Why can't you define 1/0 as a specific number, and what complications arise in approaching limits involving division by zero?

You cannot define $ 1/0 $ as any specific number because limits of expressions like $ \frac{1}{x} $ as $ x \to 0 $ depend on the direction of approach. Approaching from the right gives $+\infty$ and from the left $-\infty$, indicating no single value represents $ 1/0 $. This issue reflects discontinuity and divergent behavior misrepresenting real numbers .

What are critical points, and how are they determined using the first and second derivative tests?

Critical points occur where the derivative $ f'(x) = 0 $ or $ f'(x) $ is undefined. The First Derivative Test can determine whether a critical point is a local maximum or minimum based on the sign change of $ f' $. The Second Derivative Test, using $ f''(x) $, indicates concavity; if $ f''(x) > 0 $, the point is a local minimum, while if $ f''(x) < 0 $, it is a local maximum .

Explain how the limit of a quotient differs when zero is approached from the right versus the left, using $ \frac{1}{x} $ as an example.

For $ \lim_{x \to 0^+} \frac{1}{x} $, because $ x $ is positive as it approaches zero, the limit approaches $+\infty$. For $ \lim_{x \to 0^-} \frac{1}{x} $, since $ x $ is negative as it approaches zero, the limit approaches $-\infty$. These differing limits imply the two-sided limit does not exist .

What is the significance of the identity $ \sin^2 \theta + \cos^2 \theta = 1 $ in calculus, and how does it facilitate solving integrals involving trigonometric functions?

The identity $ \sin^2 \theta + \cos^2 \theta = 1 $ is significant as it simplifies expressions involving squared trigonometric terms, allowing substitution in integrals to relate sine and cosine. This property enables conversion of integrals like $ \int \cos^2(x) \ dx $ into an easier format, leveraging that $ \cos^2 \theta = 1 - \sin^2 \theta $, thus facilitating integration .

What role do trigonometric identities play in finding derivatives of sine and cosine functions?

Trigonometric identities like $ \lim_{x \to 0} \frac{\sin x}{x} = 1 $ and $ \lim_{x \to 0} \frac{1 - \cos x}{x} = 0 $ are crucial for deriving the derivatives of sine and cosine. For instance, using these identities, the derivative of $ \sin x $ is found to be $ \cos x $, and similarly, the derivative of $ \cos x $ is $-\sin x$.

How does the formula $ \cos(\psi - \phi) = \cos \psi \cos \phi + \sin \psi \sin \phi $ demonstrate angle difference identities, and what is a practical application of this identity?

The formula $ \cos(\psi - \phi) = \cos \psi \cos \phi + \sin \psi \sin \phi $ demonstrates angle difference identities by expressing the cosine of the difference of two angles in terms of products of sine and cosine of the individual angles. This identity is practical in solving equations involving trigonometric expressions and analyzing wave interference patterns .

Describe an example where the sum of two continuous functions results in a new continuous function, and explain why this is true.

An example is the functions $ f(x) = x^2 $ and $ g(x) = 3x $, both continuous for all $ x \in \mathbb{R} $. Their sum $ h(x) = x^2 + 3x $ is also continuous for all $ x $. This follows from the property that the sum of two continuous functions at a point $ x = a $ is again continuous at $ x = a $.

Can you explain the concept of a one-sided limit from the right and its significance in determining continuity at a point?

A one-sided limit from the right exists if as $ x \to a^+ $, the values of $ f(x) $ approach a specific value $ L $. This concept is significant in determining continuity because for a function to be continuous at a point $ x = a $, both the left and right-hand limits must exist and be equal to the function's value at that point .

How can the Sandwich Theorem be applied to demonstrate the existence of a limit?

The Sandwich Theorem applies if a function $ f(x) $ is "sandwiched" between two functions $ g(x) $ and $ h(x) $ such that $ g(x) \leq f(x) \leq h(x) $ for sufficiently large $ x $ near $ a $, and both $ g(x) $ and $ h(x) $ approach the same limit $ A $ as $ x \to a $. Then $ \lim_{x \to a} f(x) = A $, demonstrating that $ f $ has the same limit as $ g $ and $ h $.

How is the existence of a limit evaluated when approaching from both sides of a point, and what conclusions can be drawn if the limits are not equal?

The existence of a limit at a point requires that the left-hand limit and the right-hand limit at that point are equal. For instance, if $ \lim_{x \to 0^+} f(x) \neq \lim_{x \to 0^-} f(x) $, then the two-sided limit does not exist, indicating that the function is not continuous at that point .

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The ABC's of Calculus

Q: Explain how the limit of a quotient differs when zero is approached from the right versus the left, using $ \frac{1}{x} $ as an example.

For $ \lim_{x \to 0^+} \frac{1}{x} $, because $ x $ is positive as it approaches zero, the limit approaches $+\infty$. For $ \lim_{x \to 0^-} \frac{1}{x} $, since $ x $ is negative as it approaches zero, the limit approaches $-\infty$. These differing limits imply the two-sided limit does not exist .

Q: What is the significance of the identity $ \sin^2 \theta + \cos^2 \theta = 1 $ in calculus, and how does it facilitate solving integrals involving trigonometric functions?

The identity $ \sin^2 \theta + \cos^2 \theta = 1 $ is significant as it simplifies expressions involving squared trigonometric terms, allowing substitution in integrals to relate sine and cosine. This property enables conversion of integrals like $ \int \cos^2(x) \ dx $ into an easier format, leveraging that $ \cos^2 \theta = 1 - \sin^2 \theta $, thus facilitating integration .

Q: What role do trigonometric identities play in finding derivatives of sine and cosine functions?

Trigonometric identities like $ \lim_{x \to 0} \frac{\sin x}{x} = 1 $ and $ \lim_{x \to 0} \frac{1 - \cos x}{x} = 0 $ are crucial for deriving the derivatives of sine and cosine. For instance, using these identities, the derivative of $ \sin x $ is found to be $ \cos x $, and similarly, the derivative of $ \cos x $ is $-\sin x$.

Q: How does the formula $ \cos(\psi - \phi) = \cos \psi \cos \phi + \sin \psi \sin \phi $ demonstrate angle difference identities, and what is a practical application of this identity?

The formula $ \cos(\psi - \phi) = \cos \psi \cos \phi + \sin \psi \sin \phi $ demonstrates angle difference identities by expressing the cosine of the difference of two angles in terms of products of sine and cosine of the individual angles. This identity is practical in solving equations involving trigonometric expressions and analyzing wave interference patterns .

Q: Describe an example where the sum of two continuous functions results in a new continuous function, and explain why this is true.

An example is the functions $ f(x) = x^2 $ and $ g(x) = 3x $, both continuous for all $ x \in \mathbb{R} $. Their sum $ h(x) = x^2 + 3x $ is also continuous for all $ x $. This follows from the property that the sum of two continuous functions at a point $ x = a $ is again continuous at $ x = a $.

Q: Can you explain the concept of a one-sided limit from the right and its significance in determining continuity at a point?

A one-sided limit from the right exists if as $ x \to a^+ $, the values of $ f(x) $ approach a specific value $ L $. This concept is significant in determining continuity because for a function to be continuous at a point $ x = a $, both the left and right-hand limits must exist and be equal to the function's value at that point .

Q: How can the Sandwich Theorem be applied to demonstrate the existence of a limit?

The Sandwich Theorem applies if a function $ f(x) $ is "sandwiched" between two functions $ g(x) $ and $ h(x) $ such that $ g(x) \leq f(x) \leq h(x) $ for sufficiently large $ x $ near $ a $, and both $ g(x) $ and $ h(x) $ approach the same limit $ A $ as $ x \to a $. Then $ \lim_{x \to a} f(x) = A $, demonstrating that $ f $ has the same limit as $ g $ and $ h $.

Q: How is the existence of a limit evaluated when approaching from both sides of a point, and what conclusions can be drawn if the limits are not equal?

The existence of a limit at a point requires that the left-hand limit and the right-hand limit at that point are equal. For instance, if $ \lim_{x \to 0^+} f(x) \neq \lim_{x \to 0^-} f(x) $, then the two-sided limit does not exist, indicating that the function is not continuous at that point .

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The ABC's of Calculus

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The ABC’s of Calculus

Angelo B. Mingarelli
School of Mathematics and Statistics,
Carleton University
Canada

http://www.people.carleton.ca/∼angelo/calculus/cal104.html

July 28, 2019

ii
c 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017. 2018, 2019

Angelo B. Mingarelli

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, in any form or by
any means, terrestrial or not, without permission in writing from the publisher.

ISBN 978-0-9698889-5-6

iii
iv
This book is dedicated
to the immutable memory of my father,
Giosafat Mingarelli,
and
to my mother, Oliviana Lopez,
who showed a young child of 10
how to perform long division ...

v
vi
Contents

iii

1 Functions and Their Properties 1

1.1 The Meaning of a Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Function Values and the Box Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 The Absolute Value of a Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.4 A Quick Review of Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.4.1 The triangle inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.5 Chapter Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.6 Using Computer Algebra Systems (CAS), . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

2 Limits and Continuity 33

2.1 One-Sided Limits of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.2 Two-Sided Limits and Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.3 Important Theorems About Continuous Functions . . . . . . . . 59
2.4 Evaluating Limits at Infinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.5 How to Guess a Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2.6 Limits equal to ±∞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
2.7 Chapter Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

3 The Derivative of a Function 83

3.1 Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
3.2 Working with Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
3.3 The Chain Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
3.4 Implicit Functions and Their Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
3.5 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
3.6 Important Results About Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
3.7 Inverse Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
3.8 Inverse Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
3.9 Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . 146
3.10 L’Hospital’s Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
3.11 Chapter Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
3.12 Challenge Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
3.13 Using Computer Algebra Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163

4 Exponentials and Logarithms 165

4.1 Exponential Functions and Their Logarithms . . . . . . . . . . . 166
4.2 Euler’s Number, e = 2.718281828 ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
4.3 Euler’s Exponential Function and the Natural Logarithm . . . . 178
4.4 Derivative of the Natural Logarithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
4.5 Differentiation Formulae for General Exponential Functions . . . 185

vii
viii CONTENTS

4.6 Differentiation Formulae for General Logarithmic Functions . . . 190

4.7 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
4.8 Chapter Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
4.9 Using Computer Algebra Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200

5 Curve Sketching 203

5.1 Solving Polynomial Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
5.2 Solving Rational Function Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
5.3 Graphing Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
5.4 Chapter Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244

6 Integration 247
6.1 Antiderivatives and the Indefinite Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
6.2 Definite Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
6.3 The Summation Convention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
6.4 Area and the Riemann Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
6.5 Chapter Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
6.6 Using Computer Algebra Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292

7 Techniques of Integration 295

7.1 Trigonometric Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
7.2 The Substitution Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
7.3 Integration by Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
7.3.1 The Product of a Polynomial and a Sine or Cosine . . . . 314
7.3.2 The Product of a Polynomial and an Exponential . . . . . 317
7.3.3 The Product of a Polynomial and a Logarithm . . . . . . 320
7.3.4 The Product of an Exponential and a Sine or Cosine . . . 323
7.4 Partial Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
7.4.1 Review of Long Division of Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . 333
7.4.2 The Integration of Partial Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
7.5 Products of Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
7.5.1 Products of Sines and Cosines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
7.5.2 Fourier Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
7.5.3 Products of Secants and Tangents . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
7.6 Trigonometric Substitutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
7.6.1 Completing the Square in a Quadratic (Review) . . . . . 372
7.6.2 Trigonometric Substitutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
7.7 Improper Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
7.8 Chapter Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
7.9 Using Computer Algebra Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407

8 Applications of the Integral 409

8.1 Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
8.2 Finding the Area Between Two Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
8.3 The Volume of a Solid of Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
8.4 Measuring the length of a curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
8.5 Moments and Centers of Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
8.6 Chapter Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
8.7 Using Computer Algebra Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466

9 Appendix A: Review of Exponents and Radicals 469

10 Appendix B: The Straight Line 475

CONTENTS ix

11 Appendix C: A Quick Review of Trigonometry 481

11.1 The right-angled isosceles triangle (RT45) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
11.2 The RT30 triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
11.3 The basic trigonometric functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
11.4 Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
11.4.1 The Law of Sines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
11.4.2 The Law of Cosines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
11.4.3 Identities for the sum and difference of angles . . . . . . . 488

12 Appendix D: The Natural Domain of a Function 495

Acknowledgments 499

Credits 501
x CONTENTS
List of Tables

1.1 Useful Trigonometric Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

1.2 Reciprocal Inequalities Among Positive Quantities . . . . . . . . 21
1.3 Another Reciprocal Inequality Among Positive Quantities . . . . 21
1.4 Multiplying Inequalities Together . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

2.1 The Mathematics of Solar Flares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

2.2 One-Sided Limits From the Right . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.3 One-Sided Limits From the Left . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.4 Properties of Limits of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.5 SUMMARY: One-Sided Limits From the Right . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.6 SUMMARY: One-Sided Limits From the Left . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.7 SUMMARY: Continuity of a Function f at a Point x=a . . . . 46
2.8 Some Continuous Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.9 Continuity of Various Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.10 Area of a Sector of a Circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.11 Limit of (sin ✷)/✷ as ✷ → 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2.12 Limit of (1 − cos ✷)/✷ as ✷ → 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2.13 Three Options to Solving Limit Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.14 Properties of ±∞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.15 The Sandwich Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.16 Properties of Extended Real Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

3.1 Definition of the Derivative as a Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

3.2 Geometrical Properties of the Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
3.3 Different Derivatives in Action: See Figure 38 . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.4 Useful Trigonometric Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
3.5 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
3.6 Rolle’s Theorem and the Mean Value Theorem . . . . . . . . . . 129
3.7 Main Theorems about Continuous Functions . . . . . . . . . . . 130
3.8 How to Find the Inverse of a Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
3.9 The Inverse Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
3.10 Signs of Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
3.11 Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . 146
3.12 L’Hospital’s Rule for Indeterminate Forms of Type 0/0. . . . . . 150
3.13 L’Hospital’s Rule for Indeterminate Forms of Type 0/0. . . . . . 157

4.1 Properties of the Logarithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168

4.2 Why is loga (✷△ ) = △ loga (✷) ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
4.3 Properties of ex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
4.4 Properties of the Special Transcendental Functions . . . . . . . . 180
4.5 Half-Life of Radioisotopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
4.6 Summary of the Chapter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198

xi
xii LIST OF TABLES

5.1 The Sign Decomposition Table of x4 − 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207

5.2 Size of SDT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
5.3 Filling in an Sign Decomposition Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
5.4 The ‘C Me Hava Pizza’ Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
5.5 The Graph of x2 − 2x − 3 on the Interval (−∞, ∞). . . . . . . . 240

6.1 The Basic Property of an Antiderivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249

6.2 Summary of Basic Formulae Regarding Antiderivatives . . . . . . 256
6.3 Properties of the Definite Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
6.4 How to Evaluate a Definite Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
6.5 Antiderivatives of Power and Exponential Functions . . . . . . . 268
6.6 Antiderivatives of Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
6.7 Antiderivatives Related to Inverse Trigonometric Functions . . . 269
6.8 Properties of the Summation Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
6.9 The Area Formula for a Positive Integrable Function . . . . . . . 280
6.10 Leibniz’s Rule for Differentiating a Definite Integral . . . . . . . 282

7.1 Schematic Description of the Table Method . . . . . . . . . . . . 312

7.2 Example of the Table Method: Stopping at the 5th Row . . . . . 313
7.3 Efficient Integration by Parts Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
7.4 The Result of a Long Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
7.5 Idea Behind Integrating a Rational Function . . . . . . . . . . . 337
7.6 Finding a Partial Fraction Decomposition in the Case of Simple
Linear Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
7.7 Powers and Products of Sine and Cosine Integrals . . . . . . . . . 353
7.8 Powers and Products of Secant and Tangent Integrals . . . . . . 368
7.9 The Antiderivative of the Secant and Cosecant Functions . . . . 370
7.10 Completing the Square in a Quadratic Polynomial . . . . . . . . 373
7.11 Trigonometric Substitutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
7.12 Integrating the Square of the Cosine or Sine Function . . . . . . 379

8.1 Finding the Number of Typical Slices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415

8.2 Finding the Area of a Region R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
8.3 Anatomy of a Definite Integral for the Area Between Two Curves 417
8.4 The Area of a Region Between Two Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
8.5 Setting up the Volume Integral for a Solid of Revolution . . . . . 434

11.1 Basic trigonometric functions and their values . . . . . . . . . . . 485

12.1 The Natural Domain of Some Basic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . 496

Chapter 1

Functions and Their

Properties

The Big Picture

This chapter deals with the definition and properties of things we call functions. They
are used all the time in the world around us although we don’t recognize them right
away. Functions are a mathematical device for describing an inter-dependence between
things or objects, whether real or imaginary. With this notion, the original creators
of Calculus, namely, the English mathematician and physicist, Sir Isaac Newton, and
the German philosopher and mathematician, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (see inset), Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
were able to quantify and express relationships between real things in a mathematical 1646 - 1716
way. Most of you will have seen the famous Einstein equation
E = mc2 .
This expression defines a dependence of the quantity, E, called the energy on m, called
the mass. The number c is the speed of light in a vacuum, some 300,000 kilometers
per second. In this simple example, E is a function of m. Almost all naturally
occuring phenomena in the universe may be quantified in terms of functions and their
relationships to each other. A complete understanding of the material in this chapter
will enable you to gain a foothold into the fundamental vocabulary of Calculus.

Review
You’ll need to remember or learn the following material before you get a thor-
ough understanding of this chapter. Look over your notes on functions and be
familiar with all the basic algebra and geometry you learned and also don’t
forget to review your basic trigonometry. Although this seems like a lot,
it is necessary as mathematics is a sort of language, and before you learn any
language you need to be familiar with its vocabulary and its grammar and so
it is with mathematics. Okay, let’s start ...

1.1 The Meaning of a Function

You realize how important it is for you to remember your social security/insurance
number when you want to get a real job! That’s because the employer will associate

1
2 1.1. THE MEANING OF A FUNCTION

You can think of a function f as an you with this number on the payroll. This is what a function does ... a function is a
I/O device, much like a computer rule that associates to each element in some set that we like to call the domain (in our
CPU; it takes input, x, works on case, the name of anyone eligible to work) only one element of another set, called the
x, and produces only one output, range (in our case, the set of all social security/insurance numbers of these people
which we call f(x).
eligible to work). In other words the function here associates to each person his/her
social security/insurance number. Each person can have only one such number and
this lies at the heart of the definition of a function.

Example 1. In general everybody as an age counted historically from the

moment he/she is born. Consider the rule that associates to each person, that person’s
age. You can see this depicted graphically in Figure 1. Here A has age a, person B
has age c while persons C, D both have the same age, that is, b. So, by definition,
this rule is a function. On the other hand, consider the rule that associates to each
automobile driver the car he/she owns. In Figure 2, both persons B and C share the
automobile c and this is alright, however note that person A owns two automobiles.
Thus, by definition, this rule cannot be a function.

This association between the domain and the range is depicted graphically in Figure 1
using arrows, called an arrow diagram. Such arrows are useful because they start in
the domain and point to the corresponding element of the range.

Example 2. Let’s say that Jennifer Black has social security number 124124124.
The arrow would start at a point which we label “Jennifer Black” (in the domain) and
end at a point labeled “124124124” (in the range).

Okay, so here’s the formal definition of a function ...

Figure 1.

NOTATION Definition 1. A function f is a rule which associates with each object (say, x)
from one set named the domain, a single object (say, f (x)) from a second set
Dom (f) = Domain of f called the range. (See Figure 1 )
Ran (f) = Range of f

Rather than replace every person by their photograph, the objects of the domain
of a function are replaced by symbols and mathematicians like to use the symbol
“x” to mark some unknown quantity in the domain (this symbol is also called an
Objects in the domain of f are re- independent variable), because it can be any object in the domain. If you don’t
ferred to as independent variables, like this symbol, you can use any other symbol and this won’t change the function.
while objects in the range are de- The symbol, f (x), is also called a dependent variable because its value generally
pendent variables. depends on the value of x. Below, we’ll use the “box” symbol, ✷, in many cases instead
of the more standard symbol, x.

Example 3. Let f be the (name of the) function which associates a person

with their height. Using a little shorthand we can write this rule as h = f (p) where
p is a particular person, (p is the independent variable) and h is that person’s height
(h is the dependent variable). The domain of this function f is the set of all persons,
right? Moreover, the range of this function is a set of numbers (their height, with
some units of measurement attached to each one). Once again, let’s notice that many
people can have the same height, and this is okay for a function, but clearly there is
A rule which is NOT a function no one having two different heights!

LOOK OUT! When an arrow “splits” in an arrow diagram (as the arrow
starting from A does in Figure 2) the resulting rule is never a function.

In applications of calculus to the physical and natural sciences the domain and the
range of a function are both sets of real (sometimes complex) numbers. The symbols

Figure 2.
1.1. THE MEANING OF A FUNCTION 3

used to represent objects within these sets may vary though ... E may denote energy,
p the price of a commodity, x distance, t time, etc. The domain and the range of a
function may be the same set or they may be totally unrelated sets of numbers, people,
aardvarks, aliens, etc. Now, functions have to be identified somehow, so rules have
been devised to name them. Usually, we use the lower case letters f, g, h, k, ... to name
the function itself, but you are allowed to use any other symbols too, but try not to
use x as this might cause some confusion ... we already decided to name objects of
the domain of the function by this symbol, x, remember?

Quick Summary Let’s recapitulate. A function has a name, a domain and a range.
It also has a rule which associates to every object of its domain only one object in its You need to think beyond the shape
range. So the rule (whose name is) g which associates to a given number its square of an independent variable and just
as a number, can be denoted quickly by g(x) = x2 (Figure 3). You can also represent keep your mind on a generic “vari-
this rule by using the symbols g(✷) = ✷2 where ✷ is a “box”... something that has able”, something that has nothing
nothing to do with its shape as a symbol. It’s just as good a symbol as “x” and both to do with its shape.
equations represent the same function.

Remember ... x is just a symbol for what we call an independent variable,

that’s all. We can read off a rule like g(x) = x2 in many ways: The purist
would say “The value of g at x is x2 ” while some might say, “g of x is x2 ”.
What’s really important though is that you understand the rule... in this case
we would say that the function associates a symbol with its square regardless
of the shape of the symbol itself, whether it be an x, ✷, △, ♥, t, etc.

Example 4. Generally speaking,

• The association between a one-dollar bill and its serial number is a function
(unless the bill is counterfeit!). Its domain is the collection of all one-dollar bills
while its range is a subset of the natural numbers along with some 26 letters of
the alphabet.
• The association between a CD-ROM and its own serial number is also a function
(unless the CD was copied!).
• Associating a fingerprint with a specific human being is another example of a
function, as is ...
• Associating a human being with the person-specific DNA (although this may be
a debatable issue).
• The association between the monetary value of a stock, say, x, at time t is also
function but this time it is a function of two variables, namely, x, t. It could be
denoted by f (x, t) meaning that this symbol describes the value of the stock x
at time t. Its graph may look like the one below.

• The correspondence between a patent number and a given (patented) invention

is a function
• If the ranges of two functions are subsets of the real numbers then the difference
between these two functions is also a function. For example, if R(x) = px
denotes the total revenue function, that is, the product of the number of units,
x, sold at price p, and C(x) denotes the total cost of producing these x units,
then the difference, P (x) = R(x) − C(x) is the profit acquired after the sale of
these x units.
4 1.1. THE MEANING OF A FUNCTION

Composition of Functions:
There is a fundamental operation that we can perform on two functions called their
“composition”.

Let’s describe this notion by way of an example. So, consider the domain of all houses
in a certain neighborhood. To each house we associate its owner (we’ll assume that
to each given house there is only one owner). Then the rule that associates to a given
house its owner is a function and we call it “f”. Next, take the rule that associates
to a given owner his/her annual income from all sources, and call this rule “g”. Then
the new rule that associates with each house the annual income of its owner is called
the composition of g and f and is denoted mathematically by the symbols g(f (x)).
Think of it . . . if x denotes a house then f (x) denotes its owner (some name, or social
insurance number or some other unique way of identifying that person). Then g(f (x))
must be the annual income of the owner, f (x).

Once can continue this exercise a little further so as to define compositions of more than
just two functions . . . like, maybe three or more functions. Thus, if h is a (hypothetical)
rule that associates to each annual income figure the total number of years of education
of the corresponding person, then the composition of the three functions defined by
the symbol h(g(f (x))), associates to each given house in the neighborhood the total
number of years of education of its owner.

In the next section we show how to calculate the values of a composition of two given
functions using symbols that we can put in “boxes”...so we call this the “box method”
for calculating compositions. Basically you should always look at what a function does
to a generic “symbol”, rather than looking at what a function does to a specific symbol
like “x”.

NOTES:
1.2. FUNCTION VALUES AND THE BOX METHOD 5

1.2 Function Values and the Box Method

The function g(x) = x2 and some
of its values.
Now look at the function g defined on the domain of real numbers by the rule g(x) = x2 .
Let’s say we want to know the value of the mysterious looking symbols, g(3x+4), which
is really the same as asking for the composition g(f (x)) where f (x) = 3x + 4. How do x g(x)
−2 4
we get this? −1 1
0.5 0.25
1.5 2.25
3 9
The Box Method 0.1 0.01
−2.5 6.25
5 25
To find the value of g(3x+4) when g(x) = x2 : We place all the symbols “3x+4” 10 100
(i.e., all the stuff between the parentheses) in the symbol “g(...)” inside a box, −3 9
say, ✷, and let the function g take the box ✷ to ✷2 (because this is what a
function does to a symbol, regardless of what it looks like, right?). Then we Figure 3.
“remove the box” , replace its sides by parentheses, and there you are ... what’s
left is the value of g(3x + 4).

We call this procedure the Box Method. NOTATION for Intervals.

(a, b) = {x : a < x < b}, and this
Example 5. So, if g(x) = x2 , then g(✷) = ✷2 . So, according to our rule,
is called an open interval. [a, b]
2
g(3x + 4) = g( 3x + 4 ) = 3x + 4 = (3x + 4)2 . This last quantity, when simplified, = {x : a ≤ x ≤ b}, is called a
gives us 9x2 + 24x + 16. We have found that g(3x + 4) = 9x2 + 24x + 16. closed interval. (a, b], [a, b) each
denote the sets {x : a < x ≤ b} and
Example 6. If f is a new function defined by the rule f (x) = x3 − 4 then {x : a ≤ x < b}, respectively (either

f (✷) = ✷3 − 4 (regardless of what’s in the box!), and one of these is called a semi-open
interval).
3
f (a + h) = f ( a + h ) = a + h − 4 = (a + h)3 − 4 = a3 + 3a2 h + 3ah2 + h3 − 4.
Also,
f (2) = 23 − 4 = 4,
and
f (−1) = (−1)3 − 4 = −5,
f (a) = a3 − 4,
where a is another symbol for any object in the domain of f .

1.24x2
Example 7. Let f (x) = √ . Find the value of f (n + 6) where n is a
2.63x − 1
positive integer.

Solution The Box Method gives

1.24x2
f (x) = √
2.63x − 1
1.24✷2
f (✷) = √
2.63✷ − 1
2
1.24 n+6
f ( n+6 ) = q
2.63 n+6 − 1
1.24(n + 6)2
f (n + 6) = p
2.63(n + 6) − 1
1.24(n2 + 12n + 36)
= √
2.63n + 15.78 − 1
1.24n2 + 14.88n + 44.64
= √ .
2.63n + 14.78
6 1.2. FUNCTION VALUES AND THE BOX METHOD

“Formerly, when one invented a new

function, it was to further some
practical purpose; today one invents Example 8. On the other hand, if f (x) = 2x2 − x + 1, and h 6= 0 is some real
them in order to make incorrect the
reasoning of our fathers, and noth- number, how do we find the value of the quotient
ing more will ever be accomplished
by these inventions.” f (x + h) − f (x)
?
h

Henri Poincaré, 1854 - 1912

French mathematician Solution Well, we know that f (✷) = 2✷2 − ✷ + 1. So, the idea is to put the symbols
x + h inside the box, use the rule for f on the box symbol, then expand the whole
thing and subtract the quantity f (x) (and, finally, divide this result by h). Now, the
value of f evaluated at x + h, that is, f (x + h), is given by

2
f( x + h ) = 2 x + h − x + h + 1,
= 2(x + h)2 − (x + h) + 1
= 2(x2 + 2xh + h2 ) − x − h + 1
= 2x2 + 4xh + 2h2 − x − h + 1.

From this, provided h 6= 0, we get

f (x + h) − f (x) 2x2 + 4xh + 2h2 − x − h + 1 − (2x2 − x + 1)

=
h h

4xh + 2h2 − h
=
h
h(4x + 2h − 1)
=
h

= 4x + 2h − 1.

Example 9. Let f (x) = 6x2 − 0.5x. Write the values of f at an integer by

f (n), where the symbol “n” is used to denote an integer. Thus f (1) = 5.5. Now write
an+1
f (n) = an . Calculate the quantity .
an

Solution The Box method tells us that since f (n) = an , we must have f (✷) = a✷ .
Thus, an+1 = f (n + 1). Furthermore, another application of the Box Method gives
2
an+1 = f (n + 1) = f ( n+1 ) = 6 n+1 − 0.5 n+1 . So,

an+1 6(n + 1)2 − 0.5(n + 1) 6n2 + 11.5n + 5.5

= = .
an 6n2 − 0.5n 6n2 − 0.5n

Example 10. Given that

3x + 2
f (x) =
3x − 2
determine f (x − 2).

3✷+2
Solution Here, f (✷) = 3✷−2 . Placing the symbol “x − 2” into the box, collecting
terms and simplifying, we get,

3 x-2 + 2 3(x − 2) + 2 3x − 4
f (x − 2) = f ( x-2 ) = = = .
3 x-2 − 2 3(x − 2) − 2 3x − 8
1.2. FUNCTION VALUES AND THE BOX METHOD 7

√
Example 11. If g(x) = x2 + 1 find the value of g( x − 1).

Solution Since g(✷) = ✷2 + 1 it follows that

√ √
g( x − 1) = [ x − 1]2 + 1 = [x − 1] + 1 = x
√ 2
on account of the fact that 2 ✷ = ✷, regardless of “what’s in the box”.

Example 12. If f (x) = 3x2 − 2x + 1 and h 6= 0, find the value of

f (x + h) − f (x − h)
.
2h

Solution We know that since f (x) = 3x2 − 2x + 1 then f (✷) = 3✷2 − 2✷ + 1. It follows
that
n 2 o n 2 o
f (x + h) − f (x − h) = 3 x+h − 2 x+h + 1 − 3 x-h − 2 x-h + 1
˘ ¯
= 3 (x + h)2 − (x − h)2 − 2 {(x + h) − (x − h)}
= 3(4xh) − 2(2h) = 12xh − 4h.

It follows that for h 6= 0,

f (x + h) − f (x − h) 12xh − 4h
= = 6x − 2.
2h 2h

Example 13. Let f be defined by


x + 1, if −1 ≤ x ≤ 0,
f (x) =
x2 , if 0 < x ≤ 3,

This type of function is said to be “defined in pieces”, because it takes on different

values depending on where the “x” is...

a) What is f (−1)?
b) Evaluate f (0.70714).
c) Given that 0 < x < 1 evaluate f (2x + 1).

Solution a) Since f (x) = x + 1 for any x in the interval −1 ≤ x ≤ 0 and x = −1 is in

this interval, it follows that f (−1) = (−1) + 1 = 0.

b) Since f (x) = x2 for any x in the interval 0 < x ≤ 3 and x = 0.70714 is in this
interval, it follows that f (0.70714) = (0.70714)2 = 0.50005

c) First we need to know what f does to the symbol 2x + 1, that is, what is the value
of f (2x + 1)? But this means that we have to know where the values of 2x + 1 are
when 0 < x < 1, right? So, for 0 < x < 1 we know that 0 < 2x < 2 and so once we
add 1 to each of the terms in the inequality we see that 1 = 0 + 1 < 2x + 1 < 2 + 1 = 3.
In other words, whenever 0 < x < 1, the values of the expression 2x + 1 must lie in
the interval 1 < 2x + 1 < 3. We now use the Box method: Since f takes a symbol
to its square whenever the symbol is in the interval (0, 3], we can write by definition
f (✷) = ✷2 whenever 0 < ✷ ≤ 3. Putting 2x + 1 in the box, (and using the fact
2
that 1 < 2x+1 < 3) we find that f ( 2x+1 ) = 2x+1 from which we deduce
f (2x + 1) = (2x + 1)2 for 0 < x < 1.
8 1.2. FUNCTION VALUES AND THE BOX METHOD

Some useful angles expressed in We’ll need to recall some notions from geometry in the next section.
radians

degrees radians
Don’t forget that, in Calculus, we always assume that angles are described in
0 0 radians and not degrees. The conversion is given by
30o π/6
45o π/4 (Degrees) × (π)
60o π/3 Radians =
90o π/2 180
180o π
270o 3π/2 For example, 45 degrees = 45 π/180 = π/4 ≈ 0.7853981633974 radians.
360o 2π

NOTES:

Figure 4.
1.2. FUNCTION VALUES AND THE BOX METHOD 9

SNAPSHOTS

Example 14. This example requires knowledge of trigonometry. Given that

h(t) = t2 cos(t) and Dom(h) = (−∞, ∞). Determine the value of h(sin x).

2
Solution We know that h(✷) = ✷2 cos(✷). So, h( sin x ) = sin x cos( sin x ).
Removing the box we get, h(sin x) = (sin x)2 cos(sin x), or, equivalently, h(sin x) =
(sin x)2 cos(sin x) = sin2 (x) cos(sin x). The function f(x) = sin x and some
of its values.
Example 15. Let f be defined by the rule f (x) = sin x. Then the function
x (in radians) sin x
whose values are defined by f (x − vt) = sin(x − vt) can be thought of as representing 0 0
a travelling wave moving to the right with velocity v ≥ 0. Here t represents time and π/6 1/2 = 0.5
−π/6 √−1/2 = −0.5
we take it that t ≥ 0. You can get a feel for this motion from the graph below where π/3
we assume that v = 0 and use three increasing times to simulate the motion of the √3/2 ≈ 0.8660
−π/3 − 3/2 ≈ −0.8660
wave to the right. π/2 1
−π/2 √ −1
π/4 √2/2 ≈ 0.7071
−π/4 − 2/2 ≈ −0.7071
3π/2 −1
−3π/2 1
2π 0

Figure 5.

Example 16. On the surface of our moon, an object P falling from rest will fall
a distance, f (t), of approximately 5.3t2 feet in t seconds. Let’s take it for granted
that its, so-called, instantaneous velocity, denoted by the symbol f ′(t), at time
t = t0 ≥ 0 is given by the expression

Instantaneous velocity at time t = f ′(t) = 10.6 t.

Determine its (instantaneous) velocity after 1 second (at t = 1) and after 2.6 seconds
(t = 2.6).

Solution We calculate its instantaneous velocity, at t = t0 = 1 second. Since, in this

case, f (t) = 5.3t2 , it follows that its instantaneous velocity at t = 1 second is given
by 10.6(1) = 10.6 feet per second, obtained by setting t = 1 in the formula for f ′ (t).
Similarly, f ′ (2.6) = 10.6(2.6) = 27.56 feet per second. The observation here is that
one can conclude that an object falling from rest on the surface of the moon will fall
at approximately one-third the rate it does on earth (neglecting air resistance, here).

Example 17. Now let’s say that f is defined by

8 2
< x + 1, if −1 ≤ x ≤ 0,
f (x) = cos x, if 0 < x ≤ π,
:
x − π, if π < x ≤ 2π.

Find an expression for f (x + 1).

Solution Note that this function is defined in pieces (see Example 13) ... Its domain
is obtained by taking the union of all the intervals on the right side making up one big
interval, which, in our case is the interval −1 ≤ x ≤ 2π. So we see that f (2) = cos(2)
10 1.2. FUNCTION VALUES AND THE BOX METHOD

because the number 2 is in the interval 0 < x ≤ π. On the other hand, f (8) is
not defined because 8 is not within the domain of definition of our function, since
2π ≈ 6.28.

Now, the value of f (x+1), say, will be different depending on where the symbol “x+1”
is. We can still use the “box” method to write down the values f (x + 1). In fact, we
replace every occurence of the symbol x by our standard “box”, insert the symbols
“x + 1” inside the box, and then remove the boxes... We’ll find
8 2
< x + 1 + 1, if −1 ≤ x + 1 ≤ 0,
>
f( x + 1 ) = cos x + 1 , if 0 < x + 1 ≤ π,
>
:
x + 1 − π, if π < x + 1 ≤ 2π.

8 2
< (x + 1) + 1, if −1 ≤ x + 1 ≤ 0,
f (x + 1) = cos(x + 1), if 0 < x + 1 ≤ π,
:
(x + 1) − π, if π < x + 1 ≤ 2π.
We now solve the inequalities on the right for the symbol x (by subtracting 1 from
each side of the inequality). This gives us the values

8 2
< x + 2x + 2, if −2 ≤ x ≤ −1,
f (x + 1) = cos(x + 1), if −1 < x ≤ π − 1,
:
x + 1 − π, if π − 1 < x ≤ 2π − 1.

Note that the graph of the function f (x + 1) is really the graph of the function f (x)
shifted to the left by 1 unit. We call this a “translate” of f .

Exercise Set 1.

Use the method of this section to evaluate the following functions at the indicated
point(s) or symbol.

1. f (x) = x2 + 2x − 1. What is f (−1)? f (0)? f (+1)? f (1/2)?

2. g(t) = t3 sin t. Evaluate g(x + 1).
3. h(z) = z + 2 sin z − cos(z + 2). Evaluate h(z − 2).
4. k(x) = −2 cos(x − ct). Evaluate k(x + 2ct).
5. f (x) = sin(cos x). Find the value of f (π/2). [Hint: cos(π/2) = 0]
6. f (x) = x2 + 1. Find the value of
f (x + h) − f (x)
h
whenever h 6= 0. Simplify this expression as much as you can!
7. g(t) = sin(t + 3). Evaluate
g(t + h) − g(t)
h
whenever h 6= 0 and simplify this as much as possible.
Hint: Use the trigonometric identity
sin(A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B
valid for any two angles A, B where we can set A = t + 3 and B = h (just two
more symbols, right?)
1.2. FUNCTION VALUES AND THE BOX METHOD 11

8. Let x0 , x1 be two symbols which denote real numbers. In addition, for any real
number x let f (x) = 2x2 cos x.
a) If x0 = 0 and x1 = π, evaluate the expression

f (x0) + f (x1 )
.
2
Hint: cos(π) = −1 b) What is the value of the expression If you want to use your calculator
for this question (you don’t have
f (x0) + 2 f (x1 ) + f (x2)
to...) don’t forget to change your

if we are given that x0 = 0, x1 = π, and x2 = 2 π.? angle settings to radians!

Hint: cos(2π) = 1
9. Let f be defined by
8
< x + 1, if −1 ≤ x ≤ 0,
f (x) = −x + 1, if 0 < x ≤ 2,
x2 ,
:
if 2 < x ≤ 6.

a) What is f (0)?
b) Evaluate f (0.142857).
c) Given that 0 < x < 1 evaluate f (3x + 2).

Hint Use the ideas in Example 17.

px
10. Let f (x) = 2 x2 − 2 and F (x) = 2
+ 1. Calculate the values f (F (x)) and
F (f (x)) using the box method of this section. Don’t forget to expand completely
and simplify your answers as much as possible.
11. g(x) = x2 − 2x + 1. Show that g(x + 1) = x2 for every value of x.
„ «
2x + 1 x−1
12. h(x) = . Show that h = x, for x 6= 2.
1+x 2−x
13. Let f (x) = 4x2 − 5x + 1, and h 6= 0 a real number. Evaluate the expression

f (x + h) − 2f (x) + f (x − h)
.
h2
14. Let f be defined by

x − 1, if 0 ≤ x ≤ 2,
f (x) =
2x, if 2 < x ≤ 4,

Find an expression for f (x + 1) when 1 < x ≤ 2.

The Binomial Theorem states
that, in particular,

2 2 2
(✷ + △) = ✷ + 2 ✷△ + △
Suggested Homework Set 1. Go into a library or the World Wide Web and
come up with five (5) functions that appear in the literature. Maybe they have for any two symbols ✷, △ repre-
names associated with them? Are they useful in science, engineering or in com-
senting real numbers, functions, etc.
merce? Once you have your functions, identify the dependent and independent
Don’t forget the middle terms,
variables and try to evaluate those functions at various points in their domain.
namely, “ 2 ✷△ ” in this formula.

NOTES
12 1.3. THE ABSOLUTE VALUE OF A FUNCTION

1.3 The Absolute Value of a Function

One of the most important functions in the study of calculus is the absolute value
function.
Definition of the absolute
value function
Definition 2. The function whose rule is defined by setting

x, if x ≥ 0,
|x| =
−x, if x < 0.

is called the absolute value function.

For example,| − 5| = −(−5) = +5, and |6.1| = 6.1. You see from this Definition
that the absolute value of a number is either that same number (if it is positive) or
the original unsigned number (dropping the minus sign completely). Thus, | − 5| =
−(−5) = 5, since −5 < 0 while |3.45| = 3.45 since 3.45 > 0. Now the inequality

(0 ≤) |✷| ≤ △ (1.1)

between the symbols ✷ and △ is equivalent to (i.e., exactly the same as) the in-
equality
−△ ≤ ✷ ≤ △. (1.2)
where ✷ and △ are any two symbols whatsoever (x, t, or any function of x, etc).
Why is this true? Well, there are only only two cases. That is, ✷ ≥ 0 and ✷ ≤ 0,
right? Let’s say ✷ ≥ 0. In this case ✷ = |✷| and so (1.1) implies (1.2) immediately
since the left side of (1.2) is already negative. On the other hand if ✷ ≤ 0 then, by
(1.1), |✷| = −✷ ≤ △ which implies ✷ ≥ −△. Furthermore, since ✷ ≤ 0 we have
that ✷ ≤ −✷ ≤ △ and this gives (1.2). For example, the inequality |x − a| < 1
means that the distance from x to a is at most 1 and, in terms of an inequality,
this can be written as

|x − a| < 1 is equivalent to − 1 < x − a < +1.

Why? Well, put x − a in the box of (1.1) and the number 1 in the triangle. Move
these symbols to (1.2) and remove the box and triangle, then what’s left is what you
want. That’s all. Now, adding a to both ends and the middle term of this latest
inequality we find the equivalent statement

|x − a| < 1 is also equivalent to a − 1 < x < a + 1.

This business of passing from (1.1) to (1.2) is really important in Calculus and
you should be able to do this without thinking (after lots of practice you will, don’t
worry).

Example 18. Write down the values of the function f defined by the rule
f (x) = |1 − x2 | as a function defined in pieces. That is “remove the absolute value”
around the 1 − x2 .

Solution Looks tough? Those absolute values can be very frustrating sometimes!
Just use the Box Method of Section 1.2. That is, use Definition 2 and replace all
the symbols between the vertical bars by a ✷. This really makes life easy, let’s try it
out. Put the symbols between the vertical bars, namely, the “1 − x2 ” inside a box,
✷. Since, by definition,


✷, if ✷ ≥ 0,
|✷|= (1.3)
−✷, if ✷ < 0,
1.3. THE ABSOLUTE VALUE OF A FUNCTION 13

we also have
Solving a square root in-
equality!
8
>
< 1 − x2 , if 1 − x2 ≥ 0, If for some real numbers A and
2 2 x, we have
|1 − x | = | 1 − x |=
>
:
− 1 − x2 , 1 − x2 < 0.
2
if x < A,

then, it follows that

Removing the boxes and replacing them by parentheses we find √
| x |< A
 2 2
(1 − x ), if (1 − x ) ≥ 0,
|1 − x2 | = | (1 − x2 ) | = More generally, this result is
−(1 − x2 ), if (1 − x2 ) < 0. true if x is replaced by any
other symbol (including func-
tions!), say, ✷. That is, if for
some real numbers A and ✷, we
Adding x2 to both sides of the inequality on the right we see that the above display have
2
✷ < A,
is equivalent to the display
then, it follows that

 √
(1 − x2 ), if 1 ≥ x2 , |✷| < A
2
|1 − x | =
−(1 − x2 ), if 1 < x2 . These results are still true if we
replace “<” by “≤” or if we re-
verse the inequality and A > 0.
Almost done! We just need to solve for x on the right, above. To do this, we’re
going to use the results in Figure 6 with A = 1. So, if x2 ≤ 1 then |x| ≤ 1 too. Figure 6.
Similarly, if 1 < x2 then 1 < |x|, too. Finally, we find


(1 − x2 ), if 1 ≥ |x|,
| 1 − x2 | =
−(1 − x2 ), if 1 < |x|.

Now by (1.1)-(1.2) the inequality |x| ≤ 1 is equivalent to the inequality −1 ≤ x ≤ 1.

In addition, 1 < |x| is equivalent to the double statement “either x > 1 or x < −1”.
Hence the last display for |1 − x2 | may be rewritten as


1 − x2 , if −1 ≤ x ≤ +1,
| 1 − x2 | =
x2 − 1, if x > 1 or x < −1.
Steps in removing
absolute values in a
A glance at this latest result shows that the natural domain of f (see the Appendix) function f
is the set of all real numbers.
• Look at that part of f with
the absolute values,
NOTE The procedure described in Example 18 will be referred to as the
• Put all the stuff between the
process of removing the absolute value. You just can’t leave out those vertical bars in a box ,
vertical bars because you feel like it! Other functions defined by absolute
values are handled in the same way. • Use the definition of the ab-
solute value, equation 1.3.

• Remove the boxes, and re-

˛ ˛ place them by parentheses,
Example 19. Remove the absolute value in the expression f (x) = ˛x2 + 2x˛.
• Solve the inequalities involv-
ing x′ s for the symbol x.
2
Solution We note that since x + 2x is a polynomial it is defined for every value of
x, that is, its natural domain is the set of all real numbers, (−∞, +∞). Let’s use • Rewrite f in pieces

the Box Method. Since for any symbol say, ✷, we have by definition, (See Examples 18 and
 20)
✷, if ✷ ≥ 0,
|✷|=
−✷, if ✷ < 0.
Figure 7.
we see that, upon inserting the symbols x2 + 2x inside the box and then removing
14 1.3. THE ABSOLUTE VALUE OF A FUNCTION

its sides, we get

8
˛
˛ 2
˛ >
˛ < x2 + 2x , if x2 + 2x ≥ 0,
˛ x + 2x ˛=
˛ ˛ >
:
−( x2 + 2x ), if x2 + 2x < 0.

So the required function defined in pieces is given by


x2 + 2x, if x2 + 2x ≥ 0,
| x2 + 2x | =
−(x2 + 2x), if x2 + 2x < 0.

where we need to solve the inequalities x2 + 2x ≥ 0 and x2 + 2x < 0, for x. But

x2 + 2x = x(x + 2). Since we want x(x + 2) ≥ 0, there are now two cases. Either
both quantities x, x + 2 must be greater than or equal to zero, OR both quantities
x, x + 2 must be less than or equal to zero (so that x(x + 2) ≥ 0 once again). The
other case, the one where x(x + 2) < 0, will be considered separately.

Solving x2 + 2x ≥ 0:

Sir Isaac Newton

Case 1: x ≥ 0, (x + 2) ≥ 0. In this case, it is clear that x ≥ 0 (since if x ≥ 0 then
x + 2 ≥ 0 too). This means that the polynomial inequality x2 + 2x ≥ 0 has among
1642 - 1727
its solutions the set of real numbers {x : x ≥ 0}.

Case 2: x ≤ 0, (x + 2) ≤ 0. In this case, we see that x + 2 ≤ 0 implies that x ≤ −2.

On the other hand, for such x we also have x ≤ 0, (since if x ≤ −2 then x ≤ 0 too).
This means that the polynomial inequality x2 + 2x ≥ 0 has for its solution the set
of real numbers {x : x ≤ −2 or x ≥ 0}.

A similar argument applies to the case where we need to solve x(x + 2) < 0. Once
again there are two cases, namely, the case where x > 0 and x + 2 < 0 and the
separate case where x < 0 and x + 2 > 0. Hence,

Solving x2 + 2x < 0:

Case 1: x > 0 and (x + 2) < 0. This case is impossible since, if x > 0 then x + 2 > 2
and so x + 2 < 0 is impossible. This means that there are no x such that x > 0 and
x + 2 < 0.

Case 2: x < 0 and (x + 2) > 0. This implies that x < 0 and x > −2, which gives
the inequality x2 + 2x < 0. So, the the solution set is {x : −2 < x < 0}.

Combining the conclusions of each of these cases, our function takes the form,

8
< x2 + 2x, if x ≤ −2 or x ≥ 0,
2
| x + 2x | =
−(x2 + 2x),
:
if −2 < x < 0.
Its graph appears in the margin.
The graph of f(x) = |x2 + 2x|.
Example 20. Rewrite the function f defined by

f (x) = |x − 1| + |x + 1|

for −∞ < x < +∞, as a function defined in pieces.

Solution How do we start this? Basically we need to understand the definition of

the absolute value and apply it here. In other words, there are really 4 cases to
consider when we want to remove these absolute values, the cases in question being:
1.3. THE ABSOLUTE VALUE OF A FUNCTION 15

1. x − 1 ≥ 0 and x + 1 ≥ 0. These two together imply that x ≥ 1 and x ≥ −1, that

is, x ≥ 1.
2. x − 1 ≥ 0 and x + 1 ≤ 0. These two together imply that x ≥ 1 and x ≤ −1
which is impossible.
3. x − 1 ≤ 0 and x + 1 ≥ 0. These two together imply that x ≤ 1 and x ≥ −1, or
−1 ≤ x ≤ 1.
4. x − 1 ≤ 0 and x + 1 ≤ 0. These two together imply that x ≤ 1 and x ≤ −1, or
x ≤ −1.

Combining these four cases we see that we only need to consider the three cases
where x ≤ −1, x ≥ 1 and −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 separately.

In the first instance, if x ≤ −1, then x + 1 ≤ 0 and so |x + 1| = −(x + 1). What about
|x − 1|? Well, since x ≤ −1 it follows that x − 1 ≤ −2 < 0. Hence |x − 1| = −(x − 1)
for such x. Combining these two results about the absolute values we get that
f (x) = |x + 1| + |x − 1| = −(x + 1) − (x − 1) = −2x,
for x ≤ −1.

In the second instance, if x ≥ 1, then x − 1 ≥ 0 so that |x − 1| = x − 1. In addition,

since x + 1 ≥ 2 we see that |x + 1| = x + 1. Combining these two we get
f (x) = |x + 1| + |x − 1| = (x + 1) + (x − 1) = 2x,
for x ≥ 1.

In the third and final instance, if −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 then x + 1 ≥ 0 and so |x + 1| = x + 1.

Furthermore, x − 1 ≤ 0 implies |x − 1| = −(x − 1). Hence we conclude that
f (x) = |x + 1| + |x − 1| = (x + 1) − (x − 1) = 2,
for −1 ≤ x ≤ 1. Combining these three displays for the pieces that make up f we
can write f as follows:

8
< −2x, if x ≤ −1,
|x + 1| + |x − 1| = 2, if −1 ≤ x ≤ 1.
:
2x, if x ≥ 1.
and this completes the description of the function f as required. Its graph consists
of the darkened lines in the adjoining Figure.
The graph of f(x) = |x +1| +|x − 1|.
Example 21. Remove the absolute value in the function f defined by f (x) =
p
| cos x| for −∞ < x < +∞.

Solution First, we notice that | cos x| ≥ 0 regardless of the value of x, right? So,
the square root of this absolute value is defined for every value of x too, and this
explains the fact that its natural domain is the open interval −∞ < x < +∞. We
use the method in Figure 7.

• Let’s look at that part of f which has the absolute value signs in it...
In this case, it’s the part with the | cos x| term in it.
• Then, take all the stuff between the vertical bars of the absolute value and stick
them in a box ...
Using Definition 2 in disguise namely, Equation 1.3, we see that
8
< cos x , if cos x ≥ 0,
| cos x | = | cos x | =
:
− cos x , if cos x < 0.
16 1.3. THE ABSOLUTE VALUE OF A FUNCTION

• Now, remove the boxes, and replace them by parentheses if need be ...

cos x, if cos x ≥ 0,
| cos x | =
−cos x, if cos x < 0.
• Next, solve the inequalities on the right of the last display above for x.
In this case, this means that we have to figure out when cos x ≥ 0 and when
cos x < 0, okay? There’s a few ways of doing this... One way is to look at the
graphs of each one of these functions and just find those intervals where the
graph lies above the x-axis.

Another way involves remembering the trigonometric fact that the cosine func-
tion is positive in Quadrants I and IV (see the margin for a quick recall). Turning
this last statement into symbols means that if x is between −π/2 and π/2, then
cos x ≥ 0. Putting it another way, if x is in the interval [−π/2, +π/2] then
cos x ≥ 0.
But we can always add positive and negative multiples of 2π to this and get
more and more intervals where the cosine function is positive ... why?. Either
way, we get that cos x ≥ 0 whenever x is in the closed intervals [−π/2, +π/2],
[3π/2, +5π/2], [7π/2, +9π/2], . . . or if x is in the closed intervals [−5π/2, −3π/2],
[−9π/2, −7π/2], . . . (Each one of these intervals is obtained by adding multiples
of 2π to the endpoints of the basic interval [−π/2, +π/2] and rearranging the
numbers in increasing order).

Combining these results we can write

8
>
> cos x, if x is in [−π/2, +π/2], [3π/2, +5π/2],
>
>
>
> [7π/2, +9π/2], . . . , or if x is in
<
[−5π/2, −3π/2], [−9π/2, −7π/2], . . .,
| cos x | =
>
>
>
>
>
> −cos x, if x is NOT IN ANY ONE
:
of the above intervals.
• Feed all this information back into the original function to get it “in pieces”
Taking the square root of all the cosine terms above we get
p
The graph of y = | cos x|

Figure 8. 8 √
>
> cos x, if x is in [−π/2, +π/2], [3π/2, +5π/2],
>
>
>
> [7π/2, +9π/2], . . . , or if x is in

> √
>
>
>
> −cos x, if x is NOT IN ANY ONE
:
of the above intervals.

Phew, that’s it! Look at Fig. 8 to see what this function looks like.

You shouldn’t worry about the minus sign appearing inside the square root sign
above because, inside those intervals, the cosine is negative, so the negative of the
cosine is positive, and so we can take its square root without any problem! Try to
understand this example completely; then you’ll be on your way to mastering one
of the most useful concepts in Calculus, handling absolute values!

SNAPSHOTS

√
Example 22. The natural domain of the function h defined by h(x) = x2 − 9
2
is the set of all real numbers x such that x − 9 ≥ 0 or, equivalently, |x| ≥ 3 (See
Table 12.1 and Figure 6).
1.3. THE ABSOLUTE VALUE OF A FUNCTION 17

Example 23. The function f defined by f (x) = x2/3 −9 has its natural domain
given by the set of all real numbers, (−∞, ∞)! No exceptions! All of them...why?
√
Solution Look at Table 12.1 and notice that, by algebra, x2/3 = ( 3 x) 2 . Since
the natural domain of the “cube root” function is (−∞, ∞), the same is true of its
“square”. Subtracting “9” doesn’t change the domain, that’s all!

Example 24. Find the natural domain of the the function f defined by

x
f (x) = .
sin x cos x

Solution The natural domain of f is given by the set of all real numbers with the
property that sin x cos x 6= 0, (cf., Table 12.1), that is, the set of all real numbers x
with x 6= ± π/2, ± 3π/2, ± 5π/2, ± 7π/2, ..., 0, ± π, ± 2π, ± 3π, ± 4π, ... (as these
are the values where the denominator is zero). Sofya Kovalevskaya
(1850 - 1891)
Example 25. The natural domain of the function f given by Celebrated immortal mathemati-
cian, writer, and revolutionary, she
| sin x| was appointed Professor of Mathe-
f (x) = √ matics at the University of Stock-
1 − x2 holm, in Sweden, in 1889, the first
woman ever to be so honored in her
is given by the set of all real numbers x with the property that 1 − x2 > 0 or, time and the second such in Europe
(Sophie Germain, being the other
equivalently, the open interval |x| < 1, or, −1 < x < +1 (See Equations 1.1 and one). At one point, she was appar-
1.2). ently courted by Alfred Nobel and
brothers (of Nobel Prize fame). Au-
thor of more than 10 mathemati-
Example 26. Find the natural domain of the function f defined by f (x) = cal papers, she proved what is now
p known as the Cauchy-Kovalevski
| sin x| Theorem, one of the first deep re-
sults in a field called Partial Dif-
ferential Equations, an area used in
Solution The natural domain is given by the set of all real numbers x in the interval the study of airplane wings, satel-
(−∞, ∞), that’s right, all real numbers! Looks weird right, because of the square lite motion, wavefronts, fluid flow,
among many other applications. A.
root business! But the absolute value will turn any negative number inside the L. Cauchy’s name appears because
root into a positive one (or zero), so the square root is always defined, and, as a he had proved a more basic version
consequence, f is defined everywhere too. of this result earlier.

List of Important Trigonometric Identities

Recall that an identity is an equation which is true for any value of the variable
for which the expressions are defined. So, this means that the identities are true
regardless of whether or not the variable looks like an x, y, [], ⋄, f (x), etc.

YOU’VE GOT TO KNOW THESE!

Odd-even identities

sin(−x) = − sin x,
cos(−x) = cos x.

Pythagorean identities

sin2 x + cos2 x = 1,
2 2
sec x − tan x = 1.
csc2 x − cot2 x = 1,
18 1.3. THE ABSOLUTE VALUE OF A FUNCTION

Addition identities

sin(x + y) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y,

cos(x + y) = cos x cos y − sin x sin y.

Double-angle identities

sin(2x) = 2 sin x cos x,

cos(2x) = cos2 x − sin2 x,
1 − cos(2x)
sin2 x = ,
2
1 + cos(2x)
cos2 x = .
2

You can derive the identities below from the ones above, or ... you’ll have
to memorize them! Well, it’s best if you know how to get to them from the ones
above using some basic algebra.
“x + y” “x − y”
tan(−x) = − tan(x) sin x + sin y = 2 sin cos
2 2
“π ” “x + y” “x − y”
sin − x = cos x cos x + cos y = 2 cos cos
2 2 2
“π ” 1
cos − x = sin x sin x cos y = [sin(x + y) + sin(x − y)]
2 2
“π ” 1
tan − x = cot x sin x sin y = − [cos(x + y) − cos(x − y)]
2 2
1
cos(2x) = 1 − 2 sin2 x cos x cos y = [cos(x + y) + cos(x − y)]
2
r
x 1 − cos x
cos(2x) = 2 cos2 x − 1 sin =±
2 2
r
tan x + tan y x 1 + cos x
tan(x + y) = cos =±
1 − tan x tan y 2 2

NOTES:
1.3. THE ABSOLUTE VALUE OF A FUNCTION 19

Exercise Set 2.

Use the method of Example 18, Example 20, Example 21 and the discussion following
Definition 2 to remove the absolute value appearing in the values of the functions
defined below. Note that, once the absolute value is removed, the function will be
defined in pieces.

1. f (x) = |x2 − 1|, for −∞ < x < +∞.

2. g(x) = |3x + 4|, for −∞ < x < +∞.

Hint: Put the symbols 3x + 4 in a box and use the idea in Example 18

3. h(x) = x|x|, for −∞ < x < +∞.

4. f (t) = 1 − |t|, for −∞ < t < +∞.

5. g(w) = | sin w|, for −∞ < w < +∞.

Hint: sin w ≥ 0 when w is in Quadrants I and II, or, equivalently, when w is

between 0 and π radians, 2π and 3π radians, etc.

1
f (x) = √
|x| x2 − 1

for |x| > 1.

7. The signum function, whose name is simply sgn (and pronounced the sign of x)
where

x
sgn(x) =
|x|

for x 6= 0. The motivation for the name comes from the fact that the values of
this function correspond to the sign of x (whether it is positive or negative).

8. f (x) = x + |x|, for −∞ < x < +∞.

√
9. f (x) = x − x2 , for −∞ < x < +∞.

Suggested Homework Set 2. Do problems 2, 4, 6, 8, above.

20 1.3. THE ABSOLUTE VALUE OF A FUNCTION

1. sin(A + B) = sin A cos(B) + cos A sin B

2. cos(A + B) = cos A cos(B) − sin A sin B
3. sin2 x + cos2 x = 1
4. sec2 x − tan2 x = 1
5. csc2 x − cot2 x = 1
6. cos 2x = cos2 x − sin2 x
7. sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x
1 + cos 2x
8. cos2 x =
2
1 − cos 2x
9. sin2 x =
2

Table 1.1: Useful Trigonometric Identities

WHAT’S WRONG WITH THIS?

−1 = −1
r r
1 −1
=
−1 1
√ √
1 −1
√ = √
−1 1
√ √ √ √
1 1 = −1 −1
√ √
( 1)2 = ( −1)2
1 = −1
Crazy, right?

NOTES:
1.4. A QUICK REVIEW OF INEQUALITIES 21

A Basic Inequality

If
0 < ✷ ≤ △,
then
1 1
≥ ,
✷ △
regardless of the meaning of the box or the triangle or what’s in them!

You reverse the inequality when you take reciprocals !

Table 1.2: Reciprocal Inequalities Among Positive Quantities

Inequalities among reciprocals

If
1 1
0< ≤ ,
✷ △
then
✷ ≥ △,
regardless of the meaning of the box or the triangle or what’s in them!

You still reverse the inequality when you take reciprocals !

Table 1.3: Another Reciprocal Inequality Among Positive Quantities

1.4 A Quick Review of Inequalities

In this section we will review basic inequalities because they are really important
in Calculus. Knowing how to manipulate basic inequalities will come in handy
when we look at how graphs of functions are sketched, in our examination of the
monotonicity of functions, their convexity and many other areas. We leave the
subject of reviewing the solution of basic and polynomial inequalities to Chapter 5.
So, this is one section you should know well!

In this section, as in previous ones, we make heavy use of the generic symbols ✷
and △, that is, our box and triangle. Just remember that variables don’t have to be
called x, and any other symbol will do as well.

Recall that the reciprocal of a number is simply the number 1 divided by the
number. Table 1.2 shows what happens when you take the reciprocal of each
term in an inequality involving two positive terms. You see, you need to reverse
the sign!. The same result is true had we started out with an inequality among
reciprocals of positive quantities, see Table 1.3.

The results mentioned in these tables are really useful! For example,
22 1.4. A QUICK REVIEW OF INEQUALITIES

Example 27. Show that given any number x 6= 0,

1 1
> 2 .
x2 x +1

Solution We know that 0 < x2 < x2 + 1, and this is true regardless of the value
of x, so long as x 6= 0, which we have assumed anyhow. So, if we put x2 in the box
in Table 1.2 and (make the triangle big enough so that we can) put x2 + 1 in the
triangle, then we’ll find, as a conclusion, that
1 1
> 2 ,
x2 x +1
and this is true for any value of x 6= 0, whether x be positive or negative.

Example 28. Solve the inequality |2x − 1| < 3 for x.

Solution Recall that | ✷ | < △ is equivalent to −△ < ✷ < △ for any two symbols
(which we denote by ✷ and △). In this case, putting 2x − 1 in the box and 3 in the
triangle, we see that we are looking for x’s such that −3 < 2x − 1 < 3. Adding 1 to
all the terms gives −2 < 2x < 4. Finally, dividing by 2 right across the inequality
we get −1 < x < 2 and this is our answer.
A✷ ≤ A△
Example 29. Solve the inequality
ր A>0?
˛ ˛
˛ x+1 ˛
˛ 2x + 3 ˛ < 2
˛ ˛
✷≤△

ց A<0? for x.

A✷ ≥ A△ Solution Once again, by definition of the absolute value, this means we are looking
for x’s such that
x+1
Figure 9. −2 < < 2.
2x + 3
There now two main cases: Case 1 where 2x + 3 > 0 OR Case 2 where 2x + 3 < 0.
Of course, when 2x + 3 = 0, the fraction is undefined (actually infinite) and so this
is not a solution of our inequality. We consider the cases in turn:

Case 1: 2x + 3 > 0 In this case we multiply the last display throughout by 2x + 3

and keep the inequalities as they are (by the rules in Figure 9). In other words, we
must now have
−2(2x + 3) < x + 1 < 2(2x + 3).
Grouping all the x’s in the “middle” and all the constants “on the ends” we find the
two inequalities −4x − 6 < x + 1 and x + 1 < 4x + 6. Solving for x in both instances
we get 5x > −7 or x > − 57 and 3x > −5 or x > − 35 . Now what?

Well, let’s recapitulate. We have shown that if 2x + 3 > 0 then we must have
x > − 57 = −1.4 and x > − 35 ≈ −1.667. On the one hand if x > −1.4 then
x > −1.667 for sure and so the two inequalities together imply that x > −1.4, or
x > − 57 . But this is not all! You see, we still need to guarantee that 2x + 3 > 0
(by the main assumption of this case)! That is, we need to make sure that we have
BOTH 2x + 3 > 0 AND x > − 75 , i.e., we need x > − 23 and x > − 57 . These last two
inequalities together imply that
7
x>− .
5

Case 2: 2x + 3 < 0 In this case we still multiply the last display throughout by
2x + 3 but now we must REVERSE the inequalities (by the rules in Figure 9, since
1.4. A QUICK REVIEW OF INEQUALITIES 23

now A = 2x + 3 < 0). In other words, we must now have

−2(2x + 3) > x + 1 > 2(2x + 3).

As before we can derive the two inequalities −4x − 6 > x + 1 and x + 1 > 4x + 6.
Solving for x in both instances we get 5x < −7 or x < − 57 and 3x < −5 or x < − 35 .
But now, these two inequalities together imply that x < − 35 ≈ −1.667. This result,
combined with the basic assumption that 2x + 3 < 0 or x < − 23 = −1.5, gives us
that x < − 35 (since −1.667 < −1.5). The solution in this case is therefore given by
the inequality
5
x<− .
3
Combining the two cases we get the final solution as (see the margin)
7 5
−1.4 = − <x OR x<− ≈ −1.667.
5 3
In terms of intervals the answer is the set of points x such that
5 7
−∞ < x < − OR − < x < ∞.
3 5

1.4.1 The triangle inequalities

Let x, y, a, ✷ be any real numbers with a ≥ 0. Recall that the statement

|✷| ≤ a is equivalent to −a ≤ ✷ ≤a (1.4)

where the symbols ✷, a may represent actual numbers, variables, function values,
etc. Replacing a here by |x| and ✷ by x we get, by (1.4),

−|x| ≤x≤ |x|. (1.5)

We get a similar statement for y, that is, There are 2 other really impor-
tant inequalities called the Trian-
gle Inequalities: If ✷, △ are any 2
−|y| ≤y≤ |y|. (1.6) symbols representing real numbers,
functions, etc. then
Since we can add inequalities together we can combine (1.5) and (1.6) to find
|✷ + △| ≤ |✷| + |△|,
−|x| − |y| ≤ x+y ≤ |x| + |y|, (1.7)
and
or equivalently
|✷ − △| ≥ | |✷| − |△| |.
−(|x| + |y|) ≤ x+y ≤ |x| + |y|. (1.8)

Now replace x + y by ✷ and |x| + |y| by a in (1.8) and apply (1.4). Then (1.8) is
equivalent to the statement

|x + y| ≤ |x| + |y|, (1.9)

for any two real numbers x, y. This is called the Triangle Inequality.

The second triangle inequality is just as important as it provides a lower bound on

the absolute value of a sum of two numbers. To get this we replace x by x − y in
(1.9) and re-arrange terms to find

|x − y| ≥ |x| − |y|.
24 1.4. A QUICK REVIEW OF INEQUALITIES

Similarly, replacing y in (1.9) by y − x we obtain

|y − x| ≥ |y| − |x| = −(|x| − |y|).

But |x − y| = |y − x|. So, combining the last two displays gives us

|x − y| ≥ ±(|x| − |y|),

and this statement is equivalent to the statement

˛ ˛
˛ ˛
˛|x| − |y|˛ ≤ |x − y|. (1.10)
˛ ˛

We may call this the second triangle inequality.

Example 30. Show that if x is any number , x ≥ 1, then

1 1
√ ≥ .
x |x|

Solution If x = 1 the result is clear. Now, everyone believes that, if x > 1, then
x < x2√. OK, well, we can take the square root of both sides and use Figure 6 to get
√
x < x2 = |x|. From this we get,
1 1
If x > 1, √ > .
x |x|

On the other hand, one has to be careful with the opposite inequality x > x2 if
x < 1 . . . This is true, even though it doesn’t seem right!

Example 31. Show that if x is any number, 0 < x ≤ 1, then

1 1
√ ≤ .
x x

Solution Once again, if x =√1 the result is clear. Using Figure 6 again, we now
√
find that if x < 1, then x > x2 = |x|, and so,
1 1 1
If 0 < x < 1, √ < = .
x |x| x
These inequalities can allow us to es-
timate how big or how small func-
tions can be!
Example 32. We know that ✷ < ✷ + 1 for any ✷ representing a positive
number. The box can even be a function! In other words, we can put a function of x
inside the box, apply the reciprocal inequality of Table 1.2, (where we put the symbols
✷ + 1 inside the triangle) and get a new inequality, as follows. Since ✷ < ✷ + 1,
then
1 1
> .
✷ ✷+1
Now, put the function f defined by f (x) = x2 + 3x4 + |x| + 1 inside the box. Note
that f (x) > 0 (this is really important!). It follows that, for example,
1 1 1
> 2 = 2 .
x2 + 3x4 + |x| + 1 x + 3x4 + |x| + 1 + 1 x + 3x4 + |x| + 2
1.4. A QUICK REVIEW OF INEQUALITIES 25

Multiplying inequalities by an unknown quantity

• If A > 0, is any symbol (variable, function, number, fraction, . . . ) and

✷ ≤ △,

then
A✷ ≤ A△,
• If A < 0, is any symbol (variable, function, number, fraction, . . . ) and

✷ ≤ △,

then
A✷ ≥ A△,
Don’t forget to reverse the inequality sign when A < 0 !

Table 1.4: Multiplying Inequalities Together

Example 33. How “big” is the function f defined by f (x) = x2 + cos x if x

is in the interval [0, 1] ?

Solution The best way to figure out how big f is, is to try and estimate each term
which makes it up. Let’s leave x2 alone for the time being and concentrate on the
cos x term. We know from trigonometry that | cos x| ≤ 1 for any value of x. OK,
since ± cos x ≤ | cos x| by definition of the absolute value, and | cos x| ≤ 1 it follows
that
± cos x ≤ 1
for any value of x. Choosing the plus sign, because that’s what we want, we add x2
to both sides and this gives
Figure 10.
f (x) = x2 + cos x ≤ x2 + 1

and this is true for any value of x. But we’re only given that x is between 0 and 1.
So, we take the right-most term, the x2 + 1, and replace it by something “larger”.
The simplest way to do this is to notice that, since x ≤ 1 (then x2 ≤ 1 too) and
x2 + 1 ≤ 12 + 1 = 2. Okay, now we combine the inequalities above to find that, if
0 ≤ x ≤ 1,
f (x) = x2 + cos x ≤ x2 + 1 ≤ 2.
This shows that f (x) ≤ 2 for such x′ s and yet we never had to calculate the range
of f to get this ... We just used inequalities! You can see this too by plotting its
graph as in Figure 10.

NOTE: We have just shown that the so-called maximum value of the function
f over the interval [0, 1] denoted mathematically by the symbols

max f (x)
x in [0,1]

is not greater than 2, that is,

max f (x) ≤ 2.
x in [0,1]

For a ‘flowchart interpretation’ of Table 1.4 see Figure 9 in the margin.

26 1.4. A QUICK REVIEW OF INEQUALITIES

Example 34. Show that if x is any real number, then −x3 ≥ −x2 (x + 1).

Solution We know that, for any value of x, x < x + 1 so, by Table 1.4, with
A = −2 we find that −2x > −2(x + 1). You see that we reversed the inequality
since we multiplied the original inequality by a negative number! We could also
have multiplied the original inequality by A = −x2 ≤ 0, in which case we find,
−x3 ≥ −x2 (x + 1) for any value of x, as being true too.

Example 35. Show that if p ≥ 1, and x ≥ 1, then

1 1
≤ .
xp x

1. The graph of 1/x

Solution Let p ≥ 1 be any number, (e.g, p = 1.657, p = 2, . . . ). Then you’ll believe
2. The graph of 1/x1.5 that if p − 1 ≥ 0 and if x ≥ √ 1 then xp−1 ≥ 1 (for example, if x = 2 and p = 1.5,
3. The graph of 1/x2.1 then 21.5−1 = 20.5 = 21/2 = 2 = 1.414 . . . > 1). Since xp−1 ≥ 1 we can multiply
both sides of this inequality by x > 1, which is positive, and find, by Figure 9 with
4. The graph of 1/x3.8 A = x, that xp ≥ x. From this and Table 1.2 we obtain the result
Figure 11. 1 1
≤ , if p ≥ 1, and x ≥ 1
xp x

Example 36. Show that if p > 1, and 0 < x ≤ 1, then

1 1
≥ .
xp x

Solution In this example we change the preceding example slightly by requiring

that 0 < x ≤ 1. In this case we get the opposite inequality, namely, if p > 1√then
xp−1 ≤ 1 (e.g., if x = 1/2, p = 1.5, then (1/2)1.5−1 = (1/2)0.5 = (1/2)1/2 = 1/ 2 =
0.707 . . . < 1). Since xp−1 ≤ 1 we can multiply both sides of this inequality by x > 0,
and find, by Figure 9 with A = x, again, that xp ≤ x. From this and Table 1.2 we
obtain the result (see Fig. 11)
1 1
≥ , if p ≥ 1, and 0 < x ≤ 1
xp x

1. The graph of 1/x

Example 37. Show that if 0 < p ≤ 1, and x ≥ 1, then
2. The graph of 1/x0.65
1 1
3. The graph of 1/x0.43 ≥ .
xp x
4. The graph of 1/x0.1

Figure 12.
Solution In this final example of this type we look at what happens if we change the
p values of the preceding two examples and keep the x-values larger than 1. Okay,
let’s say that 0 < p ≤ 1 and x ≥ 1. Then you’ll believe that, since p − 1 ≤ 0,
0 < xp−1 ≤ 1, (try x = 2, p = 1/2, say). Multiplying both sides by x and taking
reciprocals we get the important inequality (see Fig. 12),
1 1
≥ , if 0 < p ≤ 1, and x ≥ 1 (1.11)
xp x

NOTES:
1.4. A QUICK REVIEW OF INEQUALITIES 27

SNAPSHOTS
Remember, if

2 2
✷ ≤△ ,
Example 38. We know that sin x ≥ 0 in Quadrants I and II, by trigonometry.
then
Combining this with Equation (1.11), we find that: If x is an angle expressed in |✷| ≤ |△|,
radians and 1 ≤ x ≤ π then
regardless of the values of the vari-
sin x sin x ables or symbols involved. If ✷ > 0,
≥ , 0<p≤1 this is also true for positive powers,
xp x p, other than 2. So, if, for example,
✷ > 0, and
Think about why we had to have some restriction like x ≤ π here.
✷p ≤ △p ,
Example 39. On the other hand, cos x ≤ 0 if π/2 ≤ x ≤ π (notice that
then
x > 1 automatically in this case, since π/2 = 1.57... > 1). So this, combined with |✷| ≤ |△|.
Equation (1.11), gives
cos x cos x This result is not true if ✷ < 0 since,
≤ 0<p≤1
xp x for example, (−2)3 < 13 but | − 2| >
where we had to “reverse” the inequality (1.11) as cos x ≤ 0. |1|.

Example 40. There is this really cool (and old) inequality called the AG- in- Figure 13.
equality, (meaning the Arithmetic-Geometric Inequality). It is an inequality between
the “arithmetic mean” of two positive numbers, ✷ and △, and their “geometric
mean”. By definition, the arithmetic mean of ✷ and △, is (✷ + △)/2, or√more
simply, their “average”. The geometric mean of ✷ and △, is, by definition, ✷△.
The inequality states that if ✷ ≥ 0, △ ≥ 0, then
✷+△ p
≥ ✷△
2
√ √
Do you see why this is true? Just start out with the inequality ( ✷ − △)2 ≥ 0,
expand the terms, rearrange them, and then divide by 2.

Example 41. For example, if we set x2 in the box and x4 in the triangle
and apply the AG-inequality (Example 40) to these two positive numbers we get the
“new” inequality
x2 + x4
≥ x3
2
valid for any value of x, something that is not easy to see if we don’t use the AG-
inequality.

We recall the general form of the Binomial Theorem. It states that if n is

any positive integer, and ✷ is any symbol (a function, the variable x, or a positive
number, or negative, or even zero) then

n(n − 1) 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) 3 n(n − 1) · · · (2)(1) n

(1 + ✷)n = 1 + n✷ + ✷ + ✷ +···+ ✷
2! 3! n!
(1.12)
where the symbols that look like 3!, or n!, called factorials, mean that we multiply
all the integers from 1 to n together. For example, 2! = (1)(2) = 2, 3! = (1)(2)(3) =
6, 4! = (1)(2)(3)(4) = 24 and, generally, “n factorial” is defined by

n! = (1)(2)(3) · · · (n − 1)(n) (1.13)

When n = 0 we all agree that 0! = 1 . . . Don’t worry about why this is true right now,
but it has something to do with a function called the Gamma Function, which
will be defined later when we study things called improper integrals. Using this
we can arrive at identities like:
n(n − 1) 2 n(n − 1) · · · (2)(1) n
(1 − x)n = 1 − nx + x ± · · · + (−1)n x ,
2! n!
28 1.4. A QUICK REVIEW OF INEQUALITIES

obtained by setting ✷ = −x in (1.12) or even

n(n − 1) n(n − 1)(n − 2) n(n − 1) · · · (2)(1)
2n = 1+n+ + +··· +
2! 3! n!

(just let ✷ = 1 in the Binomial Theorem), and finally,

„ «
2nx 4n(n − 1)x2 2n xn
(2x − 3)n = (−1)n 3n 1 − + + · · · + (−1)n n ,
3 9 · 2! 3
found by noting that
„ «n „ «n „ «n
2x 2x 2x
(2x − 3)n = −3(1 − ) = (−3)n 1 − = (−1)n 3n 1 −
3 3 3

and then using the boxed formula (1.12) above with ✷ = − 2x

3 . In the above formulae
note that
n(n − 1) · · · (2)(1)
=1
n!
If you already know something by definition of the factorial symbol.
about improper integrals then the
Gamma Function can be written as,
Z ∞
Γ(p) = xp−1 e−x dx
0
Exercise Set 3.
where p ≥ 1. One can actually prove
that Γ(n + 1) = n! if n is a positive
integer. The study of this function
dates back to Euler.
Determine which of the following 7 statements is true, if any. If the
statement is false give an example that shows this. Give reasons either
way.

1 1
1. If −A B
1
2. If − A −B
3. If A B then 1/A < 1/B
5. If A 0, then A B 2 and A > 0, then |B| < A
8. Start with the obvious sin x < sin x + 1 and find an interval of x′ s in which we
can conclude that
1
csc x >
sin x + 1
9. How big is the function f defined by f (x) = x2 + 2 sin x if x is in the interval
[0, 2]?
10. How big is the function g defined by g(x) = 1/x if x is in the interval [−1, 4]?
11. Start with the inequality x > x − 1 and conclude that for x > 1, we have
x2 > (x − 1)2 .
12. If x is an angle expressed in radians and 1 ≤ x ≤ π show that
sin x
≥ sin x, p ≤ 1.
xp−1
√
13. Use the AG-inequality to show that if x ≥ 0 then x + x2 ≥ x3 . Be careful here,
you’ll need to use the fact that 2 > 1! Are you allowed to “square both sides”
of this inequality to find that, if x ≥ 0, (x + x2 )2 ≥ x3 ? Justify your answer.
1.4. A QUICK REVIEW OF INEQUALITIES 29

14. Can you replace the x′ s in the inequality x2 ≥ 2x − 1 by an arbitrary symbol,

like ✷? Under what conditions on the symbol?
15. Use the ideas surrounding Equation (1.11) to show that, if p ≤ 1 and |x| ≥ 1,
then
1 1
≥
|x|p |x|
Hint: Note that if |x| ≥ 1 then |x|1−p ≥ 1.
16. In the theory of relativity developed by A. Einstein, H. Lorentz and others at
the turn of this century, there appears the quantity γ, read as “gamma”, defined
as a function of the velocity, v, of an object by
1
γ= q
v2
1− c2

where c is the speed of light. Determine the conditions on v which give us that
the quantity γ is a real number. In other words, find the natural domain of γ.
Hint: This involves an inequality and an absolute value. Mathematics is not always done

17. Show that for any integer n ≥ 1 there holds the inequalities by mathematicians. For example,

„ «n Giordano Bruno, 1543-1600, Re-

1 naissance Philosopher, once a Do-
2 ≤ 1+ < 3.
n minican monk, was burned at the
stake in the year 1600 for heresy.
Hint:
He wrote around 20 books in many
of which he upheld the view that
1 Copernicus held, i.e., that of a sun
This is a really hard problem! Use the Binomial Theorem, (1.12), with ✷ = n
.
centered solar system (called helio-
But first of all, get a feel for this result by using your calculator and setting
n = 2, 3, 4, . . . , 10 and seeing that this works! centric). A statue has been erected
in his honor in the Campo dei Fiori,
in Rome. Awesome. The rest is
history...What really impresses me
about Bruno is his steadfastness
Suggested Homework Set 3. At the very least, do problems 3, 6, 11, 12, 14 in the face of criticism and ulti-
mate torture and execution. It is
said that he died without utter-
Web Links ing a groan. Few would drive on
this narrow road...not even Galileo
Additional information on Functions may be found at: Galilei, 1564 - 1642, physicist, who
http://www.coolmath.com/precalculus-review-calculus-intro/index.html
came shortly after him. On the
advice of a Franciscan, Galileo re-
For more on inequalities see:
http://www.khanacademy.org/math/algebra/solving-linear-inequalities tracted his support for the heliocen-
tric theory when called before the
More on the AG- inequality at: Inquisition. As a result, he stayed
http://www.cut-the-knot.com/pythagoras/corollary.html under house arrest until his death,
in 1642. The theories of Coperni-
cus and Galileo would eventually be
absorbed into Newton and Leibniz’s
Calculus as a consequence of the ba-
NOTES: sic laws of motion. All this falls un-
der the heading of differential equa-
tions.
30 1.5. CHAPTER EXERCISES

1.5 Chapter Exercises

Use the methods of this Chapter to evaluate the following functions at

the indicated point(s) or symbol.

1. f (x) = 3x2 − 2x + 1. What is f (−1)? f (0)? f (+1)? f (−1/2)?

2. g(t) = t3 cos t. What is the value of g(x2 + 1)?
3. h(z) = z + 2 sin z − cos(z + 2). Evaluate h(z + 3).
4. f (x) = cos x. Find the value of
f (x + h) − f (x)
h
whenever h 6= 0. Simplify this expression as much as you can!
• Use a trigonometric identity for cos(A + B) with A = x, B = h.

Solve the following inequalities for the stated variable.

3
5. > 6, x
x
6. 3x + 4 ≥ 0, x
3
7. ≤ 0, x
2x − 1
2
8. x > 5, x
√
9. t2 < 5, t
10. sin2 x ≤ 1, x
11. z p ≥ 2, z, if p > 0
12. x2 − 9 ≤ 0, x

Remove the absolute value (see Section 1.3 and Equation 1.3).
13. f (x) = |x + 3|
14. g(t) = |t − 0.5|
15. g(t) = |1 − t|
16. f (x) = |2x − 1|
17. f (x) = |1 − 6x|
18. f (x) = |x2 − 4|
19. f (x) = |3 − x3 |
20. f (x) = |x2 − 2x + 1|
21. f (x) = |2x − x2 |
22. f (x) = |x2 + 2|
23. If x is an angle expressed in radians and 1 ≤ x ≤ π/2 show that
cos x
≥ cos x, p≤1
xp−1
24. Use your calculator to tabulate the values of the quantity
„ «n
1
1+
n
for n = 1, 2, 3, . . . , 10 (See Exercise 17 of Exercise Set 3). Do the numbers you
get seem to be getting close to something?
1.6. USING COMPUTER ALGEBRA SYSTEMS (CAS), 31

25. Use the AG-inequality to show that if 0 ≤ x ≤ π/2, then

sin x + cos x √
√ ≥ sin 2x.
2

Suggested Homework Set 4. Work out problems 2, 4, 12, 17, 19, 21, 24

1.6 Using Computer Algebra Systems (CAS),

Use your favorite Computer Algebra System (CAS), like Maple, MatLab, etc., or
even a graphing calculator to answer the following questions:

Evaluate the functions at the following points:

√
1. f (x) = x, for x = −2, −1, 0, 1.23, 1.414, 2.7. What happens when x < 0?
Conclude that the natural domain of f is [0, +∞).
√ √
2. g(x) = sin(x 2) + cos(x 3), for x = −4.37, −1.7, 0, 3.1415, 12.154, 16.2. Are
there any values of x for which g(x) is not defined as a real number? Explain.
√
3. f (t) = 3 t, for t = −2.1, 0, 1.2, −4.1, 9. Most CAS define power functions only
when the base is positive, which is not the case if t < 0. In this case the natural
domain of f is (−∞, +∞) even though the CAS wants us to believe that it is
[0, ∞). So, be careful when reading off results using a CAS.
x+1
4. g(x) = . Evaluate g(−1), g(0), g(0.125), g(1), g(1.001), g(20), g(1000). De-
x−1
termine the behavior of g near x = 1. To do this use values of x just less than
1 and then values of x just larger than 1.
5. Define a function f by
8 √
< t+ t
√ , if t > 0,
f (t) = t
:
1, if t = 0.

√
Evaluate f (1), f (0), f (2.3), f (100.21). Show that f (t) = t + 1 for every value
of t ≥ 0.
√ √
6. Let f (x) = 1 + 2 cos2 ( x + 2) + 2 sin2 ( x + 2).

a) Evaluate f (−2), f (0.12), f (−1.6), f (3.2), f (7).

b) Explain your results.
c) What is the natural domain of f ?
d) Can you conclude something simple about this function? Is it a constant
function? Why?
7. To solve the inequality |2x − 1| < 3 use your CAS to
a) Plot the graphs of y = |2x − 1| and y = 3 and superimpose them on one
another
b) Find their points of intersection, and
c) Solve the inequality (see the figure below)
32 1.6. USING COMPUTER ALGEBRA SYSTEMS (CAS),

The answer is: −1 < x < 2.

Evaluate the following inequalities graphically using a CAS:

a) |3x − 2| < 5
b) |2x − 2| < 4.2
c) |(1.2)x − 3| > 2.61
d) |1.3 − (2.5)x| = 0.5
e) |1.5 − (5.14)x| > 2.1

8. Find an interval of x’s such that

1
a) |cos x| <
2
b) sin x + 2 cos x < 1
√ 1
c) sin(x 2) − cos x > − .
2
Hint: Plot the functions on each side of the inequality separately, superim-
pose their graphs, estimate their points of intersection visually, and solve the
inequality.
9. Plot the values of „ «
1
f (x) = x sin
x
for small x’s such as x = 0.1, 0.001, −0.00001, 0.000001, −0.00000001 etc.
Guess what happens to the values of f (x) as x gets closer and closer to zero
(regardless of the direction, i.e., regardless of whether x > 0 or x < 0.)
10. Let f (x) = 4x − 4x2 , for 0 ≤ x ≤ 1. Use the Box method to evaluate the
following terms, called the iterates of f for x = x0 = 0.5:

f (0.5), f (f (0.5)), f (f (f (0.5))), f (f (f (f (0.5)))), . . .

where each term is the image of the preceding term under f . Are these values
approaching any specific value? Can you find values of x = x0 (e.g., x0 =
0.231, 0.64, . . .) for which these iterations actually seem to be approaching some
specific number? This is an example of a chaotic sequence and is part of an
exciting area of mathematics called “Chaos”.
11. Plot the graphs of y = x2 , (1.2)x2 , 4x2 , (10.6)x2 and compare these graphs
with those of 1 1 1 1
y = x 2 , (1.2)x 2 , 4x 2 , (10.6)x 2 .
Use this graphical information to guess the general shape of graphs of the form
y = xp for p > 1 and for 0 < p < 1. Guess what happens if p < 0?
12. Plot the graphs of the family of functions f (x) = sin(ax) for a = 1, 10, 20, 40, 50.

a) Estimate the value of those points in the interval 0 ≤ x ≤ π where f (x) = 0

(these x’s are called “zeros” of f ).
b) How many are there in each case?
c) Now find the position and the number of exact zeros of f inside this interval
0 ≤ x ≤ π.

NOTES:
Chapter 2

Limits and Continuity

The Big Picture

The notion of a ‘limit’ permeates the universe around us. In the simplest cases, the
speed of light, denoted by ‘c’, in a vacuum is the upper limit for the velocities of any
object. Photons always travel with speed c but electrons can never reach this speed
exactly no matter how much energy they are given. That’s life! In another vein,
let’s look at the speed barrier for the 100m dash in Track & Field. World records
rebound and are broken in this, the most illustrious of all races. But there must
be a limit to the time in which one can run the 100m dash, right? For example, it
is clear that none will ever run this in a record time of, say, 3.00 seconds! On the
other hand, it has been run in a record time of 9.58 seconds. So, there must be a
limiting time that no one will ever be able to reach but the records will get closer
and closer to! It is the author’s guess that this limiting time is around 9.50 seconds
(although we thought it was 9.7 seconds, once). In a sense, this time interval of
9.60 seconds between the start of the race and its end, may be considered a limit of
human locomotion. We can’t seem to run at a constant speed of 100/9.50 = 10.5
meters per second. Of course, the actual ‘speed limit’ of any human may sometimes
be slightly higher than 10.5 m/sec, but not over the whole race. If you look at the
Records Table below, you can see why we could consider this number, 9.50, a kind
of limit.

0. Usain Bolt Jamaica 9.58 09/08/16 Berlin, Worlds

1. Asafa Powell Jamaica 9.74 07/09/09 Rieti, Italy
2. Tim Montgomery USA 9.78 02/09/14 Paris, France
3. Maurice Greene USA 9.79 99/06/16 Athens
4. Donovan Bailey CAN 9.84 96/07/26 Atlanta
5. Leroy Burrell USA 9.85 94/07/06 Lausanne
6. Carl Lewis USA 9.86 91/08/25 Tokyo, Worlds
7. Frank Fredericks NAM 9.86 96/07/03 Lausanne
8. Linford Christie GBR 9.87 93/08/15 Stuttgart
9. Ato Boldon TRI 9.89 97/05/10 Modesto
10. Florence Griffith-Joyner USA 10.49 88/07/16 Indianapolis

On the other hand, in the world of temperature we have another ‘limit’, namely,
something called absolute zero equal to −273o C, or, by definition, 0K where K
stands for Kelvin. This temperature is a lower limit for the temperature of any
object under normal conditions. Normally, we may remove as much heat as we want
from an object but we’ll never be able to remove all of it, so to speak, so the object

33
34

will never attain this limiting temperature of 0 K.

These are physical examples of limits and long ago some guy called Karl Weier-
strass (1815-1897), decided he would try to make sense out of all this limit stuff
mathematically. So he worked really hard and created this method which we now
call the epsilon-delta method which most mathematicians today use to prove that
such and such a number is, in fact, the limit of some given function. We don’t al-
ways have to prove it when we’re dealing with applications, but if you want to know
how to use this method you can look at the Advanced Topics in previous editions
of this book. The idea was that you could call some number L a ‘limit’ of a given
function as x approaches a if the difference between |f (x) − L| can be made as small
as possible so long as |x − a| is small enough (or so long as x is close enough to a).

In many practical situations functions may be given in different formats: that is,
their graphs may be unbroken curves or even broken curves. For example, the
function C which converts the temperature from degrees Centigrade, x, to degrees
Fahrenheit, C(x), is given by the straight line C(x) = 59 x + 32 depicted in Fig. 14.

Figure 14. This function’s graph is an unbroken curve and we call such graphs the graph of a
continuous function (as the name describes).

Example 42. If a taxi charges you $3 as a flat fee for stepping in and 10
cents for every minute travelled, then the graph of the cost c(t), as a function of
time t (in minutes), is shown in Fig. 15.

When written out symbolically this function, c, in Fig. 15 is given by

8
>
> 3, 0≤t<1
>
< 3.1, 1 ≤ t < 2
>
c(t) = 3.2, 2 ≤ t < 3
>
> 3.3, 3 ≤ t < 4
>
>
:
... ...
or, more generally, as:
n
c(t) = 3 + , if n ≤ t ≤ n + 1
10
where n = 0, 1, 2, . . . .

Figure 15. In this case, the graph of c is a broken curve and this is an example of a discontin-
uous function (because of the ‘breaks’ it cannot be continuous). It is also called a
step-function for obvious reasons.

These two examples serve to motivate the notion of continuity. Sometimes functions
describing real phenomena are not continuous but we “turn” them into continuous
functions as they are easier to visualize graphically.

Example 43. For instance, in Table 2.1 above we show the plot of the fre-
quency of Hard X-rays versus time during a Solar Flare of 6th March, 1989:

The actual X-ray count per centimeter per second is an integer and so the plot
should consist of points of the form (t, c(t)) where t is in seconds and c(t) is the X-
ray count, which is an integer. These points are grouped tightly together over small
time intervals in the graph and “consecutive” points are joined by a line segment
(which is quite short, though). The point is that even though these signals are
discrete we tend to interpolate between these data points by using these small line
segments. It’s a fair thing to do but is it the right thing to do? Maybe nature doesn’t
like straight lines! The resulting graph of c(t) is now the graph of a continuous
function (there are no “breaks”).
2.1. ONE-SIDED LIMITS OF FUNCTIONS 35

Table 2.1: The Mathematics of Solar Flares

As you can gather from Fig. 15, the size of the break in the graph of c(t) is given
by subtracting neighbouring values of the function c around t = a.

To make this idea more precise we define the limit from the left and the limit Figure 16.
from the right of function f at the point x = a, see Tables 2.2 & 2.3 (and an
optional chapter for the rigorous definitions).

2.1 One-Sided Limits of Functions

Limits from the Right

We say that the function f has a limit from the right at x = a (or the right-
hand limit of f exists at x = a) whose value is L and denote this symbolically
by

f (a + 0) = lim f (x) = L
x→a+

if BOTH of the following statements are satisfied:

1. Let x > a and x be very close to x = a.
2. As x approaches a (“from the right” because “x > a”), the values of
f (x) approach the value L.

(For a more rigorous definition see the Advanced Topics, later on.)

Table 2.2: One-Sided Limits From the Right

For example, the function H defined by


1, f or x ≥ 0
H(x) =
0, f or x < 0

called the Heaviside Function (named after Oliver Heaviside, (1850 - 1925) an
electrical engineer) has the property that
lim H(x) = 1
x→0+

Why? This is because we can set a = 0 and f (x) = H(x) in the definition (or in
Table 2.2) and apply it as follows:
36 2.1. ONE-SIDED LIMITS OF FUNCTIONS

a) Let x > 0 and x be very close to 0;

b) As x approaches 0 we need to ask the question: “What are the values, H(x),
doing?”

Well, we know that H(x) = 1 for any x > 0, so, as long as x 6= 0, the values
H(x) = 1, (see Fig. 17), so this will be true “in the limit” as x approaches 0.

Limits from the Left

We say that the function f has a limit from the left at x = a (or the left-
hand limit of f exists at x = a) and is equal to L and denote this symbolically
by

f (a − 0) = lim f (x) = L
x→a−

if BOTH of the following statements are satisfied:

1. Let x < a and x be very close to x = a.
2. As x approaches a (“from the left” because “x < a”), the values of f (x)
approach the value L.

Table 2.3: One-Sided Limits From the Left

Returning to our Heaviside function, H(x), (see Fig. 17), defined earlier we see that

lim H(x) = 0
x→0−

The graph of the Heaviside Func- Why? In this case we set a = 0, f (x) = H(x) in the definition (or Table 2.3), as
tion, H(x). before:

Figure 17.
a) Let x < 0 and x very close to 0;
b) As x approaches 0 the values H(x) = 0, right? (This is because x < 0, and by
definition, H(x) = 0 for such x). The same must be true of the “limit” and so
we have

lim H(x) = 0
x→0−

OK, but how do you find these limits?

In practice, the idea is to choose some specific values of x near a (to the ‘right’
or to the ‘left’ of a) and, using your calculator, find the corresponding values of
the function near a.

Example 44. Returning to the Taxi problem, Example 42 above, find the
values of c(1 + 0), c(2 − 0) and c(4 − 0), (See Fig. 15).

Solution By definition, c(1 + 0) = limt→1+ c(t). But this means that we want
the values of c(t) as t → 1 from the right, i.e., the values of c(t) for t > 1 (just
slightly bigger than 1) and t → 1. Referring to Fig. 15 and Example 42 we see
that c(t) = 3.1 for such t’s and so c(1 + 0) = 3.1. In the same way we see that
c(2 − 0) = limt→2− c(t) = 3.1 while c(4 − 0) = limt→4− c(t) = 3.3.
2.1. ONE-SIDED LIMITS OF FUNCTIONS 37

Example 45.

The function f is defined by:

8
< x + 1, x < −1
f (x) = −2x, −1 ≤ x ≤ +1
x2 ,
:
x > +1

Evaluate the following limits whenever they exist and justify your answers. Numerical evidence for Example 45,
(iii). You can think of ‘x’ as being
i) lim f (x); ii) lim f (x); iii) lim f (x) the name of an athlete and ‘f(x)’
x→−1− x→0+ x→1+
as being their record at running the
Solution i) We want a left-hand limit, right? This means that x < −1 and x should 100 m. dash.
be very close to −1 (according to the definition in Table 2.3).

Now as x approaches −1 (from the ‘left’, i.e., with x always less than −1) we see x f(x)
that x + 1 approaches 0, that is, f (x) approaches 0. Thus, 1.5000 2.2500
1.2500 1.5625
lim f (x) = 0. 1.1000 1.2100
x→−1−
1.0500 1.1025
ii) We want a right-hand limit here. This means that x > 0 and x must be very 1.0033 1.0067
close to 0 (according to the definition in Table 2.2). Now for values of x > 0 and 1.0020 1.0040
close to 0 the value of f (x) is −2x . . . OK, this means that as x approaches 0 then 1.0012 1.0025
−2x approaches 0, or, equivalently f (x) approaches 0. So
1.0010 1.0020
lim f (x) = 0
1.0001 1.0002
x→0+ ... ...
iii) In this case we need x > 1 and x very close to 1. But for such values, f (x) = x2
and so if we let x approach 1 we see that f (x) approaches (1)2 = 1. So, Figure 18.
lim f (x) = 1.
x→1+

See Figure 18, in the margin, where you can ‘see’ the values of our function, f , in
the second column of the table while the x’s which are approaching one (from the
right) are in the first column. Note how the numbers in the second column get
closer and closer to 1. This table is not a proof but it does make the limit we
found believable.

Example 46. Evaluate the following limits and explain your answers.

x+4 x≤3
f (x) =
6 x>3

i) lim f (x) and ii) lim f (x)

x→3+ x→3−

Solution i) We set x > 3 and x very close to 3. Then the values are all f (x) = 6, by
definition, and these don’t change with respect to x. So

lim f (x) = 6
x→3+

ii) We set x < 3 and x very close to 3. Then the values f (x) = x + 4, by definition,
and as x approaches 3, we see that x + 4 approaches 3 + 4 = 7. So

lim f (x) = 7
x→3−
38 2.1. ONE-SIDED LIMITS OF FUNCTIONS

Example 47. Evaluate the following limits, if they exist.


x2 x>0
f (x) =
−x2 x≤0

i) lim f (x); ii) lim f (x)

x→0− x→0+

Solution i) Let x < 0 and x very close to 0. Since x < 0, f (x) = −x2 and f (x) is
very close to −02 = 0 since x is. Thus

lim f (x) = 0
x→0−

ii) Let x > 0 and x very close to 0. Since x > 0, f (x) = x2 and f (x) is very close
to 0 too! Thus

lim f (x) = 0
x→0+

NOTE: In this example the graph of f has no breaks whatsoever since f (0) = 0.. In
this case we say that the function f is continuous at x = 0. Had there been a ‘break’
Figure 19. or some points ‘missing’ from the graph we would describe f as discontinuous
whenever those ‘breaks’ or ‘missing points’ occurred.

Example 48. Use the graph in Figure 19 to determine the value of the
required limits.

i) lim f (x); ii) lim f (x); iii) lim f (x)

x→3− x→3+ x→18+

Solution i) Let x < 3 and let x be very close to 3. The point (x, f (x)) which is
on the curve y = f (x) now approaches a definite point as x approaches 3. Which
point? The graph indicates that this point is (3, 6). Thus

lim f (x) = 6
x→3−

ii) Let x > 3 and let x be very close to 3. In this case, as x approaches 3, the points
(x, f (x)) travel down towards the point (3, 12). Thus

lim f (x) = 12
x→3+

iii) Here we let x > 18 and let x be very close to 18. Now as x approaches 18 the
points (x, f (x)) on the curve are approaching the point (18, 12). Thus

lim f (x) = 12
x→18+
2.1. ONE-SIDED LIMITS OF FUNCTIONS 39

Exercise Set 4.

Evaluate the following limits and justify your conclusions.

1. lim (x + 2) 7. lim x sin x

x→2+ x→0+

“ cos x ”
2. lim (x2 + 1) 8. lim
x→0+ x→π + x
„ «
2 x−2
3 lim (1 − x ) 9. lim
x→1− x→2+ x+2
„ «
1 x
4 lim 10. lim
t→2+ t−2 x→1− |x − 1|
„ «
x−1
5 lim (x|x|) 11. lim
x→0+ x→1− x+2
„ «
x x−3
6 lim 12. lim
x→0− |x| x→3+ x2 − 9
(Hint: Factor the denominator)

13. Let the function f be defined as follows:


1 − |x| x < 1
f (x) =
x x≥1

Evaluate i) lim f (x); ii) lim f (x)

x→1− x→1+

Conclude that the graph of f (x) must have a ‘break’ at x = 1.

14. Let g be defined by

8 2
< x +1 x<0
g(x) = 1 − x2 0≤x≤1
:
x x>1

Evaluate
i). lim g(x) ii). lim g(x)
x→0− x→0+

iii). lim g(x) iv). lim g(x)

x→1− x→1+

v) Conclude that the graph of g has no breaks at x = 0 but it does have a break at
x = 1.

15. Use the graph in Figure 20 to determine the value of the required limits. (The
function f is composed of parts of 2 functions).

Evaluate Figure 20.

i). lim f (x) ii). lim f (x)

x→−1+ x→−1−

iii). lim f (x) iv). lim f (x)

x→1− x→1+
40 2.2. TWO-SIDED LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

2.2 Two-Sided Limits and Continuity

At this point we know how to determine the values of the limit from the left (or
right) of a given function f at a point x = a. We have also seen that whenever

lim f (x) 6= lim f (x)

x→a+ x→a−

then there is a ‘break’ in the graph of f at x = a. The absence of breaks or

One of the key mathematical figures holes in the graph of a function is what the notion of continuity is all about.
during the first millennium was a
monk called Alcuin of York (735 - Definition of the limit of a function at x = a.
804) who was Charlemagne’s scribe
and general advisor. He wrote a
very influential book in Latin which We say that a function f has the (two-sided) limit L as x approaches
contained many mathematical prob- a if
lems passed on from antiquity. In
this book of his you’ll find the fol-
lim f (x) = lim f (x) = L
x→a+ x→a−
lowing (paraphrased) problem:
When this happens, we write (for brevity)
A dog chases a rabbit who has a
head-start of 150 feet. All you lim f (x) = L
x→a
know is that every time the dog
leaps 9 feet, the rabbit leaps 7 feet.
and read this as: the limit of f (x) as x approaches a is L (L may be infinite
here).
How many leaps will it take for the
dog to pass the rabbit?

NOTE: So, in order for a limit to exist both the right- and left-hand limits must
exist and be equal. Using this notion we can now define the ‘continuity of a function
f at a point x = a.’

We say that f is continuous at x = a if all the following conditions are satisfied:

1. f is defined at x = a (i.e., f (a) is finite)
2. lim f (x) = lim f (x) (= L, their common value) and
x→a+ x→a−

3. L = f (a).

NOTE: These three conditions must be satisfied in order for a function f to be

continuous at a given point x = a. If any one or more of these conditions is not
satisfied we say that f is discontinuous at x = a. In other words, we see from
the Definition above (or in Table 2.7) that the one-sided limits from the left and
right must be equal in order for f to be continuous at x = a but that this equality,
in itself, is not enough to guarantee continuity as there are 2 other conditions
that need to be satisfied as well.

Example 49. Show that the given function is continuous at the given points,
x = 1 and x = 2, where f is defined by
8
< x+1 0 ≤x ≤1
f (x) = 2x 1<x≤2
: 2
x x>2

Solution To show that f is continuous at x = 1 we need to verify 3 conditions

(according to Table 2.7):
2.2. TWO-SIDED LIMITS AND CONTINUITY 41

1. Is f defined at x = 1? Yes, its value is f (1) = 1 + 1 = 2 by definition.

2. Are the one-sided limits equal? Let’s check this: (See Fig. 21)

lim f (x) = lim (x + 1) = 1 + 1 = 2

x→1− x→1−
| {z }
because f (x)=x+1 for x≤1

Moreover,

lim f (x) = lim (2x) = 2 · 1 = 2

x→1+ x→1+
| {z }
because f (x)=2x for x>1, and close to 1

The one-sided limits are equal to each other and their common value is L = 2.
3. Is L = f (1)? By definition f (1) = 1 + 1 = 2, so OK, this is true, because
L = 2.

Thus, by definition f is continuous at x = 1.

We proceed in the same fashion for x = 2. Remember, we still have to verify 3

conditions . . .

1. Is f defined at x = 2? Yes, because its value is f (2) = 2 · 2 = 4.

2. Are the one-sided limits equal? Let’s see:

lim f (x) = lim x2 = 22 = 4

x→2+ x→2+
| {z }
because f (x)=x2 for x>2

and

lim f (x) = lim (2x) = 2 · 2 = 4

x→2− x→2−
because f (x)=2x for x≤2 and close to 2

So they are both equal and their common value, L = 4.

3. Is L = f (2)? We know that L = 4 and f (2) = 2 · 2 = 4 by definition so, OK. Figure 21.

Thus, by definition (Table 2.7), f is continuous at x = 2.

Remarks:

1. The existence of the limit of a function f at x = a is equivalent to

requiring that both one-sided limits be equal (to each other).
2. The existence of the limit of a function f at x = a doesn’t imply that f is
continuous at x = a.
Why? Because the value of this limit may be different from f (a), or, worse still,
f (a) may be infinite.
3. It follows from (1) that

If lim f (x) 6= lim f (x), then lim f (x) does not exist,
x→a+ x→a− x→a
42 2.2. TWO-SIDED LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

so, in particular, f cannot be continuous at x = a.

Example 50. Show that the function f defined by f (x) = |x−3| is continuous
at x = 3 (see Figure 22).

Solution By definition of the absolute value we know that


x−3 x≥3
f (x) = |x − 3| =
3−x x<3

(Remember: |symbol| = symbol if symbol ≥ 0 and |symbol| = −symbol if symbol <

0 where ‘symbol’ is any expression involving some variable. . . ) OK, now
The function f(x) = |x − 3|
lim f (x) = lim (x − 3) = 3 − 3 = 0
x→3+ x→3+
Figure 22.
and

lim f (x) = lim (3 − x) = 3 − 3 = 0

x→3− x→3−

so lim f (x) exists and is equal to 0 (by definition).

x→3

Is 0 = f (3) ? Yes (because f (3) = |3 − 3| = |0| = 0). Of course f (3) is defined. We

conclude that f is continuous at x = 3.

Remark: In practice it is easier to remember the statement:

f is continuous at x = a if
lim f (x) = f (a)
x→ a

whenever all the ‘symbols’ here have meaning (i.e. the limit exists, f (a) exists etc.).

Example 51. Determine whether or not the following functions have a limit
The Arabic numerals or those 10 at the indicated point.
basic symbols we use today in the
world of mathematics seem to have
a) f (x) = x2 + 1 at x = 0
been accepted in Europe and subse-
quently in the West, sometime dur- b) f (x) = 1 + |x − 1| at x = 1
ing the period 1482-1494, as can

1 for t ≥ 0
be evidenced from old merchant c) f (t) = at t = 0
0 for t < 0
records from the era (also known as
1
the High Renaissance in art). Prior d) f (x) = at x = 0
x
to this, merchants and others used
t
Roman numerals (X=10, IX=9, III e) g(t) = at t = 0
t+1
= 3, etc.) in their dealings.

Solution a) lim f (x) = lim (x2 + 1) = 02 + 1 = 1

x→0+ x→0+

lim f (x) = lim (x2 + 1) = 02 + 1 = 1

x→0− x→0−

Thus lim f (x) exists and is equal to 1. i.e. lim f (x) = 1.

x→0 x→0
2.2. TWO-SIDED LIMITS AND CONTINUITY 43

b) lim f (x) = lim (1 + |x − 1|)

x→1+ x→1+
= lim (1 + (x − 1)) (because |x − 1| = x − 1 as x > 1)
x→1+
= lim x
x→1+
= 1
lim f (x) = lim (1 + |x − 1|)
x→1− x→1−
= lim (1 + (1 − x) (because |x − 1| = 1 − x as x < 1)
x→1−
= lim (2 − x)
x→1−
= 2−1
= 1
Thus lim f (x) exists and is equal to 1, i.e. lim f (x) = 1.
x→1 x→1

c) lim f (t) = lim (1) (as f (t) = 1 for t > 0)

t→0+ t→0+
= 1
lim f (t) = lim (0) (as f (t) = 0 for t < 0)
t→0− t→0−
= 0
Since lim f (t) 6= lim f (t), it follows that lim f (t) does not exist. (In particular,
t→0+ t→0− t→0
f cannot be continuous at t = 0.)

1
d) lim f (x) = lim = +∞
x→0+ x→0+ x
because “division by zero” does not produce a real number, in general. On the other
hand
1
lim f (x) = lim = −∞ (since x < 0)
x→0− x→0− x

Since limx→0+ f (x) 6= limx→0− f (x) the limit does not exist at x = 0. The Sandwich Theorem states
that, if

g(x) ≤ f(x) ≤ h(x)

t 0
e) lim g(t) = lim = =0
t→0+ t→0+ t + 1 0+1 for all (sufficiently) large x and for
t 0 some (extended) real number A, and
lim g(t) = lim = =0
t→0− t→0− t + 1 0+1 lim g(x) = A, lim h(x) = A
x→a x→a
and so lim g(t) exists and is equal to 0, i.e. lim g(t) = 0.
t→0 t→0 then f also has a limit at x = a and

The rigorous method of handling these examples is presented in an optional lim f(x) = A
x→a

Chapter, Advanced Topics. Use of your calculator will be helpful in deter-

mining some limits but cannot substitute a theoretical proof. The reader is In other words, f is “sandwiched”

encouraged to consult the Advanced Topics for more details. between two values that are ulti-
mately the same and so f must also

Remark: have the same limit.

It follows from Table 2.4 that continuous functions themselves have similar proper-
ties, being based upon the notion of limits. For example it is true that:

1. The sum or difference of two continuous functions (at x = a) is again continuous

(at x = a).
44 2.2. TWO-SIDED LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

2. The product or quotient of two continuous functions (at x = a) is also continuous

(provided the quotient has a non-zero denominator at x = a).
3. A multiple of two continuous functions (at x = a) is again a continuous function
(at x = a).

Properties of Limits of Functions

Let f, g be two given functions, x = a be some (finite) point. The

following statements hold (but will not be proved here):

Assume lim f(x) and lim g(x) both exist and are finite.
x→a x→a

Then
a) The limit of a sum is the sum of the limits.
lim (f(x) + g(x)) = lim f(x) + lim g(x)
x→a x→a x→a

b) The limit of a difference is the difference of the limits.

lim (f(x) − g(x)) = lim f(x) − lim g(x)
x→a x→a x→a

c) The limit of a multiple is the multiple of the limit.

If c is any number, then lim cf(x) = c lim f(x)
x→a x→a

d) The limit of a quotient is the quotient of the limits.

f(x) limx→a f(x)
If limx→a g(x) 6= 0 then lim =
x→a g(x) limx→a g(x)
e) The limit of aproduct is the product
of the limits.
lim f(x)g(x) = lim f(x) lim g(x)
x→a x→a x→a

f ) If f(x) ≤ g(x) then lim f(x) ≤ lim g(x)

x→a x→a

Table 2.4: Properties of Limits of Functions

Now, the Properties in Table 2.4 and the following Remark allow us to make some
very important observations about some classes of functions, such as polynomials.

How? Well, let’s take the simplest polynomial f (x) = x. It is easy to see that for
some given number x = a and setting g(x) = x, Table 2.4 Property (e), implies that
the function h(x) = f (x)g(x) = x · x = x2 is also continuous at x = a. In the same
way we can show that k(x) = f (x)h(x) = x · x2 = x3 is also continuous at x = a,
and so on.

In this way we can prove (using, in addition, Property (a)), that any polynomial
whatsoever is continuous at x = a, where a is any real number. We
summarize this and other such consequences in Table 2.8.

NOTES:
2.2. TWO-SIDED LIMITS AND CONTINUITY 45

SUMMARY: One-Sided Limits from the Right

We say that the function f has a limit from the right at x = a (or
the right-hand limit of f exists at x = a) whose value is L and denote
this symbolically by

lim f(x) = L
x→a+

if BOTH the following statements are satisfied:

1. Let x > a and x be very close to x = a.
2. As x approaches a (“from the right” because “x > a”), the values
of f(x) approach the value L.

(For a more rigorous definition see the Advanced Topics)

Table 2.5: SUMMARY: One-Sided Limits From the Right

SUMMARY: One-Sided Limits from the Left

We say that the function f has a limit from the left at x = a (or
the left-hand limit of f exists at x = a) and is equal to L and denote this
symbolically by

lim f(x) = L
x→a−

if BOTH the following statements are satisfied:

1. Let x < a and x be very close to x = a.
2. As x approaches a (“from the left” because “x < a”), the values of
f(x) approach the value L.

Table 2.6: SUMMARY: One-Sided Limits From the Left

Exercise Set 5.

Determine whether the following limits exist. Give reasons. Nicola Oresme, (1323-1382),
Bishop of Lisieux, in Normandy,
 wrote a tract in 1360 (this is before
x+2 x≤0
1. lim f (x) where f (x) = the printing press) where, for the
x→0 x x>0
first time, we find the introduction
2. lim (x + 3)
x→1 of perpendicular xy-axes drawn
„ «
x+2 on a plane. His work is likely to
3. lim
x→−2 x have influenced René Descartes
4. lim x sin x (1596-1650), the founder of modern
x→0
 Analytic Geometry.
sin (x − 1) 0≤x≤1
5. lim f (x) where f (x) =
x→1 |x − 1| x>1
„ «
x+1
6. lim
x→0 x
„ «
2
7. lim
x→0 x
46 2.2. TWO-SIDED LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

SUMMARY: Continuity of f at x = a.

We say that f is continuous at x = a if all the following conditions are

satisfied:
1. f is defined at x = a (i.e., f(a) is finite)
2. lim f(x) = lim f(x) (= L, their common value) and
x→a+ x→a−

3. L = f(a).
These three conditions must be satisfied in order for a function f to be
continuous at a given point x = a. If any one or more of these conditions
is not satisfied we say that f is discontinuous at x = a.

Table 2.7: SUMMARY: Continuity of a Function f at a Point x = a

„ «
x
8. lim
x→1 x+1
9. lim (2 + |x − 2|)
x→2

3 x≤0
10. lim f (x) where f (x) =
x→0 2 x>0
11. Are the following functions continuous at 0? Give reasons.
a) f (x) = |x|
b) g(t) = t2 + 3t + 2
c) h(x) = 3 + 2|x|
2
d) f (x) =
x+1
x2 + 1
e) f (x) =
x2 − 2
12. Hard Let f be defined by
 `1´
x sin x x 6= 0
f (x) =
0 x=0

Show that f is continuous at x = 0.

(Hint: Do this in the following steps:

` ´
a) Show that for x 6= 0, |x sin x1 | ≤ |x|.
b) Use (a) and the Sandwich Theorem to show that
˛ „ «˛
˛ 1 ˛˛
0 ≤ lim ˛˛x sin ≤0
x→0 x ˛

and so
˛ „ «˛
˛ 1 ˛˛
lim x sin
˛ =0
x→0 ˛ x ˛
„ «
1
c) Conclude that lim x sin = 0.
x→0 x
d) Verify the other conditions of continuity.)
2.2. TWO-SIDED LIMITS AND CONTINUITY 47

Some Continuous Functions

Let x = a be a given point.
a) The polynomial p of degree n, with fixed coefficients, given by

p(x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + . . . + a0

is continuous at any real number x = a.

b) The rational function, r, where r(x) = p(x)
q(x)
where p, q are both polyno-
mials is continuous at x = a provided q(a) 6= 0 or equivalently, provided
x = a is not a root of q(x). Thus

an xn + an−1 xn−1 + . . . + a0
r(x) =
bm xm + bm−1 xm−1 + . . . + b0
is continuous at x = a provided the denominator is not equal to zero at
x = a.
c) If f is a continuous function, so is its absolute value function, |f |, and
if

lim |f (x)| = 0, then

x→a

lim f (x) = 0
x→a

(The proof of (c) uses the ideas in the Advanced Topics chapter.)

Table 2.8: Some Continuous Functions

What about discontinuous functions?

In order to show that a function is discontinuous somewhere we need to show that

at least one of the three conditions in the definition of continuity (Table 2.7) is not
satisfied.

Remember, to show that f is continuous requires the verification of all three condi-
tions in Table 2.7 whereas to show some function is discontinuous only requires that
one of the three conditions for continuity is not satisfied.

Example 52. Determine which of the following functions are discontinuous

somewhere. Give reasons.


x x≤0
a) f (x) =
3x + 1 x>0

x
b) f (x) = , f (0) = 1
|x|

x2 x=
6 0
c) f (x) =
1 x=0

1
d) f (x) = , x 6= 0
|x|
48 2.2. TWO-SIDED LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Solution a) Note that lim f (x) = lim (x) = 0

x→0− x→0−
while lim f (x) = lim (3x + 1) = 1
x→0+ x→0+

Thus the lim f (x) does not exist and so f cannot be continuous at x = 0, or, equiv-
x→0
alently, f is discontinuous at x = 0.

How can a function f be discon- What about the other points, x 6= 0?

tinuous at x = a? If any one (or
more) of the following occurs . . .
Well, if x 6= 0, and x < 0, then f (x) = x is a polynomial, right? Thus f is
1. f(a) is not defined (e.g., it is continuous at each point x where x < 0. On the other hand, if x 6= 0 and x > 0
infinite, or we are dividing by then f (x) = 3x + 1 is also a polynomial. Once again f is continuous at each point
0, or extracting the root of a
negative number, . . . ) (See x where x > 0.
Example 52 (d))

2. If either one of the left- and Conclusion: f is continuous at every point x except at x = 0.
right-limits of f at x = a is
infinite (See Example 52 (d))
b) Since f (0) = 1 is defined, let’s check for the existence of the limit at x = 0.
3. f(a) is defined but the left- (You’ve noticed, of course, that at x = 0 the function is of the form 00 which is
and right-limits at x = a are not defined as a real number and this is why an additional condition was added
unequal (See Example 52 (a),
(b)) there to make the function defined for all x and not just those x 6= 0.)

4. f(a) is defined, the left- and

right-limits are equal to L
Now,
but L = ±∞ x x
lim f (x) = lim = lim = lim (1)
5. f(a) is defined, the left- and x→0+ x→0+ |x| x→0+ x x→0+
right-limits are equal to L | {z }
but L 6= f(a) (See Exam- (because x6=0)
ple 52 (c))
= 1
Then f is discontinuous at x = a.
x x
lim f (x) = lim = lim = lim (−1)
x→0− x→0− |x| x→0− (−x) x→0−
= −1

(since |x| = −x if x < 0 by definition). Since the one-sided limits are different it
follows that

lim f (x) does not exist.

x→0

Thus f is discontinuous at x = 0.

What about the other points? Well, for x 6= 0, f is nice enough. For instance,
if x > 0 then
x x
f (x) = = = +1
|x| x
for each such x > 0. Since f is a constant it follows that f is continuous for x > 0.
On the other hand, if x < 0, then |x| = −x so that
x x
f (x) = = = −1
|x| (−x)

and once again f is continuous for such x < 0.

Conclusion: f is continuous for each x 6= 0 and at x = 0, f is discontinuous.

The graph of this function is shown in Figure 23.

Figure 23. c) Let’s look at f for x 6= 0 first, (it doesn’t really matter how we start). For x 6= 0,
f (x) = x2 is a polynomial and so f is continuous for each such x 6= 0, (Table 2.8).
2.2. TWO-SIDED LIMITS AND CONTINUITY 49

What about x = 0? We are given that f (0) = 1 so f is defined there. What

about the limit of f as x approaches x = 0. Does this limit exist?

Let’s see

lim f (x) = lim x2 = 02 = 0

x→0+ x→0+

and

lim f (x) = lim x2 = 02 = 0

x→0− x→0−

OK, so lim f (x) exists and is equal to 0. But note that

x→0

lim f (x) = 0 6= f (0) = 1

x→0

So, in this case, f is discontinuous at x = 0, (because even though conditions (1)

and (2) of Table 2.7 are satisfied the final condition (3) is not!)

d) In this case we see that

lim f (x) = lim f (x) = +∞

x→0+ x→0−

and f (0) = +∞ as well! Ah, but now f (0) is not defined as a real number (thus
violating condition (1)). Thus f is discontinuous at x = 0 . . . and the other points?
Well, for x < 0, f (x) = − x1 is a quotient of two polynomials and any x (since x 6= 0)
is not a root of the denominator. Thus f is a continuous function for such x < 0. A
similar argument applies if x > 0.

Conclusion: f is continuous everywhere except at x = 0 where it is discontinuous. The graph of Example 52(c)

We show the graph of the functions defined in (c), (d) in Figure 24.

Exercise Set 6.

Determine the points of discontinuity of each of the following functions.

|x|
1. f (x) = + 1 for x 6= 0 and f (0) = 2
x

x x<0
2. g(x) =
1 + x2 x ≥ 0
x2 + 3x + 3
3. f (x) =
x2 − 1
(Hint: Find the zeros of the denominator.)
 3
x + 1 x 6= 0
4. f (x) =
2 x=0
1 1 The graph of Example 52(d)
5. f (x) = + 2 for x 6= 0, f (0) = +1
x x

1.62 x<0 Figure 24.
6. f (x) =
2x x≥0

Before proceeding with a study of some trigonometric limits let’s recall some fun-
damental notions about trigonometry. Recall that the measure of angle called the
o
radian is equal to 360
2π
≈ 57o . It is also that angle whose arc is numerically equal
to the radius of the given circle. (So 2π radians correspond to 360o , π radians cor-
respond to 180o , 1 radian corresponds to ≈ 57o , etc.) Now, to find the area of a
50 2.2. TWO-SIDED LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Continuity of various trigonometric functions

(Recall: Angles x are in radians)

1. The functions f , g defined by f (x) = sin x, g(x) = cos x are continuous
everywhere (i.e., for each real number x).
2. The functions h(x) = tan x and k(x) = sec x are continuous at every point
which is not an odd multiple of π2 . At such points h, k are discontinuous.
(i.e. at − π2 , 3π
2
, − 3π
2
, 5π
2
,. . . )
3. The functions ‘csc’ and ‘cot’ are continuous whenever x is not a multiple
of π, and discontinuous whenever x is a multiple of π. (i.e. at x = π,
−π, 2π, −5π, etc.)

Table 2.9: Continuity of Various Trigonometric Functions

sector of a circle of radius r subtending an angle θ at the center we note that the
area is proportional to this central angle so that

2π θ
=
Area of circle Area of sector
θ
Area of sector = (πr2 )
2π
r2 θ
=
2

Figure 25. We conclude that the area of a sector subtending an angle θ at the center is given
2
by r 2θ where θ is in radians and summarize this in Table 2.10.

The area of a sector subtending an angle θ (in radians) at the center of a

circle of radius r is given by

r2 θ
Area of a sector = 2

Table 2.10: Area of a Sector of a Circle

Figure 26. Next we find some relationships between triangles in order to deduce a
very important limit in the study of calculus.

We begin with a circle C of radius 1 and a sector subtending an angle, x < π2 in

radians at its center, labelled O. Label the extremities of the sector along the arc
by A and B as in the adjoining figure, Fig. 27.

At A produce an altitude which meets OB extended to C. Join AB by a line

segment. The figure now looks like Figure 28.

We call the ‘triangle’ whose side is the arc AB and having sides AO, OB a “curvi-
linear triangle” for brevity. (It is also a “sector”!)

Figure 27.
2.2. TWO-SIDED LIMITS AND CONTINUITY 51

Let’s compare areas. Note that

Area of △ACO > Area of curvilinear triangle

> Area of △ABO
1 1
Now the area of △ACO = (1)|AC| = tan x
2 2
Area of curvilinear triangle = Area of the sector with central angle x
1 2
= (1 ) · x (because of Table 2.10 above)
2
x
=
2

Finally, from Figure 28,

1 Figure 28.
Area of triangle ABO = (altitude from base AO)(base length)
2
1 1
= (length of BD) · (1) = (sin x) · (1)
2 2
sin x
=
2

(by definition of the sine of the angle x.) Combining these inequalities we get

1 x sin x π
tan x > > (for 0 < x < , remember?)
2 2 2 2
or

sin x < x < tan x

from which we can derive

sin x π
cos x < <1 for 0 < x ≤
x 2

since all quantities are positive. This is a fundamental inequality in trigonometry.

We now apply Table 2.4(f) to this inequality to show that

sin x
lim cos x ≤ lim ≤ lim 1
x→0+ x→0+ x x→0+
| {z } | {z }
1 1

and we conclude that

sin x
lim =1
x→0+ x

If, on the other hand, − π2 < x < 0 (or x is a negative angle) then, writing x = −x0 ,
we have π2 > x0 > 0. Next

sin x sin(−x0 ) − sin(x0 ) sin x0

= = =
x −x0 −x0 x0
52 2.2. TWO-SIDED LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

where we have used the relation sin(−x0 ) = − sin x0 valid for any angle x0 (in
radians, as usual). Hence
„ «
sin x sin x0
lim = lim
x→0− x x→0− x0
sin x0
= lim
−x0 →0− x0
sin x0
= lim (because if −x0 < 0 then x0 > 0
x0 →0+ x0
and x0 approaches 0+ )
= 1.

Since both one-sided limits are equal it follows that

sin x
lim =1
x→0 x
Another important limit like the one in Table 2.11 is obtained by using the basic

If the symbol ✷ represents any continuous function then, so long as we can let
✷ → 0, we have
sin ✷
lim =1
✷→0 ✷

Table 2.11: Limit of (sin ✷)/✷ as ✷ → 0

identity

1 − cos2 θ sin2 θ
1 − cos θ = =
1 + cos θ 1 + cos θ
Dividing both sides by θ and rearranging terms we find

1 − cos θ sin θ sin θ

= ·
θ θ 1 + cos θ
Now, we know that

1 − cos ✷
lim = 0.
✷→0 ✷

Table 2.12: Limit of (1 − cos ✷)/✷ as ✷ → 0

sin θ
lim =1
θ→0 θ
and
„ «
sin θ
lim
θ→0 1 + cos θ

exists (because it is the limit of the quotient of 2 continuous functions, the denomi-
nator not being 0 as θ → 0). Furthermore it is easy to see that
„ «
sin θ sin 0 0
lim = = =0
θ→0 1 + cos θ 1 + cos 0 1+1
2.2. TWO-SIDED LIMITS AND CONTINUITY 53

It now follows from Table 2.4(e) that

„ «„ «
1 − cos θ sin θ sin θ
lim = lim lim = 1·0
θ→0 θ θ→0 θ θ→0 1 + cos θ

= 0

and we conclude that

1 − cos θ
lim =0
θ→0 θ
If you want, you can replace ‘θ’ by ‘x’ in the above formula or any other ‘symbol’
as in Table 2.11. Hence, we obtain Table 2.12,

NOTES:
54 2.2. TWO-SIDED LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Example 53. Evaluate the following limits.

sin (3x)
a) lim
x→0 x
1 − cos (2x)
b) lim
x→0 x
sin (2x)
c) lim
x→0 sin (3x)
√
sin ( x)
d) lim √
x→0+ x
One of the first complete introduc-
tions to Trigonometry was writ-
ten by one Johannes Müller of
Solution a) We use Table 2.11. If we let ✷ = 3x, we also need the symbol ✷ in the
denominator, right? In other words, x = ✷3 and so
Königsberg, (1436 - 1476), also
known as Regiomontanus. The sin 3x sin (✷) sin (✷)
= =3·
work, written in Latin, is entitled x ( ✷3 ) ✷
De Triangulis omnimodus first ap-
Now, as x → 0 it is clear that, since ✷ = 3x, ✷ → 0 as well. Thus
peared in 1464.
sin (3x) sin (✷)
lim = lim 3 ·
x→0 x ✷→0 ✷
sin (✷)
= 3 lim (by Table 2.4(c))
✷→0 ✷
= 3 · 1 (by Table 2.11)
= 3

✷
b) We use Table 2.12 because of the form of the problem for ✷ = 2x then x = 2
.
So
1 − cos (2x) 1 − cos ✷ 1 − cos ✷
= ✷ =2·
x 2
✷
As x → 0, we see that ✷ → 0 too! So
1 − cos (2x) 1 − cos (✷)
lim = lim (2 · )
x→0 x ✷→0 ✷
1 − cos (✷)
= 2 lim ( ) = 2·0 = 0
✷→0 ✷

c) This type of problem is not familiar at this point and all we have is Table 2.11 as
reference . . . The idea is to rewrite the quotient as something that is more familiar.
For instance, using plain algebra, we see that
sin 2x sin 2x 2x 3x
=( )( )( ),
sin 3x 2x 3x sin 3x
so that some of the 2x’s and 3x-cross-terms cancel out leaving us with the original
expression.

OK, now as x → 0 it is clear that 2x → 0 and 3x → 0 too! So,

sin 2x sin 2x 2x 3x
lim = ( lim )( lim )( lim )
x→0 sin 3x x→0 2x x→0 3x 3x→0 sin 3x

(because “the limit of a product is the product of the limits” cf., Table 2.4.) There-
fore
sin 2x sin 2x 2x 3x
lim = ( lim ) lim ( lim )
x→0 sin 3x x→0 2x x→0 3x 3x→0 sin 3x
2 2
= 1· ·1=
3 3
2.2. TWO-SIDED LIMITS AND CONTINUITY 55

2x 2
(by Tables 2.11& 2.4). Note that the middle-term, 3x
= 3
since x 6= 0.

Using the ‘Box’ method we can rewite this argument more briefly as follows: We
have two symbols, namely ‘2x’ and ‘3x’, so if we are going to use Table 2.11 we need
to introduce these symbols into the expression as follows: (Remember, ✷ and △
are just ‘symbols’. . . ).

Let ✷ = 2x and △ = 3x. Then

sin 2x sin ✷ sin ✷ ✷ △
= =( )( )( )
sin 3x sin △ ✷ △ sin △
So that ✷’s and △’s cancel out leaving the original expression.

OK, now as x → 0 it is clear that ✷ → 0 and △ → 0 too! So

sin 2x sin ✷ ✷ △
lim = ( lim )( lim )( lim )
x→0 sin 3x ✷→0 ✷ x→0 △ △→0 sin △

(because “the limit of a product is the product of the limits” , cf., Table 2.4.)
Therefore
sin 2x sin ✷ 2x △
lim = ( lim ) lim ( lim )
x→0 sin 3x ✷→0 ✷ x→0 3x △→0 sin △
2 2
= 1· ·1=
3 3
(by Tables 2.11& 2.4).
√ √
d) In this problem we let ✷ = x. As x → 0+ we know that x → 0+ as well.
Thus
√
sin x sin ✷
lim √ = lim =1
x→0+ x ✷→0+ ✷

(by Table 2.11).

Philosophy:

Learning mathematics has a lot to do with learning the rules of the interaction
between symbols, some recognizable (such as 1, 2, sin x, . . . ) and others not
(such as ✷, △, etc.) Ultimately these are all ‘symbols’ and we need to recall
how they interact with one another.
Sometimes it is helpful to replace the commonly used symbols ‘y’, ‘z’ , etc.
for variables, by other, not so commonly used ones, like ✷, △ or ‘squiggle’
etc. It doesn’t matter how we denote something, what’s important is how it
interacts with other symbols.

NOTES:
56 2.2. TWO-SIDED LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Limit questions can be approached in the following way.

You want to find

lim f(x).
x→a

Option 1 Take the value to which x tends, i.e. x = a, and

evaluate the expression (function) at that value, i.e.
f (a).

Three possibilities arise:

a) You obtain a number like B A , with A 6= 0 and the question
is answered (if the function is continuous at x = a), the
answer being BA.
b) You get B0 , with B 6= 0 which implies that the limit exists
and is plus infinity (+∞) if B > 0 and minus infinity (−∞)
if B < 0.
c) You obtain something like 00 which means that the limit
being sought may be “in disguise” and we need to move
onto Option 2 below.
Option 2 If the limit is of the form 00 proceed as follows:
We need to play around with the expression, that is you may
have to factor some terms, use trigonometric identities, sub-
stitutions, simplify, rationalize the denominator, multiply and
divide by the same symbol, etc. until you can return to Option
1 and repeat the procedure there.
Option 3 If 1 and 2 fail, then check the left and right limits.
a) If they are equal, the limit exists and go to Option 1.
b) If they are unequal, the limit does not exist. Stop here,
that’s your answer.

Table 2.13: Three Options to Solving Limit Questions

Exercise Set 7.

Determine the following limits if they exist. Explain.

sin x
1. lim
x→π x−π
(Hint: Write ✷ = x − π. Note that x = ✷ + π and as x → π, ✷ → 0.)
π
2. limπ (x − )tan x
x→ 2 2
π (x − π2 )
(Hint: (x − )tan x = sin x. Now set ✷ = x − π2 ,so that x = ✷ + π2 and
2 π
cos x
note that, as x → 2 , ✷ → 0.)
sin (4x)
3. lim
x→0 2x
2.2. TWO-SIDED LIMITS AND CONTINUITY 57

1 − cos (3x)
4. lim
x→0 4x
sin (4x)
5. lim
x→0 sin (2x)
√
sin x − 1
6. lim √
x→1+ x−1

Web Links

For a very basic introduction to Limits see:

www.en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Calculus/Limits

Section 2.1: For one-sided limits and quizzes see:

www.math.montana.edu/frankw/ccp/calculus/estlimit/onesided/learn.htm

More about limits can be found at:

http://calculusapplets.com/ (neat applets)

http://www.math.psu.edu/dlittle/java/calculus/

The proofs of the results in Table 2.4 can be found at:

http://archives.math.utk.edu/visual.calculus/1/limits.18/index.html

Exercise Set 8.

Find the following limits whenever they exist. Explain.

x−2
1. lim 6. lim sin (πx)
x→2 x x→2−

√ sin (3x)
2. lim x cos x 7. lim
x→0+ x→0 x
„ « „ «
x−3 cos x
3. lim 8. lim
x→3 x2 − 9 x→π + x−π
“ „ «
π” cos x
4. limπ x − sec x 9. lim
x→ 2 2 x→π − x−π
„ «
2x − π
5. limπ 10. lim x | x |
x→ 2 cos x x→0+

Hints:
3) Factor the denominator (Table 2.13, Option 2).
4) Write ✷ = x − π2 , x = ✷ + π2 and simplify (Table 2.13, Option 2).
5) Let ✷ = x − π2 , x = ✷ + π2 and use a formula for the cosine of the sum of two
angles.
9) See Table 2.13, Option 1(b).

Find the points of discontinuity, if any, of the following functions f :

58 2.2. TWO-SIDED LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

cos x
11. f (x) =
x−π
8
sin x
>
< x 6= 0
12. f (x) = x
>
:
−1 x=0
3 2
13. f (x) = x + x − 1
x2 + 1
14. f (x) =
x2 − 1
x−2
15. f (x) =
| x2 − 4 |

Evaluate the following limits, whenever they exist. Explain.

cos x − cos 2x
16. lim
x→0 x2

(Hint: Use the trigonometric identity

„ « „ «
A+B A−B
cos A − cos B = −2 sin sin
2 2

along with Table 2.11.)

tan x − sin x
17. lim
x→0 x2
(Hint: Factor the term ‘tan x’ out of the numerator and use Tables 2.11 &
2.12.)
x2 + 1
18. lim
x→1 (x − 1)2
19. Find values of a and b such that
ax + b π
lim =
x→π 2 sin x 4

(Hint: It is necessary that aπ + b = 0, why? Next, use the idea of Exercise Set 7
#1.)
1
20. lim √ √
x→0+ x+1− x

NOTES:
2.3. IMPORTANT THEOREMS ABOUT CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS 59

2.3 Important Theorems About Continuous Func-

tions

There are two main results (one being a consequence of the other) in the basic
study of continuous functions. These are based on the property that the graph of a
continuous function on a given interval has no ‘breaks’ in it.

Basically one can think of such a graph as a string which joins 2 points, say (a, f (a))
to (b, f (b)) (see Figure 29).

In Figure 29(a), the graph may have “sharp peaks” and may also look “smooth”
and still be the graph of a continuous function (as is Figure 29(b)).

The Intermediate Value Theorem basically says that if you are climbing a
mountain and you stop at 1000 meters and you want to reach 5000 meters, then
at some future time you will pass, say the 3751 meter mark! This is obvious, isn’t
it? But this basic observation allows you to understand this deep result about
continuous functions.

For instance, the following graph may represent the fluctuations of your local Stock (a)
Exchange over a period of 1 year.

(b)

Assume that the index was 7000 points on Jan. 1, 1996 and that on June 30 it was Figure 29.
7900 points. Then sometime during the year the index passed the 7513 point mark
at least once . . .

OK, so what does this theorem say mathematically?

Intermediate Value Theorem (IVT)

Let f be continuous at each point of a closed interval [a, b]. Assume

1. f (a) 6= f (b);
2. Let z be a point between f (a) and f (b).
Then there is at least one value of c between a and b such that

f (c) = z
60 2.3. IMPORTANT THEOREMS ABOUT CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS

The idea behind this Theorem is that any horizontal line that intersects the graph
of a continuous function must intersect it at a point of its domain! This sounds
and looks obvious (see Figure 30), but it’s NOT true if the graph is NOT that of a
continuous function (see Example 31). One of the most important consequences of
this Intermediate Value Theorem (IVT) is sometimes called Bolzano’s Theorem
(after Bernhard Bolzano (1781-1848) mathematician, priest and philosopher).
Theorem 2.3.1. (Bolzano’s Theorem)

Let f be continuous on a closed interval [a, b] (i.e., at each point x in [a, b]). If
f (a)f (b) < 0, then there is at least one point c between a and b such that f (c) = 0.

Bolzano’s Theorem is especially useful in determining the location of roots of

polynomials or general (continuous) functions. Better still, it is also helpful in
determining where the graphs of functions intersect each other.

For example, at which point(s) do the graphs of the functions given by y = sin x
and y = x2 intersect? In order to find this out you need to equate their values, so
that sin x = x2 which then means that x2 − sin x = 0 so the points of intersection
are roots of the function whose values are given by y = x2 − sin x.

Figure 30.
Example 54. Show that there is one root of the polynomial p(x) = x3 + 2 in
the interval −2 ≤ x ≤ −1.

Solution We note that p(−2) = −6 and p(−1) = 1. So let a = −2, b = −1 in

Bolzano’s Theorem. Since p(−2) < 0 and p(−1) > 0 it follows that p(x0 ) = 0 for
some x0 in [−2, −1] which is what we needed to show.

Remark:

If you’re not given the interval where the root of the function may be you need
to find it! Basically you look for points a and b where f (a) < 0 and
f (b) > 0 and then you can refine your estimate of the root by “narrowing
down” your interval.

Figure 31.
Example 55. The distance between 2 cities A and B is 270 km. You’re driving
along the superhighway between A and B with speed limit 100 km/h hoping to get
to your destination as soon as possible. You quickly realize that after one and one-
half hours of driving you’ve travelled 200 km so you decide to stop at a rest area
to relax. All of a sudden a police car pulls up to yours and the officer hands you a
speeding ticket! Why?

Solution Well, the officer didn’t actually see you speeding but saw you leaving A.
Had you been travelling at the speed limit of 100 km/h it should have taken you
2 hours to get to the rest area. The officer quickly realized that „
somewhere along the «
200 km
highway you must have travelled at speeds of around 133 km/hr = ( × 60min .
90min
As a check notice that if you were travelling at a constant speed of say 130 km/h
then you would have travelled a distance of only 130 × 1.5 = 195 km short of your
mark.

A typical graph of your journey appears in Figure 32. Note that your “speed”
must be related to the amount of “steepness” of the graph. The faster you go, the
2.3. IMPORTANT THEOREMS ABOUT CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS 61

“steeper” the graph. This motivates the notion of a derivative which you’ll see in
the next chapter.

Philosophy

Actually one uses a form of the Intermediate Value Theorem almost daily. For
instance, do you find yourself asking: “Well, based on this and that, such and such
must happen somewhere between ‘this’ and ‘that’ ?”

When you’re driving along in your car you make decisions based on your speed, Figure 32.
right? Will you get to school or work on time? Will you get to the store on time?
You’re always assuming (correctly) that your speed is a continuous function
of time (of course you’re not really thinking about this) and you make these Another result which you know
quick mental calculations that will verify whether or not you’ll get “there” on time. about continuous functions is this:
Basically you know what time you started your trip and you have an idea about If f is continuous on a closed in-
when it should end and then figure out where you have to be in between. . . terval [a, b], then it has a max-
imum value and a minimum
value, and these values are at-
tained by some points in [a, b].

Since total distance travelled is a continuous function of time it follows that there
exists at least one time t at which you were at the video store (this is true) and
some other time t at which you were “speeding” on your way to your destination
(also true!). . . all applications of the IVT.

Finally, we should mention that since the definition of a continuous function depends
on the notion of a limit it is immediate that many of the properties of limits should
reflect themselves in similar properties of continuous functions. For example, from
Table 2.4 we see that sums, differences, and products of continuous functions are
continuous functions. The same is true of quotients of continuous functions provided
the denominator is not zero at the point in question!
62 2.3. IMPORTANT THEOREMS ABOUT CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS

Web Links

For an application of the IVT to Economics see :

http://hadm.sph.sc.edu/Courses/Econ/irr/irr.html

For proofs of the main theorems here see:

www.cut-the-knot.com/Generalization/ivt.html
www.cut-the-knot.com/fta/brodie.html

Special Exercise Set

1. According to a famous book of world records a Venom GT R

racing car accel-
erated along a flat road from 0-60 mph in 3.05 seconds early in January, 2013.
Assuming that 1 mile = 1.61 km, show that the car must have traveled across
the 25 meter mark at some time.
2. The height of the mountain Ketu (a.k.a K2) is 8611 meters above sea level.
Assuming that its sides form a continuous curve prove that somewhere along
your journey to the top you must have passed the 5000 meter mark.
3. You’re sitting at a table with your friends enjoying a refreshment when all of a
sudden you notice that the table wobbles when you lean your elbow on it and
your friends start freaking out (their drinks start spilling)! Assuming that the
table has four legs of equal length show them how you can fix this uneven floor
problem easily by rotating and perhaps sliding the table (without putting length
extenders below on one or more legs).
4. Show that if the temperature in a room is 36o C at some point and 14o C near
your open freezer, then there must be a point in the room where the temperature
must be a perfect 20o C!
5. Given that Toronto and New York city are 491 miles apart and that the maxi-
mum speed limit along the highways is 65 mph show that getting to either one
from the other in 6 hours means that you broke the law somewhere along your
trip. In fact, prove that somewhere on the highway you were traveling at a speed
of at least 81 mph!
6. Show that Bolzano’s theorem (Theorem 2.3.1) is a consequence of the Interme-
diate Value Theorem (IVT).

Suggested Homework Set 5. Problems 1, 3, 5, 6

NOTES:
2.4. EVALUATING LIMITS AT INFINITY 63

2.4 Evaluating Limits at Infinity

In this section we introduce some basic ideas as to when the variable tends to plus
infinity (+∞) or minus infinity (−∞). Note that limits at infinity are always
one-sided limits, (why?). This section is intended to be a prelude to a later section
on L’Hospital’s Rule which will allow you to evaluate many of these limits by a
neat trick involving the function’s derivatives.

For the purposes of evaluating limits at infinity, the symbol ‘∞’ has the following
properties:

PROPERTIES
1. It is an ‘extended’ real number (same for ‘−∞’ ).
2. For any real number c (including 0), and r > 0,
c
lim =0
x→∞ xr
(Think of this as saying that c
∞r
= 0 and ∞r = ∞ for r > 0.)
∞
3. The symbol ∞ is undefined and can only be defined in the limiting
sense using the procedure in Table 2.13, Stage 2, some insight and maybe
a little help from your calculator. We’ll be using this procedure a little
later when we attempt to evaluate limits at ±∞ using extended real
numbers.

Table 2.14: Properties of ±∞

Basically, the limit symbol “x → ∞” means that the real variable x can be made
“larger” than any real number!

A similar definition applies to the symbol “x → −∞” except that now the real
variable x may be made “smaller” than any real number. The next result is very
useful in evaluating limits involving oscillating functions where it may not be easy
to find the limit.

The Sandwich Theorem (mentioned earlier) is also valid for limits at in-
finity, that is, if

g(x) ≤ f (x) ≤ h(x)

for all (sufficiently) large x and for some (extended) real number A,

lim g(x) = A, lim h(x) = A

x→∞ x→∞

then f has a limit at infinity and

lim f (x) = A
x→∞

Table 2.15: The Sandwich Theorem

Example 56. Evaluate the following limits at infinity.

sin(2x)
a) lim
x→∞ x
64 2.4. EVALUATING LIMITS AT INFINITY

3x2 − 2x + 1
b) lim
x→∞ x2 + 2
1
c) lim
x→−∞ x3 + 1
p
d) lim ( x2 + x + 1 − x)
x→∞

1
0 ≤ lim |f (x)| ≤ lim =0
x→∞ x→∞ x
1
(where we have set g(x) = 0 and h(x) = in the statement of the Sandwich
x
Theorem.) Thus,

lim |f (x)| = 0
x→∞

which means that

lim f (x) = 0
x→∞

(See Table 2.8 (c)).

b) Factor the term ‘x2’ out of both numerator and denominator. Thus

3x2 − 2x + 1 x2 (3 − x2 + x12 )
=
x2 + 2 x2 (1 + x22 )
(3 − x2 + x12 )
=
(1 + x22 )

Now
` ´
3x2 − 2x + 1 limx→∞ 3 − x2 + x12
lim = ` ´
x→∞ x2 + 2 limx→∞ 1 + x22
(because the limit of a quotient is the quotient of the limits )

3−0+0
=
1+0
= 3

where we have used the Property 2 of limits at infinity, Table 2.14.

1
c) Let f (x) = . We claim lim f (x) = 0 . . . Why?
x3 + 1 x→−∞

Well, as x → −∞, x3 → −∞ too, right? Adding 1 won’t make any difference, so

x3 +1 → −∞ too (remember, this is true because x → −∞). OK, now x3 +1 → −∞
which means (x3 + 1)−1 → 0 as x → −∞.

2
d)
√ As it stands, letting x → ∞ in the expression x + x + 1 also gives ∞. So
x2 + x + 1 → ∞ as x → ∞. So we have to calculate a “difference of two infinities”
i.e.,

√
f (x) = x2 + x + 1 − x
ւ ց
∞ as x → ∞ ∞ as x → ∞
2.4. EVALUATING LIMITS AT INFINITY 65

There is no way of doing this so we have to simplify the expression (see Table 2.13,
Stage 2) by rationalizing the expression . . . So,
√ √
p ( x2 + x + 1 − x)( x2 + x + 1 + x)
x2 + x + 1 − x = √
x2 + x + 1 + x
(x + x + 1) − x2
2
= √
x2 + x + 1 + x
x+1
= √
x2 + x + 1 + x

The form still isn’t good enough to evaluate the limit directly. (We would be getting
∞
a form similar to ∞ if we took limits in the numerator and denominator separately.)

OK, so we keep simplifying by factoring out ‘x’s from both numerator and denomi-
nator . . . Now,
p x+1
x2 + x + 1 − x = √
x2
+x+1+x
x(1 + x1 )
= “q ”
x 1 + x1 + x12 + 1
1
1+ x
= q
1 1
1+ x
+ x2
+1

OK, now we can let x → ∞ and we see that

1
p 1+ x
lim ( x2 + x + 1 − x) = lim q
x→∞ x→∞ 1 1
1+ x
+ x2
+1
1+0
= √
1+0+0+1
1
=
2

As a quick check let’s use a calculator and some large values of x: e.g. x = 10,
100, 1000, 10000, . . . This gives the values: f (10) = 0.53565, f (100) = 0.50373,
f (1000) = 0.50037, f (10000) = 0.500037, . . . which gives a sequence whose limit
appears to be 0.500... = 12 , which is our theoretical result.

Exercise Set 9.

Evaluate the following limits (a) numerically and (b) theoretically.

sin(3x)
1. lim (Remember: x is in radians here.)
x→∞ 2x
x
2. lim
x→−∞ x3 + 2

x3 + 3x − 1
3. lim
x→∞ x3 + 1
√ √ √
4. lim x( x + 1 − x)
x→∞
cos x
5. lim
x→−∞ x2
66 2.5. HOW TO GUESS A LIMIT

6. Hard Show that

lim sin x
x→∞

does not exist by giving a graphical argument.

(Hint: Use the ideas developed in the Advanced Topics to prove this theo-
retically.)

2.5 How to Guess a Limit

We waited for this part until you learned about limits in general. Here we’ll show
you a quick and quite reliable way of guessing or calculating some limits at infinity
(or “minus” infinity). Strictly speaking, you still need to ‘prove’ that your guess is
right, even though it looks right. See Table 2.16. Later on, in Section 3.10, we will
see a method called L’Hospital’s Rule that can be used effectively, under some mild
conditions, to evaluate limits involving indeterminate forms.

OK, now just a few words of caution before you start manipulating infinities. If an
operation between infinities and reals (or another infinity) is not among those listed
in Table 2.16, it is called an indeterminate form.

The most common indeterminate forms are:

∞ 0
0 · (±∞), ± , ∞ − ∞, (±∞)0 , 1±∞ , , 00
∞ 0

When you meet these forms in a limit you can’t do much except simplify, rationalize,
factor, etc. and then see if the form becomes “determinate”.

FAQ about Indeterminate Forms

Let’s have a closer look at these indeterminate forms: They are called indeterminate
because we cannot assign a single real number (once and for all) to any one of those
expressions. For example,

∞
Question 1: Why can’t we define ∞
= 1? After all, this looks okay . . .

Answer 1: If that were true then,

2x
lim = 1,
x→∞ x
but this is impossible because, for any real number x no matter how large,
2x
= 2,
x
and so, in fact,

2x
lim = 2,
x→∞ x
∞
and so we can’t define ∞ = 1. Of course, we can easily modify this example to show
that if r is any real number, then
rx
lim = r,
x→∞ x
2.5. HOW TO GUESS A LIMIT 67

which seems to imply that ∞ ∞

= r. But r is also arbitrary, and so these numbers r
can’t all be equal because we can choose the r’s to be different! This shows that we
cannot define the quotient ∞∞ . Similar reasoning shows that we cannot define the
∞
quotient − ∞ .

Question 2: All right, but surely 1∞ = 1, since 1 × 1 × 1 × ... = 1?

Answer 2: No. The reason for this is that there is an infinite number of 1’s here
and this statement about multiplying 1’s together is only true if there is a finite
number of 1’s. Here, we’ll give some numerical evidence indicating that 1∞ 6= 1,
necessarily.

Let n ≥ 1 be a positive integer and look at some of the values of the expression
„ «n
1
1+ , n = 1, 2, 3, ..., 10, 000
n

These values below:

` ´
1 n
n 1+ n
value

` ´1
n=1 1 + 11 2
` ´2
n=2 1 + 12 2.25
` ´3
n=3 1 + 13 2.37
` ´
1 4
n=4 1+ 4 2.44
` ´5
n=5 1 + 15 2.48
` ´
1 10
n = 10 1 + 10 2.59
` ´
1 50
n = 50 1 + 50 2.69
` 1
´ 100
n = 100 1 + 100 2.7048
` 1
´ 1000
n = 1, 000 1 + 1000 2.7169
` 1
´ 10000
n = 10, 000 1 + 10000 2.71814
... ... ...

Well, you can see that the values do not appear to be approaching 1! In fact, they
seem to be getting closer to some number whose value is around 2.718. More on this
special number later, in Chapter 4. Furthermore, we saw in Exercise 17, of Exercise
Set 3, that these values must always lie between 2 and 3 and so, once again cannot
converge to 1. This shows that, generally speaking, 1∞ 6= 1. In this case one can
show that, in fact,
„ «n
1
lim 1+ = 2.7182818284590...
n→∞ n

is a special number called Euler’s Number, (see Chapter 4).

Question 3: What about ∞ − ∞ = 0?

Answer 3: No. This isn’t true either since, to be precise, ∞ is NOT a real number,
and so we cannot apply real number properties to it. The simplest example that
shows that this difference between two infinities is not zero is the following. Let n
be an integer (not infinity), for simplicity. Then
68 2.5. HOW TO GUESS A LIMIT

∞−∞ = lim [n − (n − 1)]

n→∞
= lim [n − n + 1]
n→∞
= lim 1
n→∞
= 1.
The same argument can be used to find examples where ∞ − ∞ = r, where r is any
given real number. It follows that we cannot assign a real number to the expression
∞ − ∞ and so this is an indeterminate form.

0
Question 4: Isn’t it true that 0
= 0?

Answer 4: No, this isn’t true either. See the example in Table 2.11 and the
discussion preceding it. The results there show that
0 sin 0
=
0 0
sin x
= lim
x→0 x
= 1
in this case. So we cannot assign a real number to the quotient “zero over zero”.

Question 5: Okay, but it must be true that ∞0 = 1!?

Answer 5: Not generally. An example here is harder to construct but it can be

done using the methods in Chapter 4.

The Numerical Estimation of a Limit

At this point we’ll be guessing limits of indeterminate forms by performing numerical

calculations. See Example 59, below for their theoretical, rather than numerical
calculation.

Example 57. Guess the value of each of the following limits at infinity:

sin(2x)
a) lim
x→∞ x
x2
b) lim
x→−∞ x2 + 1
`√ √ ´
c) lim x+1− x
x→∞

Solution a) Since x → ∞, we only need to try out really large values of x. So,
just set up a table such as the one below and look for a pattern . . .

sin 2x
Some values of x The values of f (x) =
x

10 .0913
100 −.00873
1, 000 0.000930
10, 000 0.0000582
100, 000 −0.000000715
1, 000, 000 −0.000000655
... ...
2.5. HOW TO GUESS A LIMIT 69

We note that even though the values of f (x) here alternate in sign, they are always
getting smaller. In fact, they seem to be approaching f (x) = 0, as x → ∞. This is
our guess and, on this basis, we can claim that

sin 2x
lim = 0.
x→∞ x

See Example 59 a), for another way of seeing this.

Below you’ll see a graphical depiction (made by using your favorite software pack-
age or the Plotter included with this book), of the function f (x) over the interval
[10, 100].

Note that the oscillations appear to be dying out, that is, they are getting smaller
and smaller, just like the oscillations of your car as you pass over a bump! We guess
that the value of this limit is 0.

b) Now, since x → −∞, we only need to try out really small (and negative) values
of x. So, we set up a table like the one above and look for a pattern in the values.

x2
Some values of x The values of f (x) =
x2+1

−10 0.9900990099
−100 0.9999000100
−1, 000 0.9999990000
−10, 000 0.9999999900
−100, 000 0.9999999999
−1, 000, 000 1.0000000000
... ...

In this case the values of f (x) all have the same sign, they are always positive.
Furthermore, they seem to be approaching f (x) = 1, as x → ∞. This is our guess
and, on this numerical basis, we can claim that

x2
lim = 1.
x→−∞ x2 +1
70 2.5. HOW TO GUESS A LIMIT

See Example 59 b), for another way of seeing this.

A graphical depiction of this function f (x) over the interval [−100, −10] appears
below.

In this example, the values of the function appear to increase steadily towards the
line whose equation is y = 1. So, we guess that the value of this limit is 1.

c) Once again x → +∞, we only need to try out really large (and positive) values
of x. Our table looks like:

√ √
Some values of x The values of f (x) = x+1− x

10 0.15434713
100 0.04987562
1, 000 0.01580744
10, 000 0.00499999
100, 000 0.00158120
1, 000, 000 0.00050000
... ...

In this case the values of f (x) all have the same sign, they are always positive.
Furthermore, they seem to be approaching f (x) = 0, as x → ∞. We can claim that

`√ √ ´
lim x+1− x = 0.
x→∞

See Example 59 d), for another way of seeing this. A graphical depiction of this
function f (x) over the interval [10, 100] appears below.

Note that larger values of x are not necessary since we have a feeling that they’ll
just be closer to our limit. We can believe that the values of f (x) are always getting
closer to 0 as x gets larger. So 0 should be the value of this limit. In the graph
below we see that the function is getting smaller and smaller as x increases but it
2.5. HOW TO GUESS A LIMIT 71

always stays positive. Nevertheless, its values never reach the number 0 exactly, but
only in the limiting sense we described in this section.

Watch out!

This numerical way of “guessing” limits doesn’t always work! It works well
when the function has a limit, but it doesn’t work if the limit doesn’t exist (see
the previous sections).

For example, the function f (x) = sin x has NO limit as x → ∞. But how do you
know this? The table could give us a hint;

Some values of x The values of f (x) = sin x

10 −0.5440211109
100 −0.5063656411
1, 000 +0.8268795405
10, 000 −0.3056143889
100, 000 +0.0357487980
1, 000, 000 −0.3499935022
... ...

As you can see, these values do not seem to have a pattern to them. They don’t
seem to “converge” to any particular value. We should be suspicious at this point
and claim that the limit doesn’t exist. But remember: Nothing can replace a
rigorous (theoretical) argument for the existence or non-existence of a
limit! Our guess may not coincide with the reality of the situation as the next
example will show!

Now, we’ll manufacture a function with the property that, based on our nu-
merical calculations, it seems to have a limit (actually = 0) as x → ∞, but,
in reality, its limit is SOME OTHER NUMBER!

Example 58. Evaluate the following limit using your calculator,

„ «
1
lim + 10−12 .
x→∞ x
72 2.5. HOW TO GUESS A LIMIT

Solution Setting up the table gives us:

„ «
1
Some values of x The values of f (x) = + 10−12
x

10 0.100000000
100 0.010000000
1, 000 0.001000000
10, 000 0.000100000
100, 000 0.000001000
999, 999, 999 0.000000001
... ...

Well, if we didn’t know any better we would think that this limit should be 0. But
this is only because we are limited by the number of digits displayed upon
our calculator! The answer, based upon our knowledge of limits, should be the
number 10−12 (but this number would display as 0 on most hand-held calculators).
That’s the real problem with using calculators for finding limits. You must be
careful!!

Web Links

More (solved) examples on limits at infinity at:

http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/Classes/CalcI/LimitsAtInfinityI.aspx
http://www.sosmath.com/calculus/limcon/limcon04/limcon04.html

NOTES:
2.5. HOW TO GUESS A LIMIT 73

Finding Limits using Extended Real Numbers

At this point we’ll be guessing limits of indeterminate forms by performing a new

arithmetic among infinite quantities! In other words, we’ll define addition and mul-
tiplication of infinities and then use these ideas to actually find limits at (plus or
minus) infinity. This material is not standard in Calculus Texts and so can be omit-
ted if so desired. However, it does offer an alternate method for actually guessing
limits correctly every time! If you think that adding and multi-
plying ‘infinity’ is nuts, you should

Operations on the Extended Real Number Line look at the work of Georg Can-
tor (1845-1918), who actually de-
The extended real number line is the collection of all (usual) real numbers veloped an arithmetic of transfinite
plus two new symbols, namely, ±∞ (called extended real numbers) which cardinal numbers, (or numbers that
have the following properties: are infinite). He showed that ‘differ-
ent infinities’ exist and actually set
Let x be any real number. Then
up rules of arithmetic for them. His
a) x + (+∞) = (+∞) + x = +∞ work appeared in 1833.

b) x + (−∞) = (−∞) + x = −∞
As an example, the totality of all the
c) x · (+∞) = (+∞) · x = +∞ if x > 0 integers (one type of infinite num-
d) x · (−∞) = (−∞) · x = −∞ if x > 0 ber), is different from the totality of

e) x · (+∞) = (+∞) · x = −∞ if x < 0 all the numbers in the interval [0, 1]

(another ‘larger’ infinity). In a very
f) x · (−∞) = (−∞) · x = +∞ if x < 0
specific sense, there are more “real
The operation 0 · (±∞) is undefined and requires further investigation. numbers” than “integers”.

Operations between +∞ and −∞

g) (+∞) + (+∞) = +∞
h) (−∞) + (−∞) = −∞
i) (+∞) · (+∞) = +∞ = (−∞) · (−∞)
j) (+∞) · (−∞) = −∞ = (−∞) · (+∞)
Quotients and powers involving ±∞
x
k) = 0 for any real x
±∞

∞ r>0
l) ∞r =
0 r<0

∞ a>1
m) a∞ =
0 0 ≤a<1

Table 2.16: Properties of Extended Real Numbers

The extended real number line is, by definition, the ordinary (positive and
negative) real numbers with the addition of two idealized points denoted by ±∞
(and called the points at infinity). The way in which infinite quantities interact with
each other and with real numbers is summarized briefly in Table 2.16 above.

It is important to note that any basic operation that is not explicitly mentioned in
Table 2.16 is to be considered an indeterminate form, unless it can be derived from
one or more of the basic axioms mentioned there.
74 2.5. HOW TO GUESS A LIMIT

Evaluating Limits of Indeterminate Forms

OK, now what? Well, you want

lim f (x)
x→±∞

Basically, you look at f (±∞) respectively.

This is an expression involving “infinities” which you simplify (if you can) using the
rules of arithmetic of the extended real number system listed in Table 2.16. If you
get an indeterminate form you need to factor, rationalize, simplify, separate terms
etc. until you get something more manageable.

Example 59. Evaluate the following limits involving indeterminate forms:

sin 2x
a) lim
x→∞ x
x2
b) lim 2
x→∞ x + 1

x3 + 1
c) lim
x→−∞ x3 − 1
√ √
d) lim x + 1 − x
x→∞
x
e) lim
x→0+ sin x

sin(2x) sin(2∞)
Solution a) Let f (x) = , then f (∞) = . Now use Table 2.16 on the
x ∞
previous page. Even though sin(2∞) doesn’t really have a meaning, we can safely
take it that the “sin(2∞) is something less than or equal to 1”, because the sine of
something
any finite angle has this property. So f (∞) = = 0, by property (k), in
∞
Table 2.16.

We conclude our guess which is:

sin 2x
lim =0
x→∞ x

Remember: This is just an educated guess; you really have to prove this to
be sure. This method of guessing is far better than the numerical approach of
the previous subsection since it gives the right answer in case of Example 58,
where the numerical approach failed!

2
b) Let f (x) = x2x+1 . Then f (∞) = ∞ ∞
by properties (l) and (a) in Table 2.16. So
we have to simplify, etc. There is no other recourse . . . Note that
x2 1
f (x) = =1− 2
x2 +1 x +1
1
So lim f (x) = lim 1 − 2
x→∞ x→∞ x +1
1
= 1− (by property (l) and (a))
∞
= 1 − 0 (by property (k))
= 1
2.5. HOW TO GUESS A LIMIT 75

x3 + 1
c) Let f (x) = . Then
x3 − 1

(−∞)3 + 1 −∞3 + 1 −∞ + 1 −∞ ∞
f (−∞) = = = = =
3
(−∞) − 1 −∞3 − 1 −∞ − 1 −∞ ∞

is an indeterminate form! So we have to simplify . . . Dividing the numerator by the

denominator using long division, we get

x3 + 1 2
= 1+
x3 − 1 x3 − 1
x3 + 1 2
Hence lim = lim (1 + )
x→−∞ x3 − 1 x→∞ x3 − 1
2
= 1+ (by property (e) and (a))
∞
= 1 + 0 (by property (k), in Table 2.16)
= 1

√ √
d) Let f (x) = x+1− x. Then
√ √
f (∞) = ∞+1− ∞
√ √
= ∞ − ∞ (by property (a))
= ∞−∞ (by property (k), in Table 2.16)

It follows that f (∞) is an indeterminate form. Let’s simplify . . . By rationalizing

the numerator we know that
√ √ (x + 1) − x
x+1− x = √ √
x+1+ x
1
= √ √ .
x+1+ x

So,
1
lim f (x) = lim √ √
x→∞ x→∞ x+1+ x
1
= √ √
∞+1+ ∞
1
= √ √ (by property (a))
∞+ ∞
1
= (by property (h))
∞+∞
1
= (by property (g))
∞
= 0 (by property (k))

d) In this case the function can be seen to be of more than one indeterminate form:
For example,
1 1
0· = 0 · = 0 · ∞,
sin 0 0
which is indeterminate (by definition), or

0 0
= ,
sin 0 0
which is also indeterminate. But we have already seen in Table 2.11 that when this
indeterminate form is interpreted as a limit, it is equal to 1.
76 2.6. LIMITS EQUAL TO ±∞

2.6 Limits equal to ±∞

The Big Picture

Now we look at those limits that CAN be equal to infinity. There is a big difference
between limits that exist and are equal to plus or minus infinity and limits that don’t
exist at all (depending on the context of what number system is used, whether real
or extended). In other words, when we use the extended real number system, we
allow for those limits that EXIST and whose values are equal to either +∞ or −∞.

So, we’ll be looking at two kinds of limits: Limits that exist and are equal
to ±∞ and functions whose limits do not exist at all (regardless of the number
system being used)! For example here are functions that have no limits at all (i.e.,
they don’t exist) . . .
2x
lim sin x, lim , lim (cos x − sin x).
x→∞ x→∞ cos x x→∞

When you approximate the graph of each of these functions using your graphing
calculator you realize something quickly, that is, the curves are oscillating no mat-
ter how far you go and they do not appear to be approaching any specific (even
extended) real number. This is the hallmark of a limit that doesn’t exist! If you
want to know more about such limits see the theoretical section in this book, which
can now be found online at https://archive.org/details/angelomingarelli

OPTIONAL BOX:
If you know something about sequences and their limits, then all you
need to do in order to show that the limit

lim f (x)
x→a

does NOT exist is to find TWO different infinite sequences BOTH of whose
limits are different! That is, you need to find an infinite sequence xn and another
infinite sequence zn (each in the domain of f ) such that, as n → ∞ we have
xn → a AND zn → a AND f (xn ) → L AND f (zn ) → M where L 6= M and
L, M are in the extended real number system.

Anyhow, on the other hand, the following limits actually exist but are equal to either
+∞ or −∞.
1
lim , lim x2 , lim x.
x→1 + x − 1 x→+∞ x→−∞

Each one of the preceding limits actually exists but the values of the limits are
infinite. In this book it’s okay for a limit to be infinite, so long as it exists. We add
a few more examples.

Example 60. Evaluate the following limits, if possible. In other words, deter-
mine whether the limit exists and is infinite or whether the limit doesn’t exist (at
all). Give reasons:

sin 2x
a) lim
sin 4x
x→∞

b) lim 3x cos x
x→∞

x4
c) lim
x→−∞ x3
+1
cos x
d) lim
x→0+ x
2.6. LIMITS EQUAL TO ±∞ 77

cos x
e) lim
x→0 x

Solution a) We use the trigonometric identity sin 4x = 2 sin 2x cos 2x (why can we
do this? Because sin 2✷ = 2 sin ✷ cos ✷ and just put 2x in the box!). So, for x such
that the denominator is not equal to zero we can write,
sin 2x sin 2x
=
sin 4x 2 sin 2x cos 2x
1
= .
2 cos 2x
provided sin 2x 6= 0 too (so we can cancel the numerator and denominator). Now
cos 2x does not approach a limit as x → ∞ (it just keeps oscillating between −1 and
1). In addition, the numbers 1 and 2 do not change as x → ∞. It follows that the
limit does not exist!

b) Here cos x has no limit at all as x → ∞ (as it also keeps oscillating between −1
and 1), but 3x → ∞ as x → ∞. If you look at the graph of 3x cos x you’ll see that
the oscillations get larger and larger both positively and negatively, so they’re “not
approaching a number” (or “not going anywhere”). It follows that the limit does
not exist.

c) As x → −∞ we have that x is large and negative and so it can’t be zero. Thus,

x4 x4
=
x3 +1 x3 (1+ x13 )
x
= .
(1 + 1/x3 )

Now as x → −∞ we know that 1/x3 → 0 (as the form is 1/(−∞) = 0). It follows
that
x
lim = −∞,
x→−∞ (1 + 1/x3 )

so the limit actually exists and is equal to −∞.

d) First note that this is a one-sided limit, from the right. Next, we also note
that the cosine function is continuous at x = 0 so it doesn’t matter HOW x is
approaching the number 0 (whether from the right or from the left), the quantity
cos x → 1 (because cos 0 = 1). What about the denominator? Well, here as x → 0+
(or x is approaching zero from the right, which means that x > 0 as it approaches
zero) then cos x/x → 1/0 = +∞. There is no other possibility for a limit since x
cannot be negative by hypothesis. So the one-sided limit is equal to +∞.

e) Now note that this is a two-sided limit, okay? Next, as before, note that the
cosine function is continuous at x = 0 so it doesn’t matter HOW x is approaching
the number 0 (whether from the right or from the left), the quantity cos x → 1
(because cos 0 = 1). But now in the denominator it’s clear that things get pretty
bad in the sense that as x → 0+ (which means that x > 0 as it approaches zero)
then cos x/x → 1/0 = +∞. On the other hand, if x → 0− (i.e., from the left, or
here, x < 0) then cos x/x → 1/0 = −∞, see? Since both these limits are different,
the two-sided limit does not exist!

NOTE: You CAN’T DEFINE 1/0 to be any specific extended real number. The
previous example shows that depending on how you approach zero, the quotient of
something (not zero) divided by “zero” can go to either plus or minus infinity. YOU
HAVE TO REMEMBER THIS!
78 2.6. LIMITS EQUAL TO ±∞

Special Exercise Set

Use the methods of this section and the previous one to determine whether the
following limits exist and then guess their values as extended real numbers.

x−1 2+x 3−x

1. lim 2. lim 3. lim
x→0+ x x→0+ x x→0 x

2x + 1 x2 + 1 x+1
4. lim 5. lim 6. lim
x→0+ x x→0− x x→0 |x|

2x2 + x x 1 + sin x
7. lim 8. lim 9. lim
x→0 |x| x→1 x−1 x→2+ x−2

1 x cos(x − 2)
10. lim 11. lim 12. lim
x→−3+ x+3 x→1/2 − 2x − 1 x→2 x−2

cos(x − 2) x4 2 sin x
13. lim 14. lim 15. lim
x→2 |x − 2| x→∞ 2x3 −1 sin 2x
x→−∞

„ « „ «
x 3 1
16. lim 2 sin x 17. lim + 10−11 18. lim − 3 − 10−8
x→∞ x→∞ 1 + x2 x→−∞ x
„ « „ « “
1 2.718 cos x ”
19. lim −x 20. lim +x 21. lim x−
x→−∞ x x→∞ x x→0+ x
„ «
1 ` 2 ´
22. lim √ 23. lim sin (x) + cos2 (x) 24. lim (3 tan(x) − x)
x→∞ 2x − x2 x→−∞ x→π/2

25. lim (3x + cot x)

x→π −

Suggested Homework Set 6. Problems 1, 3, 5, 7, 8, 11, 15, 17, 22, 23

NOTES:
2.7. CHAPTER EXERCISES 79

2.7 Chapter Exercises

Use the methods of this Chapter to decide the continuity of the following
functions at the indicated point(s).

1. f (x) = 3x2 − 2x + 1, at x = 1
2. g(t) = t3 cos(t), at t = 0
3. h(z) = z + 2 sin(z) − cos(z + 2) at z = 0
4. f (x) = 2 cos(x) at x = π
5. f (x) = |x + 1| at x = −1

Evaluate the limits of the functions from Exercises 1-5 above and justify
your conclusions.

6. lim (3x2 − 2x + 1)
x→1

7. lim t3 cos(t)
t→0

8. lim (z + 2 sin(z) − cos(z + 2))

z→0

9. lim 2 cos(x)
x→π

10. lim |x + 1|
x→−1

Evaluate the following limits

„ «
t−2
11. lim
t→2+ t+2
„ «
x−4
12. lim
x→4+ x2 − 16
„ «
1
13. lim
t→2+ t−2
„ «
x−1
14. lim
x→1+ |x − 1|
„ «
1
15. lim 1 + 3
x→0+ x

16. Let g be defined as

8 2
< x +1 x<0
g(x) = 1 − |x| 0≤x≤1
:
x x>1

Evaluate
i). lim g(x) ii). lim g(x)
x→0− x→0+

iii). lim g(x) iv). lim g(x)

x→1− x→1+

v) Conclude that the graph of g has no breaks at x = 0 but it does have a break at
x = 1.
80 2.7. CHAPTER EXERCISES

Determine whether the following limits exist. Give reasons


2−x x≤0
17. lim f (x) where f (x) =
x→0 x+1 x>0
18. lim |x − 3|
x→1
„ «
x+2
19. lim
x→−2 x+1
20. lim x2 sin x
x→0
8
sin (x − 1)
>
< , 0≤x<1
21. lim f (x) where f (x) = x−1
x→1 >
: 1, x=1
|x − 1| x>1

Determine the points of discontinuity of each of the following functions.

|x|
22. f (x) = − 1 for x 6= 0 and f (0) = 1
x
8 x
>
< |x| x<0
23. g(x) =
>
:
1 + x2 x≥0
2
x − 3x + 2
24. f (x) = , f or x 6= 1; f (1) = −1/3.
x3 − 1
 4
x − 1 x 6= 0
25. f (x) =
−0.99 x = 0
1
26. f (x) = 1.65 + 2 for x 6= 0, f (0) = +1
x

Determine whether the following limits exist. If the limits exist, find
their values in the extended real numbers.

sin (ax)
27. lim , where a 6= 0, b 6= 0
x→0 bx
cos (2x)
28. lim
x→0 |x|
x sin (x)
29. lim
x→0 sin (2x)
√
sin 3 − x
30. lim √
x→3− 3−x
bx
31. lim , where a =6 0, b 6= 0
x→0 sin (ax)

cos 3x
32. lim
x→∞ 4x
33. lim x sin x
x→−∞
p
34. lim x2 + 1 − x
x→∞

35.Use Bolzano’s Theorem and your pocket calculator to prove that the function f
defined by f (x) = x sin x + cos x has a root in the interval [−5, 1].

36. Use Bolzano’s Theorem and your pocket calculator to prove that the function
f defined by f (x) = x3 − 3x + 2 has a root in the interval [−3, 0]. Can you find it?
2.7. CHAPTER EXERCISES 81

Are there any others? (Idea: Find smaller and smaller intervals and keep applying
Bolzano’s Theorem)

37. Find an interval of x′ s containing the x−coordinates of the point of intersection

of the curves y = x2 and y = sin x. Later on, when we study Newton’s Method
you’ll see how to calculate these intersection points very accurately.

Hint: Use Bolzano’s Theorem on the function y = x2 − sin x over an appropriate

interval (you need to find it).

Suggested Homework Set 7. Problems 1, 9, 12, 17, 22, 27, 34, 36

NOTES:
82 2.7. CHAPTER EXERCISES
Chapter 3

The Derivative of a
Function

The Big Picture

This chapter contains material which is fundamental to the further study of Calculus.
Its basis dates back to the great Greek scientist Archimedes (287-212 B.C.) who
first considered the problem of the tangent line. Much later, attempts by the key
historical figures Kepler (1571-1630), Galileo (1564-1642), and Newton (1642-1727)
among others, to understand the motion of the planets in the solar system and thus
the speed of a moving body, led them to the problem of instantaneous velocity which
translated into the mathematical idea of a derivative. Through the geometric notion
of a tangent line we will introduce the concept of the ordinary derivative of a
function, itself another function with certain properties. Its interpretations in the
physical world are so many that this book would not be sufficient to contain them
all. Once we know what a derivative is and how it is used we can formulate many
problems in terms of these, and the natural concept of an ordinary differential
equation arises, a concept which is central to most applications of Calculus to the
sciences and engineering. For example, the motion of every asteroid, planet, star,
comet, or other celestial object is governed by a differential equation. Once we can
solve these equations we can describe the motion. Of course, this is hard in general,
and if we can’t solve them exactly we can always approximate the solutions which
give the orbits by means of some, so-called, numerical approximations. This is
the way it’s done these days ... We can send probes to Mars because we have a very
good idea of where they should be going in the first place, because we know the
mass of Mars (itself an amazing fact) with a high degree of accuracy.

Most of the time we realize that things are in motion and this means that certain
physical quantities are changing. These changes are best understood through the
derivative of some underlying function. For example, when a car is moving its
distance from a given point is changing, right? The “rate at which the distance
changes” is the derivative of the distance function. This brings us to the notion
of “instantaneous velocity”. Furthermore, when a balloon is inflated, its volume is
changing and the “rate” at which this volume is changing is approximately given
by the derivative of the original volume function (its units would be meters3 /sec).
In a different vein, the stock markets of the world are full of investors who delve
into stock options as a means of furthering their investments. Central to all this
business is the Black-Sholes equation, a complicated differential equation, which
won their discoverer(s) a Nobel Prize in Economics a few years ago.

83
84 3.1. MOTIVATION

Review
Look over your notes on functions in Chapter 1, especially the whole thing
dealing with functions f being evaluated at abstract symbols other than x, like
f (x + 2). To really understand derivatives you should review Chapter 2, in
particular the part on the definition of continuity and right/left- handed limits.

3.1 Motivation

We begin this chapter by motivating the notation of the derivative of a function,

itself another function with certain properties.

First, we’ll define the notion of a tangent to a curve. In the phrase that describes
it, a tangent at a given point P on the graph of the curve y = f (x) is a straight line
segment which intersects the curve y = f (x) at P and is ‘tangent’ to it (think of the
ordinary tangents to a circle, see Figure 33).

Figure 33. Example 61. Find the equation of the line tangent to the curve y = x2 at
the point (1, 1).

Solution Because of the shape of this curve we can see from its graph that every
straight line crossing this curve will do so in at most two points, and we’ll actually
show this below. Let’s choose a point P, say, (1, 1) on this curve for ease of exposition.
We’ll find the equation of the tangent line to P and we’ll do this in the following
steps:

1. Find the equation of all the straight lines through P.

2. Show that there exists, among this set of lines, a unique line which is tangent
to P.

OK, the equation of every line through P(1, 1) has the form
y = m(x − 1) + 1
where m is its slope, right? (Figure 34).

Figure 34. Since we want the straight line to intersect the curve y = x2 , we must set y = x2 in
the preceding equation to find
x2 = m(x − 1) + 1
or the quadratic
x2 − mx + (m − 1) = 0
Finding its roots gives 2 solutions (the two x-coordinates of the point of intersection
we spoke of earlier), namely,
x = m − 1 and x = 1
The second root x = 1 is clear to see as all these straight lines go through P(1, 1).
The first root x = m − 1 gives a new root which is related to the slope of the
straight line through P(1, 1).

OK, we want only one point of intersection, right? (Remember, we’re looking
for a tangent). This means that the two roots must coincide! So we set m − 1 = 1
(as the two roots are equal) and this gives m = 2.
3.1. MOTIVATION 85

Thus the line whose slope is 2 and whose equation is

y = 2(x − 1) + 1 = 2x − 1

is the equation of the line tangent to P(1, 1) for the curve y = x2 . Remember that
at the point (1, 1) this line has slope m = 2. This will be useful later.

OK, but this is only an example of a tangent line to a curve . . . . How do you define
this in general?

Well, let’s take a function f , look at its graph and choose some point P(x0 , y0 ) on
its graph where y0 = f (x0). Look at a nearby point Q(x0 + h, f (x0 + h)). What is
the equation of the line joining P to Q? Its form is

y − y0 = m(x − x0 )

But y0 = f (x0) and m, the slope, is equal to the quotient of the difference between
the y-coordinates and the x-coordinates (of Q and P), that is,

f (x0 + h) − f (x0 ) f (x0 + h) − f (x0 )

m= = .
(x0 + h) − x0 h

OK, so the equation of this line is

f (x0 + h) − f (x0)
y={ }(x − x0 ) + f (x0 )
h
From this equation you can see that the slope of this line must change with “h”.
So, if we let h approach 0 as a limit, this line may approach a “limiting line” and
it is this limiting line that we call the tangent line to the curve y = f (x) at
P (x0 , y0 ) (see the figure in the margin on the right). The slope of this“tangent
line” to the curve y = f (x) at (x0 , y0 ) defined by

f (x0 + h) − f (x0 )
m = lim
h→0 h
(whenever this limit exists and is finite) is called the derivative of f at x0 .
It is a number!!

Notation for Derivatives The following notations are all adopted universally for
the derivatives of f at x0 :

df
f ′ (x0 ), (x0 ), Dx f (x0 ), Df (x0)
dx
All of these have the same meaning.

Consequences!
This graph has a vertical tangent
line, namely x = 0, at the origin.
1. If the limit as h → 0 does not exist as a two-sided limit or it is infinite we say
that the derivative does not exist. This is equivalent to saying that there is
no uniquely defined tangent line at (x0 , f (x0 )), (Example 64).
2. The derivative, f ′ (x0 ) when it exists, is the slope of the tangent line at
(x0 , f (x0 )) on the graph of f .
3. There’s nothing special about these tangent lines to a curve in the sense that
the same line can be tangent to other points on the same curve. (The
simplest example occurs when f (x) = ax + b is a straight line. Why?)
86 3.1. MOTIVATION

In this book we will use the symbols ‘f ′(x0 ), Df (x0 )’ to mean the derivative
of f at x0 where
f (x0 + h) − f (x0)
f ′ (x0 ) = lim
h→0 h
= The slope of the tangent line at x = x0
= The instantaneous rate of change of f at x = x0 .

whenever this (two-sided) limit exists and is finite.

Table 3.1: Definition of the Derivative as a Limit

′
4. If either one or both one-sided limits defined by f± (x0 ) is infinite, the tangent
line at that point P(x0 , f (x0 )) is vertical and given by the equation x = x0 ,
(See the margin).

The key idea in finding the derivative using Table 3.1, here, is always to

SIMPLIFY first, THEN pass to the LIMIT

The concept of a left and right-

derivative of f at x = x0 is defined
by the left and right limits of the
expression on the right in Table 3.1. Example 62. In Example 61 we showed that the slope of the tangent line
So, for example, 2
to the curve y = x at (1, 1) is equal to 2. Show that the derivative of f where
′ f(x0 + h) − f(x0 ) f (x) = x2 at x = 1 is also equal to 2 (using the limit definition of the derivative,
f− (x0 ) = lim ,
h→0− h Table 3.1).
′ f(x0 + h) − f(x0 )
f+ (x0 ) = lim ,
h→0+ h Solution By definition, the derivative of f at x = 1 is given by
define the left and right-derivative f (1 + h) − f (1)
f ′ (x) = lim
of f at x = x0 respectively, when- h→0 h
ever these limits exist and are finite. provided this limit exists and is finite. OK, then calculate
f (1 + h) − f (1) (1 + h)2 − 12
=
h h
1 + 2h + h2 − 1
=
h
= 2+h

Since this is true for each value of h 6= 0 we can let h → 0 and find
f (1 + h) − f (1)
lim = lim (2 + h)
h→0 h h→0
= 2
′
and so f (1) = 2, as well. Remember, this also means that the slope of the tangent
line at x = 1 is equal to 2, which is what we found earlier.

Example 63. Find the slope of the tangent line at x = 2 for the curve whose
equation is y = 1/x.

Solution OK, we set f (x) = 1/x. As we have seen above, the slope’s value, mtan,
is given by
f (2 + h) − f (2)
mtan = lim .
h→0 h
3.1. MOTIVATION 87

Leonardo da Vinci, 1452-1519,

who has appeared in a recent film
Remember to simplify this ratio as much as possible (without the “lim” symbol). on Cinderella, is the ideal of the
For h 6= 0 we have, Italian Risorgimento, the Renais-

1 1 sance: Painter, inventor, scientist,

f (2 + h) − f (2) (2+h)
− 2
= engineer, mathematician, patholo-
h h gist etc., he is widely accepted as a
2 (2+h)
2(2+h)
− 2(2+h) universal genius, perhaps the great-
=
h est ever. What impresses me the
2 − (2 + h) most about this extremely versa-
=
2h(2 + h) tile man is his ability to assimilate
−h nature into a quantifiable whole,
=
2h(2 + h) his towering mind, and his insa-
−1 tiable appetite for knowledge. He
= , since h 6= 0.
2(2 + h) drew the regular polytopes (three-
dimensional equivalents of the reg-
Since this is true for each h 6= 0, we can pass to the limit to find,
ular polygons) for his friend Fra
f (2 + h) − f (2) Luca Pacioli, priest and mathe-
mtan = lim matician, who included the hand-
h→0 h
−1 drawn sketches at the end of the
= lim
h→0 2(2 + h) original manuscript of his book on
1 the golden number entitled De div-
= − .
4 ina proportione, published in 1509,
and now in Torino, Italy.

Example 64. We give examples of the following:

a) A function f whose derivative does not exist (as a two-sided limit).

b) A function f with a vertical tangent line to its graph y = f (x) at x = 0,
(‘infinite’ derivative at x = 0, i.e., both one-sided limits of the derivative exist
but are infinite).
c) A function f with a horizontal tangent line to its graph y = f (x) at x = 0, (the
derivative is equal to zero in this case).

Solution a) Let

x if x ≥ 0
f (x) =
−x if x < 0

This function is the same as f (x) = |x|, the absolute value of x, right? The idea is
that in order for the two-sided (or ordinary) limit of the “derivative” to exist at some
point, it is necessary that both one-sided limits (from the right and the left) each
exist and both be equal, remember? The point is that this function’s derivative
has both one-sided limits existing at x = 0 but unequal. Why? Let’s use
Table 3.1 and try to find its “limit from the right” at x = 0.

For this we suspect that we need h > 0, as we want the limit from the right,
and we’re using the same notions of right and left limits drawn from the theory of
continuous functions.
f (0 + h) − f (0) f (h) − f (0)
=
h h
h−0
= (because f (h) = h if h > 0)
h
= 1, (since h 6= 0).
88 3.1. MOTIVATION

This is true for each possible value of h > 0. So,

f (h) − f (0)
lim = 1,
h→0+ h
and so this limit from the right, also called the right derivative of f at x = 0,
exists and is equal to 1. This also means that as h → 0, the slope of the tangent
line to the graph of y = |x| approaches the value 1.

OK, now let’s find its limit from the left at x = 0. For this we want h < 0, right?
Now
f (0 + h) − f (0) f (h) − f (0)
=
h h
−h − 0
= (because f (h) = −h if h < 0)
h
= −1 (since h 6= 0)

This is true for each possible value of h < 0. So,

f (h) − f (0)
lim = −1.
h→0− h
This, so-called, left-derivative of f at x = 0 exists and its value is −1, a different
value than 1 (which is the value of the right derivative of our f at x = 0). Thus

Figure 35. f (0 + h) − f (0)

lim
h→0 h
does not exist as a two-sided limit. The graph of this function is shown in Figure
35. Note the cusp/ sharp point/v-shape at the origin of this graph. This graphical
phenomenon guarantees that the derivative does not exist there.

Note that there is no uniquely defined tangent line at x = 0 (as both y = x

and y = −x should qualify, so there is no actual “tangent line”).

Solution b) We give an example of a function whose derivative is infinite at x = 0,

say, so that its tangent line is x = 0 (if its derivative is infinite at x = x0 , then its
tangent line is the vertical line x = x0 ).
SIMPLIFY first, then
GO to the LIMIT Define f by
 √
f (x) = √ x, x ≥ 0,
− −x, x < 0.

The graph of f is shown in Figure 36.

Let’s calculate its left- and right-derivative at x = 0. For h < 0, at x0 = 0,

f (0 + h) − f (0) f (h) − f (0)
=
h h
√
− −h − 0 √
= ( because f (h) = − −h if h < 0)
h
√
− −h
=
−(−h)
1
= √ .
−h
So we obtain,

Figure 36. f (0 + h) − f (0) 1

lim = lim √
h→0− h h→0− −h
= +∞,
3.1. MOTIVATION 89

f ′ (x0 ) Tangent Line Direction Remarks

+ ւ ր “rises”, bigger means steeper up

− տ ց “falls”, smaller means steeper down

0 ←→ horizontal tangent line

±∞ l vertical tangent line

Table 3.2: Geometrical Properties of the Derivative

and, similarly, for h > 0,

f (0 + h) − f (0) 1
lim = lim √
h→0+ h h→0 +
h
= +∞.

Finally, we see that

f (0 + h) − f (0) f (0 + h) − f (0) Figure 37.
lim = lim
h→0− h h→0+ h
both exist and are equal to +∞.

Note: The line x = 0 acts as the ‘tangent line’ to the graph of f at x = 0.

Solution c) For an example of a function with a horizontal tangent line at some

point (i.e. f ′(x) = 0 at, say, x = 0) consider f defined by f (x) = x2 at x = 0, see
Figure 37. Its derivative f ′ (0) is given by
f (0 + h) − f (0)
f ′ (0) = lim =0
h→0 h
and since the derivative of f at x = 0 is equal to the slope of the tangent line there,
it follows that the tangent line is horizontal, and given by y = 0.

Example 65. On the surface of our moon, an object P falling from rest will fall
a distance of approximately 5.3t2 feet in t seconds. Find its instantaneous velocity
at t = a sec, t = 1 sec, and at t = 2.6 seconds.

Solution We’ll need to calculate its instantaneous velocity, let’s call it, “v”, at t = a
seconds. Since, in this case, f (t) = 5.3t2 , we have, by definition,
f (a + h) − f (a)
v = lim .
h→0 h
Now, for h 6= 0,
f (a + h) − f (a) 5.3(a + h)2 − 5.3a2
=
h h
5.3a2 + 10.6ah + 5.3h2 − 5.3a2
=
h
= 10.6a + 5.3h

So,

v = lim (10.6a + 5.3h) = 10.6a

h→0
90 3.1. MOTIVATION

f ′ (x0 ) does not exist (right and left derivatives not equal)
f ′ (x1 ) = 0, (horizontal tangent line).
f ′ (x2 ) does not exist (left derivative at x = x2 is infinite).
f ′ (x3 ) < 0, (tangent line “falls”)
f ′ (x4 ) = 0, (horizontal tangent line)
f ′ (x5 ) > 0, (tangent line “rises”).

Table 3.3: Different Derivatives in Action: See Figure 38

feet per second. It follows that its instantaneous velocity at t = 1 second is given
by (10.6) · (1) = 10.6 feet per second, obtained by setting a = 1 in the formula for
v. Similarly, v = (10.6) · (2.6) = 27.56 feet per second. From this and the preceding
discussion, you can conclude that an object falling from rest on the surface of the
moon will fall at approximately one-third the rate it does on earth (neglecting air
resistance, here).

Figure 38. Example 66. How long will it take the falling object of Example 65 to reach
an instantaneous velocity of 50 feet per second?

Solution We know from Example 65 that v = 10.6a, at t = a seconds. Since, we

50
want 10.6a = 50 we get a = 10.6 = 4.72 seconds.

Example 67. Different derivatives in action, see Figure 38, and Table 3.3.

Example 68. Evaluate the derivative of the function f defined by f (x) =

√
5x + 1 at x = 3.

Solution By definition,

f (3 + h) − f (3)
f ′ (3) = lim .
h→0 h

Now, we try to simplify as much as possible before passing to the limit.

For h 6= 0,
p p
f (3 + h) − f (3) 5(3 + h) + 1 − 5(3) + 1
=
h h
√
16 + 5h − 4
= .
h

Now, to simplify this last expression, we rationalize

√ the numerator (by multiplying
Think BIG here: Remember that ra- both the numerator and denominator by 16 + 5h + 4). Then we’ll find,
tionalization gives
√ √ √
√ ✷−△ 16 + 5h − 4 16 + 5h − 4 16 + 5h + 4
= { }{ √ }
p
✷− △= √ √
✷+ △ h h 16 + 5h + 4
16 + 5h − 16
for any two positive symbols, ✷, △. = √
h( 16 + 5h + 4)
5
= √ , since h 6= 0.
16 + 5h + 4
3.1. MOTIVATION 91

We can’t simplify this any more, and now the expression “looks good” if we set
h = 0 in it, so we can pass to the limit as h → 0, to find,

f (3 + h) − f (3)
f ′ (3) = lim
h→0 h
5
= lim √
h→0 16 + 5h + 4
5
= √
16 + 4
5
= .
8

Summary

The derivative of a function f at a point x = a, (or x = x0 ), denoted by f ′(a), or

df
dx
(a), or Df (a), is defined by the two equivalent definitions

f (a + h) − f (a)
f ′ (a) = lim
h→0 h
f (x) − f (a)
= lim .
x→a x−a
whenever either limit exists (in which case so does the other). You get the second
definition from the first by setting h = x − a, so that the statement “h → 0” is the
same as “x → a”.
SIMPLIFY first, then
The right-derivative (resp. left-derivative) is defined by the right- (resp. left- GO to the LIMIT
hand) limits

′ f (a + h) − f (a)
f+ (a) = lim
h→0+ h
f (x) − f (a)
= lim ,
x→a+ x−a
and
′ f (a + h) − f (a)
f− (a) = lim
h→0− h
f (x) − f (a)
= lim .
x→a− x−a
NOTES
92 3.1. MOTIVATION

Exercise Set 10.

Evaluate the following limits

f (2 + h) − f (2)
1. lim where f (x) = x2
h→0 h
f (−1 + h) − f (−1)
2. lim where f (x) = |x|
h→0 h
(
f (0 + h) − f (0) 0 x=0
3. lim where f (x) = 1
h→0 h x 6= 0
x
f (1 + h) − f (1)
4.a) lim
h→0− h

f (1 + h) − f (1) x+1 x≥1
b) lim wheref (x) =
h→0+ h x 0≤x<1
f (2 + h) − f (2) √
5. lim where f (x) = x
h→0 h
HINT : Rationalize the numerator and simplify.
f (−2 + h) − f (−2)
6. lim where f (x) = −x2
h→0 h

Find the slope of the tangent line to the graph of f at the given point.

7. f (x) = 3x + 2 at x = 1
8. f (x) = 3 − 4x at x = −2
9. f (x) = x2 at x = 3
10. f (x) = |x| at x = 1
11. f (x) = x|x| at x = 0
HINT: Consider the left and right derivatives separately.

1 x≥0
12. f (x) = (at x = 0. Remember Heaviside’s function?)
0 x<0

Determine whether or not the following functions have a derivative at the indicated
point. Explain.


1 x≥0
13. f (x) = at x = 0
−1 x<0
√
14. f (x) = x + 1 at x = −1
HINT: Graphing this function may help.
15. f (x) = |x2 | at x = 0
√
16. f (x) = 6 − 2x at x = 1
1
17. f (x) = x2
at x = 1
18. A function f is defined by
8
< x 0≤x<1
f (x) = x+2 1≤x<2
8 − x2
:
2 ≤ x < 3.
a) What is f ′ (1)? Explain.
b) Does f ′ (2) exist? Explain.
c) Evaluate f ′ ( 25 ).

NOTES:
3.2. WORKING WITH DERIVATIVES 93

3.2 Working with Derivatives

By now you know how to find the derivative of a given function (and you can
actually check to see whether or not it has a derivative at a given point). You also
understand the relationship between the derivative and the slope of a tangent line
to a given curve (otherwise go to Section 3.1).

Sometimes it is useful to define the derivative f ′ (a) of a given function at x = a as

f (x) − f (a)
f ′ (a) = lim (3.1)
x→a x−a
provided the (two-sided) limit exists and is finite. Do you see why this definition is
equivalent to
f (a + h) − f (a)
f ′ (a) = lim ?
h→0 h
Simply replace the symbol “h” by “x − a” and simplify. As h → 0 it is necessary
that x − a → 0 or x → a.

Notation
When a given function f has a derivative at x = a we say that “f is differentiable
at x = a” or briefly “f is differentiable at a.”

If f is differentiable at every point x of a given interval, I, we say that “f is differ-

entiable on I.”

Example 69. The function f defined by f (x) = x2 is differentiable everywhere

on the real line (i.e., at each real number) and its derivative at x is given by f ′ (x) =
2x.

Example 70. The Power Rule. The function g defined by g(x) = xn where
n ≥ 0 is any given integer is differentiable at every point x. If n < 0 then it is
differentiable everywhere except at x = 0. Show that its derivative is given by
d n
x = nxn−1 .
dx

Solution We need to recall the Binomial Theorem: This says that

n(n − 1) n−2 2
(x + h)n = xn + nxn−1 h + x h + · · · + nxhn−1 + hn
2
for some integer n whenever n ≥ 1, (there are (n + 1) terms in total). From this we
get the well-known formulae

(x + h)2 = x2 + 2xh + h2 ,
(x + h)3 = x3 + 3x2 h + 3xh2 + h3 ,
4
(x + h) = x4 + 4x3 h + 6x2 h2 + 4xh3 + h4 .

OK, by definition (and the Binomial Theorem), for h 6= 0,

n(n−1) n−2 2
g(x + h) − g(x) nxn−1 h + 2 x h + · · · + nxhn−1 + hn
=
h h
n−1 n(n − 1) n−2
= nx + x h + · · · + nxhn−2 + hn−1 .
2
94 3.2. WORKING WITH DERIVATIVES

Since n ≥ 1 it follows that (because the limit of a sum is the sum of the limits),

g(x + h) − g(x) n(n − 1) n−2

lim = lim (nxn−1 + x h + · · · + hn−1 )
h→0 h h→0 2
„ «
n(n − 1) n−2
= nxn−1 + lim x h + · · · + hn−1
h→0 2
= nxn−1 + 0
= nxn−1 .

Thus g′ (x) exists and g′ (x) = nxn−1 .

Remark! Actually, more is true here. It is the case that for every number ‘a’
(integer or not), but a is NOT a variable like ‘x, sin x, ...’,

d a
x = axa−1 if x > 0.
dx

This formula is useful as it gives a simple expression for the derivative of any power
of the independent variable, in this case, ‘x’.

QUICKIES

a) f (x) = x3 ; f ′ (x) = 3x3−1 = 3x2

b) f (t) = 1
t
= t−1 , so f ′ (t) = (−1)t−2 = − t12
1
c) g(z) = z2
= z −2 , so g′ (z) = (−2)z −3 = − z23
√ 1 1
d) f (x) = x = x 2 , so f ′ (x) = 21 x− 2 = 1
√
2 x
2 5
e) f (x) = x− 3 ; f ′ (x) = − 23 x− 3
f ) f (x) = constant, f ′ (x) = 0

Quick summary
Notation:

1. By cf we mean the function

whose values are given by
A function f is said to be differentiable at the point a if its derivative f ′ (a) exists
there. This is equivalent to saying that both the left- and right-hand derivatives exist
(cf)(x) = cf(x) at a and are equal. A function f is said to be differentiable everywhere if it is
differentiable at every point a of the real line.
where c is a constant.

2. By the symbols f + g we For example, the function f defined by the absolute value of x, namely, f (x) = |x|,
mean the function whose val- ′
is differentiable at every point except at x = 0 where f− ′
(0) = −1 and f+ (0) = 1. On
ues are given by
the other hand, the function g defined by g(x) = x|x| is differentiable everywhere.
(f + g)(x) = f(x) + g(x) Can you show this ?

Properties of the Derivative

Let f, g be two differentiable functions at x and let c be a constant. Then cf , f ± g,
f g are all differentiable at x and
3.2. WORKING WITH DERIVATIVES 95

d df
a) (cf ) = c = cf ′ (x), c is a constant.
dx dx

d df dg
(f ± g) = ± , Sum/Difference Rule
b) dx dx dx
= f ′ (x) ± g′ (x)

d
c) (f g) = f ′ (x) g(x) + f (x) g′ (x), Product Rule
dx

f
d) If for some x, the value g(x) 6= 0 then g
is differentiable at x and
Note that the formula
„ «
d f f ′(x) g(x) − f (x) g′ (x) d
(fg) =
df dg
= , Quotient Rule dx dx dx
dx g g2 (x)
is NOT TRUE in general. For
example, if f(x) = x, g(x) = 1, then
where all the derivatives are evaluated at the point ‘x’. Hints to the proofs or f(x)g(x) = x and so (fg)′ (x) = 1.
verification of these basic Rules may be found at the end of this section. They On the other hand, f ′ (x)g′ (x) = 0,
are left to the reader as a Group Project. and so this formula cannot be true.

Example 71. Find the derivative, f ′ (x) of the function f defined by

f (x) = 2x3 − 5x + 1. What is its value at x = 1?
Solution We use Example 70 and Properties (a) and (b) to see that

d d d d d
f ′ (x) = (2x3 ) + (−5x) + (1) = 2 (x3 ) + (−5) · (x) + 0
dx dx dx dx dx
= 2 · 3x2 + (−5) · 1
= 6x2 − 5.

So, f ′ (x) = 6x2 − 5 and thus the derivative evaluated at x = 1 is given by

f ′ (1) = 6 · (1)2 − 5 = 6 − 5 = 1.

The tangent line at x = 1 to the

√ √ curve f(x) defined in Example 71.

Example 72. Given that f (x) = 3
x+ 3
2 − 1 find f ′ (x) at x = −1.
Figure 39.
Solution We rewrite all “roots” as powers and then use the Power Rule. So,

d “√ √ ”
f ′ (x) 3 3
= x+ 2−1
dx
d “ 1/3 ” d “ 1/3 ” d “ 1/3 ”
= x + 21/3 − 1 = x + 2 −1
dx dx dx
1 13 −1
= x +0−0
3
1 − 32
= x .
3
96 3.2. WORKING WITH DERIVATIVES

1 2 1 `√ ´−2 1 1
Finally, f ′ (−1) = (−1)− 3 = 3
−1 = (−1)−2 = − .
3 3 3 3
Example 73. Find the slope of the tangent line to the curve defined by
the function h(x) = (x2 + 1)(x − 1) at the point (1, 0) on its graph.
Solution Using the geometrical interpretation of the derivative (cf., Table 3.1),
we know that this slope is equal to h′ (1). So, we need to calculate the derivative
of h and then evaluate it at x = 1. Since h is made up of two functions
we can use the Product Rule (Property (c), above). To this end we write
f (x) = (x2 + 1) and g(x) = x − 1. Then h(x) = f (x)g(x) and we want h′ (x).
So, using the Product Rule we see that

d
h′ (x) = f (x)g(x) = f ′ (x) g(x) + f (x) g′ (x)
dx
d ` 2 ´ d
= x + 1 · (x − 1) + (x2 + 1) · (x − 1)
dx dx
= (2x + 0) · (x − 1) + (x2 + 1) · (1 − 0) = 2x(x − 1) + x2 + 1
= 3x2 − 2x + 1.

The required slope is now given by h′ (1) = 3 − 2 + 1 = 2. See Figure 40.

The graph of the function h and its Example 74. Find the equation of the tangent line to the curve defined
tangent line at x = 1. The slope of by
this straight line is equal to 2 t
h(t) =
t2 + 1
Figure 40.
at the point (0, 0) on its graph.
Solution Since the function h is a quotient of two functions we may use the
Quotient Rule, (d). To this end, let f (t) = t and g(t) = t2 + 1. The idea is that
we have to find h′ (t) at t = 0 since this will give the slope of the tangent line
at t = 0, and then use the general equation of a line in the form y = mx + b
in order to get the actual equation of our tangent line passing through (0, 0).
OK, now

f ′ (t) g(t) − f (t) g′ (t)

h′ (t) =
g2 (t)
(1) · (t2 + 1) − (t) · (2t)
=
(t2 + 1)2
1 − t2
= .
(t2 + 1)2

Next, it is clear that h′ (0) = 1 and so the tangent line must have the equation
y = x + b for an appropriate point (x, y) on it. But (x, y) = (0, 0) is on it,
The tangent line y = x through
by hypothesis. So, we set x = 0, y = 0 in the general form, solve for b, and
conclude that b = 0. Thus, the required equation is y = x + 0 = x, i.e., y = x,
(0, 0) for the function h in Exam-
see Figure 41.
ple 74.

Figure 41. Example 75. At which points on the graph of y = x3 + 3x does the
tangent line have slope equal to 9?
Solution This question is not as direct as the others, above. The idea here is
to find the expression for the derivative of y and then set this expression equal
′ 2 ′ 2
to 9 and then solve for x. Now, √ y (x) = 3x + 3 and so 9 = y (x) = 3x + 3
2
implies that 3x = 6 or x = ± 2. Note the two roots here. So there are two
points on the required graph where
√ the slope is equal to 9. The y−coordinates
are
√ √ then given by setting
√ x
√ = ± 2 into
√ the expression
√ for y. We find the points
( 2, 5 2) and (− 2, −5 2), since ( 2)3 = 2 2.

Example 76. If f (x) = (x2 − x + 1)(x2 + x + 1) find f ′ (0) and f ′ (1).

3.2. WORKING WITH DERIVATIVES 97

Solution Instead of using the Product Rule we can simply expand the product
noting that f (x) = (x2 − x + 1)(x2 + x + 1) = x4 + x2 + 1. So, f ′ (x) = 4x3 + 2x
by the Power Rule, and thus, f ′ (0) = 0, f ′ (1) = 6.

Exercise Set 11.

Find the derivative of each of the following functions using any one
of the Rules above: Show specifically which Rules you are using at
each step. There is no need to simplify your final answer.
x0.3
Example: If f (x) = , then
x+1

D(x0.3 )(x + 1) − x0.3 D(x + 1)

f ′ (x) = , by the Quotient Rule,
(x + 1)2
˙ + 1) − x0.3 (1)
(0.3)x−0.7 (x ˙
= 2
, by the Power Rule with a = 2/3
(x + 1)
˙ + 1) − x0.3
(0.3)x−0.7 (x
= .
(x + 1)2

1. f (x) = x1.5
2. f (t) = t−2
3. g(x) = 6
2
4. h(x) = x 3
1
5. k(t) = t 5
6. f (x) = 4.52
7. f (t) = t4
8. g(x) = x−3
9. f (x) = x−1
10. f (x) = xπ
11. f (t) = t2 − 6
12. f (x) = 3x2 + 2x − 1
13. f (t) = (t − 1)(t2 + 4)
√ ` ´
14. f (x) = x 3x2 + 1
x0.5
15. f (x) =
2x + 1
x−1
16. f (x) =
x+1
x3 − 1
17. f (x) =
x2 +x−1
2
x3
18. f (x) = √ 3
x + 3x 4
98 3.2. WORKING WITH DERIVATIVES

Group Project on Differentiation

Prove the Differentiation Rules in Section 3.2 using the definition of the derivative as
a limit, the limit properties in Table 2.4, and some basic algebra. Assume throughout
that f and g are differentiable at x and g(x) 6= 0. In order to prove the Properties
proceed as follows using the hints given:

1. Property a)

Show that for any real number c, and h 6= 0, we have

f (x + h) − f (x)
(cf )′(x) = c × lim ,
h→0 h
and complete the argument.
2. Property b) The Sum/Difference Rule: Show that for a given x and h 6= 0,

(f + g)(x + h) − (f + g)(x) f (x + h) − f (x) g(x + h) − g(x)

= + .
h h h
Then use Table 2.4, a) and the definition of the derivatives.
3. Property c) The Product Rule: Show that for a given x and h 6= 0,

(f g)(x + h) − (f g)(x) f (x + h) − f (x) g(x + h) − g(x)

= g(x) + f (x + h) .
h h h
Then use Table 2.4 e),the definition of the derivatives, and the continuity of f
at x.
4. Property d) The Quotient Rule: First, show that for a given x and any h,
„ « „ «
f f f (x + h) f (x)
(x + h) − (x) = − .
g g g(x + h) g(x)

Next, rewrite the previous expression as

f (x + h) f (x) f (x + h)g(x) − f (x)g(x + h)

− = ,
g(x + h) g(x) g(x + h)g(x)

and then rewrite it as,

f (x + h)g(x) − f (x)g(x + h)
=
g(x + h)g(x)

(f (x + h) − f (x))g(x) − f (x)(g(x + h) − g(x))

.
g(x + h)g(x)
Now, let h → 0 and use Table 2.4, d) and e), the continuity of g at x, and the
definition of the derivatives.

Suggested Homework Set 8. Problems 1, 3, 6, 8, 18

NOTES:
3.3. THE CHAIN RULE 99

3.3 The Chain Rule

This section is about a method that will enable you to find the derivative of com-
plicated looking expressions, with some speed and simplicity. After a few examples
you’ll be using it without much thought ... It will become very natural. Many ex-
amples in nature involve variables which depend upon other variables. For example,
the speed of a car depends on the amount of gas being injected into the carburator,
and this, in turn depends on the diameter of the injectors, etc. In this case we could
ask the question: “How does the speeed change if we vary the size of the injectors
only ?” and leave all the other variables the same. We are then led naturally to a
study of the composition (not the same as the product), of various functions and
their derivatives.

We recall the composition of two functions, (see Chapter 1), and the limit-
definition of the derivative of a given function from Section 3.2. First, let’s see
if we can discover the form of the Rule that finds the derivative of the composition
of two functions in terms of the individual derivatives. That is, we want an explicit
Rule for finding
d d
(f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)),
dx dx
in terms of f and g(x).

We assume that f and g are both differentiable at some point that we call x0 (and
so g is also continuous there). Furthermore, we must assume that the range of g is
contained in the domain of f (so that the composition makes sense). Now look at
the quantity
k(x) = f (g(x)),

which is just shorthand for this composition. We want to calculate k′ (x0 ). So, we
need to examine the expression

k(x0 + h) − k(x0 ) f (g(x0 + h)) − f (g(x0 ))

= ,
h h

and see what happens when we let h → 0. Okay, now let’s assume that g is not
identically a constant function near x = x0 . This means that g(x) 6= g(x0 )
for any x in a small interval around x0 . Now,

k(x0 + h) − k(x0 ) f (g(x0 + h)) − f (g(x0 ))

=
h h
f (g(x0 + h)) − f (g(x0 )) g(x0 + h) − g(x0 )
= · .
g(x0 + h) − g(x0 ) h

As h → 0, g(x0 + h) → g(x0 ) because g is continuous at x = x0 . Furthermore,

g(x0 + h) − g(x0 )
→ g′ (x0 ),
h

since g is differentiable at the point x = x0 . Lastly,

f (g(x0 + h)) − f (g(x0 ))

→ f ′ (g(x0 ))
g(x0 + h) − g(x0 )

since f is differentiable at x = g(x0 ) (use definition 3.1 with x = g(x0 + h) and

a = g(x0 ) to see this). It now follows by the theory of limits that
100 3.3. THE CHAIN RULE

k(x0 + h) − k(x0 ) f (g(x0 + h)) − f (g(x0 )) g(x0 + h) − g(x0 )

lim = lim · ,
h→0 h h→0 g(x0 + h) − g(x0 ) h
„ «
f (g(x0 + h)) − f (g(x0 ))
= lim ×
h→0 g(x0 + h) − g(x0 )
„ «
g(x0 + h) − g(x0 )
× · lim ,
h→0 h
= f ′ (g(x0 )) · g′ (x0 ),
= k′ (x0 ).

In other words we can believe that

k′ (x0 ) = f ′ (g(x0 )) · g′ (x0 ),

and this is the formula we wanted. It’s called the Chain Rule.

The Chain Rule: Summary

Let f, g be two differentiable functions with g differentiable at x and g(x) in

the domain of f ′ . Then y = f ◦ g is differentiable at x and
The Chain Rule also says
d d
(f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)) = f ′ (g(x)) · g′ (x)
dx dx
Df(✷) = f ′ (✷) D✷ ,

where “Df = df/dx = f’(x). You

can read this as: “Dee of f of box Let’s see what this means. When the composition (f ◦ g) is defined (and the range
is f prime box dee box”. We call of g is contained in the domain of f ′ ) then (f ◦ g)′ exists and
this the Box formulation of the
d df
Chain Rule. (f ◦ g)(x) = (g(x)) · g′ (x)
dx dx
d
f (g(x)) = f ′ (g(x)) · g′ (x)
dx
| {z } | {z }
derivative of composition derivative of f at g(x) · derivative of g at x

In other words, the derivative of a composition is found by differentiating the outside

function first, (here, f ), evaluating its derivative, (here f ′ ), at the inside function,
(here, g(x)), and finally multiplying this number, f ′ (g(x)), by the derivative of g at
x.

The Chain Rule is one of the most useful and important rules in the theory of dif-
ferentiation of functions as it will allow us to find the derivative of very complicated-
looking expressions with ease. For example, using the Chain Rule we’ll be able to
show that
d
(x + 1)3 = 3(x + 1)2 .
dx
Without using the Chain Rule, the alternative is that we have to expand

(x + 1)3 = x3 + 3x2 + 3x + 1

using the Binomial Theorem and then use the Sum Rule along with the Power Rule
to get the result which, incidentally, is identical to the stated one since
d 3
(x + 3x2 + 3x + 1) = 3x2 + 6x + 3 = 3(x + 1)2 .
dx

An easy way to remember the Chain Rule is as follows:

3.3. THE CHAIN RULE 101

Replace the symbol “g(x)” by our box symbol, ✷. Then the Chain Rule says that

d
f (✷) = f ′ (✷) · ✷′
dx
| {z } | {z }
derivative of a composition derivative of f at ✷ · derivative of ✷ at x

Symbolically, it can be shortened by writing that

Df (✷) = f ′ (✷) D✷, The Chain Rule

where the ✷ may represent (or even contain) any other function(s) you wish. In
words, it can be remembered by saying that the

Derivative of f of Box is f prime Box dee-Box

like a famous brand name for “sneakers”, (i.e. ‘dee-Box’).

Consequences of the Chain Rule! It’s NOT TRUE that

1
Let g be a differentiable function with g(x) 6= 0. Then is differentiable and by the
Quotient Rule,
g
Df(g(x)) = f ′ (x) g′ (x),

„ «
d 1 −1
1. = · g′ (x), or,
dx g(x) (g(x))2
d
2. (g(x))a = a(g(x))a−1 · g′ (x) The Generalized Power Rule
dx

whenever a is a real number and g(x) > 0. This Generalized Power Rule follows
easily from the Chain Rule, above, since we can let f (x) = xa , g(x) = ✷. Then the
composition (f ◦ g)(x) = g(x)a = ✷a . According to the Chain Rule,

d
f (✷) = f ′ (✷) · ✷′ .
dx
But, by the ordinary Power Rule, Example 70, we know that f ′ (x) = axa−1 . Okay,
now since f ′ (✷) = a✷a−1 , and ✷′ = g′ (x), the Chain Rule gives us the result.

An easy way to remember these formulae, once and for all, is by writing

D ✷power = power · ✷(power)−1 · D ✷ Generalized Power Rule

„ «
1 −1
D = · D ✷, Reciprocal Rule
✷ (✷)2

where ✷ may be some differentiable function of x, and we have used the modern
notation “D” for the derivative with respect to x. Recall that the reciprocal of
something is, by definition, “ 1 divided by that something”.

The Chain Rule can take on different forms. For example, let y = f (u) and assume
that the variable u is itself a function of another variable, say x, and we write this
as u = g(x). So y = f (u) and u = g(x). So y must be a function of x and it
is reasonable to expect that y is a differentiable function of x if certain additional
conditions on f and g are imposed. Indeed, let y be a differentiable function of u
102 3.3. THE CHAIN RULE

and let u be a differentiable function of x. Then y is, in fact, a differentiable function

of x. Now the question is:

“How does y vary with x?” The result looks like this ...
dy dy du
= ·
dx du dx
or
′
y (x) = f ′ (u) · g′ (x)
where we must replace all occurrences of the symbol ‘u’ in the above by
the symbol ‘g(x)’ after the differentiations are made.

1
Sophie Germain, 1776-1831, was Example 77. Let f be defined by f (x) = 6x 2 + 3. Find f ′ (x).
the second of three children of a
1
middle-class Parisian family. Some-
Solution We know f (x) = 6x 2 + 3. So, if we let x = ✷ we get
what withdrawn, she never married,
d 1/2 d
and by all accounts lived at home f ′ (x) = 6 ✷ + 3 (by Properties (a) and (b)),
dx dx
where she worked on mathematical
1
problems with a passion. Of the = 6 · ✷−1/2 + 0,
2
many stories which surround this
= 3x−1/2
gifted mathematician, there is this 3
one ... Upon the establishment of = √ .
x
the École Polytechnique in 1795,
women were not allowed to attend
the lectures so Sophie managed to Example 78. Let g be defined by g(t) = t5 − 4t3 − 2. What is g′ (0), the
get the lecture notes in mathemat- derivative of g evaluated at t = 0?
ics by befriending students. She
then had some great ideas and wrote Solution
d 5 d d
this big essay called a memoire and g′ (t) = (t ) − 4 (t3 ) − 2 (by Property (b))
then submitted it (under a male dt dt dt
name) to one of the great French = 5t4 − 4(3)t2 − 0 (Power Rule)
mathematcians of the time, Joseph = 5t4 − 12t2 .
Lagrange, 1736-1813, for his ad-
But g′ (0) is g′ (t) with t = 0, right? So, g′ (0) = 5(0)4 − 12(0)2 = 0.
vice and opinion. Lagrange found
much merit in the work and wished
Example 79. Let y be defined by y(x) = (x2 − 3x + 1)(2x + 1). Evaluate
to meet its creator. When he did
y′ (1).
finally meet her he was delighted
that the work had been written by
Solution Let f (x) = x2 − 3x + 1, g(x) = 2x + 1. Then y(x) = f (x)g(x) and we want
a woman, and went on to intro-
y′ (x). . . So, we can use the Product Rule (or you can multiply the polynomials
duce her to the great mathemati- out, collect terms and then differentiate each term). Now,
cians of the time. She won a prize
in 1816 dealing with the solution of
y′ (x) = f ′ (x)g(x) + f (x)g′ (x)
a problem in two-dimensional har- = (2x − 3 + 0)(2x + 1) + (x2 − 3x + 1)(2 + 0)
monic motion, yet remained a lone = (2x − 3)(2x + 1) + 2(x2 − 3x + 1), so,
genius all of her life.

y′ (1) = (2(1) − 3)(2(1) + 1) + 2((1)2 − 3(1) + 1)

= −5.

x2 + 4
Example 80. Let y be defined by y(x) = . Find the slope of the
x3 − 4
tangent line to the curve y = y(x) at x = 2.

f (x)
Solution We write y(x) = where f (x) = x2 + 4, g(x) = x3 − 4. We also need
g(x)
f ′ (x) and g′ (x), since the Quotient Rule will come in handy here.
3.3. THE CHAIN RULE 103

The next Table may be useful as we always need these 4 quantities when using the
Quotient Rule:

f (x) f ′(x) g(x) g′ (x)

x2 + 4 2x x3 − 4 3x2

Now, by the Quotient Rule,

f ′ (x)g(x) − f (x)g′ (x)

y′ (x) =
(g(x))2
2x(x3 − 4) − (x2 + 4)(3x2 )
= .
(x3 − 4)2

No need to simplify here. We’re really asking for y′ (2), right? Why? Think “slope
of tangent line ⇒ derivative”. Thus,

4(4) − 8(12)
y′ (2) =
16
= −5

and the required slope has value −5.

6
Example 81. Let y(x) = x2 − . Evaluate y′ (0).
x−4

Solution Now
d 2 d 1
y′ (x) = (x ) − 6 ( )
dx dx x − 4
(where we used Property (a), the Power Rule, and Consequence 1.)
» –
−1 d
= 2x − 6 (x − 4)
(x − 4)2 dx
„ « „ «
d 1 d 1 −1
since ( )= = ✷′
dx x-4 dx ✷ ✷2
where ✷ = (x − 4).
All right, now
6
y′ (x) = 2x + ,
(x − 4)2
and so
6
y′ (0) = 2(0) + ,
(−4)2
3
= .
8

4 − x2
Example 82. Let y be defined by y(x) = . Evaluate y′ (x) at
x2 − 2x − 3
x = 1.

f (x)
Solution Write y(x) = . We need y′ (1), right ? OK, now we have the table . . .
g(x)

f (x) f ′ (x) g(x) g′ (x)

4 − x2 −2x x2 − 2x − 3 2x − 2
104 3.3. THE CHAIN RULE

f ′ (1)g(1) − f (1)g′ (1)

y′ (1) =
(g(1))2
(−2)(1 − 2 − 3) − (3)(2 − 2)
=
(1 − 2 − 3)2
8−0
=
16
1
= .
2

1.6
Example 83. Let y be defined by y(x) = . Evaluate y′ (0).
(x + 1)100

Solution Write y(x) = (1.6)(x + 1)−100 = 1.6f (x)−100 where f (x) = x + 1 (or,
replace f (x) by ✷). Now use Property (a) and Consequence (2) to find that

y′ (x) = (1.6)(−100)f (x)−101 · f ′ (x)

= −160(x + 1)−101 · (1)
−160
= ,
(x + 1)101
so y′ (0) = −160.

On the other hand, you could have used Consequence (1) to get the result. . . For
example, write y(x) as y(x) = f1.6
(x)
where f (x) = (x + 1)100 . Then

−1.6
y′ (x) = · f ′ (x) (by Consequence (1))
(f (x))2
−1.6
= (100(x + 1)99 (1)) (by Consequence (2))
(x + 1)200
−160
= (x + 1)99
(x + 1)200
−160
=
(x + 1)101
and so y′ (0) = −160, as before.

Example 84. Let y = u5 and u = x2 − 4. Find y′ (x) at x = 1.

Solution Here f (u) = u5 and g(x) = x2 − 4. Now f ′ (u) = 5u4 by the Power Rule
and g′ (x) = 2x. . . So,

y′ (x) = f ′ (u) · g′ (x)

= 5u4 · 2x
= 10xu4
= 10x(x2 − 4)4 , since u = x2 − 4.

At x = 1 we get

y′ (1) = 10(1)(−3)4
= 810.

Since this value is ‘large’ for a slope the actual tangent line is very ‘steep’, close to
‘vertical’ at x = 1.
3.3. THE CHAIN RULE 105

SHORTCUT
Write y = ✷5 , then y′ = 5 ✷4 ✷′ , by the Generalized Power Rule. Replacing
4
the ✷ by x2 − 4 we find, y′ = 5 (x2 − 4) 2x = 10x(x2 − 4)4 , as before.

The point is, you don’t have to memorize another formula. The “Box” formula
basically gives all the different variations of the Chain Rule.

Example 85. Let y = u3 and u = (x2 + 3x + 2). Evaluate y′ (x) at x = 0 and

interpret your result geometrically.

Solution The Rule of Thumb is:

Whenever you see a function raised to the power of some number (NOT a vari-
able), then put everything “between the outermost parentheses”, so to speak,
in a box, ✷. The whole thing then looks like just a box raised to some power,
and you can use the box formulation of the Chain Rule on it.

Chain Rule approach: Write y = u3 where u = x2 + 3x + 2. OK, now y = f (u)

and u = g(x) where f (u) = u3 and g(x) = x2 + 3x + 2. Then the Chain Rule gives
y′ (x) = f ′(u)g′ (x)
= 3u2 · (2x + 3)
= 3(x2 + 3x + 2)2 (2x + 3).
Since u = x2 + 3x + 2, we have to replace each u by the original x2 + 3x + 2. Don’t
worry, you don’t have to simplify this. Finally,
y′ (0) = 3(3)(2)2
= 36

and this is the slope of the tangent line to the curve y = y(x) at x = 0.

Power Rule/Box approach: Write y = ✷3 where ✷ = x2 + 3x + 2 and a = 3.

Then
y′ (x) = 3✷2 · ✷′
= 3(x2 + 3x + 2)2 (2x + 3)
and so y′ (0) = 36, as before.

Example 86. Let y be defined by y(x) = (x + 2)2 (2x − 1)4 . Evaluate y′ (−2).

Solution We have a product and some powers here. So we expect to use a combi-
nation of the Product Rule and the Power Rule. OK, we let f (x) = (x + 2)2 and
g(x) = (2x − 1)4 , use the Power Rule on f, g, and make the table:

f (x) f ′ (x) g(x) g′ (x)

(x + 2)2 2(x + 2) (2x − 1)4 4(2x − 1)3 (2).

Using the Product Rule,

y′ (x) = f ′ (x)g(x) + f (x)g′ (x)
= 2(x + 2)(2x − 1)4 + 8(x + 2)2 (2x − 1)3
106 3.3. THE CHAIN RULE

Finally, it is easy to see that y′ (−2) = 0.

p
Example 87. Find an expression for the derivative of y = f (x) where
f (x) > 0 is differentiable.

Solution OK, this ‘square root’ is really a power so we think “Power Rule”. We can
speed things up by using boxes, so write ✷ = f (x). Then, the Generalized Power
Rule gives us,
d 12
y′ (x) = ✷
dx
1 21 −1
= ✷ · ✷′ (PowerRule)
2
1 − 12 ′
= ✷ ✷
2
1 ′
= 1 ✷
2✷ 2
✷′
= √
2 ✷
f ′ (x)
= p
2 f (x)

SNAPSHOTS

Example 88. f (x) = (x2/3 + 1)2 , f ′ (x) ?

Solution Let ✷ = (x2/3 + 1) = x2/3 + 1. So, f (x) = ✷2 and

D(✷2 ) D(✷)
z }| { z }| {
f ′(x) = (2) · (x2/3 + 1)1 · (2/3) · x−1/3
4
= · (x2/3 + 1) · x−1/3
3
4
= · (x1/3 + x−1/3 ).
3

q
√
Example 89. f (x) = x + 1. Evaluate f ′ (x).

√ √
Solution Let ✷ = ( x + 1) = x1/2 + 1. Then f (x) = ✷ so
√
D( ✷) D(✷)
z }| { z }| {
f ′ (x) = (1/2) · (x1/2 + 1)−1/2 · (1/2) · x−1/2
1
= · (x1/2 + 1)−1/2 · x−1/2
4
1
= p √
4 x · (1 + x)

√
x
Example 90. f (x) = √ . Find f ′ (1).
1 + x2

Solution Simplify this first. Note that

√ r
x x
√ = = ✷1/2
1 + x2 1 + x2
3.3. THE CHAIN RULE 107

x √
where ✷ = . So f (x) = ✷, and
1 + x2
√ D(✷)
D( ✷)
z }| { z 2 }| {
x −1/2 (x + 1) · 1 − (x) · (2x)
f ′(x) = (1/2) · ( ) ·
1 + x2 (1 + x2 )2
x −1/2 1 − x2
= (1/2) · ( ) ·
1 + x2 (1 + x2 )2
x−1/2 · (1 − x2 )
= ,
2 (1 + x2 )3/2
√
where we used the Generalized Power Rule to get D( ✷) and the Quotient Rule to
evaluate D(✷). So, f ′ (1) = 0.
„ «−2.718
1
Example 91. f (x) = π · , where π = 3.14159.... Find f ′ (1).
x

Solution Simplify this first, in the sense that you can turn negative exponents
into positive ones by taking the reciprocal of the expression, right? In this case,
note that (1/x)−2.718 = x2.718 . So the question now asks us to find the derivative
of f (x) = π · x2.718 . The Power Rule gives us f ′(x) = (2.718) · π · x1.718 . So,
f ′ (1) = (2.718) · π = 8.53882.

Example 92. Find an expression for the derivative of y = f (x3 ) where f is

differentiable.

Solution This looks mysterious but it really isn’t. If you don’t see an ‘x’ for the
variable, replace all the symbols between the outermost parentheses by ‘✷’. Then
The Generalized Power Rule takes
y = f (✷) and you realize quickly that you need to differentiate a composition of two the form
functions. This is where the Chain Rule comes into play. So,
d r r−1 d
✷ =r ✷ ✷,
y′ (x) = Df (✷) dx dx

= f ′ (✷) · D✷ where the box symbol, ✷, is just an-

d 3 other symbol for some differentiable
= f ′ (x3 ) · (x ) (because ✷ = x3 ) function of x.
dx
= f ′ (x3 ) · 3x2
So, we have shown that any function f for which y = f (x3 ) has a derivative y′ (x) =
3x2 f ′ (x3 ) which is the desired expression. Remember that f ′ (x3 ) means that you
find the derivative of f , and every time you see an x you replace it by x3 .

OK, but what does this f ′ (x3 ) really mean?

Let’s look at the function f , say, defined by f (x) = (x2 + 1)10 . Since f (✷) =
(✷2 + 1)10 it follows that f (x3 ) = ((x3 )2 + 1)10 = (x6 + 1)10 , where we replaced ✷
by x3 (or you put x3 IN the box, remember the Box method? ).

The point is that this new function y = f (x3) has a derivative given by
y′ (x) = 3x2 · f ′ (x3 ),
which means that we find f ′ (x), replace each one of the x’s by x3 , and simplify (as
much as possible) to get y′ (x). Now, we write f (✷) = ✷10 , where ✷ = x2 + 1. The
Generalized Power Rule gives us
f ′ (x) = D(✷10 ) = (10)✷9 (d✷) = (10)(x2 + 1)9 (2x),
= (20x)(x2 + 1)9 . So,
′
y (x) = 3x2 · f ′ (x3 ) = (3x2 ) (20 x3 ) (x6 + 1)9
= 60 x5 (x6 + 1)9 .
108 3.3. THE CHAIN RULE

Example 92 represents a, so-called, transformation of the independent vari-

able (since the original ‘x’ is replaced by ‘x3 ’) and such transformations appear
within the context of differential equations where they can be used to simplify
very difficult looking differential equations to simpler ones.

A Short Note on Differential Equations

More importantly though, examples like the last one appear in the study of
differential equations which are equations which, in some cases called linear,
look like polynomial equations

an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x1 + a0 = 0
d n
and each x is replaced by a symbol ‘D = dx ’ where the related symbol D n = dx
d
n
th d
means the operation of taking the n derivative. This symbol, D = dx , has a
special name: it’s called a differential operator and its domain is a collection
of functions while it range is also a collection of functions. In this sense, the
concept of an operator is more general than that of a function. Now, the symbol
D 2 is the derivative of the derivative and it is called the second derivative; the
derivative of the second derivative is called the third derivative and denoted
by D 3 , and so on. The coefficients am above are usually given functions of the
independent variable, x.

Symbolically, we write these higher-order derivatives using Leibniz’s notation:

d2 y d dy
= = y′′ (x)
dx2 dx dx
for the second derivative of y,

d3 y d d2 y
3
= = y′′′ (x)
dx dx dx2
for the third derivative of y, and so on. These higher order derivatives are very
useful in determining the graphs of functions and in studying a ‘function’s behavior’.
We’ll be seeing them soon when we deal with curve sketching.

Example 93. Let f be a function with the property that f ′ (x) + f (x) = 0
for every x. We’ll meet such functions later when we discuss Euler’s constant,
e ≈ 2.71828..., and the corresponding exponential function.

Show that the new function y defined by y(x) = f (x3) satisfies the differential
equation y′ (x) + 3x2 y(x) = 0.

Solution We use Example 92. We already know that, by the Chain Rule, y(x) =
f (x3 ) has its derivative given by y′ (x) = 3x2 · f ′ (x3 ). So,

y′ (x) + 3x2 y(x) = 3x2 · f ′ (x3 ) + 3x2 f (x3 )

= 3x2 (f ′ (x3 ) + f (x3 ))

But f ′ (x) + f (x) = 0 means that f ′ (△) + f (△) = 0, right? (Since it is true for any
‘x’ and so for any symbol ‘△’). Replacing △ by x3 gives f ′ (x3) + f (x3 ) = 0 as a
consequence, and the conclusion now follows . . .

The function y defined by y(x) = f (x3 ), where f is any function with f ′ (x) + f (x) =
0, satisfies the equation y′ (x) + 3x2 y(x) = 0.

Example 94. Find the second derivative f ′′ (x) given that f (x) = (2x + 1)101 .
Evaluate f ′′ (−1).
3.3. THE CHAIN RULE 109

Solution We can just use the Generalized Power Rule here. Let ✷ = 2x + 1. Then
✷′ = 2 and so f ′ (x) = 101 · ✷100 · ✷′ = 101 · ✷100 · 2 = 202 · ✷100 . Doing this one
more time, we find f ′′ (x) = (202) · (100) · 2 · ✷99 = 40, 400 · ✷99 = 40, 400 · (2x + 1)99.

Finally, since (−1)odd number = −1, we see that f ′′ (−1) = 40, 400·(−1)99 = −40, 400.

Example 95. Find the second derivative f ′′ (x) of the function defined by
3 −1
f (x) = (1 + x ) . Evaluate f ′′ (0).

Solution Use the Generalized Power Rule again. Let ✷ = x3 +1. Then ✷′ = 3x2 and
−2
so f ′ (x) = (−1) · ✷−2 · ✷′ = (−1) · ✷−2 · (3x2 ) = −(3x2 ) · ✷−2 = −(3x2 ) · (1 + x3 ) .
To find the derivative of THIS function we can use the Quotient Rule. So,

(1 + x3 )2 · (6x) − (3x2 ) · (2)(1 + x3 )1 (3x2 )

f ′′ (x) = −{ }
(1 + x3 )4

−6x 18x4
= 3 2
+
(1 + x ) (1 + x3 )3
6x · (2x3 − 1)
=
(1 + x3 )3

It follows that f ′′ (0) = 0.

Exercise Set 12.

Find the indicated derivatives.

1. f (x) = π, f ′ (x) =?
2. f (t) = 3t − 2, f ′ (0) =?
2
3. g(x) = x 3 , g′ (x) =? at x = 1
p
4. y(x) = (x − 4)3 , y ′ (x) =?
1
5. f (x) = √ , f ′ (x) =?
x5
p
6. g(t) = t2 + t − 2, g′ (t) =?
3

d2 f
7. f (x) = 3x2 , =?
dx2
8. f (x) = x(x + 1)4 , f ′ (x) =?
x2 − x + 3 ′
9. y(x) = √ , y (1) =?
x
10. y(t) = (t + 2)2 (t − 1), y ′ (t) =?
2
11. f (x) = 16x2 (x − 1) 3 , f ′(x) =?
12. y(x) = (2x + 3)105 , y ′ (x) =?
√
13. f (x) = x + 6, f ′ (x) =?
14. f (x) = x3 − 3x2 + 3x − 1, f ′ (x) =?
1 p
15. y(x) = + x2 − 1, y ′ (x) =?
x
1
16. f (x) = √ , f ′′ (x) =?
1+ x
17. f (x) = (x − 1)2 + (x − 2)3 , f ′′ (0) =?
18. y(x) = (x + 0.5)−1.324 , y ′′ (x) =?
110 3.3. THE CHAIN RULE

d
19. Let f be a differentiable function for every real number x. Show that f (x2 ) =
dx
2xf ′ (x2 ).

20. Let g be a differentiable function for every x with g(x) > 0. Show that
d p
3 g′ (x)
g(x) = p .
dx 3 3 g(x)2
21. Let f be a function with the property that f is differentiable and

f ′ (x) + f (x) = 0.

Show that y = f (x2) satisfies the differential equation

y′ (x) + 2xy(x) = 0.

22. Let y = f (x) and assume f is differentiable for each x in (0, 1). Assume that
f has an inverse function, F , defined on its range, so that f (F (x)) = x for
every x, 0 < x < 1. Show that F has a derivative satisfying the equation
1
F ′ (x) = ′ at each x, 0 < x < 1.
f (F (x))
(Hint: Differentiate both sides of f (F (x)) = x.)
√ dy
23. Let y = t3 and t = u + 6. Find when u = 9.
du
24. Find the equation of the tangent line to the curve y = (x2 − 3)8 at the point
(x, y) = (2, 1).

25. Given y(x) = f (g(x)) and that g′ (2) = 1, g(2) = 0 and f ′ (0) = 1. What is the
value of y′ (2)?
2 √
26. Let y = r + and r = 3t − 2 t. Use the Chain Rule to find an expression for
r
dy
.
dt
q
√ df
27. Hard. Let f (x) = x + x. Evaluate f ′ (9). If x = t2 , what is ?
dt
√ √
28. Use the definition of x2 as x2 = |x| for each x, to show that the function
x
y = |x| has a derivative whenever x 6= 0 and y′ (x) = for x 6= 0.
|x|
29. Hard Show that if f is a differentiable at the point x = x0 then f is continuous
at x = x0 . (Hint: You can try a proof by ‘contradiction’, that is you assume
the conclusion is false and, using a sequence of logically correct arguments, you
deduce that the original claim is false as well. Since, generally speaking, a state-
ment in mathematics cannot be both true and false, (aside from undecidable
statements) it follows that the conclusion has to be true. So, assume f is not
continuous at x = x0 , and look at each case where f is discontinuous (unequal
one-sided limits, function value is infinite, etc.) and, in each case, derive a
contradiction.)
Alternately, you can prove this directly using the methods in the Advanced
Topics chapter. See the Solution Manual for yet another method of showing
this.

Suggested Homework Set 9. Do problems 4, 10, 16, 23, 25, 27

3.3. THE CHAIN RULE 111

Web Links

For more information and applications of the Chain Rule see:

www.math.hmc.edu/calculus/tutorials/chainrule/
www.ugrad.math.ubc.ca/coursedoc/math100/notes/derivative/chainap.html
www.khanacademy.org/math/calculus/v/the-chain-rule

NOTES:
112 3.4. IMPLICIT FUNCTIONS AND THEIR DERIVATIVES

3.4 Implicit Functions and Their Derivatives

You can imagine the variety of different functions in mathematics. So far, all the
functions we’ve encountered had this one thing in common: You could write them as
y = f (x) (or x = F (y) ) in which case you know that x is the independent variable
and y is the dependent variable. We know which variable is which. Sometimes it is
not so easy to see “which variable is which” especially if the function is written as,
say,

x2 − 2xy + tan(xy) − 2 = 0.

What do we do? Can we solve for either one of these variables at all? And if we can,
do we solve for x in terms of y, or y in terms of x? Well, we don’t always “have to”
solve for any variable here, and we’ll still be able to find the derivative so long as we
agree on which variable x, or y is the independent one. Actually, Newton was the
In his Method of Fluxions, (1736), first person to perform an implicit differentiation. Implicit functions appear very
Isaac Newton was one of the first often in the study of general solutions of differential equations. We’ll see later
to use the procedure of this sec-
tion, namely, implicit differentia- on that the general solution of a separable differential equation is usually given by
tion. He used his brand of deriva- an implicit function. Other examples of implicit functions include the equation of
tives though, things he called flux-
ions and he got into big trouble
closed curves in the xy-plane (circles, squares, ellipses, etc. to mention a few of the
because they weren’t well defined. common ones).
In England, one famous philosopher
by the name of Bishop Berkeley
criticized Newton severely for his
inability to actually explain what Review
these fluxions really were. Nev-
erthless, Newton obtained the right You should review the Chain Rule and the Generalized Power Rule in
answers (according to our calcula- the preceding section. A mastery of these concepts and the usual rules for
tions). What about Leibniz? Well,
even Leibniz got into trouble with differentiation will make this section much easier to learn.
his, so-called, differentials because
he really couldn’t explain this stuff
well, either! His nemesis in this
case was one Bernard Nieuwen- We can call our usual functions explicit because their values are given explicitly
tijt of Amsterdam (1694). Appar-
ently, neither Berkeley nor Nieuwen- (i.e., we can write them down) by solving one of the variables in terms of the other.
tijt could put the Calculus on a rig- This means that for each value of x there is only one value of y. But this is the
orous foundation either, so, even-
tually the matter was dropped. It
same as saying that y is a function of x, right? An equation involving two variables,
would take another 150 years un- say, x, y, is said to be an explicit relation if one can solve for y (or x) uniquely in
til Weierstrass and others like him terms of x (or y).
would come along and make sense
out of all this Calculus business with
rigorous definitions (like those in the Example 96. For example, the equation 2y = 2x6 − 4x is an explicit relation
Advanced Topics chapter).
because we can easily solve for y in terms of x. In fact, it reduces to the rule
y = x6 − 2x which defines a function y = f (x) where f (x) = x6 − 2x. Another
√
example is given by the function y whose values are given by y(x) = x + x whose
√
values are easily calculated: Each value of x gives a value of y = x + x and so
on, and y can be found directly using a calculator. Finally, 3x + 6 − 9y2 = 0 also
defines an explicit relation because now we can solve for x in terms of y and find
x = 3y2 − 2.

In the same spirit we say that an equation involving two variables, say, x, y, is said
to be an implicit relation if it is not explicit.

Example 97. For example, the relation defined by the rule y5 + 7y = x3 cos x
is implicit. Okay, you can isolate the y, but what’s left still involves y and x, right?
The equation defined by x2 y2 + 4 sin(xy) = 0 also defines an implicit relation.

Such implicit relations are useful because they usually define a curve in the xy-
plane, a curve which is not, generally speaking, the graph of a function. In fact,
you can probably believe the statement that a “closed curve” (like a circle, ellipse,
etc.) cannot be the graph of a function. Can you show why? For example, the circle
defined by the implicit relation x2 + y2 = 4 is not the graph of a unique function,
3.4. IMPLICIT FUNCTIONS AND THEIR DERIVATIVES 113

(think of the, so-called, Vertical Line Test for functions).

So, if y is ‘obscured’ by some complicated expression as in, say, x2 − 2xy + tan(xy) −

2 = 0, then it is not easy to solve for ‘y’ given a value of ‘x’; in other words, it
would be very difficult to isolate the y’s on one side of the equation and group the
x’s together on the other side. In this case y is said to be defined implicitly or y is
an implicit function of x. By the same token, x may be considered an implicit
function of y and it would equally difficult to solve for x as a function of y. Still, it is
possible to draw its graph by looking for those points x, y that satisfy the equation,
see Figure 42.

Other examples of functions defined implicitly are given by:

(x − 1)2 + y2 = 16 A circle of radius 4 and center at (1, 0).

(x−2)2 (y−6)2
9
+ 16
=1 An ellipse ‘centered’ at (2, 6).
(x − 3)2 − (y − 4)2 = 5 A hyperbola.

OK, so how do we find the derivative of such ‘functions’ defined implic-

An approximate plot of the implicit
itly?
relation
x2 − 2xy + tan(xy) − 2 = 0.
1. Assume, say y, is a differentiable function of x, (or x is a differentiable function This plot fails the “vertical line test”
of y).
and so it cannot be the graph of a
2. Write y = y(x) (or x = x(y)) to show the dependence of y on x, (even though function.
we really don’t know what it ‘looks like’).
3. Differentiate the relation/expression which defines y implicitly with respect to Figure 42.
x (or y - this expression is a curve in the xy-plane.)
dy
4. Solve for the derivative dx explicitly, yes, explicitly!

Note: It can be shown that the 4 steps above always produce an expression
for dy
dx
which can be solved explicitly. In other words, even though y is
dy
given implicitly, the function dx is explicit, that is, given a point P(x, y) on the
dy
defining curve described in (3) we can actually solve for the term dx .

This note is based on the assumption that we already know that y can be written
as a differentiable function of x. This assumption isn’t obvious, and involves an
important result called the Implicit Function Theorem which we won’t study here
but which can be found in books on Advanced Calculus. One of the neat things
about this implicit function theorem business is that it tells us that, under certain
conditions, we can always solve for the derivative dy/dx even though we can’t solve
for y! Amazing, isn’t it?

dy
Example 98. Find the derivative of y with respect to x, that is, dx
, when
2
x, y are related by the expression xy − y = 6.

Solution We assume that y is a differentiable function of x so that we can write

y = y(x) and y is differentiable. Then the relation between x, y above really says
that

xy(x) − y(x)2 = 6.

OK, since this is true for all x under consideration (the x’s were not specified, so
don’t worry) it follows that we can take the derivative of both sides and still get
equality, i.e.
d d
(xy(x) − y(x)2 ) = (6).
dx dx
114 3.4. IMPLICIT FUNCTIONS AND THEIR DERIVATIVES

d
Now, dx
(6) = 0 since the derivative of a constant is always 0 and

d d d
(xy(x) − y(x)2 ) = xy(x) − y(x)2
dx dx
» dx –
dy d(x) dy
= x + y(x) − 2y(x)
dx dx dx
dy
= [x − 2y(x)] + y(x)
dx
where we used a combination of the Product Rule and the Generalized Power Rule
(see Example 87 for a similar argument). So, we have

dy d
[x − 2y(x)] + y(x) = (6) = 0,
dx dx
dy
and solving for dx we get

dy −y(x)
= .
dx x − 2y(x)
y(x)
= .
2y(x) − x
dy
OK, so we have found dx
in terms of x and y(x) that is, since y = y(x),

dy y
=
dx 2y − x

provided x and y are related by the original expression xy − y2 = 6 which describes

a curve in the xy-plane. This last display then describes the values of the derivative
y′ (x) along this curve for a given point P(x,y) on it.

To find the slope of the tangent line to a point P(x0 , y0 ) on this curve we calculate

dy y0
=
dx 2y0 − x0

where x0 y0 − y02 = 6, that’s all. So, for example the point (7, 1) is on this curve
because x0 = 7, y0 = 1 satisfies x0 y0 − y02 = 6. You see that the derivative at this
point (7, 1) is given by

dy 1 1
= =−
dx 2(1) − 7 5

Example 99. Let x3 + 7x = y3 define an implicit relation for x in terms of y.

Find x′ (1).

Solution We’ll assume that x can be written as a differentiable function of y.We

take the derivative of both sides (with respect to y this time!). We see that

dx dx
3x2 +7 = 3y2 ,
dy dy
since
d 3 dx
x = 3x2
dy dy

by the Generalized Power Rule. We can now solve for the expression dx/dy and find
a formula for the derivative, namely,

dx 3y2
= .
dy 3x2 + 7
3.4. IMPLICIT FUNCTIONS AND THEIR DERIVATIVES 115

Now we can find the derivative easily at any point (x, y) on the curve x3 + 7x = y3 .
For instance, the derivative at the point (1, 2) on this curve is given by substituting
the values x = 1, y = 2 in the formula for the derivative just found, so that
dx (3)(2)2 12 6
= = = .
dy (3)(1)2 + 7 10 5
For a geometrical interpretation of this derivative, see Figure 43 on the next page.

Example 100.
Find the slope of the tangent line to the curve y = y(x) given

implicitly by the relation x2 + 4y2 = 5 at the point (−1, 1).

Solution First, you should always check that the given point (−1, 1) is on this curve,
otherwise, there is nothing to do! Let x0 = −1, y0 = 1 and P(x0 , y0 ) =P(−1, 1). We
see that (−1)2 + 4(1)2 = 5 and so the point P(−1, 1) is on the curve.

Since we want the slope of a tangent line to the curve y = y(x) at x = x0 , we need
to find it’s derivative y′ (x) and evaluate it at x = x0 .

OK, now
d 2 d
(x + 4y(x)2 ) = (5)
dx dx
d
2x + 4 (y(x)2 ) = 0
| dx {z }
2x + 4 2y(x) · y′ (x) = 0
′ 2x x
y (x) = − =− , (if y(x) 6= 0)
8y(x) 4y(x)

and this gives the value of the derivative, y′ (x) at any point (x, y) on the curve, that
is y′ = − 4y
x
where (x, y) is on the curve (remember y = y(x)). It follows that at
(−1, 1), this derivative is equal to
(−1) 1
y′ (−1) = (−1) = .
4(1) 4

Example 101.
A curve in the xy-plane is given by the set of all points (x, y)

satisfying the equation y5 + x2 y3 = 10. Find dx

dy at the point (x, y) = (−3, 1).

Solution Verify that (−3, 1) is, indeed, on the curve. This is true since 15 +
(−3)2 (1)3 = 10, as required. Next, we assume that x = x(y) is a differentiable
function of y. Then
d 5 d
(y + x2 y3 ) = (10)
dy dy

5y4 + 2x(y) x′ (y) y3 + x(y)2 (3y2 ) = 0,

(where we used the Power Rule and the Product Rule). Isolating the term x′ (y) = dx
dy
gives us the required derivative,
dx −3x2 y2 − 5y4
= .
dy 2xy3
When x = −3, y = 1 so,
dx −27 − 5 16
= = .
dy −6 3
116 3.4. IMPLICIT FUNCTIONS AND THEIR DERIVATIVES

Remark If we were to find dy dx

at (−3, 1) we would obtain 163
; the reciprocal of
dx
dy . Is this a coincidence? No. It turns out that if y is a differentiable function
of x and x is a differentiable function of y then their derivatives are related by
the relation
dy 1
= dx .
dx dy

if dx
dy 6= 0, at the point P(x, y) under investigation. This is another consequence
of the Implicit Function Theorem and a result on Inverse Functions.

O.K., we know what dy dx

means geometrically, right ? Is there some geometric mean-
dx dx
ing for dy ? Yes, the value of dy at P(x, y) on the given curve is equal to the negative
of the slope of the line perpendicular to the tangent line through P. For
example, the equation of the tangent line through P(−3, 1) in Example 101 is given
by y = (3x + 25)/16, while the equation of the line perpendicular to this tangent
line and through P is given by y = (16x + 51)/3. This last (perpendicular) line is
called the normal line through P. See Figure 43.
Figure 43. Geometric mean-
dx
ing of dy
Exercise Set 13.

Use implicit differentiation to find the required derivative.

dy
1. x2 + xy + y2 = 1, dx at (1, 0)
dy
2. 2xy2 − y4 = x3 , dx
and dx
dy
√ dy
3. x + y + xy = 4, dx
at (16, 0)
dy
4. x − y2 = 4, dx
dy
5. x2 + y2 = 9, dx at (0, 3)

Find the equation of the tangent line to the given curve at the given point.

6. 2y2 − x2 = 1, at (−1, −1)

7. 2x = xy + y2 , at (1, 1)
8. x2 + 2x + y2 − 4y − 24 = 0, at (4, 0)
9. (x + y)3 − x3 − y3 = 0, at (1, −1)

Suggested Homework Set 10. Problems 1, 2, 4, 7, 9

Web Links

For more examples on implicit differentiation see:

archives.math.utk.edu/visual.calculus/3/implicit.7/index.html
www.ugrad.math.ubc.ca/coursedoc/math100/notes/derivative/implicit.html
(the above site requires a Java-enabled browser)

NOTES:
3.5. DERIVATIVES OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 117

3.5 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

Our modern world runs on electricity. In these days of computers, space travel and
robots we need to have a secure understanding of the basic laws of electricity and
its uses. In this realm, electric currents both alternating (as in households), and
direct (as in a flashlight battery), lead one to the study of sine and cosine functions
and their interaction. For example, how does an electric current vary over time?
We need its ‘rate of change’ with respect to time, and this can be modeled using its
derivative.
An integrated circuits board
In another vein, so far we’ve encountered the derivatives of many different types of
functions; polynomials, rational functions, roots of every kind, and combinations of
such functions. In many applications of mathematics to physics and other physical
and natural sciences we need to study combinations of trigonometric functions and
other ‘changes’, the shapes of their graphs and other relevant data. In the simplest
of these applications we can mention the study of wave phenomena. In this area
we model incoming or outgoing waves in a fluid (such as a lake, tea, coffee, etc.)
as a combination of sine and cosine waves, and then study how these waves change
over time. Well, to study how these waves change over time we need to study
their derivatives, right? This, in turn, means that we need to be able to find the
derivatives of the sine and cosine functions and that’s what this section is all about.

There are two fundamental limits that we need to recall here from an earlier chapter,
namely

sin x
lim = 1, (3.2)
x→0 x
1 − cos x
lim = 0, (3.3)
x→0 x

Let’s also recall some fundamental trigonometric identities in Table 3.4.

All angles, A, B and x are in radians in the Table above, and this is customary in
calculus.

180
Recall that 1 radian = π
degrees.

I1 sin(A + B) = sin(A) cos(B) + cos(A) sin(B)

I2 cos(A + B) = cos(A) cos(B) − sin(A) sin(B)
I3 sin2 x + cos2 x = 1
I4 sec2 x − tan2 x = 1
I5 csc2 x − cot2 x = 1
I6 cos 2x = cos2 x − sin2 x
I7 sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x
I8 cos2 x = 1+cos 2x
2
I9 sin2 x = 1−cos 2x
2

Table 3.4: Useful Trigonometric Identities

118 3.5. DERIVATIVES OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

The first result is that the derivative of the sine function is the cosine function, that
is,

d
sin x = cos x.
dx

This is not too hard to show; for example, assume that h 6= 0. Then

sin(x + h) − sin x sin x cos h + cos x sin h − sin x

= , (by I1)
h h
cos h − 1 sin h
= sin x + cos x , (re-arranging terms)
h h
Now we use a limit theorem from Chapter 2: Since the last equation is valid for
each h 6= 0 we can pass to the limit and find

sin(x + h) − sin x cos h − 1 sin h

lim = sin x lim ( ) + cos x lim ( )
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h
= (sin x) · (0) + (cos x) · (1), (by (3.3) and (3.2))
= cos x.

A similar derivation applies to the next result;

d
cos x = − sin x
dx

For example,

cos(x + h) − cos x cos x cos h − sin x sin h − cos x

= , (by I2)
h h
cos h − 1 sin h
= cos x − sin x , (re − arranging terms)
h h
As before, since this last equation is valid for each h 6= 0 we can pass to the limit
and find
cos(x + h) − cos x cos h − 1 sin h
lim = cos x lim ( ) − sin x lim ( )
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h
= (cos x) · (0) − (sin x)(1), (by (3.3) and (3.2))
= − sin x.

Since these two limits define the derivative of each trigonometric function we get
the boxed results, above.

OK, now that we know these two fundamental derivative formulae for the sine and
cosine functions we can derive all the other such formulae (for tan, cot, sec, and csc)
using basic properties of derivatives.

For example, let’s show that

d 1
tan x =
dx cos2 x
or, since 1
cos2 x
= sec2 x, we get

d
tan x = sec2 x
dx
3.5. DERIVATIVES OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 119

sin x
as well. To see this we use the Quotient Rule and recall that since tan x = cos x
,

d d sin x
tan x = ( ) (by definition)
dx dx cos x
d d
cos x dx (sin x) − ( dx cos x) sin x
= (Quotient Rule)
cos2 x
2 2
cos x + sin x
= (just derived above)
cos2 x
1
= (by I3).
cos2 x
By imitating this argument it’s not hard to show that

d 1
cot x = − 2 ,
dx sin x

or, equivalently,

d
cot x = − csc2 x
dx

a formula which we leave to the reader as an exercise, as well.

There are two more formulae which need to be addressed, namely, those involving
the derivative of the secant and cosecant functions. These are:

d
sec x = sec x tan x
dx
d
csc x = − csc x cot x
dx

Each can be derived using the Quotient Rule. Now armed with these formulae and
the Chain Rule we can derive formulae for derivatives of very complicated looking
functions, see Table 3.5.

Example 102.
Find the derivative of f where f (x) = sin2 x + 6x.

Solution The derivative of a sum is the sum of the derivatives. So

d d
f ′(x) = (sin x)2 + (6x)
dx dx
d
= (sin x)2 + 6
dx
Now let ✷ = sin x. We want d
dx
✷2 so we’ll need to use the Generalized Power Rule
here. . . So,
d d 2
(sin x)2 = ✷
dx dx
d✷
= 2✷1 (Power Rule)
dx
= 2✷✷′
= 2 (sin x) (cos x), (since ✷′ = cos x)
= sin 2x, (by I7)

The final result is f ′ (x) = 6 + sin 2x.

120 3.5. DERIVATIVES OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Example 103. d √
Evaluate 1 + cos x at x = 0.
dx
√
Solution We write f (x) = 1 + cos x and convert the root to a power (always do
Joseph Louis (Comte de) La- this so you can use the Generalized Power Rule).
grange, 1736 -1813, was born in
1 1
Torino, Italy and died in Paris, We get f (x) = (1 + cos x) 2 = ✷ 2 if we set ✷ = 1 + cos x so that we can put the
France. His main contributions to original function into a more recognizable form. So far we know that
mathematics were in the fields of
√ 1
analysis where he studied analytical f (x) = 1 + cos x = ✷ 2
and celestial mechanics, although
he excelled in everything that he So, by the Power Rule, we get
studied. In 1766, Lagrange became
1 − 21 ′
the successor of Euler in the Berlin f ′ (x) = ✷ ✷
Academy of Science, and during the 2
next year he was awarded the first
where ✷′ is the derivative of 1 + cos x (without the root), i.e.
of his many prizes for his studies
on the irregularities of the motion
d
of the moon. He helped to found ✷′ = (1 + cos x)
dx
the Academy of Science in Torino in d d
1757, and the École Polytechnique
= (1) + (cos x)
dx dx
in 1795. He also helped to create = 0 − sin x
the first commission on Weights and = − sin x
Measures and was named to the Le-
gion d’Honneur by Napoleon and Combining these results we find
elevated to Count in 1808.
1 1
f ′ (x) = (1 + cos x)− 2 (− sin x)
2
sin x
= − √
2 1 + cos x

after simplification. At x = 0 we see that

sin 0 0
f ′ (0) = − √ =− √
2 1 + cos 0 2 2
= 0

which is what we are looking for.

Example 104. d cos x

Evaluate ( ).
dx 1 + sin x

Solution Write f (x) = cos x, g(x) = 1 + sin x. We need to find the derivative of the
quotient fg and so we can think about using the Quotient Rule.

Now, recall that

d f ′(x)g(x) − f (x)g′ (x)

(f (g(x)) =
dx g(x)2

In our case,

f (x) f ′ (x) g(x) g′ (x)

cos x − sin x 1 + sin x cos x

3.5. DERIVATIVES OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 121

Combining these results we find, (provided 1 + sin x 6= 0),

d cos x (− sin x)(1 + sin x) − (cos x)(cos x)
( ) =
dx 1 + sin x (1 + sin x)2
− sin x − (sin2 x + cos2 x)
=
(1 + sin x)2
1 + sin x
= − (by I3)
(1 + sin x)2
1
= − .
1 + sin x

Example 105. 3
Let the function be defined by f (t) = . Evaluate f ′ ( π4 ).
sin(t)

Solution OK, we have a constant divided by a function so it looks like we should

use the Power Rule (or the Quotient Rule, either way you’ll get the same answer).
So, let’s write f (t) = 3✷−1 where ✷ = sin(t) then

f ′ (t) = (−1) · 3 · ✷−2 ✷′

by the Generalized Power Rule. But we still need ✷′ , right? Now ✷ = sin(t), so
✷′ = cos t. Combining these results we find

f ′ (t) = −3(sin t)−2 (cos t)

cos t
= −3 .
(sin t)2
Note that this last expression is also equal to −3 csc t cot t. At t = ( π4 ), (which is
45 degrees expressed in radians), cos( π4 ) = sin( π4 ) = √12 and so
√
π ( √12 ) 1 ( 2)2
f ′( ) = −3 = −3 √ · ,
4 ( √12 )2 2 1
√
= −3 2.

3
Note: Notice that we could have written f (t) = sin(t) as f (t) = 3 csc t and use the
derivative formula for csc t mentioned above. This would give f ′(t) = −3 csc t cot t
and we could then continue as we did above.

Example 106.
Let’s look at an example which can be solved in two different
ways. Consider the implicit relation

y + sin2 y + cos2 y = x.

We want y′ (x).

The easy way to do this is to note that, by trigonometry (I3), sin2 y + cos2 y = 1
regardless of the value of y. So, the original relation is really identical to y + 1 = x.
From this we observe that dy/dx = 1.

But what if you didn’t notice this identity? Well, we differentiate both sides as is the
case whenever we use implicit differentiation. The original equation really means

y + {sin(y)}2 + {cos(y)}2 = x.

Use of the Generalized Power Rule then gives us,

dy d d
+ 2{sin(y)}1 sin(y) + 2{cos(y)}1 cos(y) = 1,
dx dx dx
122 3.5. DERIVATIVES OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions: Summary

Let ✷ denote any differentiable function, and D denote the operation of differ-
entiation. Then

D sin ✷ = cos ✷ · D✷ D cos ✷ = − sin ✷ · D✷

D tan ✷ = sec2 ✷ · D✷ D cot ✷ = − csc2 ✷ · D✷
D sec ✷ = sec ✷ · tan ✷ · D✷ D csc ✷ = − csc ✷ · cot ✷ · D✷

Table 3.5: Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

or
dy dy dy
+ 2{sin(y)}1 cos(y) + 2{cos(y)}1 (− sin(y)) = 1.
dx dx dx
But the second and third terms cancel out, and we are left with
dy
= 1,
dx
as before. Both methods do give the same answer as they should.

Example 107.
Evaluate the following derivatives using the rules of this Chap-
ter and Table 3.5.

a) f (x) = sin(2x2 + 1)
√
b) f (x) = cos 3x sin x
c) f (t) = (cos 2t)2 , at t = 0
d) f (x) = cos(sin x) at x = 0
t
e) h(t) = at t = π/4
sin 2t

Solution a) Replace the stuff between the outermost brackets by a box, ✷. We

want D sin ✷, right? Now, since ✷ = 2x2 + 1, we know that D✷ = 4x, and so
Table 3.5 gives
D sin ✷ = cos ✷ · D✷
= cos(2x2 + 1) · 4x
= 4x cos(2x2 + 1).

b) We use a combination of the Product Rule and Table 3.5. So,

√ √
f ′ (x) = D(cos 3x) · sin x + cos(3x) · D sin x
√
√ cos( x)
= (−3 · sin(3x)) · (sin x) + cos(3x) · √ ,
2 x)
√ √ √ √ √ √
since D sin x = cos( x) · D( x) = cos( x) · ((1/2) x−1/2 ) = cos( x)/(2 x).

c) Let ✷ = cos 2t. The Generalized Power Rule comes to mind, so, use of Table 3.5
shows that
f ′ (t) = 2✷ · D✷,
= (2 · cos 2t) · (−2 · sin 2t)
= −4 cos 2t sin 2t
= −2 sin 4t, (where we use Table 3.4, (I7), with x = 2t).
3.5. DERIVATIVES OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 123

So f ′ (0) = −2 sin(0) = 0.

d) We need to find the derivative of something that looks like cos ✷. So, let ✷ = sin x.
We know that D✷ = D sin x = cos x, and once again, Table 3.5 shows that

f ′ (x) = − sin ✷ · D✷,

= − sin(sin x) · cos x,
= − cos x · sin(sin x).

So f ′ (0) = − cos(0) · sin(sin(0)) = −1 · sin(0) = 0.

e) We see something that looks like a quotient so we should be using the Quotient
Rule, right? Write f (t) = t, g(t) = sin 2t. We need to find the derivative of the
quotient fg . Now, recall that this Rule says that (replace the x’s by t’s)

d f ′ (t)g(t) − f (t)g′ (t)

(f (g(t)) = .
dt g(t)2
In our case,

f (t) f ′ (t) g(t) g′ (t)

t 1 sin 2t 2 cos 2t

Substituting these values into the Quotient Rule we get

d 1 · sin 2t − t · 2 cos 2t
(f (g(t)) = ,
dt (sin 2t)2
sin 2t − 2t cos 2t
= .
(sin 2t)2
√
At π/4, sin(π/4) = 2/2, so, sin(2 · π/4) = 1, cos(2 · π/4) = 0, and the required
derivative is equal to 1.

NOTES:
124 3.5. DERIVATIVES OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Exercise Set 14.

Evaluate the derivative of the functions whose values are given below, at the indi-
cated point.
√ x+1
1. sin x, at x = 1 11. , at x = π/2
sin x

2. sec(2x) · sin x 12. sin(2x2 )

3. sin x cos x, at x = 0 13. sin2 x, at x = π/4

cos x
4. 14. cot(3x − 2)
1 − sin x
√ 2x + 3
5. 1 + sin t, at t = 0 15.
sin x

6. sin(cos(x2 )) 16. cos(x · sin x)

√ √
7. x2 · cos 3x 17. x · sec( x)

8. x2/3 · tan(x1/3 ) 18. csc(x2 − 2) · sin(x2 − 2), x2 6= 2.

9. cot(2 + x + sin x) 19. cos2 (x − 6) + csc(2x)

10. (sin 3x)−1 20. (cos 2x)−2

21. Let y be defined by

8
sin x
>
< x 6= 0
y(x) = tan x ,
>
:
1 x=0

a) Show that y is continuous at x = 0,

b) Show that y is differentiable at x = 0 and,
c) Conclude that y′ (0) = 0.

Suggested Homework Set 11. Do problems 1, 4, 6, 13, 20

NOTES:
3.6. IMPORTANT RESULTS ABOUT DERIVATIVES 125

3.6 Important Results About Derivatives

This section is about things we call theorems. Theorems are truths about things
mathematical ... They are statements which can be substantiated (or proved) using
the language of mathematics and its underlying logic. It’s not always easy to prove
something, whether it be mathematical or not. The point of a ‘proof’ is that it
makes everything you’ve learned ‘come together’, so to speak, in a more logical,
coherent fashion.

The results here form part of the cornerstones of basic Calculus. One of them,
the Mean Value Theorem will be used later when we define the, so-called, an-
tiderivative of a function and the Riemann integral.

We will motivate this first theorem by looking at a sample real life situation. Figure 44.

A ball is thrown upwards by an outfielder during a baseball game. It is clear to

everyone that the ball will reach a maximum height and then begin to fall again,
hopefully in the hands of an infielder. Since the motion of the ball is ‘smooth’ (not
‘jerky’) we expect the trajectory produced by the ball to be that of a differentiable
function (remember, there are no ‘sharp corners’ on this flight path). OK, now since
the trajectory is differentiable (as a function’s graph) there must be a (two-sided)
derivative at the point where the ball reaches its maximum, right? What do you
think is the value of this derivative? Well, look at an idealized trajectory. . . it has to
be mainly ‘parabolic’ (because of gravity) and it looks like the path in the margin.

Tangent lines to the left (respectively, right) of the point where the maximum height
is reached have positive (respectively, negative) slope and so we expect the tangent
line to be horizontal at M (the point where the maximum value is reached). This
is the key point, a horizontal tangent line means a ‘zero derivative’ mathe-
matically. Why? Well, you recall that the derivative of f at a point x is the slope
of the tangent line at the point P (x, f (x)) on the graph of f . Since a horizontal line
has zero slope, it follows that the derivative is also zero.

OK, now let’s translate all this into the language of mathematics. The curve has an
equation y = f (x) and the ball leaves the hand of the outfielder at a point a with
a height of f (a) (meters, feet, . . . we won’t worry about units here). Let’s say that
the ball needs to reach ‘b’ at a height f (b), where f (b) = f (a), above the ground.
The fastest way of doing this, of course, is by throwing the ball in a straight line
path from point to point (see Figure 45), but this is not realistic! If it were, the
tangent line along this flight path would still be horizontal since f (a) = f (b), right!?

So, the ball can’t really travel in a ‘straight line’ from a to b, and will always reach Figure 45.
a ‘maximum’ in our case, a maximum where necessarily y′ (M ) = 0, as there is
a horizontal tangent line there, see Figure 45. OK, now let’s look at all possible
(differentiable) curves from x = a to x = b, starting at height f (a) and ending at
height f (b) = f (a), (as in Figure 46). We want to know “Is there always a point
between a and b at which the curve reaches its maximum value ?”

A straight line from (a, f (a)) to (b, f (b)), where f (b) = f (a), is one curve whose
maximum value is the same everywhere, okay? And, as we said above, this is
necessarily horizontal, so this line is the same as its tangent line (for each point x
between a and b). As can be seen in Figure 46, all the ‘other’ curves seem to have
a maximum value at some point between a and b and, when that happens, there is
a horizontal tangent line there.

It looks like we have discovered something here: If f is a differentiable function on

126 3.6. IMPORTANT RESULTS ABOUT DERIVATIVES

an interval I = (a, b) (recall (a, b) = {x : a < x < b}) and f (a) = f (b) then f ′ (c) = 0
for some c between a and b; at least one c, but there may be more than one. Actually,
this mathematical statement is true! The result is called Rolle’s Theorem and it
is named after Michel Rolle, (1652-1719), a French mathematician.

Of course we haven’t ‘proved’ this theorem of Rolle but it is believable! Its proof
can be found in more advanced books in Analysis, a field of mathematics which
includes Calculus.)

We will state it here for future reference, though:

Rolle’s Theorem (1691)

Let f be a continuous function on [a, b] and let f be differentiable at each point
in (a, b). If f (a) = f (b), then there is at least one point c between a and b at
which f ′ (c) = 0.

Remark

1. Remember that the point c, whose existence is guaranteed by the theorem, is

not necessarily unique. There may be lots of them. . . but there is always at
least one. Unfortunately, the theorem doesn’t tell us where it is so we
need to rely on graphs and other techniques to find it.
2. Note that whenever the derivative is zero it seems that the graph of the function
has a ‘peak’ or a ‘sink’ at that point. In other words, such points appear to be
related to where the graph of the function has a maximum or minimum value.
This observation is very important and will be very useful later when we study
the general problem of sketching the graph of a general function.

Example 108.
Show that the function whose values are given by f (x) = sin(x)
on the interval [0, π] satisfies the assumptions of Rolle’s Theorem. Find the required
value of c explicitly.

Figure 46. Solution We know that ‘sin’ as well as its derivative, ‘cos’, are continuous every-
where. Also, sin(0) = 0 = sin(π). So, if we let a = 0, b = π, we see that we can
apply Rolle’s Theorem and find that y′ (c) = 0 where c is somewhere in between 0
and π. So, this means that cos c = 0 for some value of c. This is true! We can
choose c = π/2 and see this c exactly.

We have seen Rolle’s Theorem in action. Now, let’s return to the case where the
baseball goes from (a, f (a)) to (b, f (b)) but where f (a) 6= f (b) (players of different
heights!). What can we say in this case?

Well, we know that there is the straight line path from (a, f (a)) to (b, f (b)) which,
unfortunately, does not have a zero derivative anywhere as a curve (see Figure 47).
But look at all possible curves going from (a, f (a)) to (b, f (b)). This is only a
thought experiment, OK? They are differentiable (let’s assume this) and they bend
this way and that as they proceed from their point of origin to their destination.
Look at how they turn and compare this to the straight line joining the origin
and destination. It looks like you can always find a tangent line to any one
of these curves which is parallel to the line joining (a, f (a)) to (b, f (b))!
(see Figure 48). It’s almost like Rolle’s Theorem (graphically) but it is not Rolle’s
Theorem because f (a) 6= f (b). Actually, if you think about it a little, you’ll see that
Figure 47. it’s more general than Rolle’s Theorem. It has a different name . . . and it too is a
3.6. IMPORTANT RESULTS ABOUT DERIVATIVES 127

true mathematical statement! We call it the Mean Value Theorem and it says
the following:

Mean Value Theorem

Let f be continuous on the interval a ≤ x ≤ b and differentiable on the interval
a < x < b. Then there is a point c between a and b at which

f (b) − f (a)
= f ′ (c).
b−a

Remark The number on the left of the equation, namely, f (b)−f b−a
(a)
is really the
′
slope of the line pointing from (a, f (a)) to (b, f (b)). Moreover, f (c) is the slope of
the tangent line through some point (c, f (c)) on the graph of f . Since these slopes
are equal, the corresponding lines must be parallel, which is what we noticed above.

Example 109.
Show that the function whose values are given by f (x) = cos 2x
on the interval [0, π/2] satisfies the assumptions of the Mean Value Theorem. Show
that there is a value of c such that sin 2c = 2/π.

Solution Here, ‘cos 2x’ as well as its derivative, ‘−2 sin 2x’, are continuous every-
where. Also, cos(0) = 1 and cos(π) = −1. So, if we let a = 0, b = π/2, we see that
we can apply the Mean Value Theorem and find that y′ (c) = 0 where c is somewhere
in between 0 and π/2. This means that −2 sin 2c = −4/π, or for some value of c,
we must have sin 2c = 2/π. We may not know what this value of c is,

exactly, but it does exist! In fact, in the next section we’ll show you how to find
this value of c using inverse trigonometric functions.

Applications

Example 110.
Let y be continuous in the interval a ≤ x ≤ b and a differentiable
function on an interval (a, b) whose derivative is equal to zero at each point x, a <
x < b. Show that y(x) = constant for each x, a < x < b. i.e. If y′ (x) = 0 for all
x then the values y(x) are equal to one and the same number (or, y is said to be a
constant function).

Solution This is one very nice application of the Mean Value Theorem. OK, let
t be any point in (a, b). Since y is continuous at x = a, y(a) is finite. Re-reading
the statement of this example shows that all the assumptions of the Mean Value
Theorem are satisfied. So, the quotient
y(t) − y(a)
= y′ (c)
t−a
where a < c < t is the conclusion. But whatever c is, we know that y′ (c) = 0 (by
hypothesis, i.e. at each point x the derivative at x is equal to 0). It follows that
y′ (c) = 0 and this gives y(t) = y(a). But now look, t can be changed to some other
number, say, t∗ . We do the same calculation once again and we get
y(t∗ ) − y(a)
= y′ (c∗)
t∗ − a
where now a < c∗ < t∗ , and c∗ is generally different from c. Since y′ (c∗ ) = 0 (again,
by hypothesis) it follows that y(t∗ ) = y(a) as well. OK, but all this means that
y(t) = y(t∗ ) = y(a). So, we can continue like this and repeat this argument for
128 3.6. IMPORTANT RESULTS ABOUT DERIVATIVES

every possible value of t in (a, b), and every time we do this we get that y(t) = y(a).
It follows that for any choice of t, a < t < b, we must have y(t) = y(a). In other
words, we have actually proved that y(t) = constant (= y(a)), for t in a < t < b.
Since y is continuous at each endpoint a, b, it follows that y(b) must also be equal
to y(a). Finally, we see that y(x) = y(a) for every x in [a, b].

Example 111.
The function defined by y = |x| has y(−1) = y(1) but yet
′
y (c) 6= 0 for any value of c. Explain why this doesn’t contradict Rolle’s
Theorem.

Solution All the assumptions of a theorem need to be verified before using the
theorem’s conclusion. In this case, the function f defined by f (x) = |x| has no
derivative at x = 0 as we saw earlier, and so the assumption that f be differentiable
over (−1, 1) is not true since it is not differentiable at x = 0. So, we can’t use the
Theorem at all. This just happens to be one of the many functions that doesn’t
satisfy the conclusion of this theorem. You can see that there’s no contradiction to
Rolle’s Theorem since it doesn’t apply.

Figure 48. Example 112.

The function f is defined by


−x, −2 ≤ x ≤ 0
f (x) =
1 − x, 0 < x ≤ 3.

In this example, the function f is defined on [−2, 3] by the 2 curves in the graph
and f (3)−f (−2)
3−(−2)
= − 45 but there is no value of c, −2 < c < 3 such that f ′ (c) = − 54 ,
because f ′ (c) = −1 at every c except c = 0 where f ′ (0) is not defined. Does this
contradict the Mean Value Theorem?

Solution No, there is no contradiction here. Once again, all the assumptions of
the Mean Value Theorem must be verified before proceeding to its conclusion. In
this example, the function f defined above is not continuous at x = 0 because its
left-hand limit at x = 0 is f− (0) = 0, while its right-hand limit, f+ (0) = 1. Since
these limits are different f is not continuous at x = 0. Since f is not continuous at
x = 0, it cannot be continuous on all of [−2, 3]. So, we can’t apply the conclusion.
So, there’s nothing wrong with this function or Rolle’s Theorem.

Example 113.
Another very useful application of the Mean Value Theorem/Rolle’s
Theorem is in the theory of differential equations which we spoke of earlier.

Let y be a differentiable function for each x in (a, b) = {x : a < x < b} and

continuous in [a, b] = {x : a ≤ x ≤ b}. Assume that y has the property that for
every number x in (a, b),

dy
+ y(x)2 + 1 = 0.
dx
Show that this function y cannot have two zeros (or roots) in the interval [a, b].

Solution Use Rolle’s Theorem and show this result by assuming the contrary. This
is called a a proof by contradiction, remember? Assume that, if possible, there
are two points A, B in the interval [a, b] where y(A) = y(B) = 0. Then, by Rolle’s
Theorem, there exists a point c in (A, B) with y′ (c) = 0. Use this value of c in the
equation above. This means that

dy
(c) + y(c)2 + 1 = 0,
dx
3.6. IMPORTANT RESULTS ABOUT DERIVATIVES 129

Summary
Rolle’s Theorem
Let f be continuous at each point of a closed interval [a, b] and differ-
entiable at each point of (a, b). If f(a) = f(b), then there is a point c
between a and b at which f ′ (c) = 0.
Remark Don’t confuse this result with Bolzano’s Theorem (Chapter 2).
Bolzano’s Theorem deals with the existence of a root of a continuous
function f while Rolle’s Theorem deals with the existence of a root of the
derivative of a function.
Mean Value Theorem
Let f be continuous on the interval a ≤ x ≤ b and differentiable on the
interval a < x < b. Then there is a point c between a and b at which
f(b)−f(a)
b−a
= f ′ (c).

Table 3.6: Rolle’s Theorem and the Mean Value Theorem

right? Now, since y′ (c) = 0, it follows that y(c)2 + 1 = 0. But y(c)2 ≥ 0. So, this
is an impossibility, it can never happen. This last statement is the contradiction.
The original assumption that there are two points A, B in the interval [a, b] where
y(A) = y(B) = 0 must be false. So, there can’t be ‘two’ such points. It follows
that y cannot have two zeros in a ≤ x ≤ b.

Remark This is a really interesting aspect of most differential equations: We really

don’t know what ‘y(x)’ looks like either explicitly or implicitly but still, we can
get some information about its graph! In the preceding example we showed that
y(x) could not have two zeros, for example. This sort of analysis is part of an area
of differential equations called “qualitative analysis”.

Note The function y defined by y(x) = tan(c − x) where c is any fixed number,
dy
has the property that dx + y(x)2 + 1 = 0. If c = π, say, then y(x) = tan(π − x)
is such a function whose graph is reproduced in Figure 49.
Note that this function has ‘lots’ of zeros! Why does this graph not contradict
the result of Example 113? It’s because on this interval, [0, π] the function f
is not defined at x = π/2 (so it not continuous on [0, π]), and so Example 113
does not apply.

Example 114.
In a previous example we saw that if y is a differentiable function
′
on [a, b] and y (x) = 0 for all x in (a, b) then y(x) must be a constant function.

The same ideas may be employed to show that if y is a twice differentiable function Figure 49.
on (a, b) (i.e. the derivative itself has a derivative), y and y′ are each continuous on
[a, b] and if y′′ (x) = 0 for each x in (a, b) then y(x) = mx + b, for each a < x < b,
for some constants m and b. That is, y must be a linear function.

Solution We apply the Mean Value Theorem to the function y′ first. Look at the
′ ′
interval [a, x]. Then y (x)−y
x−a
(a)
= y′′ (c) where a < c < x. But y′′ (c) = 0 (regardless
of the value of c) so this means y′ (x) = y′ (a) = constant. Since x can be any
130 3.6. IMPORTANT RESULTS ABOUT DERIVATIVES

Intermediate Value Theorem

Let f be continuous at each point of a closed interval [a, b] = {x : a ≤
x ≤ b}. Assume,
1. f(a) 6= f(b)
2. z is a point between the numbers f(a) and f(b).
Then there is at least one value of c between a and b such that f(c) = z
Remark This result is very useful in finding the root of certain equations,
or the points of intersection of two or more curves in the plane.
Bolzano’s Theorem
Let f be continuous on a closed interval [a, b] (i.e., at each point x
in [a, b]).
If f(a)f(b) < 0, then there is at least one point c between a and b such
that f(c) = 0. In other words there is at least one root of f in the
interval (a, b).

Table 3.7: Main Theorems about Continuous Functions

number, x > a, and the constant above does not ‘change’ (it is equal to y′ (a)), it
follows that y′ (x) = y′ (a) for any x in (a, b).

Now, apply the Mean Value Theorem to y, NOT y′ . . . Then

y(x) − y(a)
= y′ (c)
x−a

where a < c < x (not the same c as before, though). But we know that y′ (c) = y′ (a)
(from what we just proved) so this means that y(x) − y(a) = y′ (a)(x − a) or

y(x) = y′ (a)(x − a) + y(a)

= mx + b

if we chose m = y′ (a) and b = y(a) − ay ′ (a). That’s all!

Two other big theorems of elementary Calculus are the Intermediate Value Theorem
and a special case of it called Bolzano’s Theorem, both of which we saw in our chapter
on Limits and Continuity. We recall them here.

Example 115.
Show that there is a root of the equation f (x) = 0 in the interval
Bernhard Bolzano, 1781-1848, [0, π], where f (x) = x sin x + cos x .
Czechoslovakian priest and mathe-
matician who specialized in Analysis Solution OK, what’s this question about? The key words are ‘root’ and ‘function’
where he made many contributions and at this point, basing ourselves on the big theorems above, we must be dealing
to the areas of limits and continuity with an application of Bolzano’s Theorem, you see? (Since it deals with roots
and, like Weierstrass, he produced
of functions, see Table 3.7.) So, let [a, b] = [0, π] which means that a = 0 and
b = π. Now the function whose values are given by x sin x is continuous (as it is
a method (1850) for constructing a
the product of two continuous functions) and since ‘cos x’ is continuous it follows
continuous function which has no
that x sin x + cos x is continuous (as the sum of continuous functions is, once again
derivative anywhere! He helped to
continuous). Thus f is continuous on [a, b] = [0, π].
establish the tenet that mathemat-
ical truth should rest on rigorous What about f (0)? Well, f (0) = 1 (since 0 sin 0 + cos 0 = 0 + (+1) = +1).
proofs rather than intuition.
3.6. IMPORTANT RESULTS ABOUT DERIVATIVES 131

And f (π)? Here f (π) = −1 (since π sin π + cos π = 0 + (−1) = −1).

So, f (π) = −1 < 0 < f (0) = 1 which means that f (a)·f (b) = f (0)·f (π) < 0. So, all
the hypotheses of Bolzano’s theorem are satisfied. This means that the conclusion
follows, that is, there is a point c between 0 and π so that f (c) = 0.

Remark Okay, but ‘where’ is the root of the last example?

Well, we need more techniques to solve this problem, and there is one, very useful
method, called Newton’s method which we’ll see soon, (named after the same
Newton mentioned in Chapter 1, one of its discoverers.)

Exercise Set 15.

Use Bolzano’s theorem to show that each of the given functions has a root in the
given interval. Don’t forget to verify the assumption of continuity in each
case. You may want to use your calculator. In the first few exercises show 1)
that the function is continuous,
and 2) that there are two points
1. y(x) = 3x − 2, 0 ≤ x ≤ 2
a, b inside the given interval with
2. y(x) = x2 − 1, −2 ≤ x ≤ 0
f(a)f(b) < 0. Then use Bolzano’s
3. y(x) = 2x2 − 3x − 2, 0 ≤ x ≤ 3 Theorem.
4. y(x) = sin x + cos x, 0 ≤ x ≤ π
5. y(x) = x cos x + sin x, 0 ≤ x ≤ π
6. The function y has the property that y is three-times differentiable in (a, b) and
continuous in [a, b]. If y′′′ (x) = 0 for all x in (a, b) show that y(x) is of the form
y(x) = Ax2 + Bx + C for a suitable choice of A, B, and C.
dy
7. The following function y has the property that dx + y(x)4 + 2 = 0 for x in (a, b).
Show that y(x) cannot have two zeros in the interval [a, b].
8. Use the Mean Value Theorem to show that sin x ≤ x for any x in the interval
[0, π].
9. Use Rolle’s Theorem applied to the sine function on [0, π] to show that the cosine
function must have a root in this interval.
10. Apply the Mean Value Theorem to the sine function on [0, π/2] to show that
x − sin x ≤ π2 − 1. Conclude that if 0 ≤ x ≤ π2 , then 0 ≤ x − sin x ≤ π2 − 1.
11. Use a calculator to find that value c in the conclusion of the Mean Value Theorem
for the following two functions:
a) f (x) = x2 + x − 1, [a, b] = [0, 2]
b) g(x) = x2 + 3, [a, b] = [0, 1]
Hint In (a) calculate the number f (b)−f b−a
(a)
explicitly. Then find f ′ (c) as a
function of c, and, finally, solve for c.
12. An electron is shot through a 1 meter wide plasma field and its time of travel
is recorded at 0.3 × 10−8 seconds on a timer at its destination. Show, using the
Mean Value Theorem, that its velocity at some point in time had to exceed the
speed of light in that field given approximately by 2.19 × 108 m/sec. (Note
This effect is actually observed in nature!)

Suggested Homework Set 12. Do problems 1, 3, 6, 8, 11

132 3.7. INVERSE FUNCTIONS

3.7 Inverse Functions

One of the most important topics in the theory of functions is that of the inverse
of a function, a function which is NOT the same as the reciprocal (or 1 divided
by the function). Using this new notion of an inverse we are able to ‘back-track’ in
a sense, the idea being that we interchange the domain and the range of a function
when defining its inverse and points in the range get associated with the point in
the domain from which they arose. These inverse functions are used everywhere
in Calculus especially in the topic of finding the area between two curves, or
calculating the volume of a solid of revolution two topics which we will address
later. The two main topics in Calculus namely, differentiation and integration of
functions, are actually related. In the more general sense of an inverse of an op-
erator, these operations on functions are almost inverses of one another. Knowing
how to manipulate and find inverse functions is a necessity for a thorough under-
standing of the methods in Calculus. In this section we will learn what they are,
how to find them, and how to sketch them.

Review
You should be completely familiar with Chapter 1, and especially how to find
the composition of two functions using the ‘box’ method or any other method.

We recall the notion of the composition of two functions here: Given two func-
tions, f, g where the range of g is contained in the domain of f , (i.e., R=Ran(g) ⊆
Dom(f)=D) we define the composition of f and g, denoted by the symbol f ◦ g,
a new function whose values are given by (f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)) where x is in the
domain of g (denoted briefly by D).

Example 116.
Let f (x) = x2 + 1, g(x) = x − 1. Find (f ◦ g)(x) and (g ◦ f )(x).

Solution Recall the box methods of Chapter 1. By definition, since f (x) = x2 + 1

we know that f (✷) = ✷2 + 1. So,
2 2
f ( g(x) ) = g(x) + 1 = (x-1) + 1 = (x − 1)2 + 1 = x2 − 2x + 2.

On the other hand, when the same idea is applied to (g◦f )(x), we get (g◦f )(x) = x2 .

Note: This shows that the operation of composition is not commutative, that
is, (g ◦ f )(x) 6= (f ◦ g)(x), in general. The point is that composition is not the
same as multiplication.

Let f be a given function with domain, D=Dom(f), and range, R=Ran(f). We say
that the function F is the inverse of f if all these four conditions hold:

Dom(F ) = Ran(f )
Dom(f ) = Ran(F )
(F ◦ f )(x) = x, for every x in Dom(f)
(f ◦ F )(x) = x, for every x in Dom(F)

Thus, the inverse function’s domain is R. The inverse function of f is usually written
f −1 whereas the reciprocal function of f is written as f1 so that ( f1 )(x) = f (x)
1
6=
−1
f (x). This is the source of much confusion!
3.7. INVERSE FUNCTIONS 133

Example 117.
Find the composition of the functions f, g where f (x) = 2x + 3,
2
g(x) = x , and show that (f ◦ g)(x) 6= (g ◦ f )(x).

Solution Using the box method or any other method we find

(f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)) = 2g(x) + 3 = 2x2 + 3

while

(g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)) = (f (x))2 = (2x + 3)2 = 4x2 + 12x + 9

So we see that

(f ◦ g)(x) 6= (g ◦ f )(x)

as the two expressions need to be exactly the same for equality.

Example 118. Figure 50.

Show that the functions f, F defined by f (x) = 2x + 3 and

F (x) = x−3
2
are inverse of one another. That is, show that F is the inverse of f and
f is the inverse of F .

Solution As a check we note that Dom(F) = Ran(f) = (−∞, ∞) and

x−3
f (F (x)) = 2F (x) + 3 = 2( ) + 3 = x,
2
which means that (f ◦ F )(x) = x. On the other hand, Dom(f) = Ran(F) = (−∞, ∞)
and
f (x) − 3 (2x + 3) − 3
F (f (x)) = = = x,
2 2
which now means that (F ◦ f )(x) = x. So, by definition, these two functions are
inverse functions of one another.

How can we tell if a given function has an inverse function?. In order that
two functions f, F be inverses of one another it is necessary that each function be
one-to-one on their respective domains. This means that the only solution of the
equation f (x) = f (y) (resp. F (x) = F (y)) is the solution x = y, whenever x, y are
in Dom(f ), (resp. Dom(F )). The simplest geometrical test for deciding whether
a given function is one-to-one is the so-called Horizontal Line Test. Basically, one
looks at the graph of the given function on the xy-plane, and if every horizontal line
through the range of the function intersects the graph at only one point, then the
function is one-to-one and so it has an inverse function, see Figure 50. The moral
here is “Not every function has an inverse function, only those that are one-to-one!”

Example 119.
Show that the function f (x) = x2 has no inverse function if we
take its domain to be the interval [−1, 1].

Solution This is because the Horizontal Line Test shows that every horizontal
line through the range of f intersects the curve at two points (except at (0,0),
see Figure 51). Since the Test fails, f is not one-to-one and this means that f
cannot have an inverse. Can you show that this function does have an inverse if
its domain is restricted to the smaller interval [0, 1] ?

Example 120.
Figure 51.
Find the form of the inverse function of the function f defined
by f (x) = 2x + 3, where x is real.
134 3.7. INVERSE FUNCTIONS

How to find the inverse of a function

1. • Write y = f (x)

• Solve for x in terms of y

• Then x = F (y) where F is the inverse.

2. • Interchange the x’s and y’s.

• Solve for the symbol y in terms of x.

• This gives y = F (x) where F is the inverse.

It follows that the graph of the inverse function, F , is obtained by reflect-

ing the graph of f about the line y = x. More on this later.

Table 3.8: How to Find the Inverse of a Function

Solution Use Table 3.8. Write y = f (x) = 2x + 3. We solve for x in terms of y.

Then
y−3
y = 2x + 3 means x = = F (y).
2
x−3
Now interchange x and y. So the inverse of f is given by F where F (x) = .
2

Example 121.
f (x) = x4 , x ≥ 0, what is its inverse function F (x) (also denoted

by f −1 (x)) ?

The graph of f(x) = x4 . If x ≥ 0 Solution Let’s use Table 3.8, once again. Write y = x4 . From the graph of f
(Figure 52) we see that it is one-to-one if x ≥ 0. Solving for x in terms of y, we √get
this function is one-to-one.It is not √ √
x = 4 y since x is real, and y ≥ 0. So f −1 (y) = F (y) = 4 y or f −1 (x) = F (x) = 4 x
true that f is one-to-one if the do-
is the inverse function of f .
main of f contains negative points,
since in this case there are horizon-
Example 122.
tal lines that intersect the graph in If f (x) = x3 + 1, what is its inverse function, f −1 (x)?
TWO points.

Figure 52. Solution√ We solve for x in terms of y, as usual. Since y = x3 + 1 we know y − 1 = x3

= 3 y − 1 (and y can√
or x √ be any real number√here). Interchanging x and y we get
y = 3 x − 1, or f −1 (x) = 3 x − 1, or F (x) = 3 x − 1

The derivative of the inverse function f −1 of a given function f is related to

the derivative of f by means of the next formula

dF df −1 1 1
(x) = (x) = ′ −1 = ′ (3.4)
dx dx f (f (x)) f (F (x))

where the symbol f ′ (f −1 (x)) means that the derivative of f is evaluated at the point
f −1 (x), where x is given. Why?
3.7. INVERSE FUNCTIONS 135

The simplest reason is that the Chain Rule tells us that since f (F (x)) = x we can
differentiate the composition on the left using the Box Method (with F (x) in the
box...). By the Chain Rule we know that

Df (✷) = f ′ (✷) · D(✷).

Applying this to our definition of the inverse of f we get

x = f (F (x))
Dx = Df (F (x)) = Df (✷)
1 = f ′ (✷) · D(✷)
= f ′ (F (x)) · F ′ (x).

Now solving for the symbol F ′ (x) in the last display (because this is what we want)
we obtain
1
F ′ (x) = ′ ,
f (F (x))
where F (x) = f −1 (x) is the inverse of the original function f (x). This proves our
claim.

Another, more geometrical, argument proceeds like this: Referring to Figure 53 in

the margin let (x, y) be a point on the graph of y = f −1 (x). We can see that the
tangent line to the graph of f has equation y = mx + b where m, its slope, is also
the derivative of f at the point in question (i.e., f ′ (y)). On the other hand, its
reflection is obtained by interchanging x, y, and so the equation of its counterpart
(on the other side of y = x) is x = my + b. Solving for y in terms of x in this one
x b
we get y = m −m . This means that it has slope equal to the reciprocal of the first
one. Since these slopes are actually derivatives this means that
1 1
(f −1 )′ (x) = = ′ −1
f ′ (y) f (f (x))

since our point (x, y) lies on the graph of the inverse function, y = f −1 (x).

Example 123. df −1 The two tangents are reflections of

For Example 121 above, what is (16)? i.e., the derivative
dx one another, and so their slopes
of the inverse function of f at x = 16? must be the reciprocal of one an-
other (see the text).
Solution Using Equation 3.4, we have
1 Figure 53.
(f −1 )′ (16) =
f ′ (f −1 (16))
√ √
But f −1 (x) = 4 x means that f −1 (16) = 4 16 = 2. So, (f −1 )′ (16) = f ′1(2) and
now we need f ′ (2). But f (x) = x4 , so f ′ (2) = 4(2)3 = 32. Finally, we find that
(f −1 )′ (16) = 32
1
.

Example 124.
A function f with an inverse function denoted by F has the
property that F (0) = 1 and f ′ (1) = 0.2. Calculate the value of F ′ (0).

Solution We don’t have much given here but yet we can actually find the answer
as follows: Since
1
F ′ (0) = ′
f (F (0))
by (3.4) with x = 0, we set F (0) = 1, and note that f ′ (F (0)) = f ′ (1). But since
f ′ (1) = 0.2 we see that
1 1 1
F ′ (0) = = ′ = = 5.
f ′ (F (0)) f (1) 0.2
136 3.7. INVERSE FUNCTIONS

Example 125.
Let g be a function defined by

x+2
g(x) =
x−2
with Dom(g) = {x : x 6= 2}. Show that g has an inverse function, G, find its form,
and describe its Domain and Range.

Solution Let’s denote its inverse function by G. The first question you should be
asking yourself is: “How do we know that there is an inverse function at all?” In
other words, we have to show that the graph of g satisfies the Horizontal Line Test
mentioned above (see Fig. 50), or, in other words, g is one-to-one. To do this we can
do one of two things: We can either draw the graph as in Fig. 54 (if you have that
much patience), or check the condition algebraically by showing that if g(x) = g(y)
then x = y must be true (for any points x, y in the domain of g). Since the graph
is already given in the margin we are done, but let’s look at this using the algebraic
test mentioned here.

In order to prove that g is one-to-one algebraically, we have to show that if g(x) =

g(y) then x = y. Basically, we use the definitions, perform some algebra, simplify
and see if we get x = y at the end. If we do, we’re done. Let’s see.

The graph of the function g in Ex- We assume that g(x) = g(y) (here y is thought of as an independent variable, just
ample 125. Note that any horizon-
like x). Then, by definition, this means that
tal line intersects the graph of g in x+2 y+2
=
only one point! This means that g is x−2 y−2
one-to-one on its domain. The ver-
for x, y 6= 2. Multiplying both sides by (x − 2)(y − 2) we get (x + 2)(y − 2) =
tical line across the point x = 2 is
(y + 2)(x − 2). Expanding these expressions we get
called a vertical asymptote (a line
on which the function becomes infi- xy + 2y − 2x − 4 = yx + 2x − 2y − 4
nite). More on this in Chapter 5.
from which we easily see that x = y. That’s all. So g is one-to-one. Thus, its inverse
function G exists.
Figure 54.
Next, to find its values, G(x), we replace all the x’s by y’s and solve for y in terms
of x, (cf., Table 3.8). Replacing all the x’s by y’s (and the only y by x) we get
y+2
x= .
y−2
Multiplying both sides by (y − 2) and simplifying we get
2x + 2
y= .
x−1
This is G(x).

Its domain is Dom(G) = {x : x 6= 1} = Ran(g) while its range is given by Ran(G) =

Dom(g) = {x : x 6= 2} by definition of the inverse.

Now that we know how to find the form of the inverse of a given (one-to-one)
function, the natural question is: “What does it look like?”. Of course, it is simply
another one of those graphs whose shape may be predicted by means of existing
computer software or by the old and labor intensive method of finding the critical
points of the function, the asymptotes, etc. So, why worry about the graph of an
inverse function? Well, one reason is that the graph of an inverse function is
related to the graph of the original function (that is, the one for which it is
the inverse). How? Let’s have a look at an example.
3.7. INVERSE FUNCTIONS 137

Example 126. √
Let’s look at the graph of the function f (x) = x, for x in
2
(0, 4), and its inverse, the function, F (x) = x , for x in (0, 2), Figure 55.

When we study these graphs carefully, we note, by definition of the inverse function,
that the domain and the range are interchanged. So, this means that if we
interchanged the x-axis (on which lies the domain of f ) and the y-axis, (on which
we find the range of f ) we would be in a position to graph the inverse function of f .
√
This graph of the inverse function is simply the reflection of the graph for y = x,
about the line y = x. Try it out ! Better still, check out the following experiment!

EXPERIMENT:
√
1. Make a copy of the graph of f (x) = x, below, by tracing it onto some
tracing paper (so that you can see the graph from both sides). Label the
axes, and fill in the domain and the range of f by thickening or thinning
the line segment containing them, or, if you prefer, by colouring them in.
2. Now, turn the traced image around, clockwise, by 90 degrees so
that the x-axis is vertical (but pointing down) and the y-axis is horizontal
(and pointing to the right). Figure 55. The graphs of y =
√
3. Next, flip the paper over onto its back without rotating the x2 and its inverse, y = x super-

paper! √
What do you see? The graph of the inverse function of imposed on one another
f (x) = x, that is, F (x) = x2 .

REMARK This technique of making the graph of the inverse function by rotating
the original graph clockwise by 90 degrees and then flipping it over always works!
You will always get the graph of the inverse function on the back side (verso), as if
it had been sketched on the x and y axes as usual (once you interchange x and y).
Here’s a visual summary of the construction . . .

Why does this work? Well, there’s some Linear Algebra involved. (The au-
thor’s module entitled The ABC’s of Calculus: Module on Inverse Functions has a
thorough explanation!)

We summarize the above in this

138 3.7. INVERSE FUNCTIONS

RULE OF THUMB. We can always find the graph of the inverse function
by applying the above construction to the original graph

or, equivalently,

by reflecting the original graph of f about the line y = x and eliminating the
original graph.

Example 127.
We sketch the graphs of the function f , and its inverse, F , given

by f (x) = 7x + 4 and F (x) = x−4

7
, where Dom(f ) = ℜ, where ℜ = (−∞, +∞). The
graphs of f and its inverse superimposed on the same axes are shown in Figure 56.

NOTE THAT if you are given the graph of the inverse function, F (x), of a
function f (x), you can find the graph of f (x) by applying the preceding “rule of
thumb” with f and F interchanged. Furthermore, the inverse of the inverse function
of a function f (so, we’re looking for the inverse) is f itself. Why? Use the definition
of the inverse! We know that F (f (x)) = x, for each x in Dom(f ), and x = f (F (x))
for each x in Dom(F ); together, these relations say that “F is the inverse of f ”. If
we interchange the symbols ‘F ’ and ‘f ’ in this equation we get the same equation
with the interpretation “f is the inverse of F ”, which is what we wanted!

Exercise Set 16.

Sketch the graphs of the following functions and their inverses. Don’t
forget to indicate the domain and the range of each function.

Figure 56. The graphs of

1. f (x) = 4 − x2 , 0≤x≤2
f(x) = 7x + 4 and its inverse
F (x) = x−4
superimposed on one 2. g(x) = (x − 1)−1 , 1<x<∞
7
3
another. 3. f (z) = 2 − z , −∞ < z < ∞
√
4. h(x) = 5 + 2x, − 25 ≤ x < ∞
1
5. f (y) = (2 + y) 3 , −2 < y < ∞
6. Let f be a function with domain D = ℜ. Assume that f has an inverse function,
F , defined on ℜ (another symbol for the real line) also.
(i) Given that f (2) = 0 , what is F (0)?

(ii) If F (6) = −1, what is f (−1)?

(iii) Conclude that the only solution of f (x) = 0 is x = 2.

(iv) Given that f (−2) = 8 , what is the solution y, of F (y) = −2? Are there
any other solutions ?

(v) We know that f (−1) = 6. Are there any other points, x, such that
f (x) = 6?

7. Given that f is such that its inverse F exists, f ′ (−2.1) = 4, F (−1) = − 2.1,
find the value of the derivative of F at x = −1.

Find the form of the inverse of the given functions on the given domain
and determine the Domain and the Range of the inverse function. Don’t
forget to show that each is one-to-one first.
3.7. INVERSE FUNCTIONS 139

8. f (x) = x, −∞ < x < +∞

1
9. f (x) = , x 6= 0
x
10. f (x) = x3 , −∞ < x < +∞
11. f (t) = 7t + 4, 0≤t≤1
√ 1
12. g(x) = 2x + 1, x≥−
2
√ 1
13. g(t) = 1 − 4t2 , 0≤t≤
2
2 + 3x 3
14. f (x) = , x 6=
3 − 2x 2
1
15. g(y) = y2 + y, − ≤ y < +∞
2

Suggested Homework Set 13. Work out problems 3, 5, 6, 8, 12, 15.

Web Links

More on Inverse Functions at:

library.thinkquest.org/2647/algebra/ftinvers.htm
(requires a Java-enabled browser)
www.khanacademy.org/math/algebra/algebra-functions/v/function-inverse-
example-1
www.math.duke.edu/education/ccp/materials/intcalc/inverse/index.html

NOTES:
140 3.8. INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

3.8 Inverse Trigonometric Functions

When you think of the graph of a trigonometric function you may have the general
feeling that it’s very wavy. In this case, the Horizontal Line Test should fail as
horizontal lines through the range will intersect the graph quite a lot! So, how can
they have an inverse? The only way this can happen is by making the domain ‘small
enough’. It shouldn’t be surprising if it has an inverse on a suitable interval. So,
every trigonometric function has an inverse on a suitably defined interval.

At this point we introduce the notion of the inverse of a trigonometric function.

The graphical properties of the sine function indicate that it has an inverse when
Dom(sin) = [−π/2, π/2]. Its inverse is called the Arcsine function and it is defined
for −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 by the rule that
y = Arcsin(x) means that y is an angle whose sine is x.

Since sin(π/2) = 1, it follows that Arcsin(1) = π/2. The cosine function with
Dom(cos) = [0, π] also has an inverse and it’s called the Arccosine function, This
Arccosine function is defined for −1 ≤ x ≤ 1, and its rule is given by y = Arccos(x)
which means that y is an angle whose cosine is x. Thus, Arccos(1) = 0, since
cos(0) = 1. Finally, the tangent function defined on (−π/2, π/2) has an inverse
called the Arctangent function and it’s defined on the interval (−∞, +∞) by
the statement that y = Arctan(x) only when y is an angle in (−π/2, π/2) whose
tangent is x. In particular, since tan(π/4) = 1, Arctan(1) = π/4. The remaining
inverse trigonometric functions can be defined by the relations y = Arccot(x), the
Arccotangent function, which is defined only when y is an angle in (0, π) whose
cotangent is x (and x is in (−∞, +∞)). In particular, since cot(π/2) = 0, we see
that Arccot(0) = π/2. Furthermore, y = Arcsec(x), the Arcsecant function, only
when y is an angle in [0, π], different from π/2, whose secant is x (and x is outside
the open interval (−1, 1)). In particular, Arcsec(1) = 0, since sec(0) = 1. Finally,
y = Arccsc(x), the Arccosecant function, only when y is an angle in [−π/2, π/2],
different from 0, whose cosecant is x (and x is outside the open interval (−1, 1)). In
particular, since csc(π/2) = 1, Arccsc(1) = π/2.

NOTE: sin, cos are defined for all x (in radians) but this is not true for their
‘inverses’, arcsin (or Arcsin), arccos (or Arccos). Remember that the inverse of a
function is always defined on the range of the original function.

Example 128.
Evaluate Arctan(1).

Solution By definition, we are looking for an angle in radians whose tangent is 1.

π
So y = Arctan(1) means tan y = 1 or y = .
4

Function Domain Range

y = Arcsin x −1 ≤ x ≤ +1 − π2 ≤ y ≤ + π2
y = Arccos x −1 ≤ x ≤ +1 0≤y≤π
y = Arctan x −∞ < x < +∞ − π2 < y < + π2
y = Arccot x −∞ < x < +∞ 0<y<π
y = Arcsec x | x |≥ 1 0 ≤ y ≤ π, y 6= π2
y = Arccsc x | x |≥ 1 − π2 ≤ y ≤ + π2 , y 6= 0

Table 3.9: The Inverse Trigonometric Functions

3.8. INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 141

Example 129. 1
Evaluate Arcsin( ).
2

1
Solution By definition, we are looking for an angle in radians whose sine is . So
2
1 1 π
y = Arcsin( ) means sin y = or y = (see Figure 57).
2 2 6

Example 130. 1
Evaluate Arccos( √ ).
2
Figure 57.
1
Solution By definition, we seek an angle in radians whose cosine is √ . So y =
2
1 1 π
Arccos( √ ) means cos y = √ or y = .
2 2 4

Example 131. √
Evaluate Arcsec( 2).

√
Solution By definition,we are looking for an√angle in radians whose secant is 2.
√ √
So y = Arcsec( 2) means sec y = 2 (= 12 ). The other side has length s2 =
√ π
( 2)2 − 12 = 2 − 1 = 1. So s = 1. Therefore, the △ is isosceles and y = (see
4
Figure 58).
√
Example 132. 2
Find the value of sin(Arccos( )).
2
√ √ Figure 58.
2 2
Solution Let y = Arccos( ) then cos y = . But we want sin y. So, since
2 2
2 2
cos y + sin y = 1, we get
r
p 1 1
sin y = ± 1 − cos2 y = ± 1 − = ± √ .
2 2
Hence
√ √
2 1 2
sin(Arccos( )) = √ (= ).
2 2 2

Example 133. 1
Find sec(Arctan(− )).
2

1 1
Solution Now y = Arctan(− ) means tan y = − but we want sec y. Since sec2 y −
2 p 2q q √
tan2 y = 1 this means sec y = ± 1 + tan2 y = ± 1 + 41 = ± 54 = ± 25 . Now we
use Table 3.10, above.

Now, if we have an angle whose tangent is − 21 then the angle is either in II or IV.
But the angle must be in the interval (− π2 , 0) of the domain of definition (− π2 , π2 )
√
of tangent. Hence it is in IV and so its secant is > 0. Thus, sec y = 5/2 and we’re
done.

Example 134. 1
Find the sign of sec(Arccos( )).
2

1 1
Solution Let y = Arccos( ) ⇒ cos y = > 0, therefore y is in I or IV. By definition,
2 2
142 3.8. INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Other Method: Signs of Trigonometric Functions

Quadrant sin cos tan cot sec csc

I + + + + + +
II + - - - - +
III - - + + - -
IV - + - - + -

Table 3.10: Signs of Trigonometric Functions

Arccos( 12 ) is in [0, π]. Therefore y is in I or II, but this means that y must be in I.
„ „ ««
1
So, sec y > 0 by Table 3.10, and this forces sec Arccos = sec y > 0.
2

Example 135.
Determine the sign of the number csc(Arcsec(2)).

Solution Let y = Arcsec(2). Then sec y = 2 > 0. Therefore y is in I or IV. By

definition, Arcsec(2) is in I or II. Therefore y is in I, and from the cosecant property,
csc y > 0 if y is in [0, π2 ). So, csc(Arcsec(2)) = csc y > 0.

Example 136. 1
Find the sign of tan(Arcsin(− )).
2

1
Solution Let y = Arcsin(− ). Then sin y = − 21 ⇒ y in III or IV. By definition
2
1
of Arcsin; But, y = Arcsin(− ) must be in I or IV. Therefore y is in IV. So
2
1
tan(Arcsin(− )) < 0 (because tan < 0 in IV).
2

CAREFUL!!
Many authors of Calculus books use the following notations for the inverse
trigonometric functions:

Arcsin x ⇐⇒ sin−1 x
Arccos x ⇐⇒ cos−1 x
Arctan x ⇐⇒ tan−1 x
Arccot x ⇐⇒ cot−1 x
Arcsec x ⇐⇒ sec−1 x
Arccsc x ⇐⇒ csc−1 x

The reason we try to avoid this notation is because it makes too many readers
associate it with the reciprocal of those trigonometric functions and not their
inverses. The reciprocal and the inverse are really different! Still, you should
be able to use both notations interchangeably. It’s best to know what
the notation means, first.

NOTE: The inverse trigonometric functions we defined here in Table 3.9, are called
the principal branch of the inverse trigonometric function, and we use the notation
with an upper case letter ‘A’ for Arcsin, etc. to emphasize this. Non-principal
3.8. INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 143

branches of these inverse trigonometric functions begin with the lower case letter.
Thus, arctan x refers to a non-principal branch of the inverse tangent function, i.e.,
one whose range is something other than (−π/2, π/2), something like (π/2, 3π/2) or
(3π/2, 5π/2). In the same vein, arcsin x, arccos x, etc. denote non-principal branches
of the arcsine and arccosine functions, repectively. Just about everything you ever
wanted know about the basic theory of principal and non-principal branches of the
inverse trigonometric functions may be found in the author’s Module on Inverse
Functions in the series The ABC’s of Calculus, The Nolan Company, Ottawa, 1994.

Finally, we emphasize that since these functions are inverses then for any symbol,
✷, representing some point in the domain of the corresponding inverse function (see
Table 3.9), we always have

sin(Arcsin ✷) = ✷ cos(Arccos ✷) = ✷
tan(Arctan ✷) = ✷ cot(Arccot ✷) = ✷
sec(Arcsec ✷) = ✷ csc(Arccsc ✷) = ✷

the same equalities holding, in fact, for any branch of the inverse functions and not
just only the principal one. (So we can replace the upper case “A” by lower case
“a” above.)

On the other hand, the relationship between principal and non-principal branches
of the main inverse trigonometric functions is given by,

Arcsin (✷) = (−1)m arcsin(✷) + mπ, Arccos (✷) = ± arccos(✷) + 2mπ,

Arctan (✷) = arctan(✷) + mπ

where m is an integer that may be positive, negative, or zero and that depends
on the branch being considered. Another way of writing this is, in the case of the
arcsine function,


−Arcsin (✷) + (odd) π,
arcsin(✷) =
Arcsin (✷) + (even) π

where the “odd” and “even” numbers here correspond to the case where m is an
odd or an even integer respectively (positive or negative) in the previous display.

Properties of inverse functions also guarantee that

arcsin(sin ✷) = (−1)m ✷ + mπ, arccos(cos ✷) = ±✷ + 2mπ,

arctan(tan ✷) = ✷ + mπ,

where m here is either even or odd depending on which branch is being used.

Example 137.
Find the value of Arcsin (sin(2π/3)).

Solution If x lies in [−π/2, π/2], then it is clear from the definition of the principal
branch that Arcsin (sin x) = x. But here x = 2π/3 and 2π/3 is NOT in the interval
[−π/2, π/2]. So, what do we do? Well, we calculate the value of sin 2π/3 which
has to be some number in the √ interval [−1, 1]. When we apply the Arcsin function
to this number sin 2π/3 = 3/2 we HAVE to get an ANGLE in [−π/2, π/2] (be-
144 3.8. INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

cause that
√ is how the main branch of the arcsine function is defined). So what is
Arcsin ( 3/2)?√ Remember, we are looking for an angle in the interval
√ [−π/2, π/2]
whose sine is√ 3/2. But then, it is easy to see that sin(π/3) = 3/2 which means
that Arcsin ( 3/2) = π/3. In conclusion,

Arcsin (sin(2π/3)) = π/3,

not quite what you expect, right?

Remark: Observe that Example 137 is an instance of the case m = 1 in the first
formula in the box above Example 137.

Example 138.
Find the value of Arccos (cos(13π/4)).

Solution Recall that whenever x lies in [0, π], then the definition of the principal
branch of the arccosine function tells us that Arccos (cos x) = x. Now x = 13π/4
and of course this number is not in the interval [0, π]. So, as before, we calculate
the value of cos 13π/4 which is some number in the interval [−1,
√ 1]. When we apply
the Arccosine function to cos 13π/4 = cos(3π + π/4) = − 2/2 we HAVE to get
an ANGLE in [0, π] (because that is√ how the main branch of the arccosine function
is defined). So what is Arccos (−√ 2/2)? So, we are looking for an angle in the
interval [0, π] whose cosine is − 2/2. Since the cosine is negative the angle must
be in either QIII
√ or QIV. Finally, we see that 3π/4 is the required angle since
cos(3π/4) = − 2/2. Therefore,

Arccos (cos(13π/4)) = 3π/4,

(and there is no misprint here).

Remark: Observe that Example 138 is an instance of the case m = 2, with a

“−✷”, in the second formula in the box above Example 137. (Specifically, 3π/4 =
−(13π/4) + 2 × 2 × π.)

Example 139.
Find the value of Arctan (tan(−16π/3)).

Solution For x in (−π/2, π/2), the definition of the principal branch of the arctangent
function tells us that Arctan (tan x) = x. Since x = −16π/3, this number is not in
the interval (−π/2, π/2). Next, tan(−16π/3) must be some number in the interval
(−∞, +∞). In fact,
√
tan(−16π/3) = tan(−5π − π/3) = tan(−π/3) = − tan(π/3) = − 3.
√ √
Finally, Arctan (− 3), denotes an angle whose tangent is equal to − 3. Since the
tangent is negative this angle must be in QII or QIV. It is now easy to see that it
must be −π/3. So,
Arctan (tan(−16π/3)) = −π/3.

Remark: Example 139 is an instance of the case m = 5, in the third formula in

the box above Example 137. (Specifically, −π/3 = −(16π/3) + 5 × π.)

NOTE: In problems involving negative angles we may use the identities sin(−✷) =
− sin(✷), cos(−✷) = cos(✷) and tan(−✷) = − tan(✷) to convert said angles to
positive ones.

Exercise Set 17.

3.8. INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 145

Evaluate the following expressions.

1
1. sin(Arccos(0.5)), 2. cos(Arcsin(0)), 3. sec(sin−1 ( ))
2
√
1 3
4. csc(tan−1 (− )), 5. sec(sin−1 ),6. Arcsin(tan(−π/4))
2 2
√
2
7. Arctan (tan π/4)), 8. sin(Arcsin 1), 9. cos(cos−1 )
2
π
10. tan(arctan(−1)), 11. Arcsin (sin π), 12. Arccos (cos )
2
2π 5π 3π
13. Arcsin (sin(− )), 14. Arccos (cos( )), 15. Arctan (tan( ))
3 4 4
π π
16. arcsin(sin(− )), 17. arctan(tan(− )), 18. arccos(cos π)
2 4
√
19. Arctan (1 + tan π), 20. 2Arctan (3 tan(3)), 21. Arctan ( 3 + 2 tan π).

Suggested Homework Set 14. Do problems 1, 7, 9, 10, 12, 16, 18, 19, 21.

NOTES:
146 3.9. DERIVATIVES OF INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

3.9 Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Func-

tions

Now that we know what these inverse trigonometric functions are, how do we find
the derivative of the inverse of, say, the Arcsine (sin−1 ) function? Well, we know
from equation 3.4 that

dF 1
(x) = ′
dx f (F (x))

where F (x) = f −1 (x) is the more convenient notation for the inverse of f . Now let
f (x) = sin x, and F (x) = Arcsin x be its inverse function. Since f ′ (x) = cos x, we
see that
d dF
Arcsin x = (x)
dx dx
1
=
f ′ (F (x))
1
=
cos(F (x))
1
=
cos(Arcsin x)

Now, let θ = Arcsin x, where θ is a lowercase Greek letter pronounced ‘thay-ta’. It is

used to denote angles. Then, by definition, sin θ = x, and we’re looking for the
√ value
of cos θ, right? But since sin2 (θ) + cos2 (θ) = 1, this means that cos θ = ± 1 − x2 .
So, which is it? There are two choices, here.

Figure 59. Look at the definition of the Arcsin function in Table 3.9. You’ll see that this
function is defined only when the domain of the original sin function is restricted
to [−π/2, π/2]. But, by definition, Ran(Arcsin ) = Dom(sin) = [−π/2, π/2]. So,
cos θ = cos Arcsin x ≥ 0 because Arcsin x is in the interval [−π/2, π/2] and the cos
function is either 0 or positive in there. So we must choose the ‘+’ sign. Good. So,
p
cos(Arcsin x) = 1 − x2 .

For another argument, see Figure 59. Finally, we see that

d 1
Arcsin x =
dx cos(Arcsin x)
1
= √ .
1 − x2

The other derivatives are found using a similar approach.

d 1 du d −1 du
sin−1 (u) = √ cos−1 (u) = √ , | u |< 1,
dx 1 − u2 dx dx 1 − u2 dx

d 1 du d −1 du
tan−1 (u) = cot−1 (u) =
dx 1 + u2 dx dx 1 + u2 dx

d 1 du d −1 du
sec−1 (u) = √ , csc−1 (u) = √ , | u |> 1
dx | u | u2 − 1 dx dx | u | u2 − 1 dx

Table 3.11: Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

3.9. DERIVATIVES OF INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 147

If we let u = u(x) = ✷ be any differentiable function, then we can use the basic
derivative formulae and derive very general ones using the Chain Rule. In this way
we can obtain Table 3.11.

Example 140. 1
Evaluate the derivative of y = cos−1 ( ), (or Arccos( x1 )).
x

Solution You can use any method here, but it always comes down to the Chain
1 du 1
Rule. Let u = , then = − 2 . By Table 3.11,
x dx x

dy d 1 du
= cos−1 u = − √
dx dx 1−u2 dx
1
1 1 2
= −q (−
2
)= q x
1 2
1 − (x) x 1− 1
x2
√
1 x2
= q = 2
√
x2 1 − 12 |x| x2 − 1
x

|x|
= √
|x|2 x2 − 1
1
= √ , (|x| > 1).
|x| x2 − 1

Example 141. √
Evaluate the derivative of y = cot−1 ( x).

√ du 1
Solution Let u = x, then = √ . So,
dx 2 x
dy d 1 du
= cot−1 u = −
dx dx 1 + u2 dx
1 1 1
= − √ · √ =− √ .
1 + ( x)2 2 x 2 x(1 + x)

Example 142. √
If y = csc−1 ( x + 1) , what is y′ (x)?

√ du 1
Solution Let u = x + 1, then = √ . So,
dx 2 x+1

dy d −1 du
= csc−1 u = √
dx dx | u | u2 − 1 dx
−1 1
= √ √ · √
x + 1( x + 1 − 1) 2 x + 1
−1
= √ .
2(x + 1) x

NOTES:
148 3.9. DERIVATIVES OF INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Exercise Set 18.

Use Table 3.11 and the Chain Rule to find the derivatives of the functions
whose values are given here.
√
1. Arcsin(x2 ), at x = 0 6. sec−1 x

2. x2 Arccos(x) 7. sin(2Arcsin x), at x = 0

√
3. tan−1 ( x) 8. cos(sin−1 (4x))

1
4. Arcsin(cos x) 9.
Arctanx

sin−1 x
5. 10. x3 Arcsec(x3 )
sin x

Suggested Homework Set 15. Do problems 1, 4, 5, 7, 9

Web Links

On the topic of Inverse Trigonometric Functions see:

http://www.khanacademy.org/math/trigonometry/

NOTES:
3.10. L’HOSPITAL’S RULE 149

3.10 L’Hospital’s Rule

The Big Picture

In Chapter 2 we saw various methods for evaluating limits; from using their prop-
erties as continuous functions to possibly applying extended real numbers (see the
web-site for this one). They all give the same answer, of course. Now that we’ve mas-
tered the machinery of the derivative we can derive yet another method for handling
limits involving the so-called indeterminate forms. This method was described
by one Marquis de L’Hospital (1661-1704), and pronounced ‘Lo-pit-al’, who in
fact wrote the first book ever on Calculus back in 1696. L’Hospital was a student
of the famous mathematician Johann Bernoulli (1667-1748), who absorbed the
methods of Leibniz from the master himself. This ‘rule’ was likely due to Bernoulli
who discovered things faster than he could print them! So, it became known as
L’Hospital’s Rule because it first appeared in L’Hospital’s Calculus book. Actually,
most of what you’re learning in this book is more than 300 years old so it must be
really important in order to survive this long, right?

Review
You should review all the material on limits from Chapter 2. You should
be really good in finding derivatives too! The section on Indeterminate
Forms is particularly important as this method allows you yet another way of
evaluating such mysterious looking limits involving ‘0/0’, ‘∞/∞’, etc. Also re-
member the basic steps in evaluating a limit: Rewrite or simplify or rationalize,
and finally evaluate using whatever method (this Rule, extended real num-
bers, continuity, numerically by using your calculator, and finally, incantations).

We begin by recalling the notion of an indeterminate form. A limit problem of the

form
f (x)
lim
x→a g(x)

is called an indeterminate form if the expression f (a)/g(a) is one of the following

types:
∞ 0
, ∞ − ∞, (±∞)0 , 1±∞ , , 00
±∞ 0
Up until now, when you met these forms in a limit you couldn’t do much except
simplify, rationalize, factor, etc. and then see if the form becomes “determinate”.
If the numerator and denominator are both differentiable functions with some nice
properties, then it is sometimes possible to determine the limit by appealing to
L’Hospital’s Rule. Before we explore this Rule, a few words of caution ...

CAUTION

1. The Rule is about LIMITS

2. The Rule always involves a QUOTIENT of two functions

So, what this means is “If your limit doesn’t involve a quotient of two func-
tions then you can’t use the Rule!” So, if you can’t use the Rule, you’ll have
to convert your problem into one where you can use it.

Before describing this Rule, we define the simple notions of a neighborhood of

a point a. Briefly stated, if a is finite, a neighborhood of a consists of an open
interval (see Chapter 1) containing a.
150 3.10. L’HOSPITAL’S RULE

Example 143.
The interval (−1, 0.5) is a neighborhood of 0, as is the interval
(−0.02, 0.3).

In the same vein, a left-neighborhood of x = a consists of an open interval with

a as its right endpoint.

Example 144.
The interval (−1, 0) is a left-neighborhood of 0, so is (−3, 0),
or (−2.7, 0), etc.

Similarly, a right-neighborhood of x = a consists of an open interval with a has

its left endpoint

Example 145.
The interval (1, 4) is a right-neighborhood of 1, so is (1, 1.00003),
Table showing the likelihood that or (1, 1000), etc
sin x/x → 1 as x → 0. Note that
x can be positive or negative so Finally, a punctured neighborhood of a is an open interval around a without
long as x → 0. the point a itself. Just think of it as an open interval with one point missing.

x f(x)/g(x) Example 146.

The interval (−0.5, 0.2) without the point 0, is a punctured
.50000 .95885
−.33333 .98158 neighborhood of 0. Also, the interval (−1, 6) without the point 0, is a punctured
.25000 .98961 neighborhood of 0. The statement of L’Hospital’s Rule is in Table 3.12.
−.20000 .99334
−.12500 .99740 L’Hospital’s Rule
.10000 .99833 Let f, g be two functions defined and differentiable in a punctured neigh-
.01000 .99998 borhood of a, where a is finite and let g′ (x) 6= 0 in this punctured neigh-
.00826 .99998 borhood of a. Assume that
.00250 .99998
−.00111 .99999 f ′ (x)
lim
−.00010 .99999 x→a g′ (x)
.00008 .99999
.00002 .99999 exists (may be infinite).
−.00001 .99999
.00001 .99999 If f(x) → 0 as x → a AND g(x) → 0 as x → a, (we call this the 0/0-case)
... ... then
f(x) f ′ (x)
0 1.00000 lim = lim ′ .
x→a g(x) x→a g (x)

The Rule also holds if a is replaced by ±∞, or if the limits are one-sided
limits (i.e., limit as x approaches a from the right or left) or even in the
Figure 60. ±∞/∞ case.

Table 3.12: L’Hospital’s Rule for Indeterminate Forms of Type 0/0.

Example 147.
Use L’Hospital’s Rule (Table 3.12) to show that

sin x
lim = 1.
x→0 x

Solution Here a = 0, f (x) = sin x, g(x) = x. The first thing to do is to check the
form! Is it really an indeterminate form? Yes, because (sin 0)/0 = 0/0.
3.10. L’HOSPITAL’S RULE 151

The next thing to do is to check the assumptions on the functions. Both these
functions are differentiable around x = 0, f ′ (x) = cos x, and g′ (x) = 1 6= 0 in any
neighborhood of x = 0. So we can go to the next step.. The next step is to see if
the limit of the quotient of the derivatives exists!? Now,

f ′ (x) cos x
lim = lim
x→0 g′ (x) x→0 1
= lim cos x
x→0
= cos 0 = 1, since the cosine function is continuous at x = 0.

So, it does exist and consequently so does the original limit (by the Rule) and we
have
sin x
lim = 1.
x→0 x
Remember the geometric derivation of this limit in Chapter 2? This is much easier,
no?
Three Steps to Solving Limit
Problems using L’Hospital’s
Example 148. Rule.
Show that if α is any given real number, then
• What is the ‘form’ ?
(∞/∞, 0/0?)
tan(αx)
lim = α. • Check the assumptions on
x→0 x the quotient.

• Investigate the existence of

Solution the limit

f ′ (x)
1. What is the form? The form is tan(α · 0)/0 = tan(0)/0 = 0/0, which is lim .
x→a g′ (x)
indeterminate.
If this limit exists, then so does the
2. Check the assumptions on the functions. Here a = 0 and we have a original one and they must be equal!
quotient of the form f (x)/g(x) = tan(αx)/x, where f (x) = tan(αx) and g(x) = x.
Then, by the Chain Rule, f ′ (x) = α sec2 (αx), while g′ (x) = 1, which is not zero
near x = 0. Both functions are differentiable near 0, so there’s no problem, we can
go to Step 3.

3. Check the existence of the limit of the quotient of the derivatives.

f ′ (x) α sec2 (αx)

lim = lim
x→0 g′ (x) x→0 1
= α · lim sec2 (αx)
x→0

= α · sec2 (0), since the secant function is continuous at x = 0.

= α · 1 = α.

So, this limit does exist and consequently so does the original limit (by the Rule)
and we have
tan(αx)
lim = α.
x→0 x

Example 149.
Evaluate

x2 + 6x + 5
lim
x→−1 x2 − x − 2

Solution
152 3.10. L’HOSPITAL’S RULE

1. What is the form? The form is ((−1)2 + 6(−1) + 5)/((−1)2 − (−1) − 2) = 0/0,
which is indeterminate.

2. Check the assumptions on the functions. Here a = −1 and we have a quo-

tient of the form f (x)/g(x) = (x2 +6x+5)/(x2 −x−2), where f (x) = x2 +6x+5 and
g(x) = x2 −x−2. A simple calculation gives f ′ (x) = 2x+6, while g′ (x) = 2x−1 6= 0,
near x = −1. Both functions are differentiable near −1, so we go to Step 3.

Table showing the likelihood that 3. Check the existence of the limit of the quotient of the derivatives.
f(x)/g(x) → −4/3 as x → −1.
Note that x can be greater
than or less than 1 so long as
f ′ (x) 2x + 6
x → −1. lim = lim
x→−1 g′ (x) x→−1 2x − 1
= (−2 + 6)/(−2 − 1), continuity at x = −1.
x f(x)/g(x)
−.990000 −1.413793 = 4/(−3) = −4/3.
−.999917 −1.340425 So, this limit does exist and consequently so does the original limit (by the Rule)
−.999989 −1.335845 and
−.999997 −1.334609
−.999999 −1.334188 x2 + 6x + 5 4
lim =− .
... ... x→−1 x2 − x − 2 3
−1 −1.333333
... ... We check this out numerically in Figure 61. Note that −4/3 ≈ −1.333333...
−1.00003 −1.333307
−1.00250 −1.331391 This rule of L’Hospital is not all powerful, you can’t use it all the time! Now we
−1.00500 −1.329451 look at an example where everything looks good at first but you still can’t apply the
−1.02000 −1.317881 Rule.

Example 150.
Evaluate

Figure 61. √
x+1−1
lim
x→0 x2

Solution
√
Table showing the likelihood that 1. What is the form? The form is ( 1 − 1)/0 = 0/0, which is indeterminate.
f(x)/g(x) → −∞ as x → 0− .
2. Check the assumptions on√ the functions. Here a = 0 √ and we have a
2
x f(x)/g(x) quotient of the form f (x)/g(x) = ( x + 1 − 1)/(x√ ), where f (x) = x + 1 − 1 and
−.0050000 −99.87532 g(x) = x2 . A simple calculation gives f ′ (x) = (2 · x + 1)−1 , while g′ (x) = 2x 6= 0,
−.0033333 −149.87520 near x = 0. Both functions are differentiable near 0, so we can go to Step 3.
−.0016667 −299.8751
−.0014290 −349.8751 3. Check the existence of the limit of the quotient of the derivatives.
−.0010000 −499.875
−.0001000 −4999.9
−.0000010 −500000 f ′ (x) √1
2· x+1
lim = lim
x→0 g′ (x) x→0 2x
1
= lim √ ,
x→0 4x · x+1
Figure 62.

But this limit does not exist because the left and right-hand limits are not equal. In
3.10. L’HOSPITAL’S RULE 153

fact,
1
lim √ = −∞, (see F igure 62)
x→0− 4x · x+1
1
lim √ = +∞, (see F igure 63)
x→0+ 4x · x+1
Since the limit condition is not verified, we can’t use the Rule.

So, it seems like we’re back to where we started. What do we do? Back to the
original ideas. We see a square root so we should be rationalizing the numerator, so
as to simplify it. So, let x 6= 0. Then
√ √ √
x+1−1 ( x + 1 − 1) · ( x + 1 + 1)
= √
x2 x2 ( x + 1 + 1)
(x + 1) − 1
= √
x2 ( x + 1 + 1)
x
= √
2
x ( x + 1 + 1)
1
= √ .
x ( x + 1 + 1)
Table showing the likelihood that
f(x)/g(x) → +∞ as x → 0+ .
But this quotient does not have a limit at 0 because the left and right-hand limits
are not equal there. In fact, x f(x)/g(x)
1 .0050000 99.87532
lim √ = +∞, while
x→0+ x ( x + 1 + 1) .0033333 149.87520
1 .0016667 299.8751
lim √ = −∞. .0014290 349.8751
x→0 x ( x + 1 + 1)
−

.0010000 499.875
The conclusion is that the original limit does not exist. .0001000 4999.9
.0000010 500000
Example 151.
Evaluate the limit

√
3 3x−x−2
lim . Figure 63.
x→1 3(x − 1)2

using any method. Verify your guess numerically.

Solution 1. What is the form? At x = 1, the form is (3 − 3)/0 = 0/0, which

is indeterminate. Table showing the likelihood that
f(x)/g(x) → −1/9 as x → 1. Note
2. Check the assumptions on √ the functions. Here a = 1 and we have √ a quo- that −1/9 ≈ −0.111111...
tient of the form f (x)/g(x) = (3 3 x − x − 2)/3(x − 1)2 , where f (x) = 3 3 x − x − 2
and g(x) = 3(x − 1)2 . A simple calculation gives f ′ (x) = x−2/3 − 1, while g′ (x) = x f(x)/g(x)
6(x − 1) 6= 0, near x = 1. Both functions are differentiable near 1, so we can go to 1.00333 −.11089
Step 3. 1.00250 −.1109
1.001667 −.1110
3. Check the existence of the limit of the quotient of the derivatives. 1.001250 −.1111
Note that, in this case,
1.001000 −.111
f ′(x) x−2/3 − 1 ... ...
lim ′
= lim . 1 −.11111...
x→1 g (x) x→1 6(x − 1)
... ...
which is still indeterminate and of the form ‘0/0’. So we want to apply the Rule to .9990000 −.1112
it! This means that we have to check the conditions of the Rule for these functions, .9950000 −.11143
too. Well, let’s assume you did this already. You’ll see that, eventually, this part
.9750000 −.11268
gets easier the more you do.
.9000000 −.11772

Figure 64.
154 3.10. L’HOSPITAL’S RULE

So, differentiating the (new) numerator and denominator gives

x−2/3 − 1 − 32 x−5/3 2
lim = lim =−
x→1 6(x − 1) x→1 6 18
1
= − .
9

This is really nice! Why? Because the existence of this limit means that we can
Sometimes you have to use apply the Rule to guarantee that
L’Hospital’s Rule more than once
f ′ (x) 1
in the same problem! lim =− ,
x→1 g′ (x) 9
and since this limit exists, the Rule can be applied again to get that
√
3 3x−x−2 1
lim =− .
x→1 3(x − 1)2 9
See Figure 64 for the numerical evidence supporting this answer. Keep that battery
charged!

Example 152.
Evaluate

tan 2x − 2x
lim
x→0 x − sin x.
Table showing the likelihood that
f(x)/g(x) → 16 as x → 0.
Solution The form is 0/0 and all the conditions on the functions are satisfied. Next,
x f(x)/g(x) the limit of the quotient of the derivatives is given by (remember the Chain Rule
.100000 16.26835 and the universal symbol ‘D’ for a derivative),
.033333 16.02938
D(tan 2x − 2x) 2 · sec2 2x − 2
.016667 16.00743 lim = lim ,
x→0 D(x − sin x) x→0 1 − cos x
.010101 15.97674
.010000 15.99880 which is also an indeterminate form of the type 0/0. The conditions required by the
.001042 16.03191 Rule about these functions are also satisfied, so we need to check the limit of the
.001031 15.96721 quotient of these derivatives. This means that we need to check the existence
.001020 16.05640 of the limit
` ´
... ... D 2 · sec2 2x − 2 8 · sec2 (2x) · tan(2x)
0.00000 16.00000.. lim = lim ,
x→0 D (1 − cos x) x→0 sin x
... ...
−.00100 15.99880 which is yet another indeterminate form of the type 0/0 (because tan 0 = 0, sin 0 =
−.01000 16.00260 0). The conditions required by the Rule about these functions are also satisfied, so
−.05000 16.06627 we need to check the limit of the quotient of these new derivatives. We do the
same thing all over again, and we find
−.10000 16.26835
D(8 · sec2 (2x) · tan(2x)) 2 · sec42x + 4 · sec2 2x · tan2 (2x)
lim = (8) · lim ,
x→0 D(sin x) x→0 cos x
Figure 65. (8) · (2 + 0)
=
1
= 16.

Phew, this was a lot of work! See Figure 65 for an idea of how this limit is reached.
Here’s a shortcut in writing this down:

NOTES:
3.10. L’HOSPITAL’S RULE 155

SHORTCUT

We can write
tan 2x − 2x D(tan 2x − 2x)
lim = lim ,
x→0 x − sin x x→0 D(x − sin x)
2 · sec2 2x − 2
= lim ,
x→0 1 − cos x
` ´
D 2 · sec2 2x − 2
= lim
x→0 D (1 − cos x),
8 · sec2 (2x) · tan(2x)
= lim ,
x→0 sin x
2
D(8 · sec (2x) · tan(2x))
= lim ,
x→0 D(sin x)
2 · sec4 2x + 2 · sec2 2x · tan2 (2x)
= (8) · lim ,
x→0 cos x
(8) · (2 + 0)
= ,
1
= 16,

if all the limits on the right exist!

WATCH OUT!
Even if ONE of these limits ON THE RIGHT of an equation fails to exist,
then we have to STOP and TRY SOMETHING ELSE. If they ALL exist then
you have your answer.

NOTES:
156 3.10. L’HOSPITAL’S RULE

SNAPSHOTS

Example 153.
Evaluate

x2 − 4x + 3
lim
x→3 x2 + x − 12

Solution The form is 0/0 and all the conditions on the functions are satisfied. Next,
Sometimes a thoughtless application
of L’Hospital’s Rule gives NO infor- the limit of the quotient of the derivatives exists and is given by
mation even though the actual limit
may exist! For example, the Sand- 2x − 4 ((2)(3) − 4) 2
wich Theorem shows that
lim = = .
x→3 2x + 1 ((2)(3) + 1) 7
1
„ «
lim x sin = 0. So, by the Rule, the original limit also exists and
x→0+ x
x2 − 4x + 3 2x − 4 2
However, if we apply the Rule to lim = lim = .
x→3 x2 + x − 12 x→3 2x + 1 7
`1´
1 sin x
„ «
lim x sin = lim 1
,
x→0+ x x→0+ x
Example 154.
Evaluate
we get

− x12 cos
`1´
1
x2 − 2x + 1
lim .
„ «
x
lim 1
= lim cos x→1 x3 − x
x→0+ − x→0+ x
x2

and this last limit DOES NOT EX-

Solution The form is 0/0 and all the conditions on the functions are satisfied. The
IST! The point is that you’re not
limit of the quotient of the derivatives exists and is given by
supposed to apply L’Hospital’s Rule
here. Why? Because sin 1/0 is not 2x − 2 0
lim = = 0.
an indeterminate form of the type x→1 3x2 − 1 2
required! So, by the Rule, the original limit also exists and

x2 − 2x + 1 2x − 2
lim = lim = 0.
x→1 x3 − x x→1 3x2 − 1

Example 155.
Evaluate

sin π x
lim
x→1 x2 − 1

Solution The form is (sin 0)/0 = 0/0 and all the conditions on the functions are
satisfied. The limit of the quotient of the derivatives exists and is given by
π · cos(πx) π · cos(π)
lim =
x→1 2x 2
π
= − .
2
So, by the Rule, the original limit also exists and
sin π x π · cos(πx)
lim = lim
x→1 x2 − 1 x→1 2x
π
= − .
2
3.10. L’HOSPITAL’S RULE 157

Example 156.
Evaluate

sin 4x
lim .
x→0 sin 7x

Solution The form is (sin 0)/(sin 0) = 0/0 and all the conditions on the functions
are satisfied. The limit of the quotient of the derivatives exists and is given by
4 · cos 4x 4·1
lim =
x→0 7 · cos 7x 7·1
4
= .
7
So, by the Rule, the original limit exists and
sin 4x 4 · cos 4x
lim = lim
x→0 sin 7x x→0 7 · cos 7x
4
= .
7

At this point we move on to the study of limits at infinity. In these cases the Rule
still applies as can be shown in theory: Refer to Table 3.13 above for the result.
The Rule is used in exactly the same way, although we must be more careful in
handling these limits, because they are at ‘±∞’, so it may be helpful to review your
section on Extended Real Number Arithmetic, in Chapter 2, in order to cook up your
guesses.

Sometimes these limit problems may be ‘in disguise’ so you may have to move
things around and get them in the right form (i.e., a quotient) BEFORE you
apply the Rule.

L’Hospital’s Rule for Limits at Infinity

Suppose that f and g are each differentiable in some interval of the form
M < x < ∞, g′ (x) 6= 0 in M < x < ∞, and the next two limits exist and

lim f(x) = 0 (or ± ∞) and lim g(x) = 0 (or ± ∞).

x→∞ x→∞

Then
f(x) f ′ (x)
lim = lim ′
x→∞ g(x) x→∞ g (x)

whenever the latter limit (the one on the right) exists. A similar result is
true if we replace ∞ by −∞ in the limits. The values of the limits may
be infinite as well.

Table 3.13: L’Hospital’s Rule for Indeterminate Forms of Type 0/0.

Challenge Problem

Let M be some number such that f and g are each differentiable in M < x < ∞.
Assume the existence of each of the following limits, i.e.,
lim g(x) = ±∞,
x→∞
158 3.10. L’HOSPITAL’S RULE

and
f ′ (x)
lim = +∞.
x→∞ g′ (x)
Then the following limit exists and

f (x)
lim = +∞.
x→∞ g(x)

Example 157.
Compute

1
lim .
x→∞ x sin( πx )

Solution Check the form In this case we have ‘1/(∞ · 0), which is indeterminate
because ‘0 · ∞’ is itself indeterminate. So, we can’t even think about using the Rule.
But, if we rewrite the expression as

1/x
lim ,
x→∞ sin( πx )

then the form is of the type ‘0/0’, right? (because 1/∞ = 0).

Check the assumptions on the functions. This is OK because the only thing
that can go wrong with the derivative of f (x) = 1/x is at x = 0, so if we choose
M = 1, say, in Table 3.13, then we’re OK. The same argument applies for g.

Check the limit of the quotient of the derivatives. We differentiate the

numerator and the denominator to find,

1/x −1/x2 1 1
lim = lim = lim = ,
x→∞ sin(π/x) x→∞ (−π/x2 ) · cos(π/x) x→∞ πcos(π/x) π

since all the limits exist, and π/x → 0, as x → ∞ (which means cos(π/x) → cos 0 =
1 as x → ∞).

Table showing the likelihood that Don’t like to tangle with infinity?
(x2 − 1)/(x2 + 1) → 1 as x → −∞.
No problem. Whenever you see ‘x → ∞ just let x = 1/t everywhere in the expres-
x f(x)/g(x) sions and then let t → 0+ . Suddenly, the limit at ∞ is converted to a one-sided
−20 .99501 limit at 0. In fact, what happens is this:
−50 .99920
−200 .99995 f (x) f ′ (1/t)
lim = lim
x→+∞ g(x) t→0+ g′ (1/t)
−300 .99997
−1, 000 .99998 f ′(1/x)
= lim ′
−10, 000 .99999 x→0+ g (1/x)

... ... In this way you can find limits at infinity by transforming them to limits at 0.
−∞ 1.00000...
Example 158.
Compute

Figure 66. x2 − 1
lim .
x→−∞ x2 + 1

Solution Without the Rule In this case we have ∞/∞, which is indeterminate.
Now let’s convert this to a problem where the symbol −∞ is converted to 0− . We
3.10. L’HOSPITAL’S RULE 159

let x = 1/t. Then,

x2 − 1 (1/t)2 − 1
lim = lim ,
x→−∞ x2 + 1 t→0− (1/t)2 + 1
1 − t2
= lim ,
t→0− 1 + t2
= 1,

since both the numerator and denominator are continuous there. Did you notice we
didn’t use the Rule at all? (see Figure 66 to convince yourself of this limit). This is
because the last limit you see here is not an indeterminate form at all.

With the Rule The original form is ∞/∞, which is indeterminate. We can also
use the Rule because it applies and all the conditions on the functions are met. This
means that, provided all the following limits exist,

x2 − 1 2x
lim = lim ,
x→−∞ x2 + 1 x→−∞ 2x
= lim 1,
x→−∞
= 1,

as before.

Example 159.
Compute

√ √
lim x+1− x.
x→+∞

Solution Check the form In this case we have ∞ − ∞, which is indeterminate.

You can’t use the Rule at all here because the form is not right, we’re not dealing
with a quotient, but a difference. So, let’s convert this to a problem where the
symbol +∞ is converted to 0+ . We let x = 1/t. Then, (see the margin), This is a standard trick; for any two
√ √ p p positive symbols, ✷, △ we have
lim x + 1 − x = lim (1/t) + 1 − 1/t, √ √
x→+∞ t→0+
✷− △= √✷−△
√ .
p p p p ✷+ △
( (1/t) + 1 − 1/t) · ( (1/t) + 1 + 1/t)
= lim p p , Here ✷ = (1/t) + 1, △ = 1/t.
t→0+ (1/t) + 1 + 1/t
(1/t + 1) − (1/t)
= lim p p ,
t→0+ (1/t) + 1 + 1/t
1
= lim p p ,
t→0+
(1/t) + 1 + 1/t
= 0,

since the denominator is infinite at this point and so its reciprocal is zero. Table showing the likelihood that
f(x)/g(x) → +∞ as x → +∞.
Once again, did you notice we didn’t use the Rule at all? This is because the last
limit you see here is not an indeterminate form either. x x2 · sin(1/x)
20 19.99167
Example 160.
Evaluate
60 59.99722
200 199.99917
300 299.99944
1
lim x2 · sin . 2000 1999.99992
x→+∞ x
10, 000 9999.9
... ...
Solution Check the form In this case we have (∞) · (0), which is indeterminate. +∞ +∞
You can’t use the Rule at all here because the form is not right again, we’re not

Figure 67.
160 3.10. L’HOSPITAL’S RULE

dealing with a quotient, but a product. So, once again we convert this to a problem
where the symbol +∞ is converted to 0+ . We let x = 1/t. Then,
1
1 sin
lim x2 · sin = lim 1
x
,
x→+∞ x x→+∞
x2
sin t
= lim ,
t→0+ t2
and this last form is indeterminate. So we can use the Rule on it (we checked all
the assumptions, right?). Then,
1 sin t
lim x2 · sin = lim ,
x→+∞ x t→0+ t2
cos t
= lim ,
t→0+ 2t
= +∞,

since this last form is of the type cos 0/∞ = 0. So, the limit exists and
1
lim x2 · sin = +∞,
x→+∞ x
see Figure 67.

Exercise Set 19.

Determine the limits of the following quotients if they exist, using any method. Try
to check your answer numerically with your calculator too.

− sin x tan 2x Arcsin x

1. lim 6. lim 11. lim
x→0 2x x→π x−π x→0 Arctan x
sin t 1 + cos x 2 · sin 3x
2. lim 7. lim 12. lim
t→0 t x→π sin 2x x→0 sin 5x

1 − cos x sin2 t − sin t2 x2 − 1

3. lim 8. lim 13. lim
x→0 x t→0 t2 x→1 x6 − 1

x2 − 1 x3 − 3x + 1 2 cos x − 2 + x2
4. lim 9. lim 14. lim
x→−1 x+1 x→1 x4 − x2 − 2x x→0 3x4

x4 − 1 Arctan x x sin(sin x)
5. lim 10. lim 15. lim
x→1 x2 − 1 x→0 x2 x→0 1 − cos(sin x)

Suggested Homework Set 16. Do problems 3, 5, 8, 12, 14

NOTES:
3.11. CHAPTER EXERCISES 161

3.11 Chapter Exercises

Use any method to find the derivative of the indicated function. There
is no need to simplify your answers.

√ 1
1. (x + 1)27 6. 2x − 5 11.
sin 3x
x+2
2. cos3 (x) 7. sin 2x 12.
cos 2x

x+1 x2 + 1
3. 8. cos(sin 4x) 13.
sin 2x 2x + 3
` ´ 1
4. sin (x + 5)2 9. 14. (sin 3x) · (x1/5 + 1)
(cos 2x)3

1 x2 + 1
5. 10. 15. sin(x2 + 6x − 2)
sin x + cos x cos 2x

Find the derivative of the following functions at the given point

−1.4
16. , at x = 0 19. (2x + 3)105 , at x = 1
2x + 1
2
17. (x + 1) 3 , at x = 1 20. x · sin 2x, at x = 0

1
18. √ , at x = 2 21. sin(sin 4x), at x = π
x+ x2 − 1

Evaluate the following limits directly using any method

f (2 + h) − f (2)
22. lim where f (x) = (x − 1)2
h→0 h
f (−1 + h) − f (−1)
23. lim where f (x) = |x + 2|
h→0 h
f (1 + h) − f (1) √
24. lim where f (x) = x + 1,
h→0 h
• Rationalize the numerator and simplify.

25. Find the second derivative f ′′ (x) given that f (x) = (3x−2)99 . Evaluate f ′′ (+1).

d
26. Let f be a differentiable function for every real number x. Show that dx f (3x2 ) =
6x · f ′ (3x2 ). Verify this formula for the particular case where f (x) = x3 .

27. Find the equation of the tangent line to the curve y = (x2 − 3)6 at the point
(x, y) = (2, 1).
√ dy
28. Let y = t3 + cos t and t = u + 6. Find du when u = 9.
√
29. Let y = r1/2 − 3
r
and r = 3t − 2 t. Use the Chain Rule to find an expression
for dy
dt .

30. Use the definition of the derivative to show that the function y = x · |x| has a
derivative at x = 0 but y′′ (0) does not exist.
162 3.12. CHALLENGE QUESTIONS

Use implicit differentiation to find the required derivative.

dy
31. x3 + 2xy + y2 = 1, at (1, 0)
dx
dy dx
32. 2xy2 − y4 = x3 , and
dx dy
√ dy
33. x + y + x2 y2 = 4, at (0, 16)
dx
dy
34. y5 − 3y2 x − yx = 2,
dx
dy
35. x2 + y2 = 16, at (4, 0)
dx

Find the equation of the tangent line to the given curve at the given
point.

36. 2x2 − y2 = 1, at (−1, −1)

2
37. 2x + xy + y = 0, at (0, 0)
38. x2 + 2x + y2 − 4y − 24 = 0, at (4, 0)
3 3 3
39. (x − y) − x + y = 0, at (1, 1)
2
40. sin x + sin y − 3y = 0, at (π, 0)

Evaluate the following limits at infinity.

x2 − 1
41. lim
x→+∞ 2x2 − 1
x
42. lim
x→+∞ x−1
„ «
x3
43. lim −x
x→+∞ x2 + 1
x2
44. lim
x→−∞ x3 −1
2 π
45. lim x · ( + Arctan x)
x→−∞ 2

Suggested Homework Set 17. Work out problems 14, 20, 21, 24, 28, 33, 37

3.12 Challenge Questions

1. Use the methods of this section to show that Newton’s First Law of motion in the
form F = ma, where a is its acceleration, may be rewritten in time independent
form as
dv
F =p .
dx
Here p = mv is the momentum of the body in question where v is the velocity.
Conclude that the force acting on a body of mass m may be thought of as being
3.13. USING COMPUTER ALGEBRA SYSTEMS 163

proportional to the product of the momentum and the rate of change of the
momentum per unit distance, that is, show that
p dp
F = .
m dx

2. Conclude that if a force F is applied to a body of mass m moving in a straight

line then its kinetic energy, E, satisfies the relation
dE
= F.
dx

3.13 Using Computer Algebra Systems

Use your favorite Computer Algebra System (CAS), like Maple, MatLab, etc., or
even a graphing calculator to answer the following questions:

1. Two functions f, g have the property that f ′ (9.657463) = −2.34197, and g(1.2) =
9.657463. If g′ (1.2) = −6.549738 calculate the value of the derivative of their
composition, D(f ◦ g)(1.2).
2. Let f (x) = x(x + 1)(x − 2) be defined on the interval [−3, 3]. Sketch the graph of
f (x) and then, on the same axes, sketch the graph of its derivative f ′(x). Can
you tell them apart? If we hadn’t told you what the function f was but only
gave you their graphs, would you be able to distinguish f from its derivative,
f ′ ? Explain.
3. Find the equations of the tangent lines to the curve
x+1
y=
x2 + 1
through the points x = 0, x = −1.2, x = 1.67 and x = 3.241.
4. Remove the absolute value in the function f defined by f (x) = |x3 − x|. Next,
remove the absolute value in the function g(x) = |x − 2|. Now write down the
values of the function h defined by the difference h(x) = f (x) − 3g(x) where
−∞ < x < +∞. Finally, determine the points (if any) where the function h
fails to be differentiable (i.e., has no derivative). Is there a point x where
f ′ (x) = 0?
5. Use implicit differentiation to find the first and second derivative of y with
respect to x given that
x2 + y2 x + 3xy = 3.
6. Find a pattern for the first eight derivatives of the function f defined by f (x) =
(3x + 2)5 2. Can you guess what the 25th derivative of f looks like?
7. Use Newton’s method to find the positive solution of the equation x + sin x = 2
where 0 ≤ x ≤ π2 . (Use Bolzano’s theorem first to obtain an initial guess.)
8. Use repeated applications of the Product Rule to find a formula for the deriva-
tive of the product of three functions f, g, h. Can you find such a formula given
four given functions? More generally, find a formula for the derivative of the
product of n such functions, f1 , f2 , . . . , fn where n ≥ 2 is any given integer.
9. Use repeated applications of the Chain Rule to find a formula for the derivative
of the composition of three functions f, g, h. Can you find such a formula given
four given functions? More generally, find a formula for the derivative of the
composition of n such functions, f1 , f2 , . . . , fn where n ≥ 2 is any given integer.
164 3.13. USING COMPUTER ALGEBRA SYSTEMS
Chapter 4

Exponentials and
Logarithms

The Big Picture

This Chapter is about exponential functions and their properties. Whenever you
write down the expression 23 = 8 you are really writing down the value (i.e., 8) of an
exponential function at the point x = 3. Which function? The function f defined
by f (x) = 2x has the property that f (3) = 8 as we claimed. So f is an example of
such an exponential function. It’s okay to think about 2x when x is an integer, but
what what happens if the ‘2’ is replaced by an arbitrary number? Even worse, what
happens if the power, or, exponent, x is an irrational number? (not an ordinary
fraction). We will explore these definitions in this chapter. We will also study
one very important function called Euler’s Exponential Function, sometimes
referred to by mathematicians as The Exponential Function a name which describes
its importance in Calculus. Leonhard Euler, (pronounced ‘oiler’), 1707-1783, is
one of the great mathematicians. As a teenager he was tutored by Johannn Bernoulli
(the one who was L’Hospital’s teacher) and quickly turned to mathematics instead
of his anticipated study of Philosophy. His life work (much of which is lost) fills
around 80 volumes and he is responsible for opening up many areas in mathematics
and producing important trendsetting work in Physics in such areas as Optics,
Mechanics, and Planetary Motion.

This exponential function of Euler will be denoted by ex . It turns out that all other
exponential functions (like 2x , (0.5)x , ... ) can be written in terms of it too! So,
we really only need to study this one function, ex . Part of the importance of this
function of Euler lies in its applications to growth and decay problems in population
biology or nuclear physics to mention only a few areas outside of mathematics per
se. We will study these topics later when we begin solving differential equations.
The most remarkable property of this function is that it is its own derivative! In
other words, D(ex ) = ex where D is the derivative. Because of this property of its
derivative we can solve equations which at one time seemed impossible to solve.

Review
You should review Chapter 1 and especially Exercise Set 3, Number 17 where
the inequalities will serve to pin down Euler’s number, “e”, whose value is
e ≈ 2.718 . . . obtained by letting n → ∞ there.

165
166 4.1. EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS AND THEIR LOGARITHMS

4.1 Exponential Functions and Their Logarithms

Exponentials or power functions are functions defined by expressions which look

like:
f (x) = ax
where a is the base and x is the power or exponent. In this section we will be
reviewing the basic properties of exponents first, leaving the formal definition of the
exponential function until later. We will always assume that a > 0. It can be shown
that such power functions have an inverse function. This inverse function will be
called the logarithm (a quantity which must depend on the base) and the symbol
used to denote the logarithm is:

F (x) = loga (x)

which is read as “the logarithm with base a of x ”. Since this is an inverse function
in its own right, it follows by definition of the inverse that:
Figure 68.
x = f (F (x))
= aF (x)
= aloga (x)
and, more generally:

✷ = aloga (✷)

for any ‘symbol’ denoted by ✷ for which ✷ > 0. Furthermore:

x = F (f (x))
= loga (f (x))
= loga (ax )
and, once again,

✷ = loga (a✷ )

for any symbol ✷ where now −∞ < ✷ < ∞.

Figure 69.
Typical graphs of such functions are given in Figures 68, 69 in the adjoining margin
along with their inverses (or logarithms) whose graphs appear in Figures 70, 71.

Example 161.
Let, f (x) = 3x . Then F (x) = log3 (x) is its inverse function
and
3log3 (x) = x, x>0
log3 (3x ) = x, −∞ < x < ∞.

Example 162.
32 = 9 means the same as:

log3 (9) = 2.
Now notice the following pattern: In words this is saying that,
4.1. EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS AND THEIR LOGARITHMS 167

logbase (result) = power

or,

basepower = result

Example 163.
Write the following expression as a logarithm.

√
1 1 2
2− 2 = 1 =
22 2

Solution In terms of logarithms, we can rewrite the equation

√
1 2
2− 2 =
2
as,
√
2 1
log2 ( )=−
2 2
√
because here the base = 2, the power is − 21 and the result is 2
2

Figure 70.
Example 164.
Write the following expression as a logarithm.

√
2
≈ 7.10299
4
√
means we set the base = 4, power = 2 and result = 7.10299. So,
√
log4 (7.10299) = 2

Example 165.
Write the following expression as a logarithm.

√
√
3 3
2 ≈ 1.38646

√
3
√
Solution This means that we set the base = 2, the power = 3 and the result:
√
log √
3 (1.38646) =
2
3

Remember that the base does not have to be an integer, it can be any irrational or
rational (positive) number.

Figure 71.
Example 166.
Sketch the graph of the following functions by using a calculator:
use the same axes (compare your results with Figure 72).

a. f (x) = 3x
1
b. f (x) =
2x
√
c. f (x) = ( 2)x
168 4.1. EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS AND THEIR LOGARITHMS

Properties of the Logarithm

1. loga (✷△ ) = △ loga (✷)

2. loga (✷△) = loga (✷) + loga (△)
△
3. loga ( ) = loga (△) − loga (✷)
✷

Table 4.1: Properties of the Logarithm

x -2 -1 0 1 2
3x 0.12 0.33 1 3 9

x -2 -1 0 1 2
1
2x
4 2 1 0.5 0.25

√x -2 -1 0 1 2
( 2)x 0.5 0.71 1 1.4 2

Remarks: Note that as ‘a’ increases past 1 the graph of y = ax gets ‘steeper’
as you proceed from left to right ( harder to climb).

If 0 < a < 1 and ‘a’ is small but positive, the graph of y = ax also becomes
steeper, but in proceeding from right to left.

From these graphs and the definitions of the exponential and logarithm functions
we get the following important properties:

Figure 72.
a△ = ✷ means loga (✷) = △

and

a0 = 1
loga (a) = 1
loga (1) = 0

along with the very practical properties:

where, as usual, △, ✷ are any two ‘symbols’ (usually involving x but not necessarily
so).

Example 167.
Show that for △ > 0 and ✷ > 0 we have the equality:

loga (✷△) = loga (✷) + loga (△)

Solution (Hint: Let A = loga (△), B = loga (✷). Show that aA+B = △✷, by using
the definition of the logarithm. Conclude that A + B = loga (△✷).)

Example 168.
Calculate the value of log√2 (4) exactly!

√
Solution Write the definition down...Here the base = 2, the result is 4 so the
4.1. EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS AND THEIR LOGARITHMS 169

Let’s show that loga (✷△ ) = △ loga (✷).

Write y = loga (✷). Then, by definition of the logarithm, this really

means,

ay = ✷

raising both sides to the power △ we get,

(ay )△ = ✷△

or, by the usual Power Laws,

ay△ = ✷△ .

Using the definition of a logarithm once again we find,

loga (✷△ ) = y△

(as ‘y△’ and ‘✷△ ’ are just two ‘new’ symbols). But y△ = △ loga (✷), and
so the result is true, namely that,

loga (✷△ ) = △ loga (✷)

The other properties may be shown using similar arguments.

Table 4.2: Why is loga (✷△ ) = △ loga (✷) ?

power =? Well,
√
( 2)power = 4

√ √ √ √
means power = 4, by inspection (i.e., 2 · 2 · 2 · 2 = 4). So,

log√2 (4) = 4

Example 169.
Solve for x if log2 (x) = −3

Solution By definition of this inverse function we know that 2−3 = x or x = 81 .

Example 170.
If loga (9) = 2 find the base a.

Solution By definition, a2 = 9, and so a = +3 or a = −3. Since a > 0 by definition,

it follows that a = 3 is the base.

Example 171. √
Evaluate log3 ( 3) exactly.

Solution We use the rule loga (✷△ ) = △ loga (✷) with a = 3. Note that

√ 1
log3 ( 3) = log3 (3 2 )
170 4.1. EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS AND THEIR LOGARITHMS

So we can set ✷ = 3, △ = 12 . Then

√ 1
log3 ( 3) = log3 (3 2 )
1
= log3 (3), by Table 4.2,
2
1
= (1) (because loga (a) = 1)
2
1
=
2

Example 172.
Simplify the following expression for f (x) using the properties
above:
√ π
f (x) = log2 ( x sin x), if 0 < x < .
2
Solution:
√
f (x) = log2 ( x sin x),
√
= log2 ( x) + log2 (sin x), by Table 4.1, (2)
1
= log2 (x ) + log2 (sin x)
2

1
= log2 (x) + log2 (sin x), by Table 4.1, (1)
2

Example 173.
Simplify the following expression for f (x) using the properties
above:
2
f (x) = log4 (4x 8x +1
), x ≥ 0

Solution: All references refer to Table 4.1. OK, now

2 +1
f (x) = log4 (4x ) + log4 (8x ) (by Property 2)
= x log4 (4) + (x2 + 1) log4 (8) (by Property 1)
2 3
= x(1) + (x + 1) log4 (2 ) (because loga (a) = 1 and 8 = 23 )
2
= x + (x + 1) · 3 log4 (2) (by Property 1.)

Now if log4 (2) = z, say, then, by definition, 4z = 2, but this means that (22 )z = 2
or 22z = 2 or 2z = 1, that is, z = 21 . Good, this means

1
log4 (2) =
2
and so,
3 2
f (x) = x + (x + 1),
2
hard to believe isn’t it?

NOTES:
4.1. EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS AND THEIR LOGARITHMS 171

Exercise Set 20.

Simplify as much as you can:

2
1. 2log2 (x +1)
„ «log 1 (x) „ «
1 2 1
2. Hint : Let a =
2 2
2
3. log4 (2x 16−x )
„ «
3
4. log3 (Hint : Use Property 3)
4
5. loga (2x 2−x )

Sketch the graphs of the following functions using your calculator:

6. f (x) = 4x
1
7. f (x) = x
4
√
8. ( 3)x

Write the following equations in logarithmic form (e.g. 23 = 8 means log2 (8) = 3):

√
√ 2
9. 2 ≈ 1.6325
1
10. 2−4 =
16
1
11. 3−2 =
9

Write the following equations as power functions (e.g. log2 (8) = 3 means 23 = 8).

12. log2 (f (x)) = x

13. log3 (81) = 4
14. log 1 (4) = −2
2

15. log 1 (27) = −3

16. loga (1) = 0

√
17. log√2 (1.6325) = 2

Solve the following equations for x:

18. log2 (x) + log2 (3) = 4, (Hint: Use property 2)

„ «
x
19. log3 =1
x+1
20. log√2 (x2 − 1) = 0
21. log 1 (x) = −1
2
2
22. Sketch the graph of the function y defined by y(x) = log2 (2x )
(Hint: Let ✷ = x2 )
172 4.2. EULER’S NUMBER, E = 2.718281828 ...

4.2 Euler’s Number, e = 2.718281828 ...

Now that we know how to handle various exponential functions and their loga-
rithms we’ll define one very special but really important exponential function. We’ll
introduce Euler’s number, denoted by ‘e’, after Euler, whose value is approximately
e ≈ 2.718281828459. Using this number as a ‘base’, we’ll define the special expo-
nential function, ex , and its inverse function, called the natural logarithm. We’ll
then look at the various formulae for the derivative of exponential and logarithmic
functions. The most striking property of e lies in that y = ex has the property that
y′ = y (a really neat property!).

Before we move on to the definition of this number ‘e’ which is the cornerstone
of differential and integral calculus, we need to look at sequences, or strings of
numbers separated by commas. Well, more precisley, a sequence is the range of a
function, denoted by ‘a’, whose domain is a subset of the integers. So, its values are
given by a(n) = an , where an is just shorthand for this value and it can be thought
of as representing the nth term of the sequence, the term in the nth position. For
example, if a(n) = 2n − 1, then a(6) = 2 · 6 − 1 = 11, and so we write a6 = 11;
a(15) = 29 and so we write a15 = 29, and so on. The whole sequence looks like

1, 3, 5, 7, 9, |{z}
11 , 13, 15, 17, . . .

the 6th term is a6

Before we jump into this business of exponentials, we need to describe one central
result. A sequence of numbers is said to be monotone increasing if consecutive
terms get bigger as you go along the sequence. For example,

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, . . .

is an increasing sequence. So is

1 3 5
, 1, , 2, , . . .
2 2 2
or even,

1.6, 1.61, 1.612, 1.6123, 1.61234, . . .

and so on. Mathematically we write this property of a sequence {an } by the in-
equality,

an < an+1 , n = 1, 2, 3, . . .

which means that the nth term, denoted by an , has the property that an is smaller
than the next one, namely, an+1 ; makes sense right?!

Well, the next result makes sense if you think about it, and it is believable but we
won’t prove it here. At this point we should recall the main results on limits in
Chapter 2. When we speak of the convergence of an infinite sequence we mean
it in the sense of Chapter 2, that is, in the sense that

lim an = lim a(n)

n→+∞ n→+∞

or, if you prefer, replace all the symbols n by x above, so that we are really looking
at the limit of a function as x → +∞ but x is always an integer, that’s all.
4.2. EULER’S NUMBER, E = 2.718281828 ... 173

Convergence of Increasing Sequences

Let {an } be an increasing sequence. Then,

lim an
n→∞

exists in the extended real numbers.

In other words; either

lim an = L < ∞
n→∞

or,

lim an = +∞
n→∞

For example, the sequence {an } where an = n is increasing and an → ∞ as n → ∞.

On the other hand, the sequence {bn } where

n
bn =
n+1

is increasing and

lim bn = 1
n→∞

(Why? The simplest proof uses L’Hospital’s Rule on the quotient x/(x + 1). Try
it.)

The practical use of this result on the convergence of increasing sequences is shown
in this section. We summarize this as:

The Increasing Sequence Theorem

Let {an } be an increasing sequence.

1. If the an are smaller than some fixed number M , then

lim an = L
n→∞

where L ≤ M .
2. If there is no such number M , then

lim an = +∞
n→∞

r
Example 174. n
What is lim ?
n→∞ n+1

r r
n n+1
Solution Here an = and an+1 = . (Remember, just replace the
n+1 n+2
174 4.2. EULER’S NUMBER, E = 2.718281828 ...

subscript/symbol ‘n’ by ‘n + 1’.) Compare the first few terms using your calculator,

a1 = 0.7071
a2 = 0.8165
a3 = 0.8660
a4 = 0.8944
a5 = 0.9129

and since a1 < a2 < a3 < a4 < a5 < . . . it is conceivable that the sequence {an }
is increasing, right? Well, the proof of this is not too hard. You can get a proof as
follows. For example, the statement

an < an+1

is equivalent to the statement

r r
n n+1
< ,
n+1 n+2

which, in turn is equivalent to the statement

Figure 73. n n+1

< ,
n+1 n+2

and this is equivalent to the statement

n(n + 2) < (n + 1)2 ,

Now this last statement is equivalent to the statement (after rearrangement)

n2 + 2n < n2 + 2n + 1

which is equivalent to the statement

0 < 1,

which is clearly true! Since all these statements are equivalent, you can ‘go back-
wards’ from the last statement that ‘0 < 1 to the first staement which is that
‘an < an+1 ’ which is what we wanted to show, (see Figure 73 for a graph of the
sequence {an }).

This is basically how these arguments go insofar as proving that a sequence is in-
creasing: A whole bunch of inequalities which need to be solved and give another
set of equivalent inequalities.

OK, so it has a limit (by the Increasing Sequence Theorem) and

r r
n 1
lim = lim 1 −
n→∞ n+1 n→∞ n+1
√
= 1−0
= 1

That’s all. You could also have used L’Hospital’s Rule to get this answer (replacing
n by x and using this Rule on the corresponding function).

Now we proceed to define Euler’s number, e.

4.2. EULER’S NUMBER, E = 2.718281828 ... 175

Definition of Euler’s number e.

We define e as
„ «n
1
e = lim 1+
n→∞ n
It’s value is approximately e ≈ 2.7182818284590 . . . .
n
0.02
n 1+
n
Why does this limit exist? Well, in Exercise 17 of Exercise Set 3, we proved
1 1.02
that if n is any integer with n ≥ 2, then
10 1.02018 . . .
100 1.020199 . . .
„ «n 1,000 1.020201 . . .
1
2< 1+ < 3. 10,000 1.020201 . . .
n
100,000 1.020201 . . .

OK, in that same Exercise we also found that the nth term of the sequence {an }
In monetary terms, the numbers on
defined by
„ «n the right can be thought of as the
1 bank balance at the end of 1 year
an = 1 +
n for an initial deposit of 1.00 at an
can be rewritten as interest rate of 2% that is com-
„ «n „ « „ «„ «
1 1 1 1 2 1 pounded n times per year. The limit
an = 1 + = 1+1+ 1− + 1− 1−
n n 2! n n 3! of this expression as the number
„ «„ «„ « „ « of compounding period approaches
1 2 3 n−1 1
+··· + 1 − 1− 1− ··· 1 − infinity, that is, when we continu-
n n n n n!
ously compound the interest, gives
(where there are (n + 1) terms on the right side).
the number e0.02 , where e is Eu-
ler’s number. Use your calculator
Now notice that {an } is increasing because if we replace ‘n’
„ by ‘n+1’
« in the expression
i to check that the value of e0.02 ≈
for an above, we note that every factor of the form 1 − , i ≥ 1, ‘increases’ 1.020201340 in very good agreement
„ « n
i with the numbers above, on the
(because every such term is replaced by 1 − which is larger than the right.
n+1
preceding one. So an+1 is larger than an , in general for n > 1 and {an } is increasing.
Figure 74.
That’s it! Using the Increasing Sequence Theorem we know that
lim an
1
n
n→∞
n 1+
exists and is not greater than 3. The first few terms of this sequence are gi