ASSIGNMENT - 1

MODULE - 1

1) Define distributed databases and its advantages and disadvantages.?

 A distributed database is a database that consists of two or more files

located in different sites either on the same network or on en rely different networks. Por ons
of the database are stored in mul ple physical loca ons and processing is distributed among
mul ple database nodes.

ADVANTAGES :
1) The database is easier to expand as it is already spread across multiple systems and it is not too
complicated to add a system.

2) The distributed database can have the data arranged according to different levels of
transparency i.e data with different transparency levels can be stored at different locations.
3) The database can be stored according to the departmental information in an organisation. In that
case, it is easier for a organisational hierarchical access.

DISADVANTAGES :

1) The distributed database is quite complex and it is difficult to make sure that a user gets
a uniform view of the database because it is spread across multiple locations.

2) This database is more expensive as it is complex and hence, difficult to maintain.

3)The distributed database is complicated and it is difficult to find people with the necessary
experience who can manage and maintain it.

2) Comparison among centralized, decentralized and distributed systems.?

 Centralized network systems :

A centralized network is a network where the nodes don’t directly communicate with each other.
In this system, a single server handles the major part of the network’s processing system. The
central server owns all the resources. If any nodes want to gain access to any other resources, they
get it via the central system.

Advantages

 The data sharing process is faster since the data is owned by a central source. It is much
quicker for the requested data to reach the recipient.

 A centralized network is relatively affordable due to the limited number of servers.

Disadvantages

 It has a single point of failure. If the central system fails to operate or shuts down for any
reason, the entire network goes down.
 It allows limited scalability.

Decentralized network system

A decentralized network distributes workload among several servers without having a single central
server to manage network ac vity. Each of these servers can act as an independent central server.

Advantages

 It is easily scalable.
 The decentralized network offers more privacy as information passes through different
servers.

Disadvantages

 The performance of the network decreases as the number of networks on the system
increases.
 Data may be lost during transit.

Distributed network systems

In a distributed network system, the processing power is spread evenly across the network. This
system can often seem similar to a decentralized system.

Advantages

 It has no single point of failure as the processing ability is split among individual nodes.
 It is more efficient in terms of scalability.
 It is more secure compared to a centralized system.
Disadvantages

 It is more difficult to maintain a network.

 Data may be lost during transit.

3) Problems areas in distributed database system.?

 Distributed DBMS is capable of effective communication and data sharing still it suffers from
various disadvantages are as following below.
1. Complex nature :
Distributed Databases are a network of many computers present at different locations
and they provide an outstanding level of performance, availability, and of course
reliability.
2. Overall Cost :
Various costs such as maintenance cost, procurement cost, hardware cost,
network/communication costs, labor costs, etc, adds up to the overall cost and make
it costlier than normal DBMS.

3. Security issues:
In a Distributed Database, along with maintaining no data redundancy, the security of
data as well as a network is a prime concern. A network can be easily attacked for data
theft and misuse.

4. Integrity Control:
All changes made to data at one site must be reflected on all the sites. The
communication and processing cost is high in Distributed DBMS in order to enforce
the integrity of data.

5. Lacking Standards:
Although it provides effective communication and data sharing, still there are no
standard rules and protocols to convert a centralized DBMS to a large Distributed
DBMS.

6. Lack of Professional Support:

Due to a lack of adequate communication standards, it is not possible to link different
equipment produced by different vendors into a smoothly functioning network.

7. Data design complex:

Designing a distributed database is more complex compared to a centralized
database.

4) Explain various Components of a Distributed DBMS ?

The different components of a distributed database are −
Users
There are many users who use the distributed database. For them, the fact that the database is
spread across multiple locations is transparent and they perceive the database to be one whole
construct.
Global schema
The global schema shows the overall design of the database. It helps to logically understand the
design of the whole database as in reality the database is not stored at any one place and spread
over various systems.
Database modules
The database modules are the parts of the database stored in multiple locations. In homogeneous
distributed database, all these parts contain the same data model while in heterogeneous
distributed database, the parts may have different data models.

7. Differentiate between reliability and availability .

Availability, also known as operational availability, availability is the probability that a system, at a

point in time, would remain operational under normal circumstances in order to serve its intended

purpose. Simply put, it ensures that a system is able to perform required function under given

conditions at a given point of time.

Availability = Uptime/ Uptime + Downtime

Reliability is the ability of a system to deliver services correctly under given conditions for a given

time period. Failures are inevitable in complex system; in fact, both native and virtualized systems

are subject to the same fundamental error and failure scenarios.

MTBF = Operating Time (hours)/ Number of Failures

8) Differen ate between homogeneous and heterogeneous distributed DBMSs

with examples.

Homogeneous Database

In a homogeneous distributed database, all the sites use identical DBMS and operating systems. Its
properties are −

• The sites use very similar software.

• The sites use identical DBMS or DBMS from the same vendor.

• Each site is aware of all other sites and cooperates with other sites to process user requests.

• The database is accessed through a single interface as if it is a single database.

There are two types of homogeneous distributed database −

• Autonomous − Each database is independent that func ons on its own. They are integrated by a
controlling application and use message passing to share data updates.

• Non-autonomous − Data is distributed across the homogeneous nodes and a central or master
DBMS co-ordinates data updates across the sites.

Heterogeneous Database

In a heterogeneous distributed database, different sites have different operating systems, DBMS
products and data models.
Its properties are −

• Different sites use dissimilar schemas and software.

• The system may be composed of a variety of DBMSs like relational, network, hierarchical or object
oriented.

• Query processing is complex due to dissimilar schemas.

• Transaction processing is complex due to dissimilar software.

• A site may not be aware of other sites and so there is limited co-operation in processing user
requests.

There are two types of heterogeneous distributed database −

• Federated − The heterogeneous database systems are independent in nature and integrated
together so that they function as a single database system.

• Un-federated − The database systems employ a central coordina ng module through which the
databases are accessed.

9) Discuss Date’s 12 rules for distributed DBMSs.

 Date's Twelve Rules
1. Local autonomy

2. No reliance on a central site

3.Continiousoperation

4. Location independence (Location Transparency)

5. Fragmentation independence (Fragmentation Transparency)

6. Replication independence (replication transparency)

7. Distributed query processing

8. Distributed transaction management

9. Hardware independence
10. Operating system independence

11. Network independence

12. DBMS independence