Module 3

Effects of the environment on organism

Predict the effects of selection pressure on organisms promotes a change in species diversity and
abundance.
- Biotic factors: living
- Abiotic factors: non-living
⇒ Physical: viscosity, buoyancy, temperature variation, light penetration, pressure
variation, heat conduction.
⇒ Chemical: availability of gases, availability of ions.

Abiotic Measurement
Light intensity Light meter
Temperature Thermometer
Pressure Monometer/ pressure gauge
Rainfall Rain gauge
Humidity Wet and dry bulb thermometer
Wind Anemometer
Soil or water nutrients Soil test kit

Abiotic conditions
Physical: temperature and water availability
- E.g. Over the past 25 million years, Australia has become increasing arid
⇒ When rainforests were abundant, kangaroos were small with unspecialised teeth,
eating a variety of foods from the forests
⇒ Ow, due to the arid climate and grass dominance of grass, the environment
selective pressure resulted in larger kangaroos with specialised teeth (molar and
premolar) that were more suitable for grinding grass into a paste
Chemical
- Act as a selective pressure for the fittest organisms to survive
- E.g. mosquitoes and DDT
⇒ In 1950s low concentration of DDT were effective
⇒ In subsequent doses, higher concentration were required
⇒ Spraying become less effective
⇒ The DDT- resistant mosquitoes survived to reproduce and passed on their genes to
offspring.
⇒ Over time, population transformed to mainly resistant
Biotic factor:
● relationships between organisms
- Competitions
- Commensalism
- Predation
- Mutualism
● Human activity
Factors that determine species distribution and abundance
● Distribution: region where an organism inhabits, its range
● Often populations are ‘clumped’
together (for reproduction,
protection)OR found only in certain
parts of the environment =
UNEVEN
● Distribution where:
- Survival rate is high
- Predation is low
- Requirements for survival are met.
● Abundance: number of individuals belonging to same species in specific area
- UNEVEN throughout environment
- Sampling small sections and scaling the data up to the whole area
- Change over time:
Increase due to births and immigration
Decrease due to deaths and emigration
Investigate changes in a pollution of organisms due to selections pressure over time, for example:
- Cane toads in Australia
- Prickly pear distribution in Australia
- Peppered moth- Birth tree

Pest species Origin When Reason Type or Control

introduced introduced damage
Cane toad Central and 1930s control for - Prey on
south beetle pests bees.
America of sugar - Decrease
cane native
animals.
- Depletion
of fauna.

Prickly pear Central and 19th century start the N/A N/A
south cochineal
America dye industry
‘Cane toad:
- Highly adaptable and can tolerate a wide range of physical conditions. The toad is an
opportunistic breeder and does not have a regular breeding season.
- The large pair of parotid glands on the cane toad shoulders produce venom that can be
violently squirted for up to one metre
- Most predators that eat every part of the toad die. E.g. crocodiles, frog-eating snakes,
goannas.
- SELECTION PRESSURE and cane toad. Spinal arthritis suggests that the toad size has
reached a biomechanical or physiological tolerance limit.
- 有毒，没有固定交配期，没有天敌，适应性很强
Prickly pear:
- A cactus （仙人掌）that was introduced into Australia in the 19th from central and south
America to start the cochineal dye industry.
- The cactus is an erect succulent shrub with flattened spiny stems which are divided into
segments called pads or joints.
- The outer epidermis is thick, tough, and drought resistant and a dull green or bluish-green
colour
- Areoles are growing points found on the pads and fruit from which spines, bristles, new
pad, flower or root can develop
- The leaves are small and scale-like and only found on young areole growing regions.
- Prickly pear is drought resistant and prefers a subhumid to semi-arid area in warm
temperate to subtropical regions growing along stream and river banks.
- REPRODUCTION: very successful in vegetative propagation with any part of the plant that
breaks away from the parent plant able to form a new plant.

Adaptation
Characteristic that an organism has inherited and that makes it suited to its environment.

IMPORTANT:
An organism does not intentionally change to suit its environment.

An organism does not intentionally produce offspring that have these changes.

Conduct practical investigations, individually or in teams, or use secondary sources to examine

the adaptation of organisms that increase their ability to survive in their environment, including:
- Structural adaptation
- Physiological adaptation
- Behaviour adaptation

Natural selection:
An organism just happens to have a certain characteristic because there is variation within a
species  if there are changes in the environment (selection pressures) that make this
characteristic beneficial for survival -> then organisms with this characteristic will survive longer,
therefore be able to reproduce more -> and they will pass on this characteristic to their offspring
-> over MANY GENERATIONS there will be an increase in numbers of organisms with this
characteristic.
Three main abiotic factors that affect survival in Australian environments:
● Lack of Water
● High Temperature
● High exposure to Sunlight
Structural adaptations
● Features that are concerned with the anatomy of the organism – the size, shape, or
appearance of its body or part of its body
● E.g. large ears/ desert animals/ bilby and red kangaroo; pouch of a kangaroo; spines on an
echidna; large leaves on rainforest plants living in lower levels, etc.
Physiological adaptation
● Those concerned with the internal function of the body’s metabolism that increases the
chance of survive
● E.g. sticky saliva of the echidna to trap ants; the suckling stimulus in the pouch by a Joey
kangaroo prevents further offspring
● E.g. plants which have a dormant period in winter such as deciduous trees etc.
Behaviour adaptation
● Concerned with how an organism behaves how it moves, around or acts
● E.g. kangaroo will cool down by licking its forearms’ animal seeking protection from the
sun digging holes, shallow beds and burrows or are nocturnal; the flower of the sunflower
follows the sun’ other plants close up leaves to avoid the sun.
Examples:

Name of Animal Adaptation Type of How does this adaptation

Adaptation assist in survival of the
species?
Red kangaroo Microbial digestion Physiological They can survive without
in the expanded adaptation water if food is green
(Wide spread throughout arid forestomach.  
and semi-arid Australia.)

Stout, tapering tail Structural In bipedal hopping the tail

acts as a fifth limb adaptation acts as a counterweight,
 in slow five-point able to jump for long
movement distances
 

They are more Behaviour

active during the adaptation
cooler periods of
the day and relax
eating their cud
during the warmer
part of the day.

Name of plant Adaptation Type of How does this adaptation assist in

Adaptation survival of the species?
Salt excretion in root Physiological Reduce salt damage
adaptation
Salt secretion through Structural Reduce salt damage
River
the salt gland on leave
mangrove
surface
Salt scarification, old Behaviour Reduce salt damage
leaves
Investigate, through secondary sources, the observations and collection of data that were
obtained by Charles Darwin to support the Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection, for example:
- Finches of the Galapagos islands
- Australian flora and fauna

Finches of the Galapagos Island

The combined process of geographic isolation on
different island, genetic change, and behaviour
isolation repeated itself over an over across the
Galapagos Islands.
Over many generations, the process could have
produced the 13 different finch species found there
today.
Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection
Inquiry question: What is the relationship between evolution and biodiversity?
● explain biological diversity in terms of the Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection by
examining the changes in and diversification of life since it first appeared on the Earth
(ACSBL088)

Evolution theory:
⇒ all living species arise from pre-existing species
⇒ all living things have a common ancestor in some initial form of primitive life.
⇒ Changes in environment of living organisms leads to evolution of plant and animal species
⇒ Changes in environment conditions may be:
Physical, chemical, competition
Charles Darwin: the theory of evolution of natural selection
1. variation exists within a population
2. more offspring are produced than can survive
3. those offspring that are better adapted to their environment will survive and reproduce
4. the favourable adaptations are passes onto the next generation
5. over time, the favourable adaptation will increase in the population (as long as the
environment does not change)
Biodiversity/ biological diversity: the variety of all forms of life on Earth, the diversity of the
characteristic that living organisms have and the variety of ecosystems of which they are
components, iincludes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems.
1. Genetic diversity: total number of genetic characteristics in the genetic make-up of a
species
- Different genes and combinations of genes within populations.
- Example: wide range of skin colour and facial feature observed in human.
2. Species diversity: a measure of the diversity of different species in an ecological
community
- Different kinds of organisms, relationships among species.
- Examples: monkeys, dragonflies, and meadow beauties are all different species in the
same community.
3. Ecosystem diversity: the variation of different ecosystem found in a region.
- Different habitats, niches, species interactions.
- Examples: rain forest, estuary, coral reef
How life started, life scale:
Age of mammal (65 MYA)

Age of reptile (250 MYA)

 Age of amphibian (345MYA) 两栖动物

Age of fishes (425 MYA)

Age of invertebrates (600 MYA) 无脊椎动物

Eukaryotes (2500 MYA)

Cyanobacteria

Prokaryotes

Origin life (3800 MYA)

Diversification of life on Earth:

The graph shows: after a major extinction event (widespread and rapid decrease in biodiversity),
new life forms flourish. For example, it seems that, after the extinction of the dinosaurs, a group
of diverse reptiles, mammals that were once small and rare animals were able to take advantage
of the new niche left open as their previous inhabitants became reduced in numbers or extinct.
From prokaryote to eukaryote:
PROKARYOTES: Early Earth
provided conditions for inorganic
molecules to form organic
molecules; organic molecules
then reacted with each other to
form more complex organic
compounds. Complex organic
compounds then became
separated from their
surroundings when membranes
formed around them. This is
thought to account for how the
first primitive living cells came to
be. The separation of these cells from their environment would have allowed the entities to
metabolise more effectively. These are thought to have been the first prokaryotic cells.

EUKARYOTES: Evidence suggest that larger cells ingested smaller cells, resulting in
membrane-bound organelles such as chloroplasts and mitochondria occurring inside cells. These
would have been the first eukaryotic cells.

非考点
● analyse how an accumulation of micro evolutionary changes can drive evolutionary changes
and speciation over time, for example: (ACSBL034, ACSBL093)
– evolution of the horse
– evolution of the platypus
Micro evolution微演化
Macro evolution 宏观演化
Evolution of the horse:
- macro evolution, but accumulation of micro evolution
- development:
⇒ a larger body
⇒ reduction of the number of foot bones and focus on the middle toe
⇒ longer limbs, longer neck and longer and slimmer head
⇒ reduction of the number of teeth and concentration on incisors and molars
 ⇒ eating of more difficult digestible food
⇒ shift in emphasis of the body mass from posterior to anterior
Evolution of platypus

Non-mammal mammal Platypus characteristic

Mouth Bill or beak, no teeth=bird, Mouth with lips and Beak seen from below
(bill=duck) teeth Bill
Feet Webbed feet, amphibians Free digits, not Hind- foot, fore-foot with
(which were classified as webbed the toes spread out
part of the reptile class Webbed feet
back then) and some birds
(ducks)
Reproduction Internal fertilisation, but Internal fertilisation, Egg laying
egg-laying (oviparous): young born alive.
reptiles and birds internal
fertilisation, young
develop in soft egg inside
the female’s body
(ovo-viviparous): some
reptiles
Parental care- Young are not suckled no Mammary glands for Don’t have tits for young
feeding mammary glands milk production; to suck on. Instead the
young young are suckled mother’s milk oozes out
from the female’s
mammary glands down
two grooves on either
side of the female’s
abdomen. The babies
the suck on the milk
from the grooves.
- Skin patch

Regulation of Ectotherms- body Endotherms- body Endotherms- regulates

body temperature regulated by heat is generated their body temperature
temperature external sources of heat from internal sources. by eating to burn the
(e.g. in the environment) Body temperature is food. They cool off
body temperature tends constant and hardly through sweating or by
to fluctuate more- fish, fluctuates with that of finding shelter.
amphibian and reptiles. the external
Birds are endothermic. environment.
Presence of No hair at any stage of life Hair present at some Have furs
hair stage of life

- Platypus is a mammal
Why mammal?
 - Mammals are the only animals that produce milk from mammary glands and have hair
presents on their body. The platypus have both of these distinguishing feature therefore it
is a mammal.

Endothermic: warm blooded or heated from inside the skin

Ectothermic: heated from outside the skin or cold blooded

● Explain, using example, how Darwin and Wallace’s Theory of Evolution by Natural
selection account for:
- Convergent evolution
- Divergent evolution
Divergent evolution趋异进化: occurs when different groups arise from a common ancestor due
to adaptive radiation.
- Leads to populations that look quite different from each other.
- Example: adaptive radiation from the ancestral kangaroo has led to the musky rat
kangaroo, the rat kangaroos, the red kangaroos, tree kangaroo and wallabies.
Convergent evolution趋同进化:
- Leads to superficial similarities due to organisms living in the same habitat or having the
same life style although they are not closely related.
 - Examplew: led to a dolphin (mammal) and a shark (cartilaginous fish), they look
superficially similar, although reproduction, body temperature control etc are quite
different.
Evidence for evolution
Palaeontology & transitional forms
Example: Archaeopteryx
- Small flying dinosaur with feature from Jurassic
- Birds evolved from reptile
- Reptile: long-tail, claw, no kneel, solid bones, teeth
- Bird: wishbone, feathers
Biogeography
Biogeography: study of distribution of living things
Particular species are localised to certain continents
Example: waratahs
- 3 genera
- Eastern Australia, Papua New Guinea, Western part of South America
- 2 region (Oceania and south America) were once connected Gondwana.

Biochemical- evidence DNA Hybridisation（DNA杂交）

DNA: Deoxyribonucleic acid　脱氧核糖核酸

A-T, C-G have hydrogen bonds between them and can be easily break by increasing temperature.
 1. Blood or other sample is taken to isolate DNA (nucleus).
2. The DNA from each species is made to unwind into single strands by applying heat.
3. Then single stranded DNA of e.g. human and chimpanzee are combined to see how closely they
bind to each other.
4. The greater the similarity the greater the attraction between the 2 single strands and therefore
they are harder to separate again.
5. The degree of similarity of the hybrid DNA can be measured by finding the temperature at which
they can be unzipped into single strands.

Define biodiversity

- Biodiversity is the variety of all life forms in a certain area.

Outline the three main types of diversity and give an example each
 - • Genetic biodiversity, which refers to the total number of genetic characteristics in the genetic
make-up of a species. A species made up of clones (those genetically identical) would be said to
have low genetic biodiversity.
- • Species biodiversity, which is a measure of the diversity of different species in an ecological
community. An area containing only one or a few dominant organism would be said to have low
species biodiversity.
- • Ecosystem biodiversity, which is the variation of different ecosystems found in a region. An area
with woodland, stream, swamp and grassland would be considered to have high ecosystem
biodiversity.

Explain the relationship between biodiversity and evolution

- Biodiversity and evolution are closely linked since the more genetic biodiversity a population has
the more variation it contains, making favourable traits to be selected for more likely. The higher
the species diversity in an area, the more competition for resources, so this places more selective
pressures on an organism, which would stimulate evolution by natural selection. An area with high
ecosystem biodiversity would contain many varied habitats to exploit for those organisms with
favourable traits to exploit them.

Outline the significant changes since the origin (beginning) of the evolution of life on Earth.

- The significant changes in the origins of life on Earth were the transition from non-organic
molecules to the first prokaryotic cells. Then the development of specialised organelles, which led
to the first eukaryotic cells that functioned more efficiently than prokaryotes, giving them a
selective advantage. Further diversification happened when colonies of cells began working
together and eventually multicellular organisms formed. Each stage offered an advantage over the
one before.

Outline the evidence to suggest that prokaryotic cells came before eukaryotic cells

- Evidence suggests that eukaryotes came about via larger cells eating smaller cells, which then
became the organelles such as mitochondria and chloroplasts. Further evidence for this is that
chloroplasts and mitochondria store their own genetic material in a way similar to prokaryotes

What was the impact of a lack of oxygen in the early atmosphere on the biodiversity of early life form?

- A lack of oxygen would have decreased the amount of biodiversity on Earth. The organism life
scale shows that 2500 million years ago biodiversity was low. Once oxygen producing eukaryotic
cells evolved, biodiversity increased.

Suggest why some organisms appear to have changes very little over time

- An explanation for why some organisms appear to have changed very little over time is that they
have little variation in the species or they have not faced a radical enough selective pressure to
trigger a change in the population.

Evolution of horse:

Describe the changes in leg length and width of digits that have occurred in horse evolution

- Over time, the legs became longer. The main digit became wider and the other digits became
narrower until, in Equus, they became vestigial.
Explain the advantage of the small body of Hyracotherium living in thickly wooded areas with a dense
undergrowth

- A small body would have permitted the Hyracotherium to hide in the underbrush from its
predators.

Changes in vegetation have selected for different feature throughout the source of horse evolution.
Explain how the vegetation changes and how these selection pressures have led to the features of modern
day horses.

- As the thick forests changed to grasslands, the horse had to change from eating leaves and shrubs
to eating grass. This change would cause changes in the tooth structure resulting in the
development of grinding surfaces (grass is coarser than tree leaves and ferns). There was an
advantage for horses to move faster through the grasslands so bones in the legs fused and the
fetlock strengthened so that the central digit became stabilised for running

Over time, the teeth of horses have become larger and flatter. Hypothesise what might happen to modern
horses if the climate changed and tropical forests covered the majority of the earth and there was still
diversity present in the present in the genes for tooth modification.

- The new selection pressures in the changed climate would act against horses with teeth designed
for eating grasses. They would be at a disadvantage. If some modern horses had a variation in
genes for tooth modification that suited tropical forests they would have an increased chance of
survival in the population. They would continue to breed, passing on the gene variation. Over