Jeans criterion
A cold, dense gas is far more likely to collapse and form a star than a hot, low-density gas (which
will have too much kinetic energy and not enough gravitational energy)
For a star to form, the mass of the matter in the nebula must be larger than Jeans mass, MJ
The Jeans mass is temperature dependent.
Nuclear fusion in main sequence
Sun-like stars :
Fusion occurs through the proton-proton chain
Two protons fuse into a hydrogen-2 nucleus, a positron
and a neutrino
A third proton fuses with the hydrogen-2 nucleus to
form a helium-3 nucleus and a gamma ray photon
Two helium-3 nuclei fuse to produce helium-4 and two
hydrogen-1 nuclei
Stars with a core temperature of over 2 × 107 K :
Fusion occurs through CNO
Proton fuses with carbon-12 to give unstable nitrogen-13
and a gamma ray photon
Nitrogen-13 undergoes positron decay into carbon-13
Carbon-13 fuses with a proton to form nitrogen-14 and a
gamma ray photon
Nitrogen-14 fuses with a proton to give an unstable
oxygen-15 and a gamma ray photon
Oxygen-15 undergoes positron decay into nitrogen-15
Nitrogen-15 fuses with a proton to give carbon-12 and
helium-4
Both fusion processes use four protons
Fusion after the main sequence
Two helium nuclei form an unstable beryllium-8
Another helium nucleus fuses with beryllium-8 to produce
carbon-12
A further helium nucleus fuses with carbon-12 to produce
oxygen-16
Lifetime of a main sequence star
L ∝ M 3.5
E
L=
t
While fusion is occurring, energy released is accompanies by a decrease in mass. This will equal
by a proportion (κ) of the total mass of the star (M). Hence, mass lost = κ M
Using E = mc 2,
κ Mc 2
L=
τ
Where, τ = lifetime of the star
κ Mc 2
Rearranging : τ=
And due to L ∝ M 3.5
M
τ∝
M 3.5
τ ∝ M −2.5 not in data booklet
Supernovae
Supernovae are classi ed as being type 1 or type 2 in terms of their absorption spectra
Type 1 - no hydrogen lines - produced by old, low-mass stars
Type 2 - hydrogen lines - produced by young, massive stars
Type 1a supernovae
Happens when one star in a binary star (two stars in orbit of each other) becomes a white dwarf
Emit light in a predictable way and can be used by scientists asa standard candle (useful for
measuring distance to the galaxy)
White dwarves are very dense and have a strong gravitational pull
The white dwarf ‘steals’ matter from its companion star
When the white dwarf exceeds the Chandrasekhar limit of 1.4 solar masses, the star collapses
under gravity
The fusion of carbon and oxygen into nickel releases lots of radiation pressure and the star
explodes
As this explosion always occurs at 1.4 solar masses, we know how bright the supernova actually
is
By comparing it with the apparent brightness, you can work out the distance to the galaxy and
use it as a standard candle
Type 2 supernovae
Occurs in stars that have a mass of 8 to 10 solar masses
Main sequence fusion occurs at the core
This continues with heavier elements being formed in the core up until iron
The radiation pressure no longer balances gravity due to lack of fusion (iron requires energy to
fuse instead of releasing)
When reaching the Chandrasekhar limit of 1.4 solar masses, the core implodes as the electron
degeneracy pressure is overcome : neutrons and neutrinos are formed
When the core contracts enough, the nucleon degeneracy pressure massively increases and
causes a shock wave
When the shock wave passes through the outer layers of the star fusion occurs creating heavier
elements
As the shock wave reaches the edge of the star the temperature rises to almost 20000K and the
star explodes in a supernova
fi
Neutron degeneracy pressure - the force exerted by neutrons to resist being pushed into each
other
Electron degeneracy pressure - the force exerted by electrons that repel being pushed into each
others orbits
Type 1 supernova brightness = 1010 L Θ
Type 2 supernova brightness = 109 L Θ
