure (c)
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2. Surge Absorption Using Parallel Combination of Inductor and Resistance
• Surge absorption using a parallel combination of choke and

resistance in series with the line is as shown in figure (a)
• We know that, in the case of an inductor, XL = 2πfL. At high

frequency, XL is more and hence it acts as an open circuit as
shown in figure (b)
• When the surge passes through the resistor, they are dissipated as
heat owing to the property of the resistor.
• Under normal operating conditions, if the frequency is less, then XL

is also less and acts as a short circuit as shown in figure (c)
3. Ferranti Surge Absorber :

• In this type of absorber, an inductor is
connected in series with the line as
shown in figure (a) below. The inductor
is air-cored and insulated with a metallic
sheet that is grounded. This insulated
metal sheet acts as a dissipater.
• This type of setup is equivalent to the

transformer whose secondary is earthed
i.e., short-circuited. Its primary winding
is formed by the inductor and secondary
winding is formed by the dissipater.
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8.6 Overvoltage protection: Transmission Line and substation protection against over-
voltages
There are several methods of protecting transmission lines from overvoltage:
1.Surge Arresters: These are devices that can limit the voltage surge by providing a low-impedance path to ground
for the high voltage surge.
2.Shunt Reactors: These are connected in parallel with the transmission lines, which can limit the overvoltage by
providing reactive power support.
3.Series Capacitors: These are connected in series with the transmission line, which can improve the power transfer
capability of the line and also help to reduce overvoltage.
4.Lightning Arresters: These are connected to the transmission lines to protect the line from lightning strikes.
5.Grounding: Proper grounding of the transmission line towers and substation equipment can also help to protect
the transmission line from overvoltage.
6.Power Electronics-Based Solutions: Power electronics-based solutions such as FACTS (Flexible AC Transmission
Systems) devices can be used to control the voltage and power flow in the transmission lines.
7.Protective Relays: Protective relays can be used to detect overvoltage conditions and disconnect the affected
portion of the transmission line.
The selection of the appropriate method of protection depends on various factors, including the type of
overvoltage, the location of the transmission line, and the characteristics of the power system.
There are several methods of protecting substations against over voltages:
1.Surge Arresters: These are devices that can limit the voltage surge by providing a low-impedance path to ground for the
high voltage surge.
2.Shunt Reactors: These are connected in parallel with the substation equipment, which can limit the overvoltage by
providing reactive power support.
3.Metal Oxide Varistors (MOVs): These are used in conjunction with surge arresters to provide additional protection against
over voltages.
4.Grounding: Proper grounding of the substation equipment can also help to protect against overvoltage.
5.Shielding: Shielding can be used to protect substation equipment from the effects of external electromagnetic fields.
6.Lightning Protection: Lightning protection systems can be installed to protect substation equipment from direct lightning
strikes.
7.Protective Relays: Protective relays can be used to detect overvoltage conditions and disconnect the affected portion of
the substation.
The selection of the appropriate method of protection depends on various factors, including the type of overvoltage, the
location of the substation, and the characteristics of the power system. It is important to have a comprehensive protection
scheme that includes multiple methods of protection to ensure the reliable and safe operation of the substation.
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Normal Conditions in Power System

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Normal Conditions in Power System

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Chapter 1: Faults in a Power System

Normal Conditions in power system:

Abnormal Condition in power system:

Introduction to Electrical Faults:

Different Types of Fault in Power System are:

2. Inter turn faults:

3. Short Circuit Faults

Unsymmetrical faults are analyzed using methods of unsymmetrical components in order to

Representation of fault conditions through Single Line Diagrams:

1. The most common fault on an overhead transmission line is

2. The most severe fault on the power system is

3. Reactor are used at various locations in the power system to

4. Which of the following is not abnormal condition in power system.

6. When a short circuit occurs in a power system

7. The fault on a power system that gives symmetrical fault current is

9. The most severe unsymmetrical fault is

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Current transformers definition:

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Working of current transformer

• CT is connected in series, whose current has to be measured.

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• Flux in the core is produced by excitation current (Ie).We have

Standard Ratio of CT:

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• Error in current transformer is due to fact

• We can say that error in CT is due to

Common faults that could be occurred in current transformer are:

What ate safety precautions to be taken when working

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What happen if we open the secondary of CT?

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• Oil-filled bushings are used to connect the high voltage potential

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Working of Potential transformer:

We have, V1/V2 = N1/N2

Application of potential transformers:

Standard ratio of potential transformer

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Errors in Potential transformer:

In an ideal potential transformer, the primary and the

Causes of Errors: due to the internal impedance, the voltage drops in

Burden of a Potential Transformer

Characteristics of Potential transformer:

• Effect of power factor on secondary burden:

• Standard ratio: Vp/Vs, Np/Ns

Common faults & their detection techniques in potential transformer

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A circuit breaker is a piece of equipment which can

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Operating principle of circuit breaker:

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Why circuit breaker is preferred over fuse?

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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CIRCUIT BREAKER AND ISOLATOR

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Arc Phenomena of circuit breaker:

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High resistance method:

Resistance of the arc can be increased by:

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Low resistance or current zero Method:

• If the heat dissipation between the contacts>heat generation, arc will

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Rating of circuit Breaker:

Additional rating of CB:

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Classification of circuit breaker:

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Air Break Circuit Breakers

Construction of Air Break Circuit Breaker:

Working or operation of air break circuit breakers: