MAHABHARTA
The Mahabharata or Mahābhārata (US /məhɑːˈbɑrətə/;[1] UK /ˌmɑːhəˈbɑːrətə/;[2] Sanskrit: महाभा
रतम ्, Mahābhāratam, pronounced [məɦaːˈbʱaːrət̪ əm]) is one of the two
major Sanskrit epics of ancient India, the other being the Ramayana.[3]
Besides its epic narrative of the Kurukshetra War and the fates of the Kaurava and
the Pandava princes, the Mahabharata containsphilosophical and devotional material, such as a
discussion of the four "goals of life" or purusharthas (12.161). Among the principal works and
stories in the Mahabharata are the Bhagavad Gita, the story of Damayanti, an abbreviated
version of the Ramayana, and the Rishyasringa, often considered as works in their own right.
Traditionally, the authorship of the Mahabharata is attributed to Vyasa. There have been many
attempts to unravel its historical growth and compositional layers. The oldest preserved parts of
the text are thought to be not much older than around 400 BCE, though the origins of the epic
probably fall between the 8th and 9th centuries BCE.[4] The text probably reached its final form
by the early Gupta period (c. 4th century CE).[5] The title may be translated as "the great tale of
the Bhārata dynasty". According to the Mahabharata itself, the tale is extended from a shorter
version of 24,000 verses called simply Bhārata.[6]
The Mahabharata is the longest known epic poem and has been described as "the longest
poem ever written".[7][8] Its longest version consists of over 100,000 shloka or over 200,000
individual verse lines (each shloka is a couplet), and long prose passages. About 1.8 million
words in total, the Mahabharata is roughly ten times the length of the Iliad and
the Odyssey combined, or about four times the length of the Ramayana.[9][10] W. J. Johnson has
compared the importance of the Mahabharata to world civilization to that of the Bible, the works
ofShakespeare, the works of Homer, Greek drama, or the Qur'an.[11]
TEXTUAL HISTORY AND STRUCTURE
The epic is traditionally ascribed to the sage Vyasa, who is also a major character in the epic. Vyasa
described it as being itihāsa (history). He also describes the Guru-shishya parampara, which traces
all great teachers and their students of the Vedic times.
The first section of the Mahabharata states that it was Ganesha who wrote down the text to Vyasa's
dictation. Ganesha is said to have agreed to write it only if Vyasa never paused in his recitation.
Vyasa agrees on condition that Ganesha takes the time to understand what was said before writing
it down.
The epic employs the story within a story structure, otherwise known as frametales, popular in many
Indian religious and non-religious works. It is recited by the sage Vaisampayana, a disciple of Vyasa,
to the King Janamejaya who is the great-grandson of the Pandava prince Arjuna. The story is then
recited again by a professional storyteller named Ugrasrava Sauti, many years later, to an
assemblage of sages performing the 12-year sacrifice for the king Saunaka Kulapati in the Naimisha
Forest.
The text has been described by some early 20th-century western Indologists as unstructured and
chaotic. Hermann Oldenberg supposed that the original poem must once have carried an immense
"tragic force" but dismissed the full text as a "horrible chaos."[12] Moritz Winternitz(Geschichte der
indischen Literatur 1909) considered that "only unpoetical theologists and clumsy scribes" could
have lumped the parts of disparate origin into an unordered whole.[13]
HISTORICAL CONTEXT
Historical context
Further information: Epic India
The historicity of the Kurukshetra War is unclear. Many historians estimate the date of the
Kurukshetra war to Iron Age India of the 10th century BCE.[29] The setting of the epic has a historical
precedent in Iron Age (Vedic) India, where the Kuru kingdom was the center of political power during
roughly 1200 to 800 BCE.[30] A dynastic conflict of the period could have been the inspiration for
the Jaya, the foundation on which the Mahabharata corpus was built, with a climactic battle
eventually coming to be viewed as an epochal event.
Puranic literature presents genealogical lists associated with the Mahabharata narrative. The
evidence of the Puranas is of two kinds. Of the first kind, there is the direct statement that there were
1015 (or 1050) years between the birth of Parikshit (Arjuna's grandson) and the accession
of Mahapadma Nanda (400-329 BCE), which would yield an estimate of about 1400 BCE for the
Bharata battle.[31] However, this would imply improbably long reigns on average for the kings listed in
the genealogies.[32] Of the second kind are analyses of parallel genealogies in the Puranas between
the times of Adhisimakrishna (Parikshit's great-grandson) and Mahapadma Nanda. Pargiter
accordingly estimated 26 generations by averaging 10 different dynastic lists and, assuming 18
years for the average duration of a reign, arrived at an estimate of 850 BCE for Adhisimakrishna,
and thus approximately 950 BCE for the Bharata battle.[33]
B. B. Lal used the same approach with a more conservative assumption of the average reign to
estimate a date of 836 BCE, and correlated this with archaeological evidence from Painted Grey
Ware sites, the association being strong between PGW artifacts and places mentioned in the epic.[34]
Attempts to date the events using methods of archaeoastronomy have produced, depending on
which passages are chosen and how they are interpreted, estimates ranging from the late 4th to the
mid-2nd millennium BCE.[35] The late 4th millennium date has a precedent in the calculation of the
Kaliyuga epoch, based on planetary conjunctions, byAryabhata (6th century). Aryabhatta's date of
February 18 3102 BCE for Mahabharata war has become widespread in Indian tradition.
Coincidentally, this marks the disppearance of Krishna from earth from many source.[36] The Aihole
inscription of Pulikeshi II, dated to Saka 556 = 634 CE, claims that 3735 years have elapsed since
the Bharata battle, putting the date of Mahabharata war at 3137 BCE.[37][38] Another traditional school
of astronomers and historians, represented by Vriddha-Garga, Varahamihira(author of
the Brhatsamhita) and Kalhana (author of the Rajatarangini), place the Bharata war 653 years after
the Kaliyuga epoch, corresponding to 2449 BCE.[39]
SYNOPSIS
The core story of the work is that of a dynastic struggle for the throne of Hastinapura, the kingdom
ruled by the Kuru clan. The two collateral branches of the family that participate in the struggle are
the Kaurava and the Pandava. Although the Kaurava is the senior branch of the family, Duryodhana,
the eldest Kaurava, is younger than Yudhisthira, the eldest Pandava. Both Duryodhana and
Yudhisthira claim to be first in line to inherit the throne.
The struggle culminates in the great battle of Kurukshetra, in which the Pandavas are ultimately
victorious. The battle produces complex conflicts of kinship and friendship, instances of family loyalty
and duty taking precedence over what is right, as well as the converse.
The Mahabharata itself ends with the death of Krishna, and the subsequent end of his dynasty and
ascent of the Pandava brothers to heaven. It also marks the beginning of the Hindu age of Kali
Yuga, the fourth and final age of mankind, in which great values and noble ideas have crumbled,
and man is heading towards the complete dissolution of right action, morality and virtue.
THE OLDER GENERATIONS
King Janamejaya's ancestor Shantanu, the king of Hastinapura, has a short-lived marriage with the
goddess Ganga and has a son, Devavrata (later to be called Bhishma, a great warrior), who
becomes the heir apparent. Many years later, when King Shantanu goes hunting, he sees Satyavati,
the daughter of the chief of fisherman, and asks her father for her hand. Her father refuses to
consent to the marriage unless Shantanu promises to make any future son of Satyavati the king
upon his death. To resolve his father's dilemma, Devavrata agrees to relinquish his right to the
throne. As the fisherman is not sure about the prince's children honouring the promise, Devavrata
also takes a vow of lifelong celibacy to guarantee his father's promise.
Shantanu has two sons by Satyavati, Chitrāngada and Vichitravirya. Upon Shantanu's death,
Chitrangada becomes king. He lives a very short uneventful life and dies. Vichitravirya, the younger
son, rules Hastinapura. Meanwhile, the King of Kāśī arranges a swayamvara for his three daughters,
neglecting to invite the royal family of Hastinapur. In order to arrange the marriage of young
Vichitravirya, Bhishma attends the swayamvara of the three princesses Amba, Ambika and
Ambalika, uninvited, and proceeds to abduct them. Ambika and Ambalika consent to be married to
Vichitravirya.
The oldest princess Amba, however, informs Bhishma that she wishes to marry king of Shalva whom
Bhishma defeated at their swayamvara. Bhishma lets her leave to marry king of Shalva, but Shalva
refuses to marry her, still smarting at his humiliation at the hands of Bhishma. Amba then returns to
marry Bhishma but he refuses due to his vow of celibacy. Amba becomes enraged and becomes
Bhishma's bitter enemy, holding him responsible for her plight. Later she is reborn to
King Drupada as Shikhandi (or Shikhandini) and causes Bhishma's fall, with the help of Arjuna, in
the battle of Kurukshetra.
THE KAURVAS AND PANDAVAS PRINCES
When Vichitravirya dies young without any heirs, Satyavati asks her first son Vyasa to father children
with the widows. The eldest, Ambika, shuts her eyes when she sees him, and so her
son Dhritarashtra is born blind. Ambalika turns pale and bloodless upon seeing him, and thus her
son Pandu is born pale and unhealthy (the term Pandu may also mean 'jaundiced'[40]). Due to the
physical challenges of the first two children, Satyavati asks Vyasa to try once again. However,
Ambika and Ambalika send their maid instead, to Vyasa's room. Vyasa fathers a third son, Vidura,
by the maid. He is born healthy and grows up to be one of the wisest characters in the Mahabharata.
He serves as Prime Minister (Mahamantri or Mahatma) to King Pandu and King Dhritarashtra.
When the princes grow up, Dhritarashtra is about to be crowned king by Bhishma when Vidura
intervenes and uses his knowledge of politics to assert that a blind person cannot be king. This is
because a blind man cannot control and protect his subjects. The throne is then given to Pandu
because of Dhritarashtra's blindness. Pandu marries twice, to Kunti and Madri. Dhritarashtra
marries Gandhari, a princess from Gandhara, who blindfolds herself so that she may feel the pain
that her husband feels. Her brother Shakuni is enraged by this and vows to take revenge on the
Kuru family. One day, when Pandu is relaxing in the forest, he hears the sound of a wild animal. He
shoots an arrow in the direction of the sound. However the arrow hits the sage Kindama, who curses
him that if he engages in a sexual act, he will die. Pandu then retires to the forest along with his two
wives, and his brother Dhritarashtra rules thereafter, despite his blindness.
Pandu's older queen Kunti, however, had been given a boon by Sage Durvasa that she could invoke
any god using a special mantra. Kunti uses this boon to ask Dharma the god of justice, Vayu the god
of the wind, and Indra the lord of the heavens for sons. She gives birth to three
sons, Yudhisthira, Bhima, and Arjuna, through these gods. Kunti shares her mantra with the younger
queen Madri, who bears the twinsNakula and Sahadeva through the Ashwini twins. However, Pandu
and Madri indulge in sex, and Pandu dies. Madri dies on his funeral pyreout of remorse. Kunti raises
the five brothers, who are from then on usually referred to as the Pandava brothers.
Dhritarashtra has a hundred sons through Gandhari, all born after the birth of Yudhishtira. These are
the Kaurava brothers, the eldest beingDuryodhana, and the second Dushasana. Other Kaurava
brothers were Vikarna and Sukarna. The rivalry and enmity between them and the Pandava
brothers, from their youth and into manhood, leads to the Kurukshetra war.
MARRIAGE TO DRAUPADI
Whilst they were in hiding the Pandavas learn of a swayamvara which is taking place for the hand of
the Pāñcāla princess Draupadī. The Pandavas enter the competition in disguise as Brahmins. The
task is to string a mighty steel bow and shoot a target on the ceiling, which is the eye of a moving
artificial fish, while looking at its reflection in oil below. Most of the princes fail, many being unable to
lift the bow. Arjuna succeeds however. The Pandavas return home and inform their mother that
Arjuna has won a competition and to look at what they have brought back. Without looking, Kunti
asks them to share whatever it is Arjuna has won among themselves. On explaining the previous life
of Draupadi, she ends up being the wife of all five brothers.
INDRAPRASTA
After the wedding, the Pandava brothers are invited back to Hastinapura. The Kuru family elders and
relatives negotiate and broker a split of the kingdom, with the Pandavas obtaining a new territory.
Yudhishtira has a new capital built for this territory at Indraprastha. Neither the Pandava nor Kaurava
sides are happy with the arrangement however.
Shortly after this, Arjuna elopes with and then marries Krishna's sister, Subhadra. Yudhishtira wishes
to establish his position as king; he seeks Krishna's advice. Krishna advises him, and after due
preparation and the elimination of some opposition, Yudhishthira carries out therājasūya
yagna ceremony; he is thus recognised as pre-eminent among kings.
The Pandavas have a new palace built for them, by Maya the Danava.[42] They invite their Kaurava
cousins to Indraprastha. Duryodhana walks round the palace, and mistakes a glossy floor for water,
and will not step in. After being told of his error, he then sees a pond, and assumes it is not water
and falls in. Draupadi laughs at him and ridicules him by saying that this is because of his blind
father Dhritrashtra. He then decides to avenge his humiliation.
THE DICE GAME
Shakuni, Duryodhana's uncle, now arranges a dice game, playing against Yudhishtira with loaded
dice. Yudhishtira loses all his wealth, then his kingdom. He then even gambles his brothers, himself,
and finally his wife into servitude. The jubilant Kauravas insult the Pandavas in their helpless state
and even try to disrobe Draupadi in front of the entire court, but her honour is saved by Krishna who
miraculously creates lengths of cloth to replace the ones being removed.
Dhritarashtra, Bhishma, and the other elders are aghast at the situation, but Duryodhana is adamant
that there is no place for two crown princes in Hastinapura. Against his wishes Dhritarashtra orders
for another dice game. The Pandavas are required to go into exile for 12 years, and in the 13th year
must remain hidden. If discovered by the Kauravas, they will be forced into exile for another 12
years.
Exile and return
The Pandavas spend thirteen years in exile; many adventures occur during this time. They also
prepare alliances for a possible future conflict. They spend their final year in disguise in the court
of Virata, and are discovered just after the end of the year.
At the end of their exile, they try to negotiate a return to Indraprastha. However, this fails, as
Duryodhana objects that they were discovered while in hiding, and that no return of their kingdom
was agreed. War becomes inevitable.
THE BATTLE OF KURUKSHETRA
The two sides summon vast armies to their help and line up at Kurukshetra for a war. The kingdoms
of Panchala, Dwaraka, Kasi, Kekaya,Magadha, Matsya, Chedi, Pandyas, Telinga, and
the Yadus of Mathura and some other clans like the Parama Kambojas were allied with
thePandavas. The allies of the Kauravas included the kings of Pragjyotisha, Anga, Kekaya,
Sindhudesa (including Sindhus, Sauviras and Sivis), Mahishmati, Avanti in
Madhyadesa, Madra, Gandhara, Bahlika people, Kambojas and many others. Before war being
declared, Balaramahad expressed his unhappiness at the developing conflict and left to go
on pilgrimage; thus he does not take part in the battle itself. Krishna takes part in a non-combatant
role, as charioteer for Arjuna.
Before the battle, Arjuna, seeing the opposing army includes many relatives and loved ones,
including his great grandfather Bhishma and his teacher Drona, has doubts about the battle and he
fails to lift his Gāndeeva bow. Krishna wakes him up to his call of duty in the famousBhagavad
Gita section of the epic.
Though initially sticking to chivalrous notions of warfare, both sides soon adopt dishonourable
tactics. At the end of the 18-day battle, only the
Pandavas, Satyaki, Kripa, Ashwatthama, Kritavarma, Yuyutsu and Krishna survive.
THE END OF PANDAVAS
After "seeing" the carnage, Gandhari, who had lost all her sons, curses Krishna to be a witness to a
similar annihilation of his family, for though divine and capable of stopping the war, he had not done
so. Krishna accepts the curse, which bears fruit 36 years later.
The Pandavas, who had ruled their kingdom meanwhile, decide to renounce everything. Clad in
skins and rags they retire to the Himalaya and climb towards heaven in their bodily form. A stray dog
travels with them. One by one the brothers and Draupadi fall on their way. As each one stumbles,
Yudhisthira gives the rest the reason for their fall (Draupadi was partial to Arjuna, Nakula and
Sahadeva were vain and proud of their looks, and Bhima and Arjuna were proud of their strength
and archery skills, respectively). Only the virtuous Yudhisthira, who had tried everything to prevent
the carnage, and the dog remain. The dog reveals himself to be the god Yama (also known as Yama
Dharmaraja), and then takes him to the underworld where he sees his siblings and wife. After
explaining the nature of the test, Yama takes Yudhishthira back to heaven and explains that it was
necessary to expose him to the underworld because (Rajyante narakam dhruvam) any ruler has to
visit the underworld at least once. Yama then assures him that his siblings and wife would join him in
heaven after they had been exposed to the underworld for measures of time according to their vices.
Arjuna's grandson Parikshit rules after them and dies bitten by a snake. His furious son,
Janamejaya, decides to perform a snake sacrifice (sarpasattra) in order to destroy the snakes. It is
at this sacrifice that the tale of his ancestors is narrated to him.
The reunion
The Mahabharata mentions that Karna, the Pandavas, and Dhritarashtra's sons eventually ascended
to svarga and "attained the state of thegods" and banded together — "serene and free from
anger."[43]
Just war
The Mahabharata offers one of the first instances of theorizing about "just war", illustrating many of
the standards that would be debated later across the world. In the story, one of five brothers asks if
the suffering caused by war can ever be justified. A long discussion ensues between the siblings,
establishing criteria like proportionality (chariots cannot attack cavalry, only other chariots; no
attacking people in distress), just means (no poisoned or barbed arrows), just cause (no attacking
out of rage), and fair treatment of captives and the wounded.[44]
Versions, translations, and derivative works
Critical Edition
Between 1919 and 1966, scholars at the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Pune, compared
the various manuscripts of the epic from India and abroad and produced theCritical Edition of
the Mahabharata, on 13,000 pages in 19 volumes, followed by the Harivamsha in another two
volumes and six index volumes. This is the text that is usually used in current Mahabharata studies
for reference.[45] This work is sometimes called the "Pune" or "Poona" edition of the Mahabharata.
Regional versions
Many regional versions of the work developed over time, mostly differing only in minor details, or
with verses or subsidiary stories being added. These include the Tamil street
theatre, terukkuttu and kattaikkuttu, the plays of which use themes from the Tamil language versions
of Mahabharata, focusing on Draupadi.[46]
Outside the Indian subcontinent, in Indonesia, a version was developed in ancient Java as Kakawin
Bhāratayuddha in the 11th century under the patronage of King Dharmawangsa (990–1016),[47] and
later it spread to neighboring island of Bali where today remains a Hindu majority island, despite
today Indonesia is the most populous Muslim majority nation. It has become the fertile source for
Javanese literature, dance drama (wayang wong), and wayang shadow puppet performances. This
Javanese version differ slightly from the original Indian version. For example Draupadi is only be
wed to Yudhisthira, not to the entire Pandavas brothers, this might demonstrate ancient Javanese
opposition of polyandry practice. The author later added some female characters to be wed to the
Pandavas. Arjuna for example is described as having many wives and consorts next to Subhadra.
Another difference is Shikhandi did not undergone sex change and remains as a woman, to be wed
to Arjuna, and took the role as a warrior princess during the war. Another twist is Gandhariwas
described as antagonist character that hates Pandava so much. Her hate was out of jealousy,
because during svayambara for the hand of Gandhari, she was actually in love with Pandu, but later
being wed to his blind elder brother instead, whom she does not love, as a protest she then blindfold
herself. Another notable difference is the inclusion of Punakawans, the clown servants of the main
characters in the storyline, which is not found in Indian version. This characters
includes Semar, Petruk, Gareng and Bagong, they are much-loved by Indonesian audiences. There
are some spin-off episode developed in ancient Java, such as Arjunawiwaha composed in 11th
century.
A Kawi version of the Mahabharata, of which eight of the eighteen parvas survive, is found on the
Indonesian island of Bali. It has been translated into English by Dr. I. Gusti Putu Phalgunadi.[citation needed]
Translations
A Persian translation of Mahabharta, titled Razmnameh, was produced at Akbar's orders,
by Faizi and `Abd al-Qadir Bada'uni in the 18th century.[49]
The first complete English translation was the Victorian prose version by Kisari Mohan Ganguli,
[50]
published between 1883 and 1896 (Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers) and by M. N. Dutt (Motilal
Banarsidass Publishers). Most critics consider the translation by Ganguli to be faithful to the original
text. The complete text of Ganguli's translation is in the public domain and is available online.[51][52]
Another English prose translation of the full epic, based on the Critical Edition, is in progress,
published by University Of Chicago Press. It was initiated by Indologist J. A. B. van Buitenen (books
1–5) and, following a 20-year hiatus caused by the death of van Buitenen, is being continued by D.
Gitomer of DePaul University (book 6), J. L. Fitzgerald of Brown University (books 11–13)
and Wendy Doniger of the University of Chicago (books 14–18).
An early poetry translation by Romesh Chunder Dutt and published in 1898 condenses the main
themes of the Mahabharata into English verse.[53] A later poetic "transcreation" (author's own
description) of the full epic into English, done by the poet P. Lal is complete, and in 2005 began
being published by Writers Workshop, Calcutta. The P. Lal translation is a non-rhyming verse-by-
verse rendering, and is the only edition in any language to include all slokas in all recensions of the
work (not just those in the Critical Edition). The completion of the publishing project is scheduled for
2010. Sixteen of the eighteen volumes are now available.
A project to translate the full epic into English prose, translated by various hands, began to appear in
2005 from the Clay Sanskrit Library, published by New York University Press. The translation is
based not on the Critical Edition but on the version known to the commentatorNīlakaṇṭha. Currently
available are 15 volumes of the projected 32-volume edition.
Indian economist Bibek Debroy has also begun an unabridged English translation in ten
volumes. Volume 1: Adi Parva was published in March 2010.
Many condensed versions, abridgements and novelistic prose retellings of the complete epic have
been published in English, including works by Ramesh Menon, William Buck, R. K. Narayan, C.
Rajagopalachari, K. M. Munshi, Krishna Dharma, Romesh C. Dutt, Bharadvaja Sarma,John D.
Smith and Sharon Maas.
Derivative literature
Bhasa, the 2nd- or 3rd-century CE Sanskrit playwright, wrote two plays on episodes in the
Marabharata, Urubhanga (Broken Thigh), about the fight between Duryodhana andBhima,
while Madhyamavyayoga (The Middle One) set around Bhima and his son, Ghatotkacha. The first
important play of 20th century was Andha Yug (The Blind Epoch), byDharamvir Bharati, which came
in 1955, found in Mahabharat, both an ideal source and expression of modern predicaments and
discontent. Starting with Ebrahim Alkazi it was staged by numerous directors. V. S. Khandekar's
Marathi novel, Yayati (1960) and Girish Karnad's debut play Yayati (1961) are based on the story of
King Yayati found in theMahabharat.[54] Bengali writer and playwright, Buddhadeva Bose wrote three
plays set in Mahabharat, Anamni Angana, Pratham Partha and Kalsandhya.[55] Chitra Banerjee
Divakaruni wrote a version from the perspective of Draupadi entitled The Palace of Illusions: A
Novel, which was published in 2008.
Amar Chitra Katha published a 1,260 page comic book version of the Mahabharata.[56]
