CONCEPTS AND OBJECTIVES IN PHYSICS VOLUME I- PARTA (Mechanics Part 1) VARSITY® EMPOWERING EDUCATION * ENABLING DREAMS Central Office : Working Office : 4" Floor, Plot # 80, Sri Sai Plaza, D.No. §4-20/9-6, Floor 1,Timmarusu Street, Ayyappa Society, ‘Srinagar Colony, VIWAYAWADA - 520 008. Madhapur, HYDERABAD - 500 081. Ph: 08662544369 Sri Rama Rao, C.B.S., Lecturer in Physics, Sri Chaitanya Educational Insitutions, Vijayawada Dr. Satyanarayanan, M.N., Professor in Physics, National institute of Technology, Suratkal Sri Surendra Babu, V., Executive Dean, Sri Chaitanya Educational Institutions, Hyderabad Printed at Hanu Graphics Maruthi Nagar, VUAYAWADA - 620 004, Ph: 0866-2437501CONCEPTS AND OBJECTIVES IN PHYSICS VOLUME-| : PART-A (Number of pages: 388 + 4) ° VEML, Hyderabad base Al rights reserved (oust ofa tase First Edition: March 2012 Revised Edition : March 2020 { CONTENTS PHYSICSAL WORLD UNITS AND MEASUREMENT MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE MOTION IN A PLANE LAWS OF MOTIONF PHYSICAL WORLD a ear ‘SIPC, Raman (18521970) was om Indio born theoretical pio stscovered Raman eft ight effecting 4 revelation in madern physics hte olhata hestared working on isan f nercta Ind Asean Jor Cubioaian of Science Ms aen of ert nce batons. va of ‘masa nsramentiwsonis iraton and oon. In 1924 he wa eet "Feon'of he Rol Soi of London and recived Nobel prin Pies 1930 for his dcovery, now nen a arma Eft This work epee ally 1 Fundamental forces in nature Nat of Physical laws surrence of day and night, the quakes, the change of seasons; man wondered at all these aspects. He has been trying to explore these mysteries of the world. In hisattemps, he discovered many techniques, which included careful observation, invention of new devices, predictions and assumptions, This initiative gradually paved way to moxlem science & technology, ‘The origin of science is as old as the evolution ‘of man, Many early civilizations have made vital contributions t© its progress, Europeans spearheaded the growth of science dusing the sixteenth century, making many significant contributions. Now, science has become an international enterprise, with numerous countries contributing toits rapid growth, ‘The word science is derived from the Latin word ‘scientia’ meaning “to know”, Science is systematic attempt to understand the world around us. Observation, experiments, reasonin ‘mathematical modelling, prediction and verification or falsification of theories ate the steps involved in scientific method. The procedure, which the scientists use inthe pursuit of science is known as scientific method. ‘The systematic observations, reasoning, model making and theoretical prediction form th scientific method. NEO SERIES for Sti Chaitanya Jr. NEON Students The behaviour of physical systems is explained ia terms ofa set of minimum numberof laws which is called theory A thoory can be modified inthe light of new ‘observations, If a new experiment reveals a discrepency between the existing theory and the ‘observations, them the theory needs modification. If the modified theory Cannot explain the significant difference, however small, then the theory is discarded and hence a new theory is developed involving new concepts. Many ‘examples can be cited for this. First ofall Ptolemy developed 1 Geoventric theory. According to geo-centric theory, the earth ‘was assumed to be fixed and all other planets and sun were supposed to move around it, But this thoory was discarded in favour of the Heliocentrie theory proposed by the Polishastronomer, Nicolaus Copernicus. According to this theory, the sun is assumed to be atthe centre and all other planets move around itin circular orbits. However, later ‘on it was established that the planets revolve around the sun in elliptical orbits Upto 20th century, Newtonian mechanics is a successful theory. But itis found that it could not explain some basic features of atomic phenomena. Similarly, the wave packet picture of Tight fails to explain photoelectric effect, Compton effect which lead to quantum mechanics ‘The Rutherford cr-scattering experiment established the nuclear model of atom, which basis for Niels Bohr theory of hydrogen atom,. Physics and its Universal Appeal Physics is the most vital branch of natural science, which also includes other branches of studies like Biology and Chemistry. The word ‘Physics’ is derived from the Greck word meaning nature, Physics isthe study of nature and natural phenomena, Its study of basic laws of nature and its universal application, The study of physics is based on two important principles-unification and reduction, In physics, we attempt to explain diverse physical phenomens in terms of a few concepts tand laws, The effort is wo see the physical world as manifestation of some universal laws in different domains and conditions. For example, the same law of gravitation (given by Newton) describes the fall of an apple to the ground, the motion of the ‘moon around the earth and the motion of planets around the sun, Similarly, the basic laws of electromagnetism (Maxwell's equations } govern alllelectic and magnetic phenomena. The attempts ‘ounify fundamental forces of nature (Section 14) reflect this same quest for unification, A related cffortis to derive the properties ofa bigger, more complex. system from the properties and interactions of its constituent simpler parts. This approach is called reductionism and is atthe heart of Physics, For example, the subject of thermodynamics, developed in the nineteenth century, deals with bulk systems in terms of macroscopic quantities such as temperature, internal encrgy, entropy, ete. Subsequently, the subjects of kinetic theory and statistical mechanics interpreted these quantities in terms of the properties ofthe molecular constituents ofthe bulk system, In particular, the temperature was seen to be related to the average kinetic energy of molecules of the system. Physics has a universal appeal. The universal application ofits basic theories is exciting, carrying new experiments to unravel the mysteries of nature is challenging. To verify of to refute the ‘existing theories is thiling. Application of physical laws to make useful devices is the most interesting and exciting part and requires great ingenuity and relentless effort. The progress of physics is tremendous, NEO SERIES for Sti Chaitanya Jr. NEON Students { PHYSICS - 1A] [EY SCOPE OF PHYSIC Physics deals with the study of various natural phenomenon and is considered as the most fundamental branch of science. The scope of physics is very broad and covers a wide range of ‘many branches ike mechanics, thermodynamics, electrodynamics, acoustics, optics, relativity rnuclear physics and particle physics etc, It deals with the macroscopic world like galaxies and universe as well as microscopic world like nucleus ‘of an atom and fundamental particles lke electrons, protons, neutrons et. Basically, there are two domains macroscopic and microscopic. The macroscopic domain, includes phenomena atthe laboratory, terrestrial and astronomical scales. The microscopic domain includes atomic, molecular and nuclear phenomens. ‘Classical physics deals mainly with macroscopic phenomena and includes subjects like Mechanies, Electrodynamics, Optics and Thermodynamics ‘The alpha particle scattering experiment Mechanics deals with the orderly motion of ‘objects (at low speeds) in macroscopic world “Thermodynamics deals with the disorderly motion (e., heat and temperature) of large number of particles (ie, system). Electromagnetism dea with the theory of electricity, magnetism and electromagnetic waves. Lightor Opties dealt with the nature and propagation of light, formation of images through lenses and mirrors, reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction, polarization atc ‘The microscopic domain of physies deals with the constitution and structure of matter atthe ‘minute scales of atoms and nuclei, Nuclear Physics deals with atomic nuclei and their properties. Particle Physics deals with the ultimate particles of which matter is made up of. Quantum[PHYSICS -1A>——______________-.§ PHYSICAL WORLD] ‘of particles of sub microscopic world. Classical physics is inadequate to handle this domain and ‘Quantum theory is currently accepted as the proper framework for explaining microscopic phenomena, technology and society is noteworthy. Physics has sven numerous technologies to the society. These technologies have great impact on the human civilization, Followings are afew advancements in technology based on physics 1. ‘The study of heat and thermodynamics has helped us to design the various heat engines like diesel engine, petro! engine, steam ‘engine. The refrigerator and air-conditioner are the wonders of technology The study of the propagation of electromagnetic waves has helped us to design radio, television and wireless ‘communication, 3. A launching of satellite has brought a revolution in weather forecast, geographical survey and long distance telecommunication, 4, ‘The study of nuclear fission has helped usin the production of electricity and the atom bomb (danger to the society). Other ‘outcomes of the advancement of physies are the designing of electric motors, dynamos, radar installations, space craft, computers and Link between technology and physies ‘Some physicists from different count the world and their major contributions “The most important contsibution of physics ‘othe environment is exploring different altemative energy resources. Considerable progress has already been made in this dircetion (for example, inconversion of solar energy, geothermal energy, tc, into electricity), continuous efforts are still being made to compensate for depleting natural resources. The faculty of physics is making efforts ‘for many more break through in science. ‘Technology Sel principles) Aeroplane Computers Elect Electton microscope Fusion test reactor (Tokamak) Giant Metrwave Radio Telescope (GMRT) | Dee Bose-Einstein condensate Bernoulli's principle in Tad dynamics Digital toi Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic Wave nature of ele ‘Magnetic confinement of plasma duction dio waves Trapping and cooling Hydroelectric power Lasers Non-teflecting coatings Nuclear reactor Optical fibres Part Photocell Production of ultra magnetic fields Radio and Television Rocket propulsion Sonar Steam engine of atoms by laser beams and magnetic fields ‘Conversion of gravitational potential energy ito electrical energy Light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation Thin film optical interference Conttolled nuclear fission “oval internal reflection of light Motion of charged particles in el Photoelectric effect Superconductivity Generation, propagation and detection of electon Newton's laws of mation Reflection of ultrasonic waves Laws of thermody NEO SERIES for Sri Chaitanya Jr. NEON StudentsPY FUNDAMENTAL FORCES aa ial rT eee | keene an = ee aPHYSICAL WORLD! IN NATURE In our experience, force is needed to push, carry or throw objects, deform or break them. We also experience the impact of forces on us, like ‘when a moving object hits us or Weare in a merry go-round. Early thinkers like Aristotle had wrong {ideas about the notion of force. The correct notion, Of force was arrived at by Tsaac Newton in his famous laws of motion, He also gave an explicit form for the force for gravitational attraction between two bodies. In the macroscopic world, besides the _gravitational force, we encounter several kinds of forces: muscular force, contact forces between bodies, friction the forces exerted by compressed, for elongated springs and taut strings and ropes (tension), the force of buoyancy and viscous force ‘when solids are in contact with fluids, the force due to pressure of a fluid, the force due to surface tension of a liquid, and so on, There are also forces involving charged and magnetic bodies. In the microscopic domain again, we have electric and ‘magnetic forces, nuclear forces involving protons and neutrons, interatomic and intermolecular forces, tc, We shall gt familiar with some ofthese forces inlaterparts of thiscourse. There exists several forces in nature. They are classified into ‘our groups depending upon the typeof interactions and range. They are 1. Gravitational forces 2. Blectromagnetic forces 3. Weak forces 4, Strong forces ‘The gravitational and electromag are experienced in every day life, The others two involve interactions between sub-atomic particles PERN GRAVITATIONAL FORCE The gravitational force isthe force of mutual attraction between any two objects by virue of theirmasses, Itisa universal force. It plays a key role in the large-scale ‘phenomena of the universe, such as formation and. evolution of stars, galaxies and galactic clusters. NEO SERIES for Sti Chaitanya Jr. NEON Students 7 Properties 1. These forces are always attractive. 2. These are ong range forces. 3. The force of attraction between two bodies is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them, transmitted through; ‘The exchange particles are Gravitons which are predicted and yet to be discovered, 6. The velocity of propagation of the wave is equal to the velocity of light. Examples 1. The weight of a body is the result of gravitational attraction (interaction) of earth acting on the body, ‘The sun's gravitatio keeps the earth in its obit around the sun, 3. ‘The gravitational attraction of earth on moon keeps the moon in its orbit around the earth LECTROMAGNETIC FOR Electromagnetic force is the force between charged particles. In the simpler ease when charges are at rest, the force is given by Coulomb's law : Charges in motion produce magnetic effects and a magnetic field gives rise to a force on a moving charge. Electric and magnetic effects are, in general, inseparable ~ hence the name electromagnetic force, Examples: 1. When you comb your dry hair, the comb attracts bits of paper and cork. Thisis due wo b, Asal atoms contain positive and negative charges, there exists an interaction between the charge fon the comb and charges of he atoms in a paper bit. This is called the electrical interaction. 2. Thechemical bonds ae the result of electrical interaction. The formation of molecules by the atoms is the result of electrical interaction. ie slatic electricity induced on thestring are the combination of al such forces ‘exerted on the atoms ofa body by atomsin its surroundings. Magnetic forces: The force between the magnets and between magnet and iron piece iscalled th ic interaction. ‘The magnetic interaction is the result of clecttic charges in motion, Example: 1. Moving charge produces magnetic field. So {moves in a magnet field B, it esa force equal tog vB where v is the velocity of the charged particle 4g 2, In an electromagnet, the electric current though the coil of wire produces the magnetic interaction, Properties : 1. ‘They areshort distances well as long distance interactions. They are stronger than the gravitational interactions, 3. The electrical force between two charges is 10° times that of the gravitational force between them atthe same place 4. ‘The electrostatic force between the charges is inversely proportional to the square of the distance, 5. Theinteractions can take placein vacuum as well asin medium, 6. The interaction is transmitted through lectromagn: 7. Theexchange particles are photons. jon is equal to the Matter consists of elementary charged ‘constituents like electrons and protons. Since the clectromagnetie force is so much stronger than the gravitational force, it dominates all phenomena at atomic and molecular scales. (The other two forces, as we shall see, operate only at nuclear scales.) Thus it is mainly the electromagnetic force that governs the structure 8 NEO SERIES for Sti Chaltanya Jr. NEON Student of atoms and molecules, the dynamics of ‘chemical reactions and the mechanical, thermal and other properties of materials. Itunderlies the macroscopic forces like ‘tension’, ‘friction’ “normal force’, spring force’, ete. PREY STRONG NUCLEAR FORCE The strong force of attraction existing ‘between the nucleons forming the nucleus of an atoms called the nuclear force. Example : The nucleus contains protons and neutrons. These particles are called nucleons, There exists a strong force of attraction between the nucleons within certain range. This force is a short range force. This force of attraction s stronger than the electrostatic interaction within its range, Insrange is shorter than electrostatic interaction. Properties: L. Misalways atractive, 2. Iris a short range force shorter than the clectical interactions is stronger than electrical 4. Beyond the range the clectrostati interaction prevails. 5. The force of attraction Fis proportional w = Tt must be noted that the electron does not experience this force. Recent developments have, however, indicated that protons and neutrons are built out of still more elementary constituents called quarks, WEAK NUCLEAR FOR ‘The weak nuclear force appears only in certain nuclear processes such as the B-decay of a nucleus, In B-decay, the nucleus emits an electron and an uncharged particle called neutrino. The weak nuclear force is not as weak as the gravitational force, but much weaker than the strong nuclear and electromagnetic forces. ‘The range of weak nuclear force is exceedingly small, of the order of 10m, The are unified and called "electroweak" interactions ‘electromagnetic and weak interactions[PHYSICS - 1A PHYSICAL WORLD] now. This theory is propounded by Glashow. Salam and Weinberg who were awarded Noble prize in Physics in 1979. Now the number of fundamental forces reduced to three, Research is going on to evolve grand unified theory (GUT) to agtall the forces under one umbrella, TION of a single ‘electro-weak' force. What this unification actually means cannot be explained shave been (and are being) made to unify the electro-weak and the strong force here. Atte and even to unify the gravitational force with the restof the fundamental forces. Many of these I speculative and inconclusive, The table given below summarizes some of the ideas are milestones in the progress towards unification ugnetic and the weak nuclear force have been unified and are seen as aspects of forces in nature. Name of the physicist Year | Achievement in unification Isaac Newton 1687) Unified cclestial and terrestrial mechanics; showed tha the same laws of motion and the law of gravitation apply to both the domains Hans Christian Oersted] 1820 | Showed that electric and magnetic phenomena ar inseparable Michael Faraday 1830 | aspects of a unified domain; electromagnetism, James Clerk maxwell | 1873 | Unified electricity. magnetism and optics: showed thal lights an electromagnetic wave. ‘Carlo Rubia 1984 | Verified experimentally the predictions of the theory of Simon Vander Meer electro weak force. Sheldon glashow 1979] Showed that the ‘weak’ nuclear force and thi electromagnet Abdus Salam force could be viewed as different aspects of a single feven Weinberg electro weak force. NATURE OF PHYSICAL LAWS ‘The various phenomena occurring: are explained on the basis of certain laws, These laws are expressed in terms of some physical quantities. The quantities like charge, mass, energy, linear, momentum, angular momentum etc. of a body ora system are conserved (remain constant) iffno external force acts on the system. The laws ‘governing the conservation of these quantities in nature are known as conservation laws. NEO SERIES for Sti Chaitanya Jr. NEON Students Law of conservation of energy can neither be created nor be destroyed but can be changed from one form to another form. In other words, total energy of a system under conservative force remains the same. For example i) The total energy (i.e. kinetic energy + potential energy) of a freely falling body remains ‘constant. When a body is dropped from a certain, height, its potential energy goes on decreasing and its kinetic energy goes on increasing. But, the sum of kinetic and potential energies (ie. total energy) at any instant remains the same.‘The concept of energy is central to physics and the expressions for energy can be written for ‘every physical system, When all forms of energy eg. heat, mechanical energy, electrical energy etc. are counted, it tums out that energy is conserved. The general law of conservation of energy is in turn for all forces and any kind of transformation between different forms of energy. ‘The law of conservation of energy is thought to be valid across all domains of nature, from the microscopic 10 the macroscopic. It is routinely applied in the analysis of atomic, nuclear and elementary particle provesses. Even all kinds of violent phenomena happens in the universe all the time, Yetthe total energy ofthe universe is assumed toremain unchanged. Until the advent of Einstein's theory of relativity, the law of conservation of mass was regarded as another basic conservation law of nature, since matter assumed that it cannot be converted into energy. The total mass of the reactants is the same as the total mass of the products in a chemical reaction. The changes in the binding energy are wo small tobe measured as ‘changes in mass, According to Einstein’s theory, mass m is cquivalent to energy ‘where cis speed of light in vacuum, In a nuclear process mass can be converted in to energy (or vice-versa), This is the energy ‘which is released in a nuclear power generation and nuclear explosions, iven by the relation E=me, ‘The total linear momentum and the total sular momentum of an isolated system are also ‘conserved quantities. The basis for these laws is ‘Newton’s laws of motion in mechanies. But their validity goes beyond mechanics. They are the basic ‘conservation laws of nature in all domains, where ‘even Newton's laws may not be valid Besides their great simplicity and generality, the conservation law of nature are very useful in practice too, Itoften happens that we cannot solve the dynamics of a complex problems involving 10 NEO SERIES for Sti Chaltanyya Jr. NEON Student different particles and forces. The conservation kw ccan still provide useful results. In nuclear and elementary particle phenomena also, the ‘conservation laws are important tools of analysis, Conservation laws have a deep connection ‘with symmetries of nature that you will explore in ‘more advanced courses in physics. For example, ‘an important observation is tha the laws of nature do not change wi If you perform an ‘experiment in your laboratory today and repeat the ‘same experiment (on the same objects under {identical conditions) after a year, the results are bound tobe the same. It tums out that this symmetry of nature with respect to translation (ie displacement) in time is equivalent to the law of conservation of energy. Likewise, space is homogeneous and there is no (intrinsically) preferred location in the universe. To put it more Clearly, the laws of nature are the same everywhere in the universe. This symmetry of the laws of nature with respect to translation in space gives tise to conservation of linear momentum. In the ‘same way isotropy of space (no intrinsically preferred direction in space) underlies the law of conservation of angular momentum. The ‘conservation laws of charge and other attributes ‘of elementary particles can alsobe related to certain abstract symmetries Symmetries of space and time and other abstract symmetries play a central role in modern theories of fundamental forces in nature L Whatis physics? 2. Whatis the discovery of C.V, Raman ? 3, Whatare the fundamental forces in nature. 4. Which ofthe following has symmetry a)acceleration due to gravity by law of gravitation 5. Whatis contribution of S.C8 [ ExERCISE ER 1) Inelastic scattering of light by molecules 2) Steam 3) Propagation of EM Waves 4) Reflection of Ultrasonic waves ‘The contribution of $. Chandra Sekhar to physics is 1) cosmic radiation 2) Nucles 3) LASER 4) st model & atom to. ture and eolution of stars Electron was discovered by 2) 1, Bose 4) Bobr 1) Albert Einstein 3) J.Thomson Neuron was discovered by 1 Jam 3) SIN. Bose adwick 2) Fermi 4) Milka ‘The working principle of Steam engine is 1) digital logic 2) Super conductivity 3) Laws of thermodynamics 4) Nuclear fission Photocell works on th 2) Compton effect fect 4) Photoelectric effect principle of 1) Raman effect 3) Seebeck ef ‘The principle involved in the working of Rocket is 1) Newton's laws of motion 2) Bernoulli's principle 3) Photoelectric effect 4) Faraday’s laws of EMI Name the branch of science which deals with the study of stars? 2) Biology 4) Chemistry 1) Astronomy 3) Geology NEO SERIES for Sri Chaitanya Jr. NEON Students Which of the following fundamental forces of nature ? represents 1) Gravitational force; Coulomb's force: Strong surface tension force: Weak Van det Waals force 2) Gravitational force: Electromagnetic force Strong viscous force; We: force 3) Gravitational force: magnetostatic force Stong viscous force; Weak fictional force 4) Gravitation fore; Flectromagnetic force: Strong auclear force; Weak nuclear force Identify the correct option, 1) The range of the gravitational fore is large ‘but not infinite 2) The range of electromagnetic force is large ‘but lesser than the range of gravitational force 3) The range of weak nuclear force is smaller than the range of strong nuclear force, sravitation force and electro magnetic force. 4) The ange of the weak as well as strong force is of the order of 10° m Albert Einstein was conferred with the Nobel Prize in physics for his work on 1) Special theory of relativity 2) Bose-Einstein staisties 3) Photoelectric effect 4) General relativity Let G.W.S and E be relative strengths of ravitational, and electromagnetic forces. weak nuclear, strong nuclear Identity the[PHYSICAL WORLD. 13, Identify incorrect statement among the 17. Match the following. following. List 1) There are four fundamental forces in nature |) Michelson. 1 The existence of 2) Conservation laws have a deep connection Medley experiment antimatter with symmetries of nature My The existence of 3) All conserved quantities are seal de-Broglic matter 4) Some conservation laws are true for one fundamental force but not for the others, waves fend ve forth C) Davisson- TID Electrons have ‘elated scientific principle in column B perineal > ‘A- Technology B-Scientific Principle yamnen ye 1) Steam engine a) Faraday's laws uscovery © existence oF ether a 2) A-H, BAM, CAV, DA A - Scientist B - Discovery Lae and can be both 1) Paraday a) Expansion of Univ: a 4) Hubble d) Theroy of relativity 7 (©) Weak nuclear I) Strongest among DLeb:2-63 dda e forces 2) Leb 2-d:3-cd-a 31 -b:2-c:3-a4-d 4)1-b:2-a:3-c14-d force u ) Electromagnetic IV) Responsible for force radioactive decay The correct answer is 16, Mache allowing indonesia fses ofa WBC BA mr nt sh eee soar 1) Song mae fase 10 Dall BAL CL DIV B) Weak nuclear force 1 am ©) Electromagnetic force 10 am mone as ot 93 2) AMI, BAL, CAV, DA 64 71 Bt 94 10)8 3) Al, Bell, CIV, D4 113 12)2 133 14215) 4)AAV, Ball CA, Dal 161 17/4 18)4 2% 12 NEO SERIES for Sti Chaitanya Jr. NEON Students