Business Ethics 1:
What is Business Ethics?
Business ethics refers to the moral principles and values that guide decision-making and behavior in
the business world. It involves the application of ethical principles to various aspects of business,
including relationships with customers, employees, suppliers, and the wider community. Business
ethics is a complex and constantly evolving field, as businesses face new ethical dilemmas and
challenges in an ever-changing global economy.
According to the Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy, business ethics is "the application of ethical
theories, concepts, and principles to the ethical problems and dilemmas that arise in the business
environment" (Crane & Matten, 2016). It involves a range of issues, including corporate social
responsibility, stakeholder management, human rights, environmental sustainability, and ethical
decision-making.
Why is ethics in business important?
Ethics in business is important for several reasons. Firstly, unethical behaviour can have a negative
impact on the reputation and credibility of a business, which can in turn harm its profitability and
long-term sustainability. Secondly, unethical behaviour can lead to legal consequences, fines, and
even criminal charges. Finally, ethical behaviour is essential for building trust and fostering positive
relationships with stakeholders, including customers, employees, and the wider community.
"The only business of business is business.”
This famous quote by economist Milton Friedman suggests that the primary responsibility of
businesses is to generate profits for their shareholders. However, this view has been widely criticized
in recent years, as it ignores the impact of business activities on society and the environment. Critics
argue that businesses have a wider responsibility to consider the impact of their activities on all
stakeholders, and to act in a way that promotes social and environmental sustainability.
Autonomous, Heteronomous, and Theonomous Ethics
Ethics can be classified into three categories: autonomous, heteronomous, and theonomous.
Autonomous ethics refer to behaviour based on personal freedom and individual decision-making.
This means that individuals have the freedom to choose their own actions, but are also responsible
for the consequences of those actions. Heteronomous ethics, on the other hand, refer to behaviour
based on external rules and regulations. In this case, individuals are obliged to follow the decisions
of others, such as laws or company policies. Finally, theonomous ethics refer to behaviour based on
personal conviction and acceptance of ethical principles. In this case, individuals accept ethical
principles as their own and are motivated by their personal values and beliefs.
In conclusion, CSR and business ethics are essential for the long-term sustainability of businesses and
their positive impact on society and the environment. Understanding the different types of ethics
and the importance of ethical behaviour in business can help individuals make more informed and
responsible decisions in the workplace.
References 1:
Carroll, A. B. (1991). The pyramid of corporate social responsibility: Toward the moral management
of organizational stakeholders. Business horizons, 34(4), 39-48.
Crane, A., & Matten, D. (2016). Business ethics. In The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter
2016 Edition). Retrieved from [Link]
Friedman, M. (1970, September 13). The Social Responsibility of Business is to Increase its Profits.
The New York Times Magazine. Retrieved from [Link]
[Link]
Business Ethics 2:
Organisational culture is the set of shared beliefs, values, attitudes, and behaviours that characterize
an organisation. It influences the way people work, communicate, and interact within the
organisation. In this learning log, we will explore the concept of organisational culture and its
importance. We will also discuss the different types of corporate cultures and the structure of
organisational culture. Additionally, we will examine how to improve organisational culture through
ethics, values, leadership, and corporate social responsibility.
Andrew Pettigrew, a British organisational theorist, made significant contributions to the field of
organisational culture. Pettigrew emphasised the importance of understanding the culture of an
organisation as a dynamic, complex, and evolving system. He argues that organisational culture is a
combination of values, beliefs, and behaviours that are shared by the members of the organisation
and shape the way they think, feel, and act.
Pettigrew identified four main perspectives on organisational culture:
Cultural consistency: This perspective assumes that an organisation has a uniform and stable culture
that is shared by all its members. In this view, culture is seen as a controlling force that regulates
behaviour and ensures organisational coherence.
Cultural diversity: This perspective recognises that organisations are made up of different
subcultures that coexist and interact with each other. In this view, culture is seen as a source of
creativity and innovation.
Cultural ambiguity: This perspective acknowledges that organisational culture is often unclear,
ambiguous, and contradictory. In this view, culture is seen as a contested and negotiated terrain.
Cultural fractals: This perspective argues that organisational culture is a complex and multi-levelled
phenomenon that can be seen as a fractal structure. In this view, culture is seen as a dynamic and
evolving system that operates at different levels of the organisation.
Organisational Culture by Edgar Schein
Edgar Schein, a renowned organisational culture expert, defines organisational culture as "a pattern
of shared basic assumptions that a group learns as it solves its problems of external adaptation and
internal integration." Schein identifies three levels of organisational culture:
Artifacts: visible structures and processes, such as dress code, office layout, and company policies.
Espoused values: the beliefs and attitudes that the organisation claims to have.
Basic underlying assumptions: the implicit, often unconscious beliefs and attitudes that guide
behaviour.
The Structure of an Organisational Culture
The structure of an organisational culture is composed of three elements: norms, values, and
economy.
Norms: Norms: Norms refer to the set of guidelines and expectations that an organisation puts in
place to govern how people should behave and interact with each other. These norms form the code
of ethics and corporate social responsibility (CSR) of an organisation. The code of ethics outlines the
standards and expectations that employees are required to uphold while carrying out their job
responsibilities. The CSR component reflects the organisation's social and environmental
responsibilities that must be considered while conducting business.
Values: Values are the principles, beliefs, and standards that guide the behaviour of people within
the organisation. They are the foundation of the organisational culture and represent the collective
identity of the organisation. Values are crucial in shaping the decision-making process of employees
and shaping the way the organisation interacts with its stakeholders. Transcendent values, such as
honesty, integrity, and respect, are considered universal and applicable to all cultures and societies.
Economy: The economic component of the organisational culture refers to the way the organisation
conducts its business and the opinions on how to do business. This includes the organisation's vision
and mission, business strategy, marketing, and financial management.
The 7 Corporate Cultures
Ivo Rolny has identified seven different corporate cultures:
Clan culture: an organisation that resembles a family, with a strong focus on teamwork,
collaboration, and employee involvement.
Adhocracy culture: an organisation that values innovation, creativity, and entrepreneurship.
Market culture: an organisation that is results-oriented, focused on competition, and driven by sales.
Hierarchical culture: an organisation that is highly structured, hierarchical, and bureaucratic.
Network culture: an organisation that is flexible, adaptable, and decentralised.
Collaborative culture: an organisation that emphasises teamwork and collaboration.
Authoritarian culture: an organisation that values power and control, and operates through a
centralised command structure.
How to Improve Organisational Culture
Improving organisational culture requires a concerted effort to change the values, norms, and
behaviour within an organisation. Some of the ways to improve organisational culture are:
Ethics of code: Establish a code of ethics that reflects the values and principles of the organisation
and enforces ethical behaviour.
Ethical values: Develop and promote ethical values within the organisation, such as honesty,
transparency, and accountability.
Ethical leadership: Encourage ethical leadership that promotes and models ethical behaviour.
Corporate social responsibility: Implement corporate social responsibility initiatives that align with
the values and goals of the organisation.
Typology of Culture
Charles Handy, an organisational theorist, identified four types of organisational culture:
Power culture: an organisation that is centred around a powerful individual or group.
Task culture: an organisation that is driven by specific tasks and projects.
Role culture: an organisation that is highly structured and hierarchical, with clear roles and
responsibilities.
Person culture: an organisation that is highly individualistic, with employees working for their own
benefit rather than the organisation.
References 2:
Handy, C. (1993). Understanding organisations. Penguin UK.
Schein, E. H. (1992). Organizational culture and leadership. John Wiley & Sons.
Rolny, I. (2017). Seven corporate cultures: Discovering and understanding your company's culture.
CRC Press.
Business Ethics 3:
Ethical leadership is a vital aspect of management that involves making decisions that align with
moral and ethical principles. In this learning log, we will explore the importance of ethics in
managing people, the ethical prerequisites for ethical leadership, and the distinction between
leadership and ethical leadership. We will also discuss the advantages and disadvantages of ethical
leadership and the difference between ethical and unethical leaders.
The Importance of Ethics for Managing People
Managing people is a complex task that requires a range of skills, including communication,
delegation, and problem-solving. However, to be an effective manager, it is also crucial to have
strong ethics. Ethical managers must ensure that their decisions are made in line with moral
principles and are not driven by self-interest or bias. They must be fair and just in their dealings with
employees and stakeholders, and ensure that the organisation operates within the bounds of the
law and regulations.
Human Beings are not the Instrument of Morality but must be the Goal of Morality Itself
An important ethical principle that underpins ethical leadership is that human beings are not the
instrument of morality but must be the goal of morality itself. This principle recognises the inherent
value and dignity of every individual, and the need to respect and protect their rights and interests.
From Utilitarianism to Deontology
Ethical leadership draws from various ethical theories, including utilitarianism and deontology.
Utilitarianism suggests that the right course of action is the one that produces the most significant
amount of happiness or pleasure for the greatest number of people. In contrast, deontology focuses
on moral duties and the inherent rightness or wrongness of an action. Ethical leaders must
understand these theories and apply them in their decision-making processes.
Ethical Prerequisites for Ethical Leadership
To be an ethical leader, one must possess a range of ethical prerequisites, including honesty,
integrity, responsibility, and empathy. These characteristics help ensure that leaders can make
ethical decisions that are in the best interests of their employees and stakeholders.
Distinction between Leadership and Ethical Leadership
The distinction between leadership and ethical leadership is that ethical leadership goes beyond the
traditional concept of leadership to include moral and ethical principles. Ethical leaders must be
guided by moral principles that go beyond their self-interest and personal gains. They must lead by
example, and their actions must align with the values and beliefs of the organisation.
Ethical vs. Unethical Leader
An ethical leader is one who makes decisions that align with moral principles and values, while an
unethical leader is one who makes decisions that are driven by self-interest or bias. An ethical leader
puts the interests of employees and stakeholders first and acts with integrity and transparency.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Ethical Leadership
One of the advantages of ethical leadership is that it helps establish a culture of trust and respect,
where employees feel valued and motivated to contribute to the organisation's success. Ethical
leadership can also help prevent unethical behaviour and misconduct, thereby reducing legal and
financial risks.
However, there are also some disadvantages to ethical leadership. Firstly, ethical leaders may face
resistance or pushback from employees who are used to working in an unethical environment.
Secondly, ethical leadership may be perceived as weak or ineffective, as ethical leaders may avoid
making tough decisions that conflict with their moral values. Thirdly, ethical leadership may be time-
consuming and require a lot of effort and resources to implement.
The concept of toxic leadership has been gaining attention in recent years, with various studies
exploring its effects on both individuals and organizations.
Toxic Leadership
Toxic leadership can be characterized by abusive, manipulative, or exploitative behaviours, as well as
by a lack of ethical values and a disregard for the well-being of employees. Such leaders create a
culture of fear and hostility, where employees are afraid to speak up, and where there is little trust
or cooperation.
The effects of toxic leadership can be severe and long-lasting. For individuals, the impact can include
emotional exhaustion, decreased job satisfaction, and increased levels of stress and burnout. This
can lead to higher rates of absenteeism, turnover, and decreased productivity. Toxic leadership can
also affect the mental health and well-being of employees, with some experiencing depression,
anxiety, and other mental health issues.
For organizations, the effects of toxic leadership can be equally damaging. A toxic leader can create a
culture of fear and mistrust, which can lead to decreased employee morale, lower productivity, and
higher turnover rates. In some cases, the reputation of the organization can be damaged, leading to
decreased trust among customers and stakeholders.
Toxic leadership can be prevented and addressed by promoting ethical values, fostering a positive
organizational culture, and holding leaders accountable for their actions. It is important for
organizations to provide training and support for leaders, and to encourage open communication
and feedback from employees. By creating a culture of respect and trust, organizations can prevent
the negative effects of toxic leadership and promote a healthy, positive work environment.
In conclusion, ethical leadership is essential for managing people and ensuring that decisions are
made in line with moral and ethical principles. Ethical leaders must possess a range of ethical
prerequisites and be guided by moral principles that go beyond their self-interest and personal
gains. By prioritising ethics, leaders can establish a positive culture that aligns with the values and
beliefs of the organisation and contributes to its long-term success.
References 3:
Schyns, B., & Schilling, J. (2013). How bad are the effects of bad leaders? A meta-analysis of
destructive leadership and its outcomes. The Leadership Quarterly, 24(1), 138-158.
Nielsen, M. B., & Einarsen, S. (2018). Outcomes of exposure to workplace bullying: A meta-analytic
review. Work & Stress, 32(2), 107-123.
Kelloway, E. K., Francis, L., & Gatien, B. (2013). Leadership, occupational health, and employee well-
being. In The Oxford Handbook of Occupational Health (pp. 159-173). Oxford University Press.
Northouse, P. G. (2015). Leadership: Theory and Practice. Sage Publications.
Brown, M. E., Treviño, L. K., & Harrison, D. A. (2005). Ethical leadership: A social learning perspective
for construct development and testing. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes,
97(2), 117-134.
Ciulla, J. B. (2004). Ethics and leadership effectiveness. The Leadership Quarterly, 15(2), 247-262.
Kalshoven, K., Den Hartog, D. N., & De Hoogh, A. H. (2011). Ethical leadership at work questionnaire
(ELW): Development and validation of a multidimensional measure. The Leadership Quarterly, 22(1),
51-69.
Business Ethics 4
I. Ethical Dilemmas in Business
Businesses face ethical dilemmas frequently, which are complex situations where values and moral
principles conflict with one another. These dilemmas occur when business decisions conflict with
societal values and principles, such as honesty, integrity, transparency, and fairness. Therefore, it is
essential for businesses to have a comprehensive understanding of ethics and moral conduct, the
different approaches to resolving ethical conflicts, ethical theories, and the ethical decision-making
process.
Definitions of Ethics and Moral Conduct:
Ethics is a branch of philosophy that studies moral values and principles that govern human
behaviour. It is a set of rules or principles that guide human conduct, determining what is right or
wrong, good or bad, fair or unfair. On the other hand, moral conduct is the application of ethical
principles in real-life situations, where one's actions are evaluated based on ethical standards.
Key Branches of Ethics:
Descriptive ethics is concerned with describing how people behave and what they believe about
morality. It is the study of human behaviour and the social norms that dictate it. Normative ethics is
concerned with how people should behave and what moral standards they should follow. It is the
study of ethical principles that guide human conduct.
3 Approaches to Resolving Ethical Conflicts:
Conventional approach: This approach is based on the norms and values that society accepts as right
and wrong. It assumes that individuals will make decisions based on what is socially acceptable.
Principle approach: This approach is based on ethical principles and values that are universal and
timeless. It assumes that individuals will make decisions based on what is morally right or wrong.
Ethical tests approach: This approach is based on various ethical tests, such as the Utilitarian test,
the Rights test, the Justice test, and the Categorical Imperative test. It assumes that individuals will
make decisions based on the outcome of the ethical test they apply.
Ethical Theories:
Ethical fundamentalism is a theory that states that ethical principles are universal and apply to all
people, regardless of culture or context. It is based on the belief that there are absolute moral truths
that must be followed.
Utilitarianism is a theory that states that the best action is the one that maximizes happiness for the
greatest number of people. It is based on the principle of utility, which states that actions should be
evaluated based on their consequences.
Ethical relativism is a theory that states that moral principles are relative to a particular culture or
context. It is based on the belief that there are no absolute moral truths, and what is right or wrong
depends on the culture or context.
Rawls's social justice theory is a theory that states that justice is fairness, and the distribution of
goods and benefits should be based on the principle of equal opportunity. It is based on the belief
that a just society is one that maximizes the welfare of the least advantaged.
Kantian ethics is a theory that states that ethical principles should be based on consistency and
reversibility. It is based on the belief that individuals should treat others as they would like to be
treated.
Ethical Decision-making Process:
The ethical decision-making process involves six steps: (1) identifying the problem, (2) gathering
information, (3) identifying the stakeholders, (4) considering the alternatives, (5) making a decision,
and (6) implementing and monitoring the decision. This process ensures that decisions are made
based on ethical principles and that stakeholders' interests are taken into account.
The Nature of Ethics in Business:
Ethics in business is concerned with the application of ethical principles in business decision-making.
It is based on the belief that businesses have a responsibility to act in a way that benefits society, as
well as their shareholders. Ethical behaviour in business includes honesty, integrity, transparency,
and fairness.
II. Power, Influence, and Authority
Power, influence, and authority are concepts that are commonly discussed in leadership and
management. Power refers to the ability of an individual or group to influence others to do
something they might not do otherwise. Influence, on the other hand, is the process of using power
to change the beliefs, attitudes, or behaviours of others. Authority is the right to use power and
influence to direct the actions of others, usually granted by a formal position or hierarchy.
The Leadership and Power Question
The relationship between leadership and power is complex and multi-faceted. Leadership involves
the use of power to influence and guide others towards a common goal. Power can come from a
variety of sources, including formal positions, personal expertise, or interpersonal relationships.
Effective leaders must be able to balance their use of power and influence to achieve positive
outcomes while avoiding negative consequences such as corruption or abuse.
Power Abuse and Corruption
Power abuse and corruption occur when leaders use their power for personal gain or to violate
ethical and legal standards. This can take many forms, including bribery, embezzlement, favouritism,
and coercion. Power abuse and corruption can have serious consequences for individuals,
organizations, and society as a whole, including loss of trust, reputation damage, and legal penalties.
Causes of Abuse and Corruption
There are many factors that can contribute to power abuse and corruption, including organizational
culture, lack of accountability, individual personality traits, and environmental factors such as
economic instability or political instability. Research has shown that leaders who exhibit traits such
as narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy are more likely to engage in power abuse and
corruption.
Power Abuse and Corruption Cycle
The power abuse and corruption cycle are a process by which toxic leadership, abuse of power,
follower compliance, and follower flattery combine to perpetuate unethical behaviour within an
organization. Toxic leaders create a culture of fear and compliance, which can lead to followers
engaging in unethical behaviour to curry favour or avoid punishment.
Solutions to Corruption
There are many strategies that organizations can use to prevent and address corruption, including
clear messaging and consistency, accountability mechanisms, reducing uncertainty, training for
leaders and followers, open communication, and changing the organizational culture.
The Dark Triad: Psychopathy, Narcissism, Machiavellianism
The dark triad refers to a set of personality traits that are associated with power abuse and
corruption. The traits include psychopathy (lack of empathy and remorse), narcissism (excessive self-
love), and Machiavellianism (manipulation and exploitation of others). Leaders who exhibit these
traits are more likely to engage in unethical behaviour and abuse their power.
Empowerment: Leadership Factors
Empowerment is the process of giving individuals or groups the power and resources they need to
make decisions and take action. Effective empowerment requires a balance between leadership
factors and organizational factors. Leadership factors that can promote empowerment include
creating a positive emotional atmosphere, setting high-performance standards, encouraging
initiative and responsibility, rewarding openly and personally, practicing equity and collaboration,
and careful monitoring and measurement.
Empowerment: Organizational Factors
Organizational factors that can promote empowerment include decentralizing the structure,
selecting and training leaders and employees appropriately, removing bureaucratic constraints,
rewarding empowering behaviours, expressing confidence in subordinates, and creating fair and
open organization policies.
References 4:
Crane, A., & Matten, D. (2016). Business ethics: Managing corporate citizenship and sustainability in
the age of globalization. Oxford University Press.
Hartman, L. P., DesJardins, J. R., & MacDonald, C. (2014). Business ethics: Decision-making for
personal integrity & social responsibility. McGraw-Hill Education.
Kidder, R. M. (1995). How good people make tough choices: Resolving the dilemmas of ethical living.
Simon and Schuster.
Mizzoni, J. (2009). Ethics: The basics. John Wiley & Sons.
Singer, A. E. (2018). The meaning of business ethics. Journal of Business Ethics, 151(1), 21-33.
Trevino, L. K., & Nelson, K. A. (2016). Managing business ethics: Straight talk about how to do it right.
John Wiley & Sons.
Business Ethics 5:
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) refers to a business approach that emphasizes on the
responsibility of corporations towards society, including ethical and environmental concerns. The
concept of CSR is often represented by a pyramid, which consists of four levels: economic, legal,
ethical, and philanthropic responsibilities. (Carroll, 1979).
The economic level involves fulfilling the basic responsibilities of a business, such as maximizing
profits and creating jobs.
The legal level requires a business to comply with the laws and regulations of the country.
The ethical level goes beyond legal compliance and requires businesses to act responsibly towards
stakeholders, including customers, employees, and the environment.
Finally, the philanthropic level involves voluntary contributions made by a business to improve the
quality of life of society.
There are five forces that drive CSR, according to Carroll (199):
Firstly, the increasing affluence of society has led to greater expectations of corporate responsibility,
with consumers and other stakeholders demanding more ethical and sustainable practices.
Secondly, sustainability concerns, including climate change and resource depletion, have put
pressure on businesses to operate in a more environmentally responsible manner.
Thirdly, globalization has made it easier for stakeholders to monitor the activities of multinational
corporations, leading to greater scrutiny of their practices.
Fourthly, advances in communication and information technology have made it easier for
stakeholders to communicate and share information about corporate practices.
Finally, brands have become increasingly important, with consumers often making purchasing
decisions based on a company's reputation for responsible behaviour.
In conclusion, the pyramid of CSR and the five forces driving CSR highlight the importance of
corporate responsibility towards society. By addressing economic, legal, ethical, and philanthropic
responsibilities, businesses can demonstrate their commitment to stakeholder interests and
contribute to sustainable development.
References 5:
Carroll, A. B. (1979). A three-dimensional conceptual model of corporate performance. The Academy
of Management Review, 4(4), 497-505.
Carroll, A. B. (1991). The pyramid of corporate social responsibility: Toward the moral management
of organizational stakeholders. Business Horizons, 34(4), 39-48.
Business Ethics 6:
Diversity
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) involves not only the ethical and environmental responsibilities
of businesses towards society but also encompasses creating a diverse and inclusive workplace that
acknowledges and values cultural differences. A diverse workplace means that people from different
backgrounds, ethnicities, religions, gender identities, and sexual orientations work together in a
respectful and inclusive environment.
Managing a diverse workforce in a challenging environment, which is often volatile, uncertain,
complex, and ambiguous, is a significant challenge for businesses. The ability to navigate cultural
differences, values, and beliefs is key to creating an inclusive workplace. One of the most useful tools
for understanding cultural differences is the cultural iceberg, which illustrates the visible and hidden
aspects of a culture. The visible aspects, such as language, food, and dress, are easily observable.
However, the hidden aspects, such as values, beliefs, and assumptions, are often unspoken and less
visible, making them more difficult to understand (Hall, 1976).
Cultural differences can lead to misunderstandings and miscommunications, which can negatively
impact business operations. Therefore, it is essential for businesses to develop strategies that
promote cultural awareness and sensitivity. One approach is to create cross-cultural training
programs that help employees understand cultural differences, develop empathy, and learn how to
work effectively in a diverse environment (Cox, 1993).
In conclusion, embracing diversity in the workplace and understanding cultural differences is an
important aspect of CSR. In a challenging and constantly changing environment, businesses that are
able to promote cultural awareness, create inclusive workplaces, and manage cultural differences
effectively are better positioned to achieve success and sustainability.
References 6:
Cox, T. (1993). Cultural diversity in organizations: Theory, research, and practice. Berrett-Koehler.
Hall, E. T. (1976). Beyond culture. Anchor Books.
Ruppel, C. P., & Harrington, S. J. (2013). Diversity and inclusion in the workplace: A review, synthesis,
and future research agenda. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational
Behaviour, 1(1), 397-427.
Evaluation:
The course covered a range of topics, including the pyramid of CSR, ethical decision-making, power
and influence, cultural differences, and diversity in the workplace. The course provided a
comprehensive overview of CSR and its impact on businesses and society, which has been an
invaluable learning experience.
The course was well-structured, and the materials provided were informative and easy to follow.
The instructors were knowledgeable and provided real-life examples that helped to illustrate the
concepts covered in the course. The discussions and group activities were engaging and allowed for
the exchange of ideas and perspectives.
One improvement that could be suggested is to include more case studies that illustrate how
businesses have successfully implemented CSR initiatives. While the course provided a solid
theoretical foundation, real-life examples of businesses that have successfully integrated CSR into
their operations would have been helpful. This would have allowed for a more practical application
of the concepts covered in the course.
Additionally, I believe that the course could have included more interactive elements, such as
simulations or role-playing exercises, that would have allowed for a more hands-on learning
experience. This could have helped to reinforce the concepts covered in the course and provided
participants with a more immersive learning experience.
Overall, the Corporate Social Responsibility and Business Ethics seminar was a valuable learning
experience that provided a comprehensive overview of CSR and its impact on businesses and
society.
