Open Channel Flow

This is the type of flow where the water surface (or the
fluid in question) is exposed to the atmosphere. It is
commonly known as Free Surface Flow. Examples: flows
in rivers, canals, storm drains, etc.

In contrast to pipe flow, the free surface constitutes a

boundary at which the pressure is atmospheric and
across which the shear forces are negligible.
 Open Channel Flow… cont.

The longitudinal profile of the free surface defines

the hydraulic gradient and determines the cross-sectional
area of flow.

Stage defines the position of the free surface at any point

in the channel.

Maximum velocity in an open channel is located just

below the free surface (sketch Isovels).
 Open Channel Flow… cont.

Steady uniform flow, in which the depth is constant, both

with time and distance.

Steady non-uniform flow, in which the depth varies with

distance, but not with time.

Unsteady flow, in which the depth varies with both time

and distance
 Open Channel Flow… cont.

Open channels may be classified into the following

categories:

Artificial (e.g., irrigation canals) vs. Natural (rivers),

Prismatic (with constant geometry of the cross-section)

vs. Non Prismatic,
 Open Channel Flow… cont.

Rigid Boundary (a boundary that does not erode) vs. Non

Rigid Boundary (Loose or Erodible Boundary).

Laminar flows in open channels are very rare, except

under laboratory conditions. As such, most open channel
flows are turbulent in nature.

The Froude Number (Fr.) governs turbulent flows in open

channels, i.e., Inertia/Gravity forces.
 Open Channel Flow… cont.

Fr = 1 ⇨ Critical Flow (fast flows)

Fr < 1 ⇨ Subcritical Flow (calm flows)

Fr > 1 ⇨ Supercritical Flow (rapid/shooting flows)

 Open Channel Flow… cont.

Depth (y) — the vertical distance of the lowest point of a

channel section from the free surface.

Stage (h) — the vertical distance of the free surface from

an arbitrary datum.

Area (A) — the cross-sectional area of flow normal to the

direction of flow.
 Open Channel Flow… cont.

Wetted perimeter (P) — the length of the wetted surface

measured normal to the direction of flow.

Surface width (B) — the width of the channel section at

the free surface.

Hydraulic radius (R) — the ratio of area to wetted

perimeter (A/P).
 Open Channel Flow… cont.

Hydraulic mean depth (Dm) — the ratio of area to

surface width (A/B).
 Open Channel Flow… cont.
Colebrook-White equation for pipe flows:

Colebrook-White/Darcy-Weisbach equation:
Open Channel Flow… cont.
 Open Channel Flow… cont.

For uniform flow to occur, the gravity forces must exactly

balance the frictional resistance forces which constitute
the boundary shear force.

The gravity force resolved in the direction of flow = ρgAL

sin θ and the shear force resolved in the direction of flow
= 𝜏0PL, where 𝜏0 is the mean boundary shear stress.
 Open Channel Flow… cont.

Considering channels of small slope only, then

 Open Channel Flow… cont.

Hence

Or
 Open Channel Flow… cont.

Assuming a state of rough turbulent flow, then

And substituting for 𝜏0:

 Open Channel Flow… cont.

Which may be written as:

This is known as the Chézy equation. It is named after

the French engineer who developed the
formula when designing a canal for the Paris water
supply in 1768.
 Open Channel Flow… cont.

In 1869, an elaborate formula for Chézy’s C was published

by two Swiss engineers: Ganguillet
and Kutter. And in metric units, the formula is:

where n is a coefficient known as Kutter’s n and is

dependent solely on the boundary roughness.
 Open Channel Flow… cont.

In 1889, an Irish engineer Robert Manning presented

another formula for evaluating the Chézy coefficient,
which was later simplified to:

or (k = boundary rough.)

Implying that:

Where n is a constant known as the Manning’s n.

 Open Channel Flow… cont.

n is also attributed to Strickler and therefore known as

Strickler’s n

The equivalent formula for discharge is:

Open Channel Flow… cont.
Open Channel Flow… cont.
 Open Channel Flow… cont.

Channel conveyance (K) is a measure of the discharge

carrying capacity of a channel, defined by the equation:

Therefore:
 Open Channel Flow… cont.

Energy Equation in Open Channels:

Consider point A on a streamline. The pressure force at

point A balances the component of weight normal to
the bed, i.e.,

Or
 Open Channel Flow… cont.

Hence, Bernoulli’s equation becomes:

Compare with equivalent equation for pipe flows:

 Open Channel Flow… cont.

Refer to the diagram, and taking α = 1:

Specific energy (Es) is defined as the energy of the flow

referred to the channel bed as datum:
 Open Channel Flow… cont.

Hence:

Show that
Open Channel Flow… cont.
 Open Channel Flow… cont.

The general equation for critical flow may be derived by

determining ESc and Qmax, independently, from the
specific energy equation.

The two methods both result in the same solution.

Or

Implying that at the critical depth, the discharge is a

maximum and the specific energy is a minimum.
Open Channel Flow… cont.
 Open Channel Flow… cont.

The specific energy curve (for constant discharge) has

been redrawn alongside a second curve of depth against
discharge for constant Es.

The figure illustrates several important principles of

rapidly varied flow:
 Open Channel Flow… cont.

1. For a given constant discharge:

(a) The specific energy curve has a minimum value ESc at

point c with a corresponding depth yc - known as the
critical depth.
 Open Channel Flow… cont.

(b) For any other value of Es, there are two possible
depths of flow known at alternate depths, one of which
is termed subcritical and the other supercritical:

For supercritical flow, y < yc

For subcritical flow, y > yc
 Open Channel Flow… cont.

2. For a given constant specific energy:

(a) The depth - discharge curve shows that discharge is a

maximum at the critical depth.

(b) For all other discharges, there are two possible depths
of flow (subcritical and supercritical) for any particular
value of Es.
 Open Channel Flow… cont.

Critical Depth and Critical Velocity

(for a Rectangular Channel)

For critical flow,

For a rectangular channel, Q = qb, B = b, and A = by.

Substituting in and taking α = 1,
 Open Channel Flow… cont.

then

and as

Then

Also, as
 Open Channel Flow… cont.

then

Or
 Open Channel Flow… cont.

To summarize:

For Fr > 1 – Supercritical flow

– Water velocity > wave velocity
– Disturbances travel downstream
– Upstream water levels are unaffected by downstream
control
 Open Channel Flow… cont.

For Fr < 1 – Subcritical flow

– Water velocity < wave velocity
– Disturbances travel upstream and downstream
– Upstream water levels are affected by downstream
control
 Open Channel Flow… cont.
Hydraulic Jump: With Specific Energy and Force –
Momentum Diagram
Open Channel Flow… cont.
 Sediment Transport
May loosely be defined as the movement of sediments in
the direction of flow.

A critical shear stress 𝜏c must be exceeded for sediment

movement to commence.

𝜏c is usually referred to as the Incipient/Threshold

Motion.

Below 𝜏c particles will remain at rest, just like in a rigid

boundary.
 Sediment Transport
Sediment transport influences sedimentation/silt
deposition or scouring

Silt deposition reduces reservoir capacity while scouring

undermines structures such as bridges.

Mode of sediment transport depends on sediment

characteristics such as its size, shape, density, and
movable parameter U*/Ws.
 Sediment Transport
Ws is the fall velocity (terminal velocity) of the sediment
particle in the fluid, and U* is the shear velocity √(𝜏c/𝜌).

Ws = √[(4/3)(gΔd/CD)], where CD is the drag coefficient,

Δ is the relative density in the fluid, d is the sediment
diameter, and g is the acceleration due to gravity.

The following are main sediment transport modes:

 Sediment Transport
Sliding or rolling along the bed – if the particle is
relatively round it will roll while if it is cubical it will
overturn or slide

Saltation or skipping – the particle moves in small jumps.

Saltation depends on the contact of the particle with the
bed, since it is the reaction from the bed that will cause
the impulse necessary for the jumping of the particles.
 Sediment Transport
Movement in Suspension – movement without contact
with the bed. This involves the movement of fine
particles which are supported and kept in the state of
suspension by the turbulent eddies against gravity.

The sediment transported by a stream or channel may be

divided into the following categories: Bed Load,
Suspended Load, and Wash Load.
 Sediment Transport
Bed Load – that portion of the sediment which moves on
or near the bed of the stream or channel.

Suspended Load – that portion of the sediment which

moves in suspension.

Wash Load – that portion of the rather fine suspended

particles which do not originate from the river bed but
from the catchment area owing to soil erosion.
 Sediment Transport

Flow regimes - Shear stresses above the threshold

condition disturb the initial plane boundary of the
channel, and the bed and water surface assume various
forms depending on the sediment and fluid flow
characteristics.

Two distinct regimes of flow may be identified with the

increasing flows with the following bed forms:
 Sediment Transport

(a) Lower regime: ripples (for smaller sediment size <0.6

mm, and low Froude number ≪1); dunes and ripples;
dunes with increasing shear (𝜏0) and Froude number Fr;
further increases in 𝜏0 introduce transition to
dunes/plane bed (Fr ≃ 1)
 Sediment Transport
(b) Upper regime: flat bed; antidunes; chutes and pools
with large shear and Froude numbers (>1).

Incipient (threshold) motion - Shields (1936)

introduced the concept of the dimensionless
entrainment function (𝜏0 ∕𝜌gΔd) as a function of shear
Reynolds number, Re∗ (=U∗d ∕𝜈), where 𝜌 is density of
the fluid.
 Sediment Transport
Note that the submerged relative density Δ is equal to (𝜌s
− 𝜌) ∕𝜌, which equals (s−1) where s is the relative density
of the sediment.

The resulting Shields diagram is shown below, with a

curve defining the threshold condition.

When the flow is fully turbulent around the bed material

(Re∗ > 400 and d ≃ 6 mm), the Shields criterion can be
written as
 Sediment Transport

But
 Sediment Transport

But

With 𝚫 = 1.65, ⇨ d = 11RS, where R is the hydraulic

radius and S the friction gradient.
 Sediment Transport

With

and

Gives:

where vc is the critical velocity for incipient motion.

 Sediment Transport
Design of stable channels in loose boundary
environments.

Two methods may be adopted in the design of stable

channels in loose boundary environments: Regime
Theory (method) and Tractive Force Approach.

The Regime Approach was developed by R.G. Kennedy

from studies on a number of irrigation channels in Punjab
in India.
 Sediment Transport
Further studies on the Regime Approach were done by
Lacey, Blench, and Simons and Albertson.

From Kennedy’s studies, it can be deduced that:

Vcr = Kyn (or KRn) where 0.5 < n < 0.73; and K is not a
dimensionless variable but is purely empirical.

Blench suggested that the Regime Approach was

primarily applicable to channels having the following
 Sediment Transport
Characteristics:

1. Steady discharge, and Froude Number less than unity;

2. Steady sediment load;

3. Straight alignment;
 Sediment Transport
Characteristics:

4. Cross section in which B is > 3y;

5. Bed and banks are hydraulically smooth;

6. Sufficiently long, established to ensure that equilibrium

has been attained and that the channel is stable.
 Sediment Transport
Simons and Albertson proposed five types of channels

Type 1. Channels with sandy boundaries;

Type 2. Channels with sandy bed and cohesive banks;

Type 3. Channels with cohesive boundaries;

 Sediment Transport
Type 4. Channels with course non-cohesive boundary
materials;

Type 5. Type Channel with heavy load of fine silty

sediment.
 Tractive Force Approach
This makes use of the tractive force equations for
sediment transport. Most of the early work was based on
the Du Boys equation; subsequently, the Shields
equations were adopted.

with entrainment function (𝜏0 ∕ 𝜌gΔd) as a function of

shear Reynolds Number, Re∗ (=U∗d ∕ 𝜈). For Re* > 400:
 Tractive Force Approach … cont.
Recall that 𝜏o = 𝜌gRso , where 𝜏o is the boundary shear
stress; and fluid flow is initiated by the bed slope so.

Note that the value of the shear stress on the corners of

the channel is equal to zero because there is no flow
taking place there, i.e., velocity = 0 (i.e. corners are filled
with sediments).

FD = 𝜏o A, where A is the area of exposure of the particle

 Tractive Force Approach … cont.
For the particle to remain in its position without being
washed away, the value of the angle of slope 𝝧 ≤ 𝟇,
where 𝟇 is the Angle of Repose / Internal Friction of
the soil.

Therefore in the limit 𝝧 = 𝟇

Hence, bed particle limiting shear criteria for bed slope is:
 Tractive Force Approach … cont.
𝜏bcA/W’ = tan𝟇, where c denotes the critical value of
tossing over, and W’ is the submerged weight of the
particle.

Critical shear stress varies with particle size, density and

shape. However, particles on slopes are more prone to be
dislodged than those resting on the channel bed.
 Tractive Force Approach … cont.
For a particle resting on the slopping side of a channel in
which water is flowing, two forces are active, namely: the
tractive force 𝜏SA and the gravitational force component
W’sin𝝧, which tends to cause the particle to roll down
the side slope.

The symbols used are A is the effective area of the

particle, 𝜏S is the unit tractive force on the side of the
channel, W’ is the submerged weight of the particle,
and 𝝧 is angle of slope.
 Tractive Force Approach … cont.
The Resultant force Fr acting on the prominent particle is
given the following equation:

Fr = √[𝜏s2A2 + W’2sin2𝝧]

When Fr is large enough, the particle will move. The

resistance to particle motion is equal to the normal
force W’cos𝝧 multiplied by the coefficient of friction, or
tan𝟇, where 𝟇 is the angle of repose
 Tractive Force Approach … cont.
For a particle on the bed:

W’tan𝝧 = A𝜏b

The tractive force ratio [𝜏s/𝜏b] is equivalent to:

[𝜏s/𝜏b] = K = cos𝝧√(1 – tan2𝝧/tan2𝟇)

Implying that K = √(1 – sin2𝝧/sin2𝟇)

 Tractive Force Approach … cont.
Example 1:

Design a trapezoidal channel to convey 50 m3/s of water

at a slope of 10-4 with the following data:

Side slopes: 2H:1V

Bed material size = 3 mm
Density of bed material = 2650 kg/m3
Angle of internal friction = 31o
 Tractive Force Approach … cont.
Shear criterion on the plane bed:

𝜏b / (𝜌s - 𝜌)gd = 0.05

Maximum shear on the slope = 0.76𝜌gyoso

Maximum shear on the bed = 0.95𝜌gyoso

 Tractive Force Approach … cont.
Example 2: It is intended to stabilize a river bed section
with the following data by depositing a layer of gravel or
stone pitching: Channel width = 20 m; Bed slope =
0.0045; Maximum discharge = 500 m3∕s; Chezy’s C = 18
log (12R ∕ d) where d is the mean diameter of the
material; Submerged relative density of the bed material
Δ = 1.65
Determine the depth of flow assuming the section to be
rectangular and the minimum size of stone required for
stability. Use Shields criterion for stability: 𝜏 ∕𝜌gΔd = 0.05.