ANATOMY AND

1st Year, 1st Semester

PHYSIOLOGY PRELIMS

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

• Filters, warms and moistens inspired air

• Produces sounds thru air movement passed sa vocal
chords
• Rids the body of some water and heat in exhaled air

ORGANS OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

NOSE

vibrissae

• Includes: nose, pharynx (throat), larynx (voice box),

trachea (windpipe), bronchi, and lungs
• RESPIRATION – entire process of gas exchange in
the body
• Respiration occurs in 3 basic steps:
o Pulmonary ventilation
o External respiration • A specialized organ at the entrance to the respiratory
o Internal respiration system
• Structurally the r.s can be divided into two parts • Has a visible external portion and an internal portion
1. Upper Respiratory Tract • External portion : made of cartilage and skin and
o Nose, nasal cavity, pharynx lined with mucous membrane ; has two openings
2. Lower Respiratory Tract
o Larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs
• Functionally, the respiratory system can be divided
into two parts
1. Conducting zone – consists of a series of
interconnecting cavities and tubes both outside
and within the lungs ; they conduct air INTO the
lungs
§ Starts @ nasal cavity → pharynx → larynx o External Nares (Nostrils) : openings to the
→ trachea → bronchi → bronchioles exterior ; open into the nasal cavity. It has
§ These structures filter, warm and humidify course hairs (vibrissae) that extend across the
the air as they conduct air into the lungs nostrils and guard the nasal cavity from large air
2. Respiratory zone – consists of tissues within particles
the lungs where gas exchange occurs o Vibrissae : filter macro particles that might be
BETWEEN air and blood inhaled
§ Consists of respiratory bronchioles, • Internal Portion : divided from the external portion
alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs and the
by the nasal septum, communicates with the
alveoli paranasal sinuses and nasopharynx through the
internal nares
FUNCTIONS
• The nose is adapted for warming, moistening,
• Provides for gas exchange, the intake of O2 and
and filtering air; olfaction; and serving as a
removal of CO2 resonating chamber
• Helps regulate blood pH by changing CO2 levels
• Contains receptors for the sense of smell

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1st Year, 1st Semester
PHYSIOLOGY PRELIMS

NASAL CAVITY • Wall is composed of skeletal muscle and lined with

• space inside the nose and lies below the cranium mucous membrane
and above the mouth. It is lined with a mucous
membrane (ciliated pseudostratified columnar FUNCTIONS OF THE PHARYNX
epithelium) containing goblet cells and underlying • Passageway for air and food
lose connective tissue layer containing mucous • Resonating chamber for speech and houses the
glands tonsils
• This mucous membrane contains many blood • 3 Divisions:
vessels that deliver heat and moisture that makes o Nasopharynx – respiration
us susceptible to nose bleeds bc of their o Oropharynx and laryngopharynx - digestion &
superficial location respiration
• Goblet cells and mucous glands produce mucous LARYNX (VOICE BOX)
that bathe the exposed surface of the nasal cavity
and lower respiratory tract
• Cilia sweeps the mucous and any trapped debris/
microorganisms toward the pharynx where they
can be swallowed and exposed to the acids and
enzymes of the stomach and spit it out
o When ext temp is cold, cilia become
slow, mucous accumulates and dribbles
outside the nostril (runny nose)

NASAL SEPTUM – divides the nasal cavity into right and

left sides. It consists of the perpendicular plate of the • Connects the pharynx and the trachea
ethmoid bone, vomer, and cartilage • Contains the thyroid cartilage (adam’s apple – mas
large kasi thyroid cartilage ng male kaya ganon), the
SUPER, MIDDLE AND INFERIOR NASAL CONCHAE – epiglottis, the cricoid cartilage, arytenoid cartilages,
project into the nasal septum from the lateral walls of the cuneiform, corniculate cartilages, false vocal cords,
nasal cavity and true vocal cords
TO REMEMBER
Thyroid cartilage Largest + unpaired
Epiglottis
Cricoid cartilage
Cuneiform Smaller + paired
Corniculate
Arytenoid
Thyroid cartilage Made up of hyaline
Cricoid cartilage cartilage
Arytenoid cartilage
Epiglottis Made up of elastic
Cuneiform cartilage
Corniculate cartilage

• Mucous membrane of the larynx forms 2 pairs of

folds

PHARYNX (THROAT)
• Funnel shaped tube
• Starts at the internal nares and extends partway
down the neck
• Lies just posterior to the nasal and oral cavities and
just anterior to the cervical (neck) vertebrae

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1st Year, 1st Semester
PHYSIOLOGY PRELIMS

1. True Vocal Folds • Flexible tubular passageway for air is located ant to
o Inferior pair the esophagus and extends from the larynx to the
o They produce sounds during speaking and primary bronchi
singing • Begins at the level of the C6 vertebra where it
o Muscles stretch folds to the cartilage and true attaches to the cricoid cartilage of the larynx and
vocal chords ends at the mediastinum at the level of the T5
o When the muscles contract they pull the elastic vertebra
ligaments tight which move tv.c to the air • Composed of smooth muscle (allows expansion of
passageway. The air pushed against the tvc esophagus during swallowing) and 16-20 c-shaped
causes it to vibrate and sits up the sounds rings of cartilage (holds the trachea open)
waves in the air in the pharynx, nose and mouth • Lined with pseudostratified ciliated columnar
o Greater pressure = louder sound epithelium
• Divides into a right main (primary) bronchus and a
2. False Vocal Folds left main (primary) bronchus
o Vestibular folds ; Superior pair
o Do not produce sound
o Work w epiglottis to help prevent foreign objects
to enter the glottis

• PITCH - controlled by the tension of the vocal folds

• Vocal cords pulled taut → vibrate more rapidly →
higher pitch
• Lower sounds are produced by decreasing the
muscular tension
• Males have thicker and longer vocal chords due to
the influence of the male sex hormone (testosterone)
thus the vocal chords vibrate more slowly and they
have lower pitch as compared to women BRONCHI AND BRONCHIOLES
• The trachea divides into the 1.) Right primary
VOCAL CHORDS DURING SPEAKING AND SINGING bronchus (RPB) which goes into the right lung and
• Your voice comes from tiny resonating muscles the 2.) left primary bronchus (LPB) which goes into
called vocal chords the left lung.
• Size of a Dime = woman • LPB is more horizontal than RPB bc it is displaced
• Size of a Nickel = man by the heart, pouring objects that enter the trachea
• Ur v.c vibrate very quickly (120-240 times per second into the RPB bc it is vertical nga
in a conversation) • In each lung, the primary bronchi branch into smaller
• Videostroboscopy can help us look at the vc while and smaller airways that forms the bronchial tree
they are vibrating and find ways to make them move (upside down tree)
normally (have a clear voice if normal movement)
• Watch niyo yung vid kasi makikita yung movement
sa different pitch and loudness

TRACHAEA (WINDPIPE)

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ANATOMY AND
1st Year, 1st Semester
PHYSIOLOGY PRELIMS

• Each PB enters the lung, gives rise to secondary • RIGHT LUNG – with 3 lobes separated by 2 fissures
bronchi (lobar bronchi) which enter the lobes of that o OBLIQUE + HORIZONTAL FISSUE – divides
lung. RL into superior inferior and middle lobes
• SB divides to form around 9-10 tertiary bronchi • LEFT LUNG – with 2 lobes separated by one fissure
(segmental bronchi) in each lung plus a depression, the cardiac notch
• Each TB branch repeatedly into smaller bronchi o OBLIQUE FISSURE – divides LL into superior
called bronchioles. and inferior lobes
• Bronchioles branch out into much smaller tubes • The double layered serous membrane protects each
called terminal bronchioles lung
• Terminal bronchioles divide to form several • PLEURAL CAVITY – narrow space between the
respiratory bronchioles which deliver air to the gas lung and the pleura which contains a small amount
exchange services of the lungs fo lubricating fluid
• Lungs extend from the diaphragm to just slightly
PB → SB → TB → bronchioles → terminal superior sa clavicles and lies against the ribs ant and
bronchioles → respiratory bronchioles → air post
delivered to gas exchange services • CARDIAC NOTCH – indentation @ left lung where
the heart lies
• Each lobe receives its own secondary bronchiole,
and each lung lobe are divided into smaller segments
that are supplied by a tertiary bronchus
o The segments are divided into many small
compartments called lobules which contain
lymphatic vessels, arterioles, venules, and a
branch from a terminal bronchiole wrapped in
elastic connective tissue

LUNGS

LOBULE OF THE LUNG

• Each lobule contains lymphatic vessels, arterioles,
venules, terminal br., respiratory br., alveolar ducts,
alveolar sac, and alveoli
• Respiratory br (lined by non-ciliated simple cuboidal
• Paired organs in the thoracic cavity enclosed by the
epithelium) subdivide into several alveolar ducts
pleural membrane
• Alveolar sacs – 2 or more alveoli that share a
• PARIETAL PLEURA – outer layer
common opening to the alveolar ducts
• VISCERAL PLEURA – inner layer

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1st Year, 1st Semester
PHYSIOLOGY PRELIMS

STRUCTURE OF AN ALVEOLUS

ALVEOLUS – cup shaped out pouch of an alveolar sac

• Each lung contains 150 alveoli
• Its walls mainly consist of thin alveolar cells lined RESPIRATORY MEMBRANE - the region between
by simple squamous epi and basement capillaries and alveolar space where gas exchange
membrane happens.
• It serves as the main site of gas exchange • It is formed by the walls of the alveoli and
surrounding capillaries.
RESPIRATORY MEMBRANE • Very thin thus facilitating diffusion of gases
• It consists of thin layer of fluid lining the alveolus,
Each alveolus have macrophages that patrol the alveolar epithelium (Consists of simple sq
epithelium phagocytizing dust or debris epithelium), basement membrane of A.E,
interstitial space, B.m of the capillary
Scattered among the squamous cells are septal cells endothelium, and the capillary epithelium
which secrete a mixture of lipoprotein mol called (composed of simple sq epi)
surfactants
PHYSIOLOGY OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Surfactants form a superficial coating over their layers of
water coating the alveolar surface. They reduce surface PULMONARY VENTILATION
tension (force of attraction bet H2O molecules) wherein - The exchange of air between the atmosphere and
mol that line the alveoli attract each other that may cause the lungs
the collapse of alveoli. Without this, the surface tension - Ventilation is breathing; inspiration and exhalation
would collapse the delicate alveolar walls - Into and out of the lungs, it travels from regions of
high air pressure to regions of low air pressure

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1st Year, 1st Semester
PHYSIOLOGY PRELIMS

- Pressure inside the lungs is lower (inspire); expire – to produce larger changes in the volume of the
higher pressure thoracic cavity during both inspiration and expiration
- Movement of the air to the out of the lungs is Boyle’s - Deep Inspiration – increases volume
law (volume & pressure) - Deep Expiration – decreases volume

BOYLE’S LAW Volume is increasing – our rib

- Relationship of volume and pressure cage is expanding; decreases
- Pressure is caused by the gas molecules striking the pressure
walls of the container. Pressure is related to volume Volume is decreasing – our rib
- Larger volume, the gas molecules strike the wall less cage is smaller; increases
frequent pressure
- Smaller volume, more frequent
- The pressure of a gas is inversely proportional to the Pressure inside the lungs is
volume of its container higher, the movement of air is
- When volume increases, pressure decreases and from inside to outside
vice versa
- Increasing volume decreases pressure, decreasing Pressure outside the lungs is
volume increases pressure higher?? The movement of air is
- During inhalation our lungs expand such as the from outside to inside
thoracic cavity expands, pressure inside decreases,
atmosphere air goes inside INTRAPULMONARY PRESSURE CHANGES
- When we exhale air the pressure builds up inside
and the air inside goes outside, lower volume

QUIET INSPIRATION: MUSCLE CONTRACTION

INTRAPULMONARY or INTRA-ALVEOLAR
PRESSURE – the pressure within the alveoli. Between
breaths, it equals atmospheric pressure (760mmHg)
- During quiet inspiration, the diaphragm, and the
- Inspiration – low atmospheric pressure
external intercostal muscles contract
- Expiration – high atmospheric pressure
- When you expand the thoracic cavity, the pressure
inside decreases, the movement of the air from the
INTRAPLEURAL PRESSURE CHANGES
atmosphere goes inside your lungs
INTRAPLEURAL PRESSURE – pressure within the
QUIET EXPIRATION: MUSCLE RELAXATION pleural cavity. Intrapleural cavity is always negative,
- Quiet expiration is a passive process, in which the which acts like a suction to keep the lungs inflated
diaphragm and the external intercostal muscles
relax, and the elastic lungs and thoracic will recoil The negative intrapleural pressure is due to :
inward a. Surface tension of alveolar fluid
- Expiration, diagram moves superiorly, the rib cage
b. Elasticity of lungs
returns to its normal position c. Elasticity of thoracic wall
- Volume decreases, increases the pressure in the
thoracic than in the atmosphere so the air will get out The abundant elastic tissue in the lung tends to recoil and
pull the lung inward. As the lung moves away from the
MUSCLES OF DEEP INSPIRATION AND EXPIRATION thoracic wall, the activity becomes lightly larger,
- Deep breathing uses forceful contractions of the decreasing pressure
inspiratory muscles & additional accessory muscles

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1st Year, 1st Semester
PHYSIOLOGY PRELIMS

EVENTS DURING INSPIRATION

- Intrapleural pressure changes should be less
760mmHg so the lungs will not fully deflate 1. Diaphragm and external
- Some air should stay on our lungs so it won’t intercostal muscles contract
collapse 2. Volume of thoracic cavity
increases
NOTE !!! 3. Intrapleural pressure
- Surface tension – it tends to pull each of the becomes more negative
alveoli inward and therefore pulls the entire lung 4. Lungs expand
5. Intrapulmonary pressure
forward ; force that helps with lung recoil; recoil- becomes negative
decreases the size of the lung 6. Air flows into the lungs
- Surfactant – lessens the surface tension, so the
lung will not fully deflate DURING EXPIRATION
LUNGS SHOULD NOT FULLY DEFLATE; IF IT 1. Diaphragm and external
FULLY DEFLATE = COLLAPSED LUNG intercostal muscles relax
2. Volume of thoracic cavity
decreases
EFFECT OF PNEUMOTHORAX 3. Intrapleural pressure
- What happens to a lung If you cut through the becomes less negative
thoracic wall? It will collapse 4. Lungs recoil
o Air enters the pleural cavity as it moves from 5. Intrapulmonary pressure
high pressure to low pressure (pneumothorax). rises above atmospheric
o The pressure difference between pressure
intrapulmonary and intrapleural pressures 6. Air flows out of the lungs
(trans pulmonary pressure) creates the suction
to keep the lungs inflated OTHER FACTORS AFFECTING VENTILATION
- TRANSPULMONARY PRESSURE – creates the Two other important factors play roles in ventilation:
section to keep the lungs inflated - Resistance within the airways
- Each of our lung is enclosed by pleural cavity, each - Lung compliance
lung is protected by its own pleura
o If one part of your chest is punctured, changes RESISTANCE WITHIN THE AIRWAYS
in intrapleural pressure of one lung do not affect - As air flows into the lungs, the gas molecules
the other lung encounter resistance when they strike the walls of
- PNEUMOTHORAX – air comes to your thoracic the airway, therefore the diameter of the airway
cavity from the atmosphere affects resistance
- Air rushes in, the pressure inside will get high equal - When diameter increases, the resistance increases
to the atmosphere, the lungs will not have a suction (his happens if the bronchioles constrict)
anymore causing lung collapse - Air flow is inversely related to resistance which is
shown by the equation
NOTE !!! 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝐴𝑖𝑟𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 =
As the thoracic wall moves outward during inspiration, 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
- In healthy lungs, the airways typically offer little
the intrapleural pressure becomes even more
resistance, so air flows easily into and out of the
negative. As the thoracic wall recoils during expiration, lungs
the pressure returns to -4mmHg or 756 mmHg
FACTORS AFFECTING AIRWAY RESISTANCE
• Several factors change airway resistance by
affecting the diameter of airways. They do this by
contracting or relaxing the smooth muscles in the
airway walls exp the bronchioles
• HISTAMINE – released during allergic reactions
which constricts bronchioles.
o Increases airways resistance + decrease
airflow, making it harder to breathe

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 ANATOMY AND
1st Year, 1st Semester
PHYSIOLOGY PRELIMS

o People with allergies tend to have a harder time ---------- start ng lecture ni sir ---------
in breathing
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 PULMONARY VENTILATION
𝐴𝑖𝑟𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 =
𝑅𝐸𝑆𝐼𝑆𝑇𝐴𝑁𝐶𝐸 aka breathing; the flow of air between the atmosphere and
• EPINEPHRINE – released by adrenal medulla which the lungs, occurs due to differences in air pressure
dilates bronchioles - INHALE OR BREATHE IN - when the pressure
- Decreases airway resistance + increased airflow inside the lungs is less than the atmospheric air
- Ensures adequate gas exchange pressure
𝑃𝑅𝐸𝑆𝑆𝑈𝑅𝐸 - EXHALE OR BREATHE OUT - when the
𝐴𝑖𝑟𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 = pressure inside the lungs is greater than the
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
atmospheric air pressure
LUNG COMPLIANCE - CONTRACTION AND RELAXATION of skeletal
- Ease with which the lungs expand muscles create the air pressure changes that
- Determined by 2 factors : power breathing
o The stretch ability of elastic fibers within
the lungs Exhale – pressure increases = air will get out
o The surface tension within the alveoli
MUSCLES OF INHALATION AND EXHALATION
ELASTIC FIBER
- Like a balloon, the lungs inflates easily w minimal
pressure, thus it has high compliance due to
abundant elastic connective tissue
- Low lung compliance occurs in some pathological
conditions such as fibrosis, in which increasing
amounts of less flexible connective tissue
develop (more difficult to inflate)

SURFACE TENSION WITHIN THE ALVEOLI

- Some premature infants do not produce
surfactant so they have low compliance
o W/o surfactant, alveoli have high surface
tension and they tend to collapse.
- Collapsed alveoli resists expansion, so lung
compliance is low INHALATION
o This condition is called respiratory - Movement of intercostal and diaphragm
distress syndrome of the newborn - Volume of our chest increases = pressure decreases
- Surfactant lessens surface tension and increases - From atmosphere to our lungs
lung compliance
EXHALATION
SUMMARY OF PULMONARY VENTILATION - Intercostals relax
- Muscle anatomy causes changes in the volume of - Sternum is resting
the thoracic cavity during breathing - Diaphragm – rests so dome shaped siya
- Changing the thoracic cavity volume causes - Ribs going down – less thoracic volume; pressure
intrapulmonary and intrapleural pressure changes increases then we exhale
which allow air to move from high pressure to low - movement – from lungs to atmosphere
- Internal intercostals; abdominal muscles
pressure regions
- When we breathe, the abdominal area will move
- Air way resistance is normally low, but nervous superiorly
stimulation end chemical factors can change the
diameter of bronchioles, thereby altering resistance PRESSURE CHANGES DURING BREATHING
and airflow - High atmospheric pressure outside = air will move
- Lung compliance is normally high due to the lung’s inside to outside
abundant elastic tissue and surfactant’s ability to
1. AT REST
lower the surface tension of the alveolar fluid
• Atmospheric pressure = 760 mmHg

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ANATOMY AND
1st Year, 1st Semester
PHYSIOLOGY PRELIMS

• Alveolar pressure = 760 mmHg

• Intrapleural pressure = 756 mmHg
• At rest, when the diaphragm is relaxed, alveolar
pressure is equal to atmospheric pressure and
there is no air flow

2. INHALATION
• Atmospheric pressure = 760 mmHg
• Alveolar pressure = 758 mmHg
• Intrapleural pressure = 754 mmHg
• During inhalation, the diaphragm contracts and
the external intercostals contract. The chest
cavity expands and the alveolar pressure drops
below atmospheric pressure. Air flows into the
lungs in response to the pressure gradient and
the lung volume expands
• During deep inhalation, the scalene and
sternocleidomastoid muscles expands the
chest further, thereby creating a greater drop in
alveolar pressure

3. EXHALATION
• Atmospheric pressure = 760 mmHg
• Alveolar pressure = 762 mmHg
• Intrapleural pressure = 756 mmHg
• During exhalation, the diaphragm relaxes and
the ext intercostals relax. The chest + lungs
recoil, the chest cavity contracts, and the
alveolar pressure increases above atmospheric - During expiration, Pressure inside and outside is
pressure. Air flows out of the lung in response equal = no air movement
to the pressure gradient and the lung volume - During inspiration, atmospheric is greater than
decreases. alveolar pressure, so the air moves into the lungs
• During forced exhalations, the internal
intercostals and abdominal muscles contract, LUNG RECOIL
thereby reducing the size of the chest cavity • Tendency for an expanded lung to decrease in size
further and creating a greater increase in • Elastic tissues = ability to recoil
alveolar pressure • Pressure inside so it maintains the lung to be inflated
• Occurs during quiet expiration
• Due to elastic fibers and thin film of fluid lining alveoli,
which had surface tension
• Two factors keep the lungs from collapsing:
o Surfactant
o Pleural Pressure

SURFACTANT
• A mixture of lipoproteins
• Produced by secretory cells of the alveoli
• A single fluid layer on the surface of thin fluid lining
alveoli
• As fetus gets older, surfactant is produced
• By the time the child birthed, the lung can expand
• If premature – lungs cannot expand so they are given
surfactant for the lungs to expand or to mature

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1st Year, 1st Semester
PHYSIOLOGY PRELIMS

• Reduces surface tension

• Keeps lungs from collapsing

PLEURAL PRESSURE
• Pressure in the pleural cavity
• Less than alveolar pressure bc it must allow the
alveoli to expand
• Keep the alveoli from collapsing

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE PULMONARY

VENTILATION
LUNG ELASTICITY VOLUMES
- Lungs need to recoil between ventilations
- Decreased by emphysema
- Emphysema – alveoli walls are stretched and
destroyed and bc of that, the lungs cannot fully
recoil (air is trapped and filled with CO2 instead
of O2)

LUNG COMPLIANCE
- Ability of the thoracic cavity to expand
- Affected if rib cage is damaged (car accident,
etc.)
- Lungs cannot fully expand – gas exchange is
impaired

RESPIRATORY PASSAGEWAY RESISTANCE

- Occurs during an asthma attack, infection tumor
- Naturally, there should be less airway resistance
to allow (nag lag ako yawa)
- If it is difficult to breathe, kulang ka ng O2 sa lungs
mo 1. Tidal Volume (TV) – the volume of air inhaled and
exhaled with each breath (500ml) ** athletic people
PULMONARY VOLUMES AND CAPACITIES has more of this
- Minute ventilation is the total volume of air inhaled 2. Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV) – max volume of
and exhaled each minute air that can be inhaled forcefully (3000ml)
o Under normal circumstances normal respiratory 3. Residual Volume (RV) – volume of air remaining in
rate is 12-20 cycles per min (1 inhale, exhale = the lungs after MAX exhalation (1200ml)
1 cycle ) 4. Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV) – max volume of
o 𝑇𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑥 # 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 air that can be exhaled forcibly after a normal
- LUNG VOLUMES inhalation (1200 ml)
o are ability of lungs to receive and inspire air
o tidal volume, inspiratory reserve volume,
expiratory reserve volume and residual volume
- LUNG CAPACITIES
o are combinations/contractions of specific lung
volumes
o How much the lung can accepts

SPIROMETER – Process of measuring the movement of

air into and out of the respiratory system; provides us
information about respiratory volume ; they give us info
about respiratory volumes kasi this shows the health and
status of the lungs

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1st Year, 1st Semester
PHYSIOLOGY PRELIMS

CAPACITIES - Partial pressure

1. Inspiratory capacity (IC-TI) – the maximum volume of o Pressure exerted by gas among a mixture of
air inhaled after a normal expiration (3600ml) gasses
o Sum of 1 and 2 volumes o Total pressure in the atmosphere is 760 mmHg
o 𝑇𝑉 + 𝐼𝑅𝑉 but remember that the atmosphere comprises of
2. Functional Residual Capacity (FRC - RE) – the diff gasses and the pressure exerted by these
volume of air remaining in the lungs after a NORMAL gasses is the reason why we have partial
expiration (2400ml) pressure
o sum of 3 and 4 volumes
o 𝑅𝑉 + 𝐸𝑅𝑉 NOTE : the gas in our atmosphere is mostly comprised of
3. Vital Capacity (VC - TIE) – The max volume of air nitrogen and oxygen. P.p of oxygen outside is higher bc
exhaled from the point of MAXIMUM inspiration (4800ml) of the tendency of it to move from higher to lower
; total amt of air under resting conditions and exhale them pressure. CO2 has higher pp in the alveoli than in the
forcibly blood (will travel from blood to alveoli)
o Sum of 1,2,4
o 𝑅𝑉 + 𝐼𝑅𝑉 + 𝐸𝑅𝑉 VIDEO THINGY
4. Total lung capacity (TLC - TIRE) – the volume of air - PO2 in fresh air that enters the lung is 160
in the lungs after a MAX inspiration (6000ml) - Presence of moisture in the lung causes
o Sum of all volumes reduction in the PO2 (PO2 in the alveolus is 104)
o 𝑅𝑉 + 𝐼𝑅𝑉 + 𝑅𝑉 + 𝐸𝑅𝑉 - Fresh air enters the lung carrying CO2 with a
PCO2 of 0.3
GAS EXCHANGE - The CO2 delivered to the lung raises the PCO2
- Involves exchange of gasses @ lungs and tissue to 40
- O2 and CO2 exchange - At the arterial ends of the body, o2 diffuses in the
o delivery of O2 from the lungs to the bloodstream air in the alveoli to the blood tas CO2 is from
; they attach sa RBC blood to alveoli bc of differences in partial
o elimination of CO2 from the bloodstream to the pressure
lungs - As a result of diffusion, the venous end of the
- it occurs in the lungs between the capillaries (alveoli pulmonary capillary, the PO2 in the blood is equal
network of tiny blood vessels) which are located at to the PO2 in the alveoli ; PCO2 alveoli = PCO2
the walls of the alveoli blood
- allows the body to replenish the O2 and eliminate the - With no differences in partial pressure, there is no
CO2 which are necessary for survival more net movement of O2 or CO2
- ANATOMICAL DEAD SPACE – air passes thru
RESPIRATORY MEMBRANE sa bronchi, etc. pero walang exchange of gases
- Where gas exchange between blood air occurs na nangyayari
- Primarily happens @ alveoli
- Some in respiratory bronchioles and alveolar ducts
- Anatomical dead space – Does NOT occur in
bronchioles, bronchi, trachea
- Influenced by thickness of membrane, total area of
membrane, partial pressure of gases
o Thicker membrane = harder for gas to pass thru
- Oxygen with higher pressure in the lungs tends to
diffuse to our blood

FACTORS AFFECTING GAS EXCHANGE

- Respiratory membrane thickness
o Increase in thickness if there is swelling,

- Respiratory membrane surface area

o Total s.a is about 70 ?? meters
o Can decrease if there are surgeries that can
result in the removal of lung tissue (destructions
due to cancer, emphysema)

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 ANATOMY AND
1st Year, 1st Semester
PHYSIOLOGY PRELIMS

6. Hydrogen ions combine with hemoglobin, which

GAS EXCHANGE IN THE LUNGS promotes the release of O2 from hemoglobin (Bohr
1. In the lungs, CO2 diffuses from red blood cells and effect).
plasma into the alveoli. 7. Carbon dioxide combines with hemoglobin.
2. Carbonic anhydrase catalyzes the formation of CO2 Hemoglobin that has released O2 readily combines
and H2O from H2CO3. with CO2 (Haldane effect).
3. Bicarbonate ions and H+ combine to replace
H2CO3.
4. In the chloride shift, as HCO3- diffuse into red blood
cells, electrical neutrality is maintained by the
diffusion of chloride ions (Cl-) out of them.
5. Oxygen diffuses into the plasma and into red blood
cells. Some of the O2 remains in the plasma. Oxygen
binds to hemoglobin.
6. Hydrogen ions are released from hemoglobin, which
promotes the uptake of O2 by hemoglobin (Bohr
effect).
7. Carbon dioxide is released from hemoglobin.
Hemoglobin that is bound to O2 readily releases
CO2 (Haldane effect).

RHYTMIC VENTILATION
- Normal respiratory rate is 12 to 20 respirations per
minute in adults
- In children, the rates are higher and many vary from
20 to 40 per min
- The rhythm is controlled by neurons in medulla
oblongata
- Rate is determined by the number of times
respiratory muscles are stimulated

NERVOUS CONTROL OF BREATHING

- Higher brain centers allow voluntary breathing (we
can stop our breathing like in swimming and carbon
dioxide increases and eventually we need to release
GAS EXCHANGE IN THE TISSUES it)
1. In the tissues, CO2 diffuses into the plasma and into - Emotions and speech affect breathing
red blood cells. Some of the CO2 remains in the - Hering-Breuer Reflex – inhibits respiratory center
plasma. when lungs are stretched during inspiration
2. In red blood cells, CO2 reacts with water (H2O) to
form carbonic acid (H2CO3) in a reaction catalyzed
by the enzyme carbonic anhydrase (CA).
3. Carbonic acid dissociates to form bicarbonate ions
(HCO3- ) and hydrogen ions (H+).
4. In the chloride shift, as HCO3- diffuse out of the red
blood cells, electrical neutrality is maintained by the
diffusion of chloride ions (Cl-) into them.
5. Oxygen is released from hemoglobin (Hb). Oxygen
diffuses out of red blood cells and plasma into the
tissue.

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ANATOMY AND
1st Year, 1st Semester
PHYSIOLOGY PRELIMS

- Diaphragm flattens – inspiration – increase of

volume
- Diaphragm dome shaped – exhalation – decreases
of volume

CHEMICAL CONTROL OF BREATHING

- Chemoreceptors in medulla oblongata respond to
changes in blood pH
- Blood pH are produced by changes in blood CO2
levels
- An increase in CO2 causes decreased pH result in
increased breathing
- Low blood levels of O2 stimulate chemoreceptors in
carotid and aortic bodies, increased breathing

- Green increase air/ inspiration

- Red – decrease air/ expiration
- Hering- Breuer reflex – sensitive to stretch of the
lungs

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ANATOMY AND
1st Year, 1st Semester
PHYSIOLOGY PRELIMS

TRANSCRIBED BY: @pdfiies on twitter