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 GIFT OF
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DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
FOR

BEGINNERS.
 a la v

DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
FOR

BEGINNERS:

BY

JOSEPH EDWARDS, M.A.

FORMERLY FELLOW OF SIDNEY SUSSEX COLLEGE , CAMBRIDGE .

London :
MACMILLAN AND CO .
AND NEW YORK.
1893

[All Rights reserved.]

 4
Q Ħ30
E38

Cambridge:
PRINTED BY C. J. CLAY , M.A. AND SONS
AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS .

Sist of alhin betina

 PREFACE.

The present small volume is intended to form a

sound introduction to a study of the Differential Cal
culus suitable for the beginner. It does not therefore
aim at completeness, but rather at the omission of all
portions which are usually considered best left for a
later reading. At the same time it has been con
structed to include those parts of the subject pre
scribed in Schedule I. of the Regulations for the
Mathematical Tripos Examination for the reading of
students for Mathematical Honours in the University
of Cambridge.
Particular attention has been given to the examples
which are freely interspersed throughout the text. For
the most part they are of the simplest kind, requiring
but little analytical skill. Yet it is hoped they will
prove sufficient to give practice in the processes they
are intended to illustrate .
It is assumed that in commencing to work at the
Differential Calculus the student possesses a fair know

) ) ، .):
vi PREFACE.

ledge of Algebra as far as the Exponential and Logarith

mic Theorems ; of Trigonometry as far as Demoivre's
Theorem, and of the rudiments of Cartesian Geometry
as far as the equations of the several Conic Sections in
their simplest forms.
Being to some extent an abbreviation of my larger
Treatise my acknowledgments are due to the same
authorities as there mentioned. My thanks are also
due to several friends for useful suggestions with regard
to the desirable scope of the book.
Any suggestions for its improvement or for its
better adaptation to the requirements of junior
students, or lists of errata, will be gratefully received.

JOSEPH EDWARDS.

80, CAMBRIDGE GARDENS,

NORTH KENSINGTON , W.
December, 1892.
 CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.

LIMITING VALUES. ELEMENTARY UNDETERMINED FORMS.

PAGE

Definitions 1-5
Four important Limits 6-7
Undetermined forms: method of procedure 8411

CHAPTER II.

DIFFERENTIATION FROM THE DEFINITION ,

Tangent to a Curve. Definition . Equation 13-14

Differential Coefficient 14-17
A Rate -measurer 18-20

CHAPTER III.

FUNDAMENTAL PROPOSITIONS.

Constant. Sum. Product. Quotient 22-25

Function of a function 27-29
viii CONTENTS.

CHAPTER IV,

STANDARD FORMS ,
PAGE

31—33 Equat
Algebraic, Exponential, Logarithmic Forms .

Carte
Direct and Inverse Trigonometric Functions 34-38
Table of Results 39-40 Talue
Logarithmic Differentiation 40—41
Polar
Partial Differentiation 44-47

Pedal
Maxir
CHAPTER V. P

SUCCESSIVE DIFFERENTIATION .

Standard results and processes 52-54

Use of Partial Fractions and Demoivre's Theorem . 55–56 Metho
Leibnitz's Theorem 57–60 Polar
Note on Partial Fractions 61-63

CHAPTER VI.
Expres
EXPANSIONS. Co-ord
Contac

Elementary Methods . 66–68

Taylor's Theorem 69 70
Maclaurin's Theorem 71–73
By the Formation of a Differential Equation . 73–77
Differentiation or Integration of a Known Series 774-79 Method

CHAPTER VII.
Pedal
INFINITESIMALS.
Invers
i
Polar F
Orders of Smallness. Infinitesimals 83—86
Invol
Difference of Small Arc from Chord 87 ut
 CONTENTS. ix

CHAPTER VIII.

TANGENTS AND NORMALS.

PAGE

Equations of Tangent and Normal . . 90—96

3
Cartesian Subtangent, Subnormal , etc. 97-99
ds dx
Values of etc. 100-101
dx ' ds
7
Polar Co-ordinates, Subtangent, Subnormal, Angle between
Radius Vector and Tangent, etc. 102-105
Pedal Equation . . 106—107
Maximum number of Tangents or Normals from a given
point . 108-110

CHAPTER IX.

ASYMPTOTES.
j Methods of finding Asymptotes of a Curve in Cartesians . 115—125
) Polar Asymptotes 126_129
3
CHAPTER X.

CURVATURE .

Expressions for the Radius of Curvature . . 132-150

Co - ordinates of Centre of Curvature . 152-153
Contact 153-158

3
) CHAPTER XI.
3 ENVELOPES.
7
Method of finding an Envelope 162-168

CHAPTER XII.

ASSOCIATED LOCI,
Pedal Curves 1734-179
Inversion 180—181
Polar Reciprocal 182
Involutes and Evolutes 183-187
х
X CONTENT'S.

CHAPTER XIII .

MAXIMA AND MINIMA .

PAGE

Elementary Algebraical and Geometrical Methods . 192-196

The General Problem 197-206

CHAPTER XIV.

UNDETERMINED FORMS.

Applications of the Differential Calculus to the several

forms . 210—219

CHAPTER XV.

LIMITATIONS OF TAYLOR'S THEOREM .

Continuity . 222--224
Lagrange-formula for Remainder after n terms of Taylor's
Series . 225-230

11
a

01
S
GE

-196
-206

DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS .

CHAPTER I.
_219

LIMITING VALUES. ELEMENTARY UNDETERMINED

FORMS.

-224 1. Object of the Differential Calculus. When

an increasing or decreasing quantity is made the subject
-230 of mathematical treatment, it often becomes necessary
to estimate its rate of growth. It is our principal object
to describe the method to be employed and to exhibit
applications of the processes described.
2. Explanation of Terms. The frequently re
curring terms “ Constant,”» “< Variable,” “ Function ,” will
be understood from the following example :
Let the student imagine a triangle of which two sides x, are
unknown but of which the angle (A) included between those sides is
known. The area (A) is expressed by
A = xy sin A.
The quantity A is a " constant ” for by hypothesis it retains the same
value, though the sides x and y may change in length while the
triangle is under observation . The quantities x, y and A are there
fore called variables. A, whose value depends upon those of x and y,
is called the dependent variable ; x and y, whose values may be any
whatever , and may either or both take up any values which may be
assigned to them, are called independent variables.
The quantity A whose value thus depends upon those of x, y and
is said to be a function of x, y and A.
E. D, C. 1
 2 DIFTERE DRAŽCULUS .

3. Definitions. We are thus led to the following

definitions :
(a) A CONSTANT is a quantity which, during any set
of mathematical operations, retains the same value.
(6) A VARIABLE is a quantity which, during any set of
mathematical operations,does not retain the same value
but is capable of assuming different values.
(c) An INDEPENDENT VARIABLE is one which may
take up any arbitrary value that may be assigned to it.
* (d) A DEPENDENT VARIABLE is one which assumes
/ its value in consequence of some second variable or system
1 of variables taking up any set of arbitrary values that
I may be assigned to them .
}
(e) When one quantity depends upon another or upor
a system of others in such a manner as to assume a
definite value when a system of definite values is given to
the others it is called a FUNCTION of those others.
4. Notation . The usual notation to express that
one variable y is a function of another ax is
y =f(x) or y = F (x) or y = $ ( ).
Occasionally the brackets are dispensed with when no
confusion can thereby arise. Thusfæ may be sometimes
written for f(«). If u be an unknown function oj
several variables x, y, z , we may express the fact by the
equation u =f(x, y, z ).
5. It has become conventional to use the letters
a, b, C ... A, B, y... from the beginning of the alphabei
to denote constants and to retain later letters, such as
U , V, W , X , Y, 2 and the Greek letters , n, & for variables.
6. Limiting Values. The following illustration:
will explain the meaning of the term “ LIMITIN
VALUE " :
 EL
LIMITING VALUES. 3

ng (1) We say 6 = , by which we mean that by taking enough sixes

we can make •666 ... differ by as little as we please from g .
2x +3
set (2) The limit of 3 + 1 when x is indefinitely diminished is 3.
2x + 3
For the difference between and 3 is and by diminishing
8 +1 2+1
of x indefinitely this difference can be made less than any assignable
UE quantity however smali.
3
2+
C
ny The expression can also be written which shews that if x
1+
C

-es be increased indefinitely it can be made to continually approach and

to differ by less than any assignable quantity from 2 , which is there
em fore its limit in that case .
- at
It is useful to adopt the notation Ltx= a to denote =

the words " the Limit when x = a of.”

On 2x + 3 2x + 3
a Thus Lt = 0 = 3 ; Ltr = 0 = 2.
X+ 1 X+1
to
( 3) If an equilateral polygon be inscribed in any closed curve and
the sides of the polygon be decreased indefinitely , and at the same
time their number be increased indefinitely, the polygon continually
at approximates to the form of the curve, and ultimately differs from it
in area by less than any assignable magnitude, and the curve is said to
be the limit of the polygon inscribed in it.

10
7. We thus arrive at the following general defini
tion :
es
oi DEF. The Limit of a function for an assigned value
pe of the independent variable is that valuefrom whichthe
function may be made to differ by less than any assign
able quantity however small by making the independent
is variable approach sufficiently near its assigned value.
3 :
8. Undetermined forms. When a function in
5. volves the independent variable in such a manner that
for a certain assigned value of that variable its value
n : cannot be found by simply substituting that value of the
VO variable, the function is said to take an undetermined
form .
1-2
4 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

One of the commonest cases occurring is that of a

fraction whose numerator and denominator both vanish
for the value of the variable referred to.
Let the student imagine a triangle whose sides are
made of a material capable of shrinking indefinitely till
they are smaller than any conceivable quantity. To fix
the ideas suppose it to be originally a triangle whose
sides are 3, 4 and 5 inches long, and suppose that the
shrinkage is uniform . As the shrinkage proceeds the
sides retain the same mutual ratio and may at any
instant be written 3m , 4m , 5m and the angles remain
unaltered. It thus appears that though each of these
sides is ultimately immeasurably small, and to all prac
tical purposes zero, they still retain the same mutual ratio
3 : 4 : 5 which they had before the shrinkage began.
These considerations should convince the student
that the ultimate ratio of two vanishing quantities is not
necessarily zero or unity.
X" – a
9. Consider the fraction ; what is its value
X a

when x = a ? Both numerator and denominator vanish

when x is put = a . But it would be incorrect to assume
that the fraction therefore takes the value unity. It is
equally incorrect to suppose the value to be zero for the
reason that its numerator is evanescent ; or that it is
infinite since its denominator is evanescent, as the
beginner is often fallaciously led to believe. If we wish
to evaluate this expression we must never put a actually
equal to a. We may however put x = aa + h where h is
anything other than zero.
Thus xa – a
- a
= 2a + h ,
and it is now apparent that by making h indefinitely.
small (so that the value of a is made to approach inde
finitely closely to its assigned value a) we may make the
expression differ from 2a by less than any assignable
 EXAMPLES. 5

quantity. Therefore 2a is the limiting value of the

given fraction.
10. Two functions of the same independent variable
are said to be ultimately equal when as the independent
variable approachesindefinitely near its assigned value
the limit of their ratio is unity.
sin e
Thus Lte= 0 - 1 by trigonometry ,
and therefore when an angle is indefinitely diminished
its sine and its circular measure are ultimately equal.
EXAMPLES

1. = O of y2
Find the limit when x =
2 ,

(a) when y = mx,

(6) when y = x2/a,
(c) when y = ax2 + b.
ax + 6
2. Find Lt (i) when x = 0, (ii) when x = 0 .
bx ta
+ '
3. Find Ltx = «
23 - a3
Ltzza24 - 04 L
25 - 6
=@ 3–
- a X -- a

b
ax +
X
4. Find the limit of (i) when x = 0, (ii) when X = 00 .
d'
cx +

3x2 - 4x + 1 -

5. Find Ltx = 1 z 2 - 4x + 3 *
6. The opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral are supple
mentary. What does this proposition become in the limit when
two angular points coincide ?
203 – 6x2 + 11x – 6 for the values
7. Evaluate the fraction 3
3 -

6x^2 + 11x - 1-6

-0 .
= 00 , 3, 2, 1 , } , } , 0,
Evaluate Ltx = 1
Nä - 1 and Ltx = 0 Vi + c - 1
3. 0
C
ปี 10 1
6 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

11. Four Important Limits. The following

limits are important:
sin A
(I) Lte- 0
=1 ; Lto -ocos @ = 1,
an 1
(II) Ltz = 1 - 1
n ,

( III) Ltq== (1+2) =-e, where e is the base of the

Napierian logarithms,
a® - 1
( IV ) Ltx=0 X
= loge a.
12. (I) The limits (I) can be found in any standard
text-book on Plane Trigonometry.
-1
13. (II) To prove Ltx = 1 = n . Letx = 1 + 2. Then
1
when x approaches unity z approaches zero. Hence we
can consider 2 to be less than 1 , and we may therefore
apply the Binomial to the expansion of (1 + 2 ) " what
ever n may be.
wn 1 (1 + 2 ) " - 1
Thus Lex== 1 Ltz =0
1 z

m (m - 1 )
Nz + za to..
1.2
Ltz=0
= 0
z

Lits-ofu +n(n -1) ...}= 2+ = 1 .

14. (III) To prove Ltx = - ( 1+--(1+* 2) =

= 0 = e.

Let
y == (1+ *
2).
А
then loge y = x log. (1++ ). de
 FOUR IMPORTANT LIMITS. 7
ng

Now x is about to become infinitely large, and there

1
fore
&
may be throughout regarded as less than unity,
and we may expand by the Logarithmic Theorem .
(11 1 1
Thus loge y = x +
x 2&2 3x3 ...
1 1
the 1 +
2x 3x2
>

1
= 1
C
x [a convergent series ).
ard

Thus when x becomes infinitely large

Lt logey = 1,
and Lt y = e,
hen
i.e.
fore
we
Lts. ((1+2) = = e.

lat
Ltx
.
-- * {{1+91
Con ldquo(1+9)=L._
Ltx=
a
o
ea.

ах 1
15. ( IV ) To prove Lte = 0 = logea .

. Assume the expansion for a-, viz.

X2 1

= I.
at = 1 + x logea + 52!; (logea)2 + ... ,
which is shewn in Algebra to be a convergent series.
а *
logea +8 ( logea )
1
Hence =
t ...
3 2!

= logea + x x [a convergent series ].

And the limit of the right-hand side, when a is in
definitely diminished, is clearly logea.
I
8 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

16. Method of procedure. The rule for evaluating

0
a function which takes the undetermined form wher
0
the independent variable x ultimately coincides with its
assigned value a is as follows:
Put x = a + h and expand both numerator and deno
minator of the fraction. It will now become apparent
that the reason why both numerator and denominator
ultimately vanish is that some power of h is a common
factor of each. This should now be divided out. Finally
let h diminish indefinitely so that a becomes ultimately
a, and the true limiting value of the function will be
clear.
In the particular case in which x is to become zero
the expansion of numerator and denominator in powers
of a should be at once proceeded with without any pre
liminary substitution for x.
In the case in which x is to become infinite, put
1
= 2

so that when x becomes op > Y becomes 0.

Several other undetermined forms occur, viz . O x 0 ,
> 9,0°, 3 °, 1 ° , but they may be made to depend
> >

upon the form ở by special artifices

0
The method thus indicated will be best understood
by examining the mode of solution of the following
examples :
X7 - 2.05 +1
Ex. 1. Find Ltx =
23 – 3.x2 +2
0
This is of the form if we put x = 1 . Therefore we put x = 1 + 16
0
and expand. We thus obtain
X7 - 2x5 +1 ( 1 + h)? – 2 (1 + 2 )5 +1
Lt= 1 X3 3x2 - Ltr
- + 2 (1 + h )3 - 3 ( 1 + h)?+2
 UNDETERMLVED FORMS.

ng = Lth = 0 ( 1 + 7h + 21h2 + ... ) – 2 (1 + 51 + 10hº+ ... ) + 1

(1 + 3h + 3hº + ... ) – 3 (1 + 2h + ha) + 2
ner - 3h + 12 + ...
= Lt == 0
3h + ...
its - 3 + h + ...
= Lth = 0 - 3 + ...
no -3
ent 3 .
= 1.
toi It will be seen from this example that in the process of expansion
Don it is only necessary in general to retain a few of the lowest powers of h.
ally Lix = 0 a² – 6 *
Ex. 2. Find
ely 2

be
Here numerator and denominator both vanish if x be put equal to 0.
We therefore expand at and b. by the exponential theorem . Hence
era a² - 6x
ers
Ly = 0
X
pre

= Ltq = 0
{1++ x logea + 2 !( loba) +...} - {1{1++ x2 logeb + 2 ! (logebb)*+...
+ )2 + .
2
.

= Lds-o floga – logeb + (106a*-log(012) + ...?

a
2!
1

= logea – logeb = loge ū .

-

o.
tan : x2
Ex . 3. Find Lt ,
end ( 2

tan : 1 sin a
Since
2 cOS 2

tan x
Good we have Lt = 0
2
= 1.

ring tan x x2

Hence the form assumed by is an undetermined form 1°

2

when we put x = 0.
Expand sin x and cos x in powers of x. This gives
1
1+k 1 23 1
+ 22
tan x 3!

1.- (47)*-... ** Lt == 0
2
r3
2!
+
10 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

x2

Lt, ( 1+
(1+ 3
+ higher powers of x
-)
x2
Lt = 0 {1 + 3 ( 1+
1

x2 \ 22
--(1+372)".
Lt =: 0 ( 1+
where l is a series in ascending powers of x whose first term ( and
therefore whose limit when x = 0) is unity. Hence
1 37
tan 3 .rº/ \ x2
L =0
( C
-
Ltq = 0
)"}*=ed, by Art. 14.
{(1+ r97 3

Ex. 4. Find Ltz 1 - .xl-4.

This expression is of the undetermined form 1" .
Put 1- x = y ,
and therefore, if x = 1 , y=0;
1

therefore Limit required = Lty - 0 (1 - y) = e-1 (Art. 14).

0

1
Ex . 5. Lt,*= 0X (ax - 1).
This is of the undetermined form 0 x 0.
1
Put X =
y
therefore, if x = 0 , y = 0,
a' - 1
and Limit required = Lty == = logea (Art. 15) .
Y

17. The following Algebraical and Trigonometrical series are

added , as they are wanted for immediate use. They should be learnt
thoroughly.
!
m (m - 1 ) x +
m (m - 1 ) (x – 2 ) 23+
( 1 + x )" = 1 + na + 1.2 1.2.3
m ( +1) x2 + m ( m + 1) ( n + 2) x3 +
(1 – X ) -" = 1 + na + 1.2 1.2.3

ar = 1 + x logea +
22 (logea)” +, 43 (logea )3 +
21 3!

3
2 = 1+*
1 x
+*****
2! 3! +
+
 EXAMPLES. 11

wolle
x+
loge ( 1 + x ) = x 2
+
3
+

x2 re X4

-
loge ( 1 – x ) = .

loo
3 4
1 1+3 .c3 + 25 +
loge =X+
1-3 3 5

( ar
tan -lx = x
* ==-*
cos x = 1
x2
+

+
5
Gregny'sissudees .
2! 4!
x3
sin x = X -
3! 5!

+ x4
cosh x
cord [which " 2 ) -1 = + +
2 ! * 4!
+

ear -e +
sinh & which =
[ 2
= X +
3!
+
5!
+

cettbou

EXAMPLES .

Find the values of the following limits :

am - 1 23 - 1
22 xm - 1
1. Ltz =0 / -1 2. Lt == 1 3. Ltq =
xn 1
% -1
1

4. Lte == 0 xă– 1
( 1 + x )n - 1 5. Lt = 1
204 + x3 – 34 – 5x +4
203 – 22 – X + 1
205 - 2.23 - 4x2 + 9x - 4 ex -e *
es & 6. Lt = 1 7. Lt == 0
leari 24 - 2.23 + 2x – 1
em te 2
8. Lt = 0
x2 9. Lt X == 0 X COSX – x2
loge (1 + x )
X - sin x cos x
10. Lte == 0 xet –loge(1+2)
X2
11. Ltz = 0 23
sin - 1 x - 3 cosh x – COS X
12. Ltx = 0 203 COS X 13. Ltz =0 Csin

sin - 1 x sin-1 2 – sinh 2

14. Lts = 0 tan
15. Lt = 0
 12 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.
22
x cos ' x -- loge( 1 + x) - sin 2
16. Ltz = 0 x3
1 1 +x
fà logo
2 sin xta
1
За
et sin x - x - x2
x 17. Ltx = 0 18. Ltz = 0
x5 x2 + x loge (1 – 3
27 - sint. 2 tan & 2
19. Ltz = 0
x ?
20. Lt = 0

tan x \ 33 sin x I

21.
.(ory
Ltq = 0 22. Ltz = 0
( )
2

x
Itz : (ain gay
23. Ltz = 0
Id-( since)
-24 . Ltz = 0

25. Ltr-o (covers x)ă! ++ 26. Ltx = " ( cosec X2'))tan2x.

 CHAPTER II .

DIFFERENTIATION FROM THE DEFINITION.

18. Tangent of a Curve; Definition ; Direction .

Let AB be an arc of a curve traced in the plane of the
paper, OX a fixed straight line in the same plane. Let
Y
В.

А R

01 T M N X

P ; be two points on the curve ; PM , QN, perpen

diculars on OX, and PR the perpendicular from P on
QN. Join P , Q, and let QP be produced to cut OX
>

at T.
When Q, travelling along the curve, approaches in
definitely near to P, the limiting position of chord QP is
called the TANGENT at P. QR and PR both ultimately
vanish , but the limit of their ratio is in general finite;
for Lt RQ = Lt tan RPQ = Lt tan XTP = tangent of the
PR
angle which the tangent at P to the curve makes with
OX.
14 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

If y = $ (x) be the equation of the curve and

=

x + h the abscissae of the points P, Q respectively

>

then MP = $(Q), NQ = $ ( x + h), RQ = $(x +h) - $ (a

and PR = h .
RQ
Thus Lt Lth== 00 $ ( x + hh) – 0 (2 )
PR
Hence, to draw the tangent at anypoint (x,y) on th
curve y = $ (x ), we must draw a line through that poin
making with the axis of x an angle whose tangent is
Lth = 0 $ (2C + h ) - (x ).;
h
and if this limit be called m , the equation of the tangent
at P ( x, y) will be
Y - y = m (X – X ),
X, Y being the current co -ordinates of any point on the
tangent; for the line represented by this equation goes
through the point (x, y), and makes with the axis of 1
an angle whose tangent is m .
19. DEF . — DIFFERENTIAL COEFFICIENT.
Let $ (x) denote any function of x , and ( x + h) the
same function of x + h ; then Lth=0 + (a + b)h -4 ( ) is
called the FIRST DERIVED FUNCTION or DIFFERENTIAL
COEFFICIENT of $ ( x) with respect to x .
The operation of finding this limit is called differ
entiating • (a).
20 . Geometrical meaning. The geometrical
meaning of the above limit is indicated in the last article,
where it is shewn to be the tangent of the angle y which
the tangent at any definite point ( x, y) on the curve
y = $ ( ) makes with the axis of a .
21. We can now find the differential coefficient of
any proposed function by investigating the value of the
 GEOMETRICAL MEANING . 15

above limit ; but it will be seen later on that, by means

1 of certain rules to be established in Chap. III. and a
knowledge of the differential coefficients of certain
standard forms to be investigated in Chap. IV., we can
always avoid the labour of an ab initio evaluation.
22
Ex. 1. Find from the definition the differential coefficient of a
where a is constant ; and the equation of the tangent to the curve
ay = x .
Fu x2
Here
$ (x ) = a
7

(x + h)2
♡ ( 2C + h) = a
>

(x + h)2 – x2
e therefore Lth = 0 ° (* + 1hh) – ^ (x)= Ltn- 0 ha
2xh + h2
= Ltnu= 0 ha
= Lt = 0 (2xa+ 1)
2.x
t
a
0

f The geometrical interpretation of this result is that, if a tangent

be drawn to the parabola ay = x2 at the point (x, y ), it will be inclined
2.x
to the axis of x at the angle tan-1 a .

?,
The equation of the tangent is therefore
2.0
Y - y ==
a
(X – x) .

Ex. 2. Find from the definition the differential coefficient of

] 2
loge sin a where a is a constant.
2
Here ♡ ( x ) = loge sin
and x+h 2
- loge sin a
18

loge sin
Lth = 0 ( + h ) - (2 ) = Lth == 00 a
G
C.
$8 h h
2 h 2 h

1 =[4 =
1
= '0 loge to come to win
sin
a
COS
a
+ cos

2
a a
18

sin

h
.- ' h loge(1+
18

th
= Lt 0
( 1+ a
cot higher powers of
of 1)
16 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.
h ha
by substituting for sin --a and cos al
their expansions in powers of
a
h
cot higher powers of h
a a
= Ltr = 0 h
[by expanding the logarithm ]
1 X
= -cot
a a

2
Hence the tangent at any point on the curve = logesin is inclined
a a
2
to the axis of x at an angle whose tangent is cot a that is at an angle
TT 2 .

a and the equation of the tangent at the point x, y is

2
Y - y = cot a (X -- x )..
Y

EXAMPLES.

Find the equation of the tangent at the point (x, y) on each

of the following curves :
1. y = x3. 2. y = x4 3. y = Væ.
4. y = x2 + x ^3. 5. y = sin x . 6. Y = 6*.
7. y = loge 2 . 8. y = tan x . 9. 2.9 + y " =
10. 2 ° /a2 + y /b2 = 1.
22. Notation . It is convenient to use the notation
8x for the same quantity which we have denoted byWeh,
viz, a small but finite increase in the value of x .
may similarly denote by dy the consequent change in the
value of y. Thus if (x, y), (x + 8x, y + dy) be contiguous
points upon a given curve y = 0 (x ), we have
y + dy = $ (x + 8x ),
and dy = +$ ( x + 8x ) - $ (xw ).
Thus the differential coefficient

Ltəx==00 φ (α + δα)
8.C
- φ (α)
 NOTATION 17

may be written
of
d
dy
Lt &x = 0 8.C
'
which more directly indicates the geometrical meaning
LtPR =0 RQ
PR
pointed out in Art. 18.
Blir The result of the operation expressed by
ani Lth == 0 φ (α + h) - φ ( α)
h

or by Lt & x = 0 dy
δα '
d dy
is denoted by dx y
or doc

The student must guard against thefallaciousnotion

ea that dx and dy are separate small quantities, as dx and
d
dy are. He must remember that dx is a symbol of
operation which when applied to any function $ (x )
means that we are
(1) to increase a to x + h,
ati (2) to subtract the original value of the function,
by (3) to divide the remainder by h,
1
at
(4) to evaluate the limit when h ultimately vanishes.
uc Other notations expressing the same thing are
do (x) do
dф
dx dac > $' (x), $'s %, x , y', ý, yı.
EXAMPLES.

Find
dy in the following cases :
dix
1.
. 9y = 2x
2z. 2. y = 2 + 3. 3. y = 2 + 3.r.
E. D. C. 2
18 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

4. Y = 2 + 3.12. 5. Y ytb
1
6. y =
1
+ a.
1
7. y =.2x2 + u.. 8. yra Nx. 9. y = V x2 + a ?.
10. y = eva 11. y = esina 12. y = loge sec x.
sin.c
13. y = x sin a'. 14. y 2
15. Y = .22.

23. Aspect of the Differential Coefficient as a

Rate-Measurer. When a particle is in motion in aa
given manner the space described is a function of the
time of describing it. We may consider the time as an
independent variable, and the space described in that
time as the dependent variable.
The rate of change of position of the particle is
called its velocity .
If uniform the velocity is measured by the space
described in one second ; if variable, the velocity atany
instant is measured by the space which would be
described in one second if, for that second, the velocity
remained unchanged.
Suppose a space s to have been described in time i
with varying velocity, and an additional space ds to be
described in the additional time St. Let v, and v., be
the greatest and least values of the velocity during
the interval St ; then the spaces which would have been
described with uniform velocities vi, V. , in time dt are
vidt and v,dt, and are respectively greater and less than
the actual space ds.
ds
Hence vi ,
St
>
and v. are in descending order of mag
nitude.
If then dt be diminished indefinitely, we have in the
=
limit v = v. = the velocity at the instant considered,
es ds
which is therefore represented by LtSt i.e. by dt >
 A RATE -MEASURER . 19

24. It appears therefore that we may give another in

ds
terpretation to a differential coefficient, viz. that dt means

the rate of increase of s in point of time. Similarly

dx dy
dt'' dt, mean the rates of change of x and y respectively
Ꮖ

in point of time, and measure the velocities, resolved

parallel to the axes, of a moving particle whose co
1 ordinates at the instant under consideration are x, y.
1 If æ and y be given functions of t, and therefore the
i path of the particle defined , and if dx, dy, dt, be simul
3 taneous infinitesimal increments of x, y, t, then
t
dy dy
dy dy St dt
€
- LA- L
da δας
= Lt
da
St
da
dt

8
and therefore represents the ratio of the rate of change
of y to that of a. The rate of change of x is arbitrary,
C
and if we choose it to be unit velocity, then
dy dy = absolute rate of change of y.
1
dx dt
.
25. Meaning of Sign of Differential Coefficient.
:
1 If x be increasing with t, the x-velocity is positive,
whilst, if x be decreasing while t increases, that velocity
is negative. Similarly for y.
dy
Moreover, since
dy_dt dy
dx dx dx is positive when x and y
Ꮖ
da
dt
increase or decrease together, but negative when one in
creases as the other decreases.
This is obvious also from the geometrical inter
dy
pretation of dac For, if x and y are increasing together,
2-2
20 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

dy
da is the tangent of an acute angle and therefore positive,
dy represents the
while if, as x increases y decreases, dc
tangent of an obtuse angle and is negative.
26. The above article frequently affords important
information with regard to the sign of a given expression.
For if, for instance, ( x) be a continuous function which
is positive when a = a and when x = b, and if $ ' (a ) be
of one sign for all values of a lying between a and 6 so
that it is known that $ (x) is always increasing or
always decreasing from the one value • ( a ) to the other
$ (6 ), it will follow that ♡ (@) must be positive for all
intermediate values of x.
Ex. Let ( 2) = (:c -1) ex + 1.
(.x2 + h - 1) exth- fx - 1) e
Here • (0) = 0 and $ ' (x ) = Lth = 0 h
(x + h - 1 ) ( 1 + h + ... ) - ( x - 1 ) EP
= Lth = 0 h
hx + higher powers of h
= Lth = 0 e = te”.

So that $' (.x) is positive for all positive values of t . Therefore as I

increases from 0 to 0 , $ (.x ) is always increasing. Hence since its
initial value is zero the expression is positive for all positive values
of x .

EXAMPLES.
1. Differentiate the following expressions, and shew that
they are each positive for all positive values of x :
( i ) (.1: -2) et + x + 2,
22
(ii) (x – 3) ex + 2 + 2x +3,
(iii) x - loge
Se ( 1 + x ).

i
2. In the curve y = ces, if y be the angle which the tangent
at any point makes with the axis of x , prove y = c tan yo
3.. In the curve y = ccosh c, prove y = c sec y.
 EXAMPLES. 21

4. In the curve 362y = x3 – 3a.x2 find the points at which the

tangent is parallel to the axis of x.
[ N.B. — This requires that tan y = 0.]
t 5. Find at what points of the ellipse 22/a? + 42/12 = 1 the
tangent cuts off equal intercepts from the axes.
[N.B.—This requires that tan y = + 1.]
3
6. Prove that if a particle move so that the space described
is proportional to the square of the time of description, the
velocity will be proportional to the time, and the rate of increase
of the velocity will be constant.
7. Shew that if a particle moves so that the space described
is given by 8 oc sin ut, where he isa constant, the rate of increase
of the velocity is proportional to the distance of the particle
measured along its path from a fixed position.
8. Shew that the function
x sin x + cos x + cosa x
continually diminishes as x increases from 0 to 7/2.
9. If y = 2x - tan -1.2 - loge(2 + 1 + 2 ),
shew that y continually increases as x changes from zero to
positive infinity
{

10. A triangle has two of its angular points at (a ,0), (0, b ),

1 and the third (x , y) is moveable along the line y = x. Shew that
if A be its area dA
a
l 2
da
= a + b,
and interpret this result geometrically.
11. If A be the area of a circle of radius x, shew that the
dA
circumference is Interpret this geometrically.
dx '

12. O is a given point and NP a given straight line upon

which ON is the perpendicular. The radius OP rotates about
O with the constant angular velocity w. Shew that NP
increases at the rate
w.ON sec? NOP.
6
 CHAPTER III.

FUNDAMENTAL PROPOSITIONS,

27. It will often be convenient in proving standard

results to denote by a small letter the function of a
considered, and by the corresponding capital the same
function of xc + hh , e.g. if u = $ a(x), then UU = 0 (xx + h),
or if u = ar, then U ax th .
Accordingly we shall have
du U -U

dac
Lth = 0
h
dv V V

dac
Lth = 0
h
etc.
We now proceed to the consideration of several im
portant propositions.
28. PROP. I. The Differential Coefficient of any
Constant is zero. This proposition will be obvions
when we refer to the definition of a constant quantity.
A constant is essentially a quantity of which there is
no variation, so that if y = c, dy = absolute zero what
dy
ever may be the value of Sx. Hence 0 and
δα
dy
= 0 when the limit is taken .
da
Or geometrically: y = c is the equation of a straight line parallel
to the x-axis. At each point of its length it is its own tangent and
makes an angle whose tangent is zero with the x-axis.
 FUNDAMENTAL PROPOSITIONS. 23

29. PROP.II. Product of Constant and Function .

The differential coefficient of a product of a constant and
a function of x is equal to the product of the constant
and the differential coefficient of the function, or, stated
algebraically,
d du

d
) -o
da (cu) = 0 da .
CU си 0- 0
For ( cu ) = Lth =0 = cLth =00
da h h
du
EC
and dx
no
så 30. PROP. III. Differential Coefficient of a Sum .
S+ The differential coefficient of the sum of a set of functions
of x isthe sum of the differential coefficients ofthe several
functions.
Let u, V , W , be the functions of X, and y their
sum ,

Let U , V , W , ... , Y be what these expressions

severally become when x is changed to x + h.
Then y = u tu + w +
=

wal Y = U + V + W + ... ,
=

and therefore
Y - y = ( U – u ) + ( V – v) + ( W – w ) + ... ;
of a
dividing by h,
-bvi Y- Y U u V- V Ꮃ .- W
ant
h h
+
h
+
h
+ ...
ner
wł and taking the limit
dy du du
dv dw
0 1
dxda +* dx + * dx to ...
If some of the connecting signs had been – instead
of + a corresponding result would immediately follow,
par e.gif
ent
y = u + V - W + ...
24 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

dy du dy dw
then t ...
dada + do da

31. PROP. IV. The Differential Coefficient of

the product of two functions is
( First Function) ( Diff. Coeff. of Second)
+ (Second Function) x ( Diff. Coeff. of First),
or, stated algebraically,
d (uv) = U
dv
tv
du
dx da dx '

With the same notation as before, let

y = uv, and therefore Y = UV ;
whence Y - y = UV – UV
= U ( V - v) + V ( U – u ) ;
Y-Y V- V U u
therefore = U + V
h he h

and taking the limit

dy dv du
= U + υ
dac doc dc

32. On division by uv the above result may be written

1 dy 1 du 1 dv
+
y da u da v dx *
Hence it is clear that the rule may be extended to pro
ducts of more functions than two.
For example, if y :Uvw ; let vw = 2 , then y = uz. =

1 dy 1 du 1 de
Whence
u dac
+ > 1
y dx 2 da
1 dz 1 dv 1 dw
but + >
z dx
2 v dx W dx '
 FUNDAMENTAL PROPOSITIONS. 25

whence by substitution
1 dy 1 du 1 dv 1 dw
+ +
yy da u da v da W dæ
cient
Generally, if y = uvwt...
nd ) 1 dy_1du 1 dv 1 dw 1 dt
+ + + t ... ,
y da u da v dac W da t dx
st),
and if we multiply by uvwt... we obtain
dy = (vwt...) du + ( uwt...) du + ( uvt...) dw t .
doc da doc dac

i.e. multiply the differential coefficient of each separate

function by the product of all the remaining functions
and add up all the results ; the sum will be the differ
ential coefficient of the product of all the functions.
33. PROP. V. The Differential Coefficient of a
quotient of two functions is
( Diff. Coeff. of Num ".) (Den ”.) – (Diff. Coeff. of Den ”.) (Num ”.)
Square of Denominator

or, stated algebraically,

du du
V U
e writ d w doc da

(
dx (v va

With the same notation as before, let

i to ] U U
Y and therefore Y =
V V
= u.
U u
whence Y-y = V V

Uv- Vu
Vv
26 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

0 – 10 V V
V u
Y-Y h h
therefore
h Vo
and taking the limit
du dv
V - U
dy doc dc
dx 2²

34. To illustrate these rules let the student recall to memory the
20
differential coefficients of x2 and a loge sin a-- established in Art. 21 , viz .
2
2x and cot -a respectively.
2
Ex . 1. Thus if y = x2 + a loge sin a

dy= .
we have by Prop. III. 2x + cot
dx a

2
Ex . 2. If y = x* x a log,sin
2
dy = 2.2 x a logesin - + xº cot
we have by Prop . IV . d.c al

C
aloge sin
Ex . 3 . If y = >

C 2
xº.cot
a
2x .aloge sin
.

a
dy
we have by Prop. V. dc 24

EXAMPLES .
[ The following differential coefficients obtained as results of
preceding examples may for present purposes be assumed :
y = 2 ), Y1 = 3x2. y = et Yl = en

y = x4, 21 = 4c . y = loge 2 , Yu

1
y = vx, Yı = y = tan x , Yu = sec” z .
2 V
y = sin x, Yu = cos x . y = loge sin X, Yi = cot x.]
 FUNCTION OF A FUNCTION. 27

Differentiate the following expressions by aid of the foregoing

rules :
1 . 203 sin x, Bes, 23 loge X , 23 tan x, 23 loge sin x.
2. < / sing, sin x /x4, sin x /e*, e < /sin x .
3. tan x.loge sin x , ex logex, sinº cos .
4 . 23ex sin x, x tan x logel.
5 . 20 sin xlese, .23%e* sinx, 1 / 83ex sin x .
6.2 Vic.sin x , 3 tan c /wa, 5 + 4e4/Va.
7. ex
6% ( 23 + VX),, (.223 + 2 4) ( ex loge x ).
emory
t. 21 , 35. Function of a function .
Suppose u = f ( v) .... . ( 1 ),
where v = $ (a ) ... .(2).
If x be changed to x + dx, v will become v + dv, and
in consequence u will become u + su.
Now if v had been first eliminated between equa
tions (1 ) and (2) we should have a result of the form
u == F (x ) ... ( 3 ).
This equation will be satisfied by the same simul
taneous values + 8x, u + du, which satisfy equations
( 1 ) and ( 2). Also
δu du δυ
oc δυ δα ;
and proceeding to the limit
Su
du du
Lt&x=
= 00
dac doc
as obtained from equation (3),
results du du
d: Lts== 0 as obtained from equation ( 1 ),
δυ dv
δυ dv
Ltsx = 0
da
as obtained from equation (2 ).
δια
ec x . du du du
Thus
da dv da .
ot x .]
28 DIFFEREN CALCULUS.
TIAL
36. For instance, the diff. coeff. of x2 is 2x ,
Art . 21 .
and of loge sin x is cot x. }
Suppose u = (loge sin x)?, i.e. v2 where v = loge sin x, then
du du dv
dx dvºd.x 2v.cot x = 2 cot x .logesin x .

37. It is obvious that the above result may be

extended. For, if u = $ (v), v = f (w ),w = f ( x),we have
=

du du dv
dac du
dv dx '
dv dv dw
but .

dac dw da
du du dv dw
and therefore
da dv dw da '

and a similar result holds however many functions there

may be.
The rule may be expressed thus :
d (1st Func.) d (1st Func.) .
d (2nd Func .) d ( Last Func. )
dx d ( 2nd Func.) . d (3rd Func.) dx

or if ጎሪ =
+ [v {F (x)} ],
du
dac = $ [ $ {F ( fx )}] x f' {F ( fx )} > F' ( fx ) x f'x.
Thus in the preceding Example
a (log, sin x)2 _d (loge sin x)? dloge sin x 2 logesin x . cotx.
dx d (logesin x ) dx
Again ,

d (loge sin aº) _4 (loge sin 2) d sin cº da?

dix d (sin xa) dica d.c

1
-
cos x? . 2.x = 2.c cot x2.
sin x2
 INTERCHANGE OF THE VARIABLES. 29

38. Interchange of the dependent and inde

pendent variable. If in the theorem
du du dy
da dy da
we put U = X,

du dx (a + h ) -3
then Lth== 0 : 1,
dx dx h

and we obtain the result

dy da
-1 ,
dx · dy
or
dy 1
dx = dx
dy

39. The truth of this is also manifest geometrically,

dy da
for and
da dy are respectively the tangent and the co
tangent of the angle y which the tangent to the curve
y = f (x ) makes with the x -axis.
40. This formula is very useful in the differentiation
of an inverse function.
Thus if we have y = f - (x ),
Q == f (y ),
da
and
dy =f' (y),
a form which we are supposing to have been investigated.
dy 1 1
Thus
da f'(y) f' [ f-1(x)]*
30 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

EXAMPLES .
Assuming as before for present purposes the following differen
tial coefficients,
d d 1 d
23 = 3x2, Nä--- sin x = cOS X ',
dx dx 2 Nä dc
d d 1 d
et = e ", loge X = C tan x =
= sec? x,
dx dx dx

write down the differential coefficients of the following com

binations :
1. e3x,> eés, sinº x, Vloge x ,
Nsin x , Vloge, Ntana sin va
Vans,
2. esina , etana e , eve eloge .

3. loge sins, loge tan x, loge Vas loge 13.

4. sinloge x , tan loge l' Vsin loge x , Vsin Vic, loge sin vidi
5. loge sin ver, tan log, sin eVi.
 CHAPTER IV .

STANDARD FORMS.

41. It is the object of the present Chapter to

investigate and tabulate the results of differentiating
the several standard forms referred to in Art. 21 .
We shall always consider angles to be measured in
circular measure, and all logarithms to be Napierian,
unless the contrary is expressly stated.
It will be remembered that if u = $6 ( w ), then, by the
definition of a differential coefficient,
du φ (α + ι ) - φ (α)
dc =
Lth =0 h

42. Differential Coefficient of X".

If u == $ (x ) = x ",
then $ (x + h) = (x + h )”, >

du (x + h )" ап
and Lth =0
dc = h
hin
1+ -1
C
= Lthroich h

Now, since h is to be ultimately zero, we may consider

h
a
to be less than unity, and we can therefore apply the
32 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

h "
Binomial Theorem to expand (( 1++ IC 2)", whateverbe the
>

value of n ; hence
du an sn h 0 ( m - 1) ?
-

Lth = 0 +
dx h 30 2! X2

+ 1 ( - 1 ) ( m - 2) 13 +
-

3! 23

h
Lth = 0 N2" –1
=
{1 x a(a convergent series)}
+

= nak - 1.

43. It follows by Art. 35 that if u = [ $ (a )]" then =

du
dx = n [$ (x)]»–1 $' (a).

EXAMPLES
Write down the differential coefficients of

1. X, 2:10, . :- 1, 2-10, > x- , Vr - 5.

1 1
2. ( x + a )", 2:n ta", tal, x ta ' Vita
3. (ax ++ b )", AXN + b, ( ax)" + b, a ( x + b )" an ( 2 + b ).
x2 23 X4 + 25
4. 1 x
1 +x+
221!
+
3!
+
4! 5 !+
a ++ bb Tx Na+Na Na+ ½ 2x a tx 3 ata
5.
CV25
>
Na- No' Ÿa- Nx' Vati ? a-2

ax2 + bx + c
6. (c + a)” (x + ) , (x + a )"/(x + b )?
cx2 + bx + a '

44. Differential Coefficient of ar.

If u == $ (a) = a ",
$ (x + h) = ax+h, =
 STANDARD FORMS. 33

du axth ax
and Lth = 0
dx h
ah 1
= a * Lth == 0 h
= at logea . [Art. 15.]
du
Cor. 1. If u = ex,
da
et logee = ex.

COR. 2. It follows by Art. 35 that if u = e $(x), then

du
dac e
$(x) . $ '(X ).
45. Differential Coefficient of loga X.
If u = (x ) = logaa,
$ (x + h) = loga ( x + h ),
du
and
dx- Lth== 00 loga (x + h) – logax h
1 h
Ltn= 0 h
C
- of loga(1+ ).
Let i 2 , so that if h = 0, z = 0 ; therefore
du Z

da
- Ltg == c. -X loga ( 1+
1
)
2

Ltz- , loga 1+
(1 2
)
1
C
logale. [ Art. 14.]
du 1 1
CoR . 1. If u = logex , de = -logeer
C
.

Cor. 2. And it follows as before that if

u== loge 0 (c),
x
then
du $ (2 )
dx (2 )
E. D. C. 3
34 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.
EXAMPLES.

Write down the differential coefficients of

cosh X , ( 2x + e32
1. 22, e- , ena, sinh ,
1 + e
2. log wx, log (x + a), log (ax + b ), log (azº + bx + c),
1 +x 1 + x2
log 1 -- x' log 1-22) log . a.

φ ( e ),),
3. ( (log xx), [P (x)}]}, [ ° (a + .x )]", [ ( a + .x )" ]
log
4. ex ( + a), cher, ar ea , 27 .rº (degrees ).
5. log (x + ), ex + loga, cs /log.x.
6. ez loga, log ( xer), log 2*

46. Differential Coefficient of sin x.

If u = $ (x ) = sin x,
$ (x + h) = sin (x + h ),
du sin (a + h ) -sin x
and
der =
Ltn= 0
h
h

= Ltho 2min. ces(x+ COS

h
X
2

h
sin

=v
= Lth == 00
h
2
2
COS
(x +
X +
h
2

=
= cos X. [Art. 11 ; I.]
47. · Differential Coefficient of cos x.
If u = $ (x ) = cos X,
$ (x + h) = cos (x + h),
du cos (x + h) - COS X
and
da
= Lth =0
=
h
 STANDARD FORMS. 35

h
sin
2
- Lth = 0 sin x +

2
sin 2.

COR. And as in previous cases the differential

coefficients of sin $ (x) and cos • (a) are respectively
cos $ (x ) . $ (x ),
and -- sin $ (cc) . $ (x). .

EXAMPLES.

Write down the differential coefficients of

1. sin 2x, sin na , sin ” X, sin an, sin væ.
2. sin V , log sin x , log sin Vä, esina> eVsinx
e

3. sinº x cos ” X, sin " x /cos"X , sin " ( 1.2 " ), eax sin bx.

4. sin æ sin 2x sin 3x , sin x.sin 2x / sin 3x.

5. COS X cos 2x cos 3x, cogP ax.cos bx , cosa cx .

48. The remaining circular functions can be differ

entiated from the definition in the same way. It is a
little quicker however to proceed thus after obtaining
the above results.
sin X
(i) If y = tan x = COS X
>

d d
dy dx ( sin x ). cos a dx (cos x ) sin x 2
da cos ? x

cos x + sinº x sec ? x .

cos2 x
3-2
36 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

COS X
(ii) If y = cot x = sin x

dy _ (- sin x) sin x — cos x (cos x) - cosec- x.

dac sinº a
(iii ) If y= sec x = (cos x ) ?
dy d sin a
da
= ( -1 ) (cosa) -? dx ( cos x ) = cosa x = sec a tan c.

(iv) If y = cosec x = (sin x )

dy d COS X
dac= (-1) ( sin x)-2 de (sin x)
cosec X cot x .
sinº &

(v ) If y = vers =-1 COS X,

dy = sin x.
dx

(vi) If y = covers x = 1 – sin x ,

dy COS X.
da

49. Differentiation of the inverse functions .

We may deduce the differential coefficients of all
the inverse functions directly from the definition as
shewn below.
For this method it seems useful to recur to the
notation of Art. 27 and to denote 0 (x + h) by U.

50. Then if u = $ (x ) = sin -? Xx ,

U = ( x + h) = sin ( x + h).
Hence x = sin u, and x + h = sin U ;
therefore h = sin U sin u ,
du U - 11 0 – 10
and
dac
Lth = 0
h
= Lturu sin U sin u
 STANDARD FORMS. 37

U и

2 1
= LtU=u =
U и U tu
sin COS
2 2
1 1 1
‫و‬
COS U Ji - sinºu Vi x²
and the remaining inverse functions may be differen
tiated similarly.

51. But the method indicated in the preceding

chapter ( Art. 40) for inverse functions simplifies and
shortens the work considerably .
Thus :
(i ) If U = sin-1 X,
we have x = sin u ;
dx
whence = COS U ;
du
BIFIQ

du 1 1 1
and therefore
dx dx COS u / 1 – sin?10 --- . a2
S

du

and since cos X = sin -- 1 X,

d cos -18 1
we have
da VI – X2
(ii ) If U = tan - x,
we have X =- tan u ;
da
whence seca w ;
du
du 1 1 1
and therefore
doc seca w 1 + tan? 10 1 + x2
7T
and since cot-1X = -
– tan- x,
2
38 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

d cot -13 1
we have
dx 1 + x2
(iii ) If u = sec - l x ,
we have X = secu :
dx
whence sec u tan u ;
du =
du cosa u 1 1

=
and therefore
dx sin u
22
1
X2
to dei
X √x² 1
;

T
and since cosec x= sec x ;
2

we have
d (cosec - x) 1
da x Væ– 1
(iv) If u = vers - l x,
we have X = vers u = 1 COS U ;
dx sin w ;
whence
du
du 1 1 1
and therefore 11- cos” u
-
;
dac sin u
12x –
d covers --1 1
whence also
da 2x – X2

EXAMPLES .

Write down the differential coefficients of each of the follow

ing expressions :
1. sec x2, sec -- 1 x ?, tan x, tan -12:2, vers x ”, vers - 1 x ?.
2. tan - let, tan er, log tan a , log tan -12,
1x log (tan x ) -1
-1
2 X
1
1- x2
3. vers vers - | (x2 + a ), tan - 1 COS
a' à' 1 + x2
4. V covers x, tan 24, ( tan - 12P ) , a log tan - 1x.
5. tan.c.sin - 1 x , sec - 1 tan x , tan -1 sec X , ex sin - 1x.
 STANDARD FORMS. 39

52. TABLE OF RESULTS TO BE COMMITTED TO

MEMORY.
du
U=x . - nan - 1.
dx
du
U = ar
da
= a * logea ,
du

=
u = ea ex .
doc
du 1
u = logam. = logae.
da X

du 1
u = loge .
ll

dac X

du
tu = sin 2 . = COS X.
da
du
=

U = COS X. sin c.
dac
du
u = tan x . secx.
dar
du
U = cotx. cosecə x.
dx
du sin sc
U = sec X.
da cosa ac
du COS X
W = cosec X.
dx sinº a
du 1
W = sin - x .
=
dx 11 - 22
du 1
u = cos - 1 x .
da
11- 22
du 1
u = tan-1 X.
dx 1 + x2
du 1
=

u = cot-1 x.
doc 1 + x2
40 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.
du 1
u = sec- « .
dx a Vir? - 1
du 1
U = cosec - 1x.
dx x x² – 1
h
oni du 1
u = vers- x .
dx
2x – 2 2
-1
du 1
u = covers - .c .
dx 12.c – a* -

53. The Form u ". Logarithmic Differentiation .

In functions of the form u', where both u and v are

functions of a , it is generally advisable to take logarithms
before proceeding to differentiate.
Let y = u',
then logey = v logeu ;
1 dy dv 1 du
y dx - dx logeu +0 . u dx ' Arts. 31 , 45,
therefore

dy dv v du
or
dx (logou.. dx + u dx )
= us logeu
Three cases of this proposition present themselves.
dv
1. If v be a constant and u a function of x, = 0
dac
and the above reduces to

dy du
= V . и U" -1
dac da '

as inight be expected from Art. 43.

 STANDARD FORMS. 41

du
II. If u be a constant and v a function of x, dx 0

and the general form proved above reduces to

dy dv
dx = u ' logeu . dx '
as might be expected from Art. 44.
III. If u and v be both functions of x, it appears
that the general formula
dy dv du
u " logeu dar + vur -1
dx = da
is the sum of the two special forms in I. and II., and
therefore we may, instead of taking logarithms in any
particular example, consider first u constant and then v
constant and add the results obtained on these supposi
tions.
Ex. 1. Thus if y = (sin x)*,
log y= x log sin x ;
therefore 1 dy
= log sin x + x cotx,
y dx
and dy
dc ( sin x)* {log sin x + x cotx }..

Ex. 2. In cases such as y = x + (sin x), we cannot take logarithms

directly. Let u = 207 and v =(sin x)*.
dy du dv
Then +
da dar dx
But log u = x log x,
and log v = x log sin x ;
du
whence = x* {1+log x} ,
dx
dv
and - (sin x)* {log sin x + x cotx } ,
dac

and ::: dy
dx = 2 * {1+ log x } + (sin x)*{ log sin x + x cotx } .

The above compound process is called Logarithmic

differentiation and is useful whenever variables occur
42 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.
as an index or when the expression to be differentiated
consists of аa product of several involved factors.
EXAMPLES
1. Differentiate xsins, (sin -1 x ) &x ? > x2x .
2. Differentiate (sin x )co$x + (cos x) sinx, ( tan x)* + x tan x
3. Differentiate tan x x log x xet x 2** Væ.
54. Transformations. Occasionally an Algebraic
or Trigonometrical transformation before beginning to
differentiate will much shorten the work .
(i) For instance , suppose
2.x
y = tan-1 1- x2
We observe that y = 2 tan-1 x ;
dy 2
whence
doc 1 + x2
1+x
(ii ) Suppose y = tan-1 1-2
Here y = tan -1 x + tan -11,
dy 1
and therefore
dx1+ x2

( iii) If y = tan-1
J1 + x2 - J1- ?
J1 + z? + V1 - 2
1- x2

we have y = tan-1 -1
1
✓1 + x2 TT

4
tan - 1
VITICOcos -1x *;
1 + x2 4
1
2
1 - 22

dy
1+
✓ 1 + x2
...
dx ví c4

EXAMPLES .
Differentiate :
3x – X3 2. tan - ip - qx -1 V1 + x2-1
1. tan - 1 3. tan
1-3.x2 9 + px 2

X 1
4. tan-1 5. eloga. 6. sec - 1
1 – 2% . 1-2x2
 STANDARD FORMS. 43

X - 9-1
7. sec tan - 1x . 8. cos - 1 ' 9. sin - 1 ( 3x – 4.x-3).
x+ x 1
Nx - x X
10 . tan
1 +x! -1 – )
11. cos - 1 ( 1 - 2x2). 12. log et
-

{ 2))
log {-4 +2

55. Examples of Differentiation .

Ex. 1. Let y = 12, where z is a known function of x.
Here y = z4,
dy 1
and
dz뽑 12-1 = 2z '
2
whence dy_ dy dz
dx dz dx ' ( Art. 35)
1 dz
2 Jz.de
This form occurs so often that it will be found convenient to
commit it to memory .
Ex. 2. Let y = eVcotx CO

Here d (ev'cotz ) d (eVcota) d ( cotx) d (coto)

dx d ( cott) d (cota) da
1
= eVcot s . 2 /cote :(-cosec? x).
Ex. 3. Let y = (sin x ) log * cot { e* ( a + bx )}.
Taking logarithms
log y = log x.log sin x + log cot { e* (a + bx )}.
The differential coefficient of log y is 1 dy
y dx
Again , log x . log sin x is a product, and when differentiated
becomes (Art. 31)
1
C
log sin x + log x sin I
. COS X.

Also, log cot { ex (a + bx) } becomes when differentiated

1
{ ex (a + bx) + be* } ;
cot { e* (a + bx )} [ - cosec {e* (a + bx ) } ].
.

dy
da (sin2)lox.cot {e* (a + ba)} [ 1og sin æ+ cotx. log 30

- 2e*(a +b +ba)cosec 2 (e*a+ ba)].

44 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

Ex. 4. Let y = Va? – bº cos? (log w ). Then

dy d Va – bº cos? (log x ) x d { a? -b2 cos? (log x) } х
d { cos (log x) }
dix d {a – 62 cosa( log x ) } d { cos (log x )} d (log x)
Х
d (log I)
dur
1
Х
= {a’ – b2 cos (log x) } - 5x { - 262 cos(logx)} x { - sin (log x) } x =
62 sin 2 (log x)
2.0 Va’ – bº cos (log x )
Ex. 5. Differentiate x5 with regard to xa.
Let x2 = 2.
d.rs
d.rs dx5 dr = dx 5.x +
Then
dz dx .dz dz 2.c
dar
=

56. Implicit relation of x and y . So far we

have been concerned with the case in which y is ex
pressed explicitly, i.e. directly in terms of x.
Cases however are of frequent occurrence in which
y is not expressed directly in terms of x , but its
functionality is implied by an algebraic relation con
nectingx and y.
Inthe case of such an implicit relation we proceed
as follows:
Suppose for instance
XP + yö = 3axy,
dy За + x dy
then 30% + 3y da = 3a (y+aaliye
da )
>

i.e. dy
3 ( a ” – ay ) +3 (gº - ) dc 0,

dy X2 - ay
giving da Yº — ax
 PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION . 45

57. Partial Differentiation . It will be per

ceived in the foregoing example that the expressions
3 (22 — ay) and 3 (ya - ax) occurring are algebraically
the same as would be given by differentiating the ex
pression x + y − 3axy first with regard to x, keep
ing y a constant, and second with regard to y, keeping
x a constant.

When such processes are applied to a function f (x , y)

of two or more variables the results are denoted by the
symbols af > af Thus in the above example
дх ” ду
af
дх : 3 (22 — ay),

and af
ду
= 3 (Yº — ax ).

This is termed partial differentiation ,and the results

are called partial differential coefficients .

58. A general proposition . It appears that in

the preceding example
af of dy
+
дхдуdydx
0, CermicRec
əf
dy дах
Or
dac of '
ay
This proposition is true for all implicit relations between
two variables, such as f(x, y) = 0 .
Suppose the function capable of expansion by any
means in powers of a and y, so that any general term
may be denoted by AXPy4
Then f(x, y) = £ AxPy? = 0.
46 DIFFERENTIAL CALCUL US.

Then differentiating

3(Aparty!+ Axequya-- dy)

dx ) = 0,
,

or
dy
A pap-dy!+ (SAqxPy9-) de -0 ,

or of + Əf dy 0.
ox'oy'da
Ex. If f (x, y) = x5 + x + y + y3 = 0,
we have af
дх 5c + 4°g,
af
ду = 2* +
3y2 ;
dy 5.04 + 4x’y
d.c x4 + 3y

EXAMPLES .

Find dy in the following cases :

dux
1. 23 + y : = a3. 2. 2 " + y = a ". 3. ev = xy.
4. log xy = x2 +y2. 5. 22.Y = 1 . 6. ** + y = 1 .
59. Euler's Theorem. Ľ é
If u = Awayß + Bua'yo' + ... = Axºyß, say, where
a + B = a' + B ' ... = n ,
ди ди
to show that C + y ду = nu.
дх

By partial differentiation we obtain

au
ΣΑααα - ye,
дах
ди
= ΣΑβααβ- 1, >
ду
 47
EULER'S THEOREM .

ди ди
then
дх
ty
ay= ΣΑααυθ + ΣΑβα *y
ΣΑ (α + β ) *ya
:ηΣΑ ααβ
n Awa y == nu .
It is clear that this theorem can be extended to the
case of three or of any number of independent variables,
and that if,for example,
u = Awºyßzy + Bxa yoʻzy'+ ... ,
where a+B+y= a + ' + ' =N,
ди ди ди
then will + y @y +2 az = nu.
дах
The functions thus described are called homogeneous
functions of the nth degree, and the above result is known
as Euler's Theorem on homogeneous functions.
EXAMPLES .
Verify Euler's theorem for the expressions :
1
(.22 + y )(x* + y"), 2n sin.y.
** + + y?”

EXAMPLES .
Find dy in the following cases :
dx
2 + .x2
1. y = 2. y = ” a + x. 3. y = a? + x
1 +x
1- x2 y = xVx2-4at
4. Y=
Vi 。 +x
5. y =
+
V1 (6. y V. ? - a
1-X x2 + x + 1
7. Y =
ſi 1 + x + x2 8. y = log 22 -.x + 1
9. y = tan -1 (log x). 10. y = sin xº.
11. y = sin ( et ) log x . 12. y = tan - 1 (ex ) log cot x.
13. Y = log cosh x. 14. y = vers- log (cot x ).
 48 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

1
15. y = cot-| (cosec x ). 16. y = sin -1
Vi+22
1
17. y = tan -1 18. y = (sin - 1 x)" (cos -1x )".
V.x2 – 1
na
19. y = sin (ez loga ). V1 - (log x )% 20. y=
2
,- .)"* (11+ log )
n

X cos - 1 x
21. y = b tan -1
( - ). tan - 1 22. Y
N1 - 22
-1 a + b cos x
23. y= con (arin-- )
Y= 24. y = sin -1 b + a cos x
ta 1 n
25. y = ela x log (sec? x2). 26. y = pax cos (b tan - 1 x).
* 27. y = tan -1 (acz.x2). 28. y = sec ( loga Va ? +2:2).
1 +x
29. y = tan - 1 x + 3 log 1 - 2
30.y = log (log x ).

* 31. y = log » (x), where log” means log log log ...(repeated n times).

1 Nb + a + V6 - a tan 2
a

32. Y log
162 - a?
Vb + a - 16 - a tan
33. y = sin-1 (x V1 - .c - NX V1-x2). 34. y = 10104.
35. y = ee*. 36. y = e**. 37. y = rotete 38. y = .euz *.
1

39. y = * +. . 40. y = (cot x)cotx + (cosh x )cosha.

41. y = tan -1 (acx xsin x)
1 +x 42. y = sin - 1(etan- 1' ).

43. Y= ✓ 1 + cos
т

) (11- sin )
m

x sinet?
44. y = tan-1 ) Væ + cos- x. 45. y = (1 ++ v2Port
V )
46. y = (cos x )cotºx zobe .
47. y = (cot -1 X)x
1
48. y= (1 +2)*+x=+5.
y=
49. y==btan-1C*+tan-1%)
1
 EXAMPLES. 49

50 . tan y = ecus'z sin x. 51. ax2 + 2hxy + by2 = 1.

(a + b ) -ai X
52. ey
53. cosx )" = (sin y ) .
(bxn )?
54. X = e tan -14-22 55. x =y log xy. 56. y = ... 57. y = .xt ".
58. y = xlog atybx 59. ax + 2xy + by + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0).

do., zmy" = (x + y)m + na. 61. y = etan Hy log sec2 x3.

62. If y =12 aa? – 622 ", 1p
a2 +6 SPp +/1 + 9V shew that when
9 + 1)
2pg g +p
(a + by 9 P dy (a + bb )
=
( a
-6)
then will
dix (4+2)**
a -b
63. Differentiate log10 x with regard to xa.
X
64. Differentiate (x2 + ax + a ?)" log cot ;2 with regard tu
tan - 1 (a cos bx ).
65. Differentiate x-sin -lz with regard to sin-1 x .

66. Differentiate tan - 1

V1 + x - 1
with regard to tan -1 2.

67. Differentiate Vi + x ? + V1 – 2
with regard to V1 – 24.
N1 + x2 - V1 – 22
1
68. Differentiate sec- 1 .
2.x2 - 1 with regard to V1 – 32.
2 1
69. Differentiate tan - 1 with regard to sec - 1
N1 - 22 2x2-1°
2x 2x
70. Differentiate tan - 1 with regard to sin-1
1 2 1 + x2
sin Jx
71. Differentiate un log tan - 1 x with regard to
to op
dy 32
72. If y = 2 " prove x dax
1- y log xº
E. D. C. 4
50 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

-iti
73. If y = īt C

1 + ...to oo ,
prove dx
Ki- ܳ
dy
‫ܙ‬
- : ‫ܪܰܝܙܳܐ‬.
1
1+
1 +
1+
1+
1 + ...
1 dy_1
74. If y = x + x +
1
1 prove dix 2
U
1
x+ x+ 1
X + ... to oo , x+
x +

75. Ify= Vsinx+ Usinx + \ sin x + Netc. to co,

Y = cos x /( 2y - 1 ).
76. If Sn = the sum of a G.P. to n terms of which r is the
common ratio, prove that
ds .
(1 - 1 ) dr = (n − 1 ) Sn- n5n - 1:
P 1 d ( P
If
77.
11 =a+ ai +
1

a. +
1
+
1
prove 70
dx
Azt .
x'
go? cos 20 go3 cos 30
78. Given ( = l + r cos 0+ + + ...
2! 3!

and
72 sin 20 + qu3 sin 30
S = rsin A + t ...
2! 3!
dc ds
shew that C + S
dr = (C2 + $2) cos 0 ;
do
s d c
od s
dr dr = (C2 + $ 2) sin .

79. If y = sec 4x , prove that

dy 16+ ( 1 - 1 ) where t = tan x .
dt (1 - 6t2 ++4)2 '
80. If y = e - 4 sec - 1( x Ja) and 24+ x2z = x5, find dy
då
in terms of
X and z.

81. Prove that if x be less than unity

1 2.x 4.23 + 8x7
+ + ad inf.
1 +x 1 + x2 1 + 34 1 + 287 -C
 EXAMPLES. 51

82. Prove that if x be less than unity

1 - 2x 2x - 4x3 4.x3 – 8x7 1 + 2.0
+ + + ... ad inf.
1- x + x2 + 1- x2 + x4 1-24 + 2 8 1 + 1 + . %"
83. Given Euler's Theorem that
0 sin x
Ltno cos COS COS
23 •••
COS
2 22 2" C
1 X 1
provedtan
01

tan tan + ... ad inf. •cot a ,

+
22 + 23
5

2 22 23
1 1 1 + 1
and seca + sec2 + seca ... ad inf. = cosec ? x –
22 24 22 26 23 02

84. Differentiate logarithmically the expressions for sin 8

and cos 0 in factors, and deduce the sums to infinity of the
following series
1 1 1 1
((a)) 62 - 72 + 02 - 2272
+
42 - 3272 +
-

02 – 4272+ .
1 1 1 1
( 6) 12 + x2 * 22 + x2
+ + + to ..
32 + x2 42 + x2
1 1 1 1
( c) x2 + ..
22 + 72 +.22
12+2:2 + 32 + 2 + 52+ x2
2 2 2
(d) 1 + 1 +1 ++ 11+ 22 ++ 1 + 32 +
+

85. Sum to infinity the series

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
+ + + + ......
1 +x 2 1 + x+ 4 1 +x8 1 +xo
86. If Hn represent the sum of the homogeneous products
of n dimensions of x, y, z, prove
OH ,
(a)
OH = nHn ;
OH » ty +2
дах ду az
OH , F. + aH
(6)
ax
+ + Oz = (n + 2) HK - 1
dy

4-2
 CHAPTER V.

SUCCESSIVE DIFFERENTIATION ,

dy
60. WHEN y is a given function of x , and dc has
been found, we may proceed to differentiate a second
time obtaining dxd (dy )
( dx) ' This expression is called the
second differential coefficient of y with respect to x.
We may then differentiate again and obtain the third
differential coefficient and so on.
d dy d 12
The expression dx (dx ) is abbreviated into dx ) Y
dạy . d (dy) is written day : and so on .
or
or
dx² : đx dx²) daco
Thus the several differential coefficients of y are
written
du dºg dºg day
>
do ' da ? ' dx dan

They are often further abbreviated into

Yu, Y., Yu ,... Yn ....
Ex. 1. Thus if y = x”, we have
Yı = nx*-1,
99 = ( m - 1) c”-”,
Y3 = n (n − 1 ) ( n − 2) .xn-3,
and generally ghen ( n - 1) ... (n – r + 1) " -",
Yn = n !
Yn + 1 = Yn + 2 = Yn + 3 = ... = 0.
 SUCCESSIVE DIFFERENTIATION . 53
Ex. 2. If y = tan x,
Yı = sec2x = 1 + y ?,
Yo = 2yy, = 2 ( y + y ),
Yg = 2 ( 1 + 3yº) y = 2 (1+ 4y + 3y ),
Y4 = 2 (8y + 12y3) y, = 8 (2y + 5y3 + 3y5),
&c.

Ex. 3. If y = (sin -2x )?,

y1 = 2 (sin -2x) 1 - x ',
.. squaring, (1 - x) * = 4u.
Hence differentiating, (1 – ~ ) 2y7Y2 - 2xy ?= 441,
and dividing by 2yı , (1 – x2) Y2 - xyı = 2.
61. Standard results and processes.
The nth differential coefficient of some functions are
easy to find.
Ex. 1. If y = eat we have yı = aeax, y2 = a’eat, ) ......

Yn = a”pax
Cor. i. If a = 1,
y = et, y = et, yn = e , . ...... Yn = ex.
8

Cor. ii . y = a* = ex legea ;
a
Yı = (logea) ex log,a = ( logea) ax ;
42 = (logea)2 ex logea = (logea )?at ;
etc. = etc .

Yn = (logea ) ” ex logea = (logea )"ar.

Ex. 2. If y = loge(:r + a ) ;
1 1 ( -1) ( -2 )
Y =x +a; y, = (x + a)?; 43 = ( x + a)
Yn =
( -1)( - 2)( - 3)...( --N + 1)
(x + a)"
( -1) -1(n - 1)!
(x + a)"

Rune Cor. If
1
y = x + a ' Yn (x + a)nti :
( -1)" n !

.:
54 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.
Ex. 3. If y = sin (ax + b) ;
Yı = a cos (ax + b) = a sin +

21
(ax + + ;) 3

Ya = a sin ( ax + b +
(ax+u )1 2

31
( +5+ )
Yara’ sin ( ax + b + 2

NT
Yn = an sin ax + b +
(ar + 2 ).
Similarly, if y = cos (ax + b ),
пт
+
Yn = a" cos
(ax+b +" :)).. 2
COR . If a = 1 and b = 0 ;
NT
then , when
(++ " );
y = sin x, yn = sin ( x + 2

and, when y = C08 X, yn = COS ( +" ).

X
2

Ex . 4. If y = eat sin (bx + c) ;

Yı = aeat sin ( bx + c) + beat cos(bx + c) .
Let a = r cos and b = r sin ,
6
80 that pe = a? + b2 and tan p = a

and therefore Yn = reax sin (bx + c + o ).

Thus the operation of differentiating this expression is equivalent
to multiplyingby r and adding to the angle.
Thus Ya = raeax sin (bx + c + 20),
and generally Yn = pheat sin (bx + c + ng ).
Similarly, if y = eat cos (bx + c) ,
Yn = rmeax cos (bx + c + no) .
These results are often wanted and the student should be able to
obtain them immediately.
Ex. 5. Find the nth differential coefficient of sin’ x,
1
We have y = sinº x == (3 sin x sin 3x).

Hence Yn
= } in(*+" )- -sin(35+
2
3x " "})
2
- 3n 3x
2
 55
SUCCESSIVE DIFFERENTIATION .
Ex. 6. If y = sinax cos3x , find yr.
1
Here y = 4isin 2x cos x = (1 - cos 4.x ) cos x
1
16 (2 cos X – cos 3x cos 5x ),
пи NTT пт

and y 1o
=100
{{2008 ( + * ) -3*eos( 3x
*
88 + "":) - 500 ( 5x* + "");}
2
- ( 3x
2
* cos ( 5.0 +
2

EXAMPLES.
Find Yn in the following cases :
1 1 1 .
1. 2. 3. 4.
ax + b . a-X a - bx • a + bx
ax + 6 2 2 1
5. 6.
x- a
7. 8. Væra. .
cx + (x + a )
9. ( + a) - 10. log (ac + b ) .
11. y = sin x sin 2x. 12. y = ex sin x sin 2x .
13. y = et sinº x . 14. y = eat cos2 bx.
15. y = sin x sin 2x sin 3x . 16. y = 434 sina x cos' x .
17. y = sinº x sin 2x . 18. y = essina x sin 2x.

mZ 62. Use of Partial Fractions .

Fractional expressions whose numerators and de
nominators are both rational algebraic expressions
are differentiated n times by first putting them into
partial fractions.
x2 a? 1
Ex . 1. y =
( x - a )(x – b )(x – c) (a - b) (a – c) t - a
62 c2 1
+ +
(6 - c) (b -− a ) - b (c - a ) (c - b) i - c
(see note on partial fractions Art. 66) ;
a ( -1)" n ! b , t. (-1)" !
therefore Yn = (a -b)(a -c) (x – a)n+1*+ (6 -c)(b -.a) (x– b) +1
+
(-1)» n !
Pc - a )(c – b) (x - c )nti'
56 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

x2
Ex . 2 .
y = (e – 1)2 (x + 2) -

To put this into Partial Fractions let x = 1 + z ;

then 1 1+ 2z + 22
Y z2
.

3+2
1/1 52 4 z2
2 3
+ 9 + 9 3 +2
) by division
1 5 4 1
+ +
322 9z 9 3+2
1 5 4
+
3 (xx - 1)2
1 * 9 (x - 1) * 9(x + 2) '
-

whence (n + 1) ! ( -1)" 5n ! (-1)" + 4n ! ( -1) "

Yn = +
지 3 (2 – 1 )n +2 9 (x - 1)n+ 1 * 9 (x + 2)n+1 ° -

63. Application of Demoivre's Theorem .

When quadratic factors which are not resolvable
into real linear factors occur in the denominator, it is
often convenient to make use of Demoivre's Theorem
as in the following example.
1 1
Let y ..ca
+ a2 ( x + la ) (x – la)
1 11 1
2.a - la X + ial
1 1 1
Yn ( -1)^ n !
Then 2ua {12 -cajati - ( +zajm=
Let x = r cos Q and a = r sin 0 ,
a
whence 22 = + aº and tan 0 30

Hence
(-1 * n !
-

Yn =
2.arn + 1 { (cos 0 – i sin 8)-n-1 - (cos 0 + i sin 0 )-n - 1}
( -1 ) ^ n !
2. sin (n + 1) 0
2.arn + 1
- (-1) " n !
an + 2
sin (n + 1 ) 0 sinn +10,
a
where 0 = tan-19
XC
 SUCCESSIVE DIFFERENTIATION . 57
1
Cor. 1. Similarly if y =
( a + b)2 + a2 '
( -1)" n !
.

Yn
a +2
sin (n + 1) sinn + lo,
a
where 0 = tan - 1
b+x
2 a
Cor. 2. If y = tan -1 Yı = 2x2 + a? '
a

and yn
(-1)* -* (nm - 1) ! sin no sin " 0 ,
an
a
where tan 0 = Ecoty .

EXAMPLES.

Find the nth differential coefficients of y with respect to x in

the following cases :
1 1
1. y 2. y = 4.x2 +1
4.x2 - 1
xt a
3. y = { log X - a 4. y = 24 - 44 •

1 1
6. y=
5. Y = (x2 – a ?)(22 – 62) n2
( x2 + a %)( 22+62)
2.x 1
7. y = tan - 1 1-22
8.
y = x2 + x + 1 '

9. Y = 24 + x2 + 1 ° -
10. y = x++.23 + 2.x² + x + 1 ' 1
64 Leibnitz's Theorem .
[ Lemma. If Cr denote the number of combinations of n things
zice
pe at a time then will
Pirit „ Cr + nCr+ 11 = n +1Cr +1:
n n

n n n 1

+rt11h
+
For
Irin - 17 + 1 n - 1 1 n - 1 -1 Nr 7 + 1

In + 1: = x + Cr + r.]
1r + 1 |n - r
58 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.
Let y = uv, and let suffixes denote differentiations
with regard to a. Then
Y = UV + UV,,
Y = U , V + 2u ,v. + wvg , by differentiation .
Assume generally that
Yn = UnV + „Cun -1V2 + nC.Un – 9V, + ...
n

+ nCrun = rVr + nCr+iUn- r-;Vr+ 1 + ... + uvn ...(a ).

Therefore differentiating
SnC ) I nC ,
Yn + 1 = Un + 1V + UnVi
T+ 1 )
+ Un - 1V2
In0 C t ...

rºr+21 Itact +... +

+ 11n_pVr UVn +1
= Un+10 + n ++,1 Cyunui + n +2CqUn
1 – 1V2 + n +1CgUn – 9V3 + ...
+ n + zCr+1Un —rºr+1 +...+ uvnt1, by the Lemma ;
therefore if the law (a) hold for n differentiations it
holds for n +1.
But it was proved to hold for two differentiations,
and therefore it holds for three ; therefore for four ;
and so on ; and therefore it is generally true, i.e.,
=
(uv)n = unv + nCun –10. + nC ,un - 20, +...
n

+ nCrun --Vr + ... + uv,

n 2.

65. Applications .
Ex. 1. y = x sin ax .
Here we take sin ax as u and my as v.
Now v, = 3x , v, = 3.2x, vz = 3.2, and v4 &c. are all zero.
пт
Also Un = an sin ( ax + 2 etc.
:)
Hence by Leibnitz's Theorem we have
NT n- 1
( ax
y.=rwin(aa.xr + )+vårtean -1sin (ar
2
ax +" ; ! -)
 SUCCESSIVE DIFFERENTIATION. 59

n
n (1 - 1 ) 3.2.xan - 2 sin
+
2 !
a.2 +
22-)
1 (m - 1) (1 – 2) 3.2 . n 3
lan - 3 sin
+
3! ( ax +978-). TT

The student will note that if one of the factors be a power of a

it will be advisable to take that factor as v .

Ex. 2. Let y = x4.eat; find Y5 .

Here v = x4; u = eas,
80 that v, = 4x3, v , = 12x ”, vg = 24x, v4 = 24, and v; etc, all vanish .
Also Un = aneax, etc.
whence
Yg = a %ea x * + 5a ^eax . 4x3 +10 . a3eax . 12.x2 + 10a2eaz . 24x + 5aeax . 24
= aeax {a4x4 + 20a3x3 + 120a2x2 + 240ax + 120 } .
Ex. 3. Differentiate n times the equation

x2
dy +2dy
dx2 die ty = 0.
dn = (m - 1 ).2
dien (x2y2) = x_Yn+2 + n .20 • Yn + 1 + 2! 4m?
an
nyn
dxn ( wyı) cum + 1 +

dny
dan Yn :

therefore by addition
x Yn ++22 + (2n + 1) xyn+1 + (na +1)yn = 0,
anty + (2n +1) * antly + dny = 0.
dicnti (n2 +1) dxn
or
dxnt2

Ex. 4. Even when the general value of yn cannot be obtained we

may sometimes find its value for x = 0 as follows.
Suppose y = [log ( x + / 1 + x2)],
then y = 2 log (x + / 1 + x2) / 1 + x? .. ( 1),
and (1 + xa) y 2 = 4y,
whence differentiating and dividing by 241,
( 1 + x2) y2 + xyz = 2 (2)
60 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

Differentiating n times by Leibnitz's Theorem

(1 + x2) Yn +2 + 2nxYn+ 1 + 1 ( - 1) yn
+ xyn + 1 + nyn = 0
or
( 1 + x2) Yn+ 2 + (2n + 1) xyn + 1 + nºyn = 0).
Putting x == 0) we have
(Yn + 2) = - n " (ynlo ..... . (3 ) ,
indicating by suffix zero the value attained upon the vanishing of t.
Now , when x = 0 we have from the value of y and equations (1)
and (2)
(y). = 0, (yı). = 0, (Y2). = 2 .
Hence equation (3) gives
( 43). = (Y6) = (y7). = ( 2k+ 1) = 0
and (yd). = - 22.2,
(98). = 42.22.2 ,
( 98), = - 62.42.22.2,
etc. ,
( 24 )0 = ( - 1) ^ -12.22.4 . 6 °......(2x - 2 )?
= ( - 1)2-122-1 {(k - 1)!)?

EXAMPLES.

Apply Leibnitz's Theorem to find yn in the following cases :

1. y = xea. 2. y = x_eax 3. y = x2 log x.
2n
4. y = x2 sin x. 5. y = cax. sin bx. 6. y = 1 + 2
7. y = x tan - 1 x . 8. y = x2 tan - 12.

66. NOTE ON PARTIAL FRACTIONS.

Since a number of examples on successive differentiation and on
integration depend on the ability of the student to put certain frac
tional forms into partial fractions, we give the methods to be pursued
in a short note .

Let f (x ) be the fraction which is to be resolved into its partial

$ (2)
fractions.
 SUCCESSIVE DIFFERENTIATION . 61

1. If f (x) be not already of lower degree than the denominator,

we can divide out until the numerator of the remaining fraction is of
lower degree : e.g.
ca 3.x - 2
=1+
( 0 - 1) (x - 2)
(x - 1) (x - 2)
Hence we shall consider only the case in which f (x) is of lower
degree than • (x).
2. If $ (x) contain a single factor (ac – a), not repeated, we pro
ceed thus : suppose
+ (x ) = (:t - a ) (x ),
f( ) A x ( x)
and let + 1
(x-a ) y ( 3 ) C- a y (x) '
A being independent of x.
Hence f (x ) x x
4 (2 ) 4+( =a)(
= A + ( x – a)
y
.

This is an identity and therefore true for all values of the variable
X ; put x = a. Then, since y (x) does not vanish when x = a ( for by
hypothesis y (x) does not contain x - a as a factor), we have
A =
f (a )
y (a ) *
Hence the rule to find A is, " Put x = a in every portion of the fraction
except in the factor x – a itself.”
X-C a- C 1 b с 1
Ex . (i) + .

(x – a) (x – b)
-
a - 6 X -a - a X-6
x2 +px +9 a ’ + pa +9 1
Ex. (ii) -

(x – a ) (x -- b) (x – c ) (a - b) (a - c ) x - a
+
62 + pb + q 1 + c2 + pc + 9 1
(6 -c) (b − a) x - B ' (c - a) (c – b) X - C
1 3
Ex . (iii) +
( x - 1) (x 2) (x – 3 ) 2 ( x - 1) x -22( x - 3 )
x?
Ex. (iv)
(: - a ) ( 0 - 0 )
Here the numerator not being of lower degree than the denominator,
we divide the numerator by the denominator. The result will then be
A B +
expressible in the form 1+ a X b '
where A and B are found as
a? 62
before and are respectively and
a-b b-a
62 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

3. Suppose the factor (.t - a) in the denominator to be repeated

r times so that
♡ ( x) = (x – a)" } (x).
Put X - a = y.
Then f( x) f (a + y ) >
♡ (x) yr y (a + y )
or expanding each function by any means in ascending powers of y,
4 , + Any + A2yº + ...
0

y" (B , + By + Boy + ...)

0 2

Divide out thus :

B , + B , 9 + ... 4 , + 4y + ... Co + C1y + Cgy? + ... ,
etc. ,
and let the division be continued until yk is a factor of the remainder .
Let the remainder be yº x (y ).
Hence the fraction = C. + C + C2 + ... + Cr-1 + x (y )
ya ' yr - 1 " yr- 2 Y y (a + y )
Co + C C,
* ( – a )" (x - a ) -1 +* (oc - a)r=9 + ...
+ C -1 +; x (x - a)
X-a
¥ (x)
Hence the partial fractions corresponding to the factor ( x – a)" are
determined by a long division sum.
x?
Ex. Take
( 0 - 1)} ( x + 1)
Put x - 1 = y.
Hence the fraction (1 + y) .

y '(2 + y )
y3
2+ y) 1+24+%*(*+
+ 29 + 34* - *2 +y:
Xy + y
ty + xya
1y
}y2 + }y3
- 3y3
-

Therefore the fraction

1 3 1 1
+ + >
2y3 4ya ' By 8 (2 + y )
1 3 1
+ +
2 (x - 1)3 * 4 (x - 1) ? 8 (x - 1)
-

8 (x + 1)
 EXAMPLES. 63

4. If a factor, such as xº + ax + b, which is not resolvable into real

linear factors occur in the denominator, the form of the corresponding
Ax + B
partial fraction is x ? + ax + bº For instance, if the expression be
1

(x - a ) (x - b)2 (22 + a ) (x2 + b2,2

the proper assumption for the form in partial fractions would be
A + B с D.x + E Fx + G Hx + K
+ + + +
- a X (x – 6 )2 x2 + a2 20 +62 (oc2 +62)2 '
b

where A , B, and C can be found according to the preceding methods,

and on reduction to a common denominator we can , by equating co
efficients of like powers in the two numerators , find the remaining
letters D, E , F, G, H, K. Variations upon these methods will
suggest themselves to the student.

EXAMPLES

1. Given y = sin x2, find 42, 43, 44.

2. Given y =x sin x , find y2 , 43, 94.
3. Given y = et sin x, find y2 , Y6 ......

4. Given y = xo eat, find Y3 and you

5. If y = Aemu + Be -me,> prove yz = mºy.
6. If y = A sin mx + B cos mx, prove yu = - mºy.
7 . If y = a sin log x , prove aºy2 + xyz + y = 0.
X 2

8. If y = log (a iha) , prove xºY2 = ( y – 2y,) ?

bx )

9. If y = A (x + Vx2 - 1)n + B (x – Vx2 - 1)" ,

prove (32 – 1 ) Ya + ayı – n'y = 0.
X10. If ( x – a) ( x - 5) find Yn .
y = >
(x - c) (x - d ) '
1
x 11. If y = Yn : find
(x - 1 )33( x - 2) '
12. . If y = x * log x , find y2, 43, Yn , Yn +1.
13. If cosh
TE

( logy).
Con y
m
>

prove (.22 – 1 ) Y2 + xyı – m2y = 0,

and (22 - 1)Yn+ 2 + (2n + 1)xYn+2+ (n2– m2) Yn = 0.
 64 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.
1
ritxх 14. Find yn if y
x3 + 1
2

1
x 15. Find Yn if Y=
(x + 1) (22 + 1)
x2
x 16. Find Yn if Y =
(3-1) ( x + 1)
17. Prove that if y = sin (m sin - 1 x),
( 1 – x2) Y2 = xyı — mºy,
and (1-2%) Yn + 2 = (2n + 1).xyn +1 + (nº- m ") y .
Hence shew that
Ltr -o Yn + 2 = n - m .
Yn
- 12
18. If y = etan – 13, prove that
( 1 + x2) Yn + 22 + {2 ( n + 1) x – 1} Yn + 1 + nn (n + 1)Yn = 0.
19. If y = ea sin -1*, prove that
(1 – x2)Yn + 2 – (2n + 1) xyn +1- (nº + u ?)Yn = Q,
and = 0 Yn + 2 = na + a ?.
Ltx=0
Yn
20. If U = sin nx + cos nx,
Ur = n "{1 + ( - 1)" sin 2nr .
21. If y = eax {a_x2 – 2nax + n (n + 1 )},
Yn = an + 2 x eax
22. If x cos A+y sin A = a,
and x sin 6 – y cos O = b,
prove that dPx day dex dPy
dopdol da dep
is constant.
23. Prove that
an sin x т NTT

where
dxn (Sina)= [Pain
psin (x+"") +206
cos (++
+ )) ,
:
2
x
2 In + 1,

P= xn - n (12 – 1 ) xn –2 + n (n − 1) (n − 2 ) ( n − 3) an -- 4 - ... ,
-

and Q = num - 1- n (n - 1) (n - 2 ).2-3 + ....

 EXAMPLES 65

24. Prove
dr COS пп

( **=
0035
dxn
P
" ***,
*)= [poan(****)-2sin(r+")]
P cos + x+
2
Q ( x
2
where and have the same values
P Q as in 23.
25. Prove that
an eax sin bx
dxn in be)== eux {P sin (6x +no) + Qcos (ba+no) /2 + 1,
where
-1
P = (rx )" — n (rx )" - 1cos 0 + n (n - 1) (r®)» –2 cos 20 - ..
Q n (rx)" -1
–1 sin p - n (n— 1 ) (rx )" –- 22sin 20 + ... ,
g2 = a2+62, and tan p = b/a.
26. Prove that
ch
dan (x* sin x ) = n ! (P sin x + 2 cos x),
22 24
where
P-1- 27 + nch * -...
= *** 2
! 4
4 !
23 x5
and Q = " Cyx — " Cz 31! + nC 6
5 !
27. Shew that
dn ſlog »
dxn cm ") r = n - 1
( -1)" n ! s(m + r - 1 )!
( m - 1) ! ccm + n [(m +m- 1)!
n !
log a Σ
1 = 0 r
r ! (n - 1) }]
[ 1. C. s., 1892.]

E. D. C. 5
 CHAPTER VI.

EXPANSIONS.

67. The student will have already met with several

expansions of given explicit functions in ascending in
tegral powers of the independent variable; for example,
those tabulated on pages 10 and 11 , which occur in
ordinary Algebra and Trigonometry.
The principal methods of development in common
use may be briefly classified as follows:
I. By purely Algebraical or Trigonometrical
processes.
II. By Taylor's or Maclaurin's Theorems.
III. By the use of a differential equation.
IV. By Differentiation of a known series, or a con
verse process.
These methods we proceed to explain and exemplify.
68 . METHOD I. Algebraic and Trigonometri
cal Methods.
Ex. 1. Find the first three terms of the expansion of log sec I
in ascending powers of a.
By Trigonometry
x2 24 r
cos x = 1
2!
+
41 617
Hence log sec x = -log cos x = -log (1 – 2) ,
x? 24 26
where 2= + ;
2 ! 4 ! 6 !
 EXPANSIONS. 67

and expanding log (1 – x) by the logarithmic theorem we obtain

22 23
log sec x = % + 2 3+
x2 at 26 at
CT
2 - 41 6! -...]: + [ 2
3
+
2! +...I
1
+ G -...
24 .26
=

24 720
24 26
+ + ...
8 48
2c6
+
24
2c2 24 26
hence log sec x = +
2 12 45

Ex. 2. Expand cos3 x in powers of x .

Since 4 cos2x== cos 3.3 + 3 cos x
32x2 34x4 32n 22n
= 1-2 + ! . + ( - 1) t ...
2! 4 ( 2n ) !
x2 24 x21
+31
[ 2!
+
4 ! + ( - 1)"
(2n ) ! . ]
+

1 x2 24
we obtain cos: x =
*4 {(1+3
+3) -- ( 32 +3) 4+
2 (34+ 3) 1! -...
+ ( - 1)" (32 + 3)
23
(2n)7+..) .
Similarly siner= 1{3 * - 3)3),9 – 136 –3)o57 + (37–3). 7 ...
{{33– 3!
-

7!
32n - 1-3
+ ( - 1)" 22n – 1
(2n - 1) ! 1-...)
-

Ex . 3. Expand tan x in powers of x as far as the term involving x”.

23 .20
3!
Since tan x =
1 -

+ -

2! 4!

we may by actual division show that

జ 2
tan x = x + + 25 +
3 15
542
68 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

Ex. 4. Expand » { log (1 + x) } " in powers of x.

Since (1 + x)" = eylog(1+x),
we have, by expanding each side of this identity,
y ( y - 1) y ( y – 1) (y – 2) 23+ y ( y - 1 ) (y - 2) (y - 3 ) * + - -

1 + yx + 2 ! x2 + 3 ! 4! ...

y?
= 1 + y log (1 + x ) + 2 ! { log (1 + ac)}" + ...
Hence, equating coefficients of y?,
1 x2 1+2 1.2 + 2.3 + 3.1
{log (1 + x)}?" = 3!
23+ : ** - etc.,
2 4!
a series which may be written in the form
22 x3 1 1 x4 1 1 x5
* - (1 +2 ) + (1 + + 1) : - (1 + ə+ 3+1) +...
2
+
3
+
2 3) 4
+ +
4 5

EXAMPLES.

X 1 1
1. Prove ex sin« = 1+ 32+24+ 120
-2....
n.x2 X4
2. Prove cosh ” x = 1 + + n (3n – 2 ) 4 !
2!
sin x x2 xt
3. Prove log 2 6 180
sinh 2 202 24
4. Prove log 180
6
r2 7
5. Prove log x cotx = ....
3 90

tan - 1x 2 :2 13 251
6. Prove log + x4 26..
3 90 5.7 . 92
7. Prove
x2 2.23 X4 206 x6 x7 28
log (1 – C + x2) = - x + + + +
2 3 4 5 7 8

8. Expand log (1 + x3ex) as far as the term containing xó.

 EXPANSIONS. 69

9. Expand in powers of X ,
2.x
(a ) tan - 1 P - 93 ( c) sin - 1
9 + px 1 + x2
3.2 - 23
-
X - 0-1
(6) tan -1 1-3.x2 (d) cos- 1 x + x- 1 '

69. METHOD II. Taylor's and Maclaurin's

Theorems.

It has been discovered that the Binomial, Ex

ponential, and other well-known expansions are all
particular cases of one general theorem , which has for
its object the expansion of f (a + h ) in ascending integral
positive powers ofh, f (x ) being a function ofx ofany
form whatever. It is found that such an expansion is
not always possible, but the student is referred to a
later chapter for a rigorous discussion of the limitations
of the Theorem .

70. Taylor's Theorem.

The theorem referred to is that under certain cir
cumstances
h2
f (x + hh) = f ( ) + ht"(w)+
hf 2! ()++3; f'!'"(a)+...
hin
+
+ n ! fn ( ) +... to infinity,
an expansion of f (x + h) in powers of h .
This is known as Taylor's Theorem.
Assuming the possibility of expanding f (a + h) in
a convergentseriesof positive integral powers of h, let
hº h3
f(ax + h) == 4 , + Azh + 1A , 2! + Asz?+.....
0
3! (1 ),
where A , A1 , A2 , ... are functions of w alone which are
to be determined .
70 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

Now df(x + h)_df(x + h) d («dh+ h) = f'(x+ h ),

d(x + h)
.

dh

for x and h are independent quantities and therefore

may be considered constant in differentiating with
regard to h , so that d (xdh+ h) = 1. i

Similarly 1
dạ f (x + h)
di ? = f " (x + h) ; and so on.
Differentiating (1 ) then with regard to h, we have
ha
f' (x + h ) = df(xdh+ h) = A,
, + A9h + 4372 ! + A, 3 ! + ... (2),
ha
f" (a« + h )) = df" dh
(x + h )
A, + Agh + 4.2+
! ...(3),

f "( x +h) –- df"(x + h) As + Ah + ...(4),

Ag
dh
etc. = etc.

Putting h = 0, we have at once from (1), (2), etc.

A , = f (w ), A , = f '(x ), A , = f " (x), A ; = f " (x), etc.,
2

where f ' (a ), f " (a ), f '" (2 )... are the several differential

.

coefficients of f(«) with respect to X. Substituting

these values in (1) ,
ha h3
f (x + h) =f(x) + hf ' ( x) + 5f
2 ! f"(x +f
" (x))+ 3 ;! '
"" (x) +....
Ex. 1. Let f (x ) = xn.
Then f'(x ) = non -1, F " (x ) = n (n − 1 ).xn -2, etc. , and
f (x + h) = (x + 11 )".
Thus Taylor's Theorem gives the Binomial expansion
-

( c + h)* = c ^ + nha -l + 1 (m2 !- 1) hexº - 2 + ...

 EXPANSIONS. 71
Ex. 2. Let f ( x ) = sin x.
Then f '(x ) = cos x, f' (x) = - sin x, f '" ( x ) = - cos x, etc., and
f (x + h ) = sin (x + h) .
Thus we obtain
h2 h3
sin (x + h ) = sin x + h cos 2 -
sin x - cos x + ...
2! 3!

EXAMPLES.

Prove the following results :

V 1. ex +h = eX + hex + h2
2 !
ea +
h3
3!
et t ..

12. tan - 1 (a + h)
h xh2 1-3.x2 23
= tan -18 + +
1 +22 (1 + x2)2 (1 + x2)3 3
3. sin - 1 ( x + h)
h h2 + 1+ 2x2 h3
= sin -1x + + + ....

3 ! +.
N1 –x2 " ( 1 – x2); 2 ! (1 – 22))} :
4. sec -1
- 1(x + h)
h 2.22 - 1 h2
= sec -1x + +
XV.x2-1 232 (x2-1):
32 – 2 !!
5. log sin ( x + h)
h2 h3 cos x
= log sin x + h cot x — 2 cosec2 x + t ...
3 sin3 x

71. Stirling's or Maclaurin's Theorem .

If in Taylor's expansion
h2 h3
f(x + h) =f(x) + hf ' (x ) + 1f
2 ! " (x ) + 3 ! f '' (x )+ ...
we put 0 for x, and x for h, we arrive at the result
X2 23
f (x ) = f (0) + af' (0 ) +5f"
2! 3 ! " (0 ) + ...
(0 ) + mif
xn
+
n ! f "(0) + ... )
 72 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

the meaning of fr(0) being that f(x) is to be differ

entiated r times with respect to å , and then x is to be
put zero in the result.
This result is generally known as Maclaurin's
Theorem. Being a form of Taylor's Theorem it is
subject to similar limitations.
Ex. 1. Expand sin x in powers of x.
Here f (x ) = sin x, Hence f (0) = 0,
f' (x) = cos x, f (0) = 1,
f " (x ) = - sinx, f " (0) = 0,
f '' ( x) = - cos x, f" (0) = -1 ,
&c . &c .
NTT NTT
yux (x +" )
f " (x) = sin ( x + 2 0(O) = sin
f" 2 1

пп
x" sin
x3 25 2
Thus sin x = x - + + t ..
3! 5!

Ex. 2. Expand log cos x in powers of x.

Here f (x) = log cos x,
f ' ( x) - tan x = -t , say ,
f" ( x) = - seca x = - (1 + ta),
f'''( x) = -2 tan x secº x = - 2t (1 + ta),
f (4)( x) = - 2 ( 1 + 3 +2) ( 1 + t )= -2 (1 + 4+2 + 3t ),
f(5)(x ) = -2 (8t + 1263) (1 + t2) = -2 (8t + 20 + 1215),
-

f (6)(x ) = – 2 (8 + 60 +2 + 60t4) (1 + ta) = -2 (8 + 68t2 + 120t4 +6016),

etc.
Whence
1
f (0) = log cos 0 = log1 = 0 , .

and f' ( 0 ) = f(3) (O ) = f(5) (O) = ... = 0,

also f" (0) = - 1 , f (4) (0) = -2, f(6)(0) = -16, etc.
Hence
x2 26
log cos x =
29-24!x41- 16.00! - etc.
!
 73
EXPANSIONS.

EXAMPLES.

Apply Maclaurin's Theorem to prove

NTT
un COS
x2 + 2
1. Cos X = 1 + +
2 ! 4! n!
X2 2013 24
2. log (1 + x ) = X ต 3 4 + ... + ( - 1 )n - 11n7+
203 x2n - 1
x5
13. tan - 1 X = X – + + ( - 1)» --1 2n - 1 + ...
5
|

1 1
esinx = 1 + x + * 22_
\ 4.
-... 8
204

1 1 x4
\ . log ( 1 + ex ) = log 2++++ 8 -10
5. 2
x x2
192
a? – 62
-

a ( a? – 362).243 ...
6. eat cos bx = 1 + axt x2 + +
2! 3 !
22

(a2+62)2 un cos n tan -1

+
n! ( n -7 %)+....a
t

72. METHOD III. By the formation of a Differ

ential Equation . First form a differential equation
as in Ex. 3, Art. 60, etc., and assume the series
Ao + ax + Axa t ...
for the expansion .
Substitute the series for y in the differential equa
tion and equate coefficients of like powers of a in the
resulting identity. We thus obtain sufficient equations
to find all the coefficients except one or two of the first
which may easily be obtained from the values of f(0),
f' (o), etc.
Ex. 1. To apply this method to the expansion of (1 + x)".
Let y = (1 + x )" = a , + ajx + ay& * + Azx% + ...... ....... .. (1) .
Then Yi = nn (1 + x)n-1 or (1 + x) yı = ny . . (2).
But Yı = a, + 2azX + 3az.x2 + ... ( 3 ).
74 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

Therefore substituting from (1) and (3) in the differential equation (2)
(1 + x)(a1 + 20.9.x + 3ay.x2 + ...) = n (a, + a ;2 + 2gt2 + ...).
Hence, comparing coefficients
an = nao ,
2a , + an = nai,
3az + 2a , = nan, etc.,
and by putting x = 0 in equation ( 1) ,
ao = 1,
giving ajan,
n-1 m (m - 1)
ag = 2 a = 21 ,
n-- 2
az
3
02 = (n - 31)(7-9),
!
etc.,

n-p+1 n (n - 1 ) ... (n - p + 1)
-

Op = r
ap- 1 = ..(n -r+ 1),
r!

whence ( 1 + x )" = 1 + nx + 1 ( 2m !- 1) x2 + ...

Ex, 2. Let y = f ( x ) = (sin x ).

1
Yı = 2 sin –1x .
11- ?'
:: (1 – x2) yı2 = 4y.
Differentiating, and dividing by 2yu , we have
(1 – x2) y2 = xyı + 2 .......... ( 1 ).
Now, let y = do + Q7x + agư ? + + amet + antzanti + Anteil ... )

therefore
yı = 27 +20 q.& + ... + nay.xn -1 + (n + 1) an +1x + (n + 2) an +2x4 + 1 +
and

yz= 2a2+...+n (n − 1) aman -s + (n + 1)nantian -1 + (1 + 2 )(n + 1)an+2 +* + ..

Picking out the coefficient of an in the equation (which may be done
without actual substitution ) we have
(n + 2) (n + 1) ant2- n (n − 1) an = nani
n2
therefore An +2 = an .13) .
( m + 1) ( n + 2)
 EXPANSIONS. 75
Now, do = f (0 ) = (sin -10) ,
and if we
sine is x,
consider sin -1 x to be the smallest positive angle whose
sin-10 = 0.
Hence ag = 0.
Again , ay = f'(0) = 2 sin - 10 .
JI- =0,
and
c= 10= ( 1+0+ 0 -1.
Az

Hence , from equation ( 2), az, Ag , Ay , are each = 0,

22 22 22
and 24
3.4
02 = 3.4 41 2,
42 22.42 22.42
.2,
0g =
5.6 .24 3.4.5.6 6!

etc. = etc.;
therefore
2.x2 22 22.42 22. 42.6
( sin - 1 x )2 = 2 ! + 2.04 + 2x6 + 8!
2.x8 + ....
4! 6!

A different method of proceeding is indicated in the

following example :
Ex . 3. Let
x3
y = sin (m sin–1 x ) = 2o + QjX + azzi + az31+ ... ... ......... (1).
m
Then -
Yı = cos (m sin -2x)
1– 2
whence ( 1 – x ) yı = m2 (1 -- yº).
Differentiating again, and dividing by 2yı , we have
(1 – 22) Y2 - xyz + may = 0. ..(2 ).
Differentiating this n times by Leibnitz's Theorem
(1 - x2) Yn + 2 – (2n +1) xyn +1 + (ma – na) Yn = 0............ (3) .
Now ao = (Y )x == 0 = sin (m sin -10 ) = 0,
(assuming that sin-1 x is the smallest positive angle whose sine is x)
a = (Yı)x = 0 = m ,
An = (y2)x=o = 0,
etc.

ax = (ynx= 0
 1

76 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

---
Hence, putting x = 0 in equation (3) ,
An + 2 = -- (m2 – na) an .
Hence ag , 0g , ag , ... , each = 0 ,
and Az = - (m2 – 12) a = -m (m2 – 12) ,
ag = - (m2 – 34) ag = m (m2 – 12) (m2 – 32), -

- -

An = - (m2 – 52) az = - m (m2 – 12) ( m ? – 32) (m2 – 52),

etc.
Whence
= m.c m ( m 3” !– 1“)
sin (m sin-1 x) = x3 +m (m2 – 12) (m2 – 32).25
5!
m (m2 – 12)(m2– 32)(m®– 52) -

x? + .
7!
The corresponding series for cos ( m sin - 1 x) is
mºx2 + m2 (m2 – 22)
cos (m sin-1 x ) = 1 4!
24
2!
m2 (m2 – 22) (m2- 42) 26 + ....
6 !

If we write x = sin 0 these series become

sin morm sin m (m2 – 12)

-

sin ? 0
3!
-
+ m (ma – 12) (m2 – 32) sin 0 – etc.,
5!
m2 m2 (m – 22) sinto
cos mo = 1 2, sino + 4!

m2 (m2– 24) (m2 – 42) sinó 0 + etc.

6!

EXAMPLES

1. Apply this method to find the known expansions of

are log (1 + x ), sin x, tan -1x .
2. If y = sin -1 x = do + ac + 09.22 +03:23+ ... ,
prove (1 ) ( 1 -2°) Y = 2Y1
(2) (n + 1) (n + 2 )an + 2 = n'an,
1 23 1.3 200
(3 ) sin –- 1x = x + 2 3 ++ 2.4.5 + ....
 EXPANSIONS. 77
3. If y = easin -22 = Qo + ajuta.y22+ Azucs + ... ,
prove (1) (1 -2 %) Y = xyı + ały,
(2) (n + 1) (n + 2) an + 2 = (n2 + a )An ,
a 22 a ( a ? +1) a ’ (a2+22)
( 3) ea sin-1x = 1 + ax + 2!
+
3!
203 +
4* 4!
204

+
a (a2 + 1) (a2 +32) 206 + ...
)
5 !
(4) Deduce from (3) by expanding the left side by the
exponential theorem and equating coefficients of a, a?, as... the
series for sin- 1 x, (sin - 1 x)2, (sin -1 x)3.
4. Prove that
( tan - 1 x )2
2!
22 x4 1 x6 1 1 1 x8
2 -(1+ ) *+ ((1+3+5)
4 (1+3+5+4)* +...
3 - 1+ 6 ++
8

5. Prove that
x2 2 24 2.4 26
a

(a) Llog(x +01+.c %)] = 2 3 4

+
3 5 6

log (x + V1 + x2) 2 2.4

(6) = X 203 + . 205
V1 + x2 3 3.5

73. METHOD IV . Differentiation or integra

tion of a known series. The method of treatment
is best indicated by examples.
Ex. 1. . If we differentiate the series
1 23 1.3 x6 1.3.5 27
sin - 1x = x + + + +
2 3 2 .4 5 2.4.6 7
we obtain the binomial expansion
1 1 1.3 2 1.3.5
4+
VIR=2 1+ 2 x2 +
2.4 2.4.5
26 + ... ,

and it is clear that we must be able by a reverse process ( integration )

to infer the first series from the second.

The student unacquainted with integration may obtain the expan.

sion of sin -1x from that of (1 – x2) – as follows:
78 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS. 1

Let sin- x = , + az & + * + agx3 + ...... ,

then differentiating
1
J1-12= Q2 + 2azax + 3ay.x2 +42 +3+ .......
1 1.3
But 22+ .
11 - =1+5 x² +
2.4

1.3
Hence a = 1, 20 , = 0, Bag = 5, 40,50, 5a = etc.
4 '
Also ao = sin -10 = 0
(if we take the smallest positive value of the inverse function ).
Hence substituting the values of these coefficients
1 x3 + 1.3 28
sin-1 x = x + 72 3 2 .4 5 + .......

Ex. 2. We have proved in Ex. 2 Art. 72

(sin-+ x )2 _ 22 + 2224 + 23.42 26 + 22.42.62 St ....
2! 2! 4! 6! 8!

Hence differentiating we arrive at a new series

sin - 12 22 22.42 22.42.62
= X + x3 + 25+ 7 + ....
N1 - 2 31 5 ! 7!

If we put x = sin o we may write this as

20 22 22.42 22.42.62
-1+ sina 0+ sin4 0 + sino a t ... ,
sin 20 3! 5 ! 7!
2 2.4 2.4.6
or sin4 A + sino + ....
= 1 + ş sinạ0 + 3.5 3.5.7

EXAMPLES.

1. Obtain in this manner the expansion of

-1 1 + 30
log (1 + x), tan- x, log 1-30
2. Prove
203
log(x +V1+ x2x)= x - 2123 + 1.3
2.4 2065 5
...
 EXAMPLES. 79

3. Expand
sin -1
2x
tan - 1
C
tan - 1
Vi + 22 - VI - 2
1 + x2 ) 1 - cº Vi + 22 + V1-22
in powers of x .
4. Prove
2
A
sin
22 22.42 22.42.62
= 1 + 3.4 sinº 0 + 3.4.5.6sin + A +
3.4.5.6.7.8
sino + ....

5. Prove that

easin -la -

(1 )
N1 - 22
=l+
ac
+
( a® +12) 22
x2 + a (a +22) 33+ (a®+12)(a +32) 24 t . ... )
1 ! 2! 3 ! 4!

(2 ) cos
sin 8 ( 1 + 12 ) sind . ( 1 + 22) sind
=1 + + +
1 ! 2! 3 !

+
( 1 + 12) (1 +32) sin 0 t ....
4 !

EXAMPLES
1. Prove
1 2

2. Prove
log ( 1 + tan x ) = X ex + 203+
...
x2 203 11x4 20
em cost = 1 + 3 + 2 24 5
...

3
3. Prove
5.x2 203 251
204 ....
log {. log (1+2
x))} = 24
-

8
+
2880
wollen

4. Prove
2.23 204 205 26 x ?
-
-

log(1-x
1 + 29) = - =+ *+
2 3 +
4
-

5 her7 me....
+
8
80 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.
..12 11.04
5. Prove cosh ( x cos x ) = 1 + 2 24
...

.23 205
sinh ( 2 cos x ) = x 3 5
tans 22 7
6. Prove log x4 ....
2 3 + 90

‫ܩܐ‬
7. Prove
.2005
cos - 1 (tanh log x ) = -2
2 {a ... } :
8. Prove
1 + 2- 1 x3 x5 27
NI

tan - 1
14 t ...
+
2 6 10

9. Prove log (3x + 423+1+9.22 + 24.x4 + 16.26)

1 x3 + 1.3 205

10. Prove that

=3
3f« 2 3 2.4 . 5
6.).
23 2 kb 2.4 x7
(a) ( 1 – x2) sin-1 x= x– .

7
1

3 3 5 3.5

sin? 2 sin4 0 2.4 sin a

(6) A cot A = 1
3 3 5 3 . 7
TT 1 2 1 2 2.4 1/1 \ 3
ż

(e) = 1-> (13)

4 3 3'5 () 3.5 7 (2)
11. Prove that

( x + V1 + x-2)»
n2c2 n (n2 – 12) nº(n2 – 22) 24 + n (n2 –– 12)(n2 – 32)
=
= 1 + nx + 2 ! + 23+ .26
3 ! 4 ! 5 !
t ... ,
and deduce the expansions of
1
log ( xx ++11+ x2), (log(x
{ +v1+ x2);},?
2! 3 ! {log (x + 11+ x2);s.
12. If y = ead cos bx,
prove that Ya - 2ayı + ( a +62) y = 0,
and hence that
a2 - 12
pax cos bx = 1 + axt x² + a ( a - 36 ) 2.: + ....
2! 3 !
 EXAMPLES 81
.
13. Prove

(a) sin (m tan - 1.x) (1 + x2)Z

=mc m (m – 1 ) (m - 2) 23+m (m - 1) (m – 2) (m - 3) (m – 4) 25
3! 5 !
m

(6) cos (m tan - 11x ) ( 1 + x2)22

1 m (m – 1 ) 2cm + m (m – 1) (m – 2 ) (m–3) 24 -
2 ! 4 !

14. Deduce from 13 (a)

tan - 1 x log V1 +22
1 X3 1 1 aző + il x7

=( + 2)2 ) 3 G + + +
1) +
( tat .
6) 7
15. Prove
cosh 12 + 12 ( 12 + 12) ( 12+ 32) sin
(a) =l+ sin ? A + * 0 + ... ,
cos A 2 ! 4!

sinh 0
(6) cos A
.12 (1 +22) ( 12 + 2 ) ( 12 + 4 )
sin A + sind A + sin A + ....
1 ! 3 ! 5!
16. Prove
(h sin 6 )? sin 20
tan -1 (x + h ) = tan -1 x + (h sin 6) sin 0 – 2
+ (h sin 0 )3 sin 30 - (h sin 0)4 sin 40 + etc .,
3 4
where x = cot 0.
17. Deduce from Ex, 16
TT cos2 0 COS:
(a) = 0 + cos O sin A + sin 20+ sin 30 + ...
2 2 3

by putting X= -
cot A.
TT - A 1 1 1
(6) = sin 0+ 2 sin 20+ 3 sin 30+ sin 40 + ... ,

by putting h = -11 + x2.

TT sin Ꮎ 1 sin 20 + 1 sin 30 + 1 sin 10
(c) + t ... ,
2 cos A 2 cos 3 cos3 0 4 cos4
by putting h = -X — x-1.
E. D. C. 6
82 DIFFEREVTIAL CALCULUS.
18. Show that
1 (sin -1 ...)
(a)
2 ! 1– 2
22 1 1 26
+12.32
- * +19.5 ( 2+ 32 ) 41+11.9.5 ( -+ 5 + 5)* +...
2!
42
32.52 2
327 52 6 !

(6 )
sin 20
sin 0 1 ) sin3 0 1 sin e
2 !
+12 . 32
( x+3 )32 4 !
+12.32.52
* (1 + 3 + 32 6!
+ ....
19. Prove
-1
(tan“1 x)3
3!
1 23 11 205 +

l2 +1 ( 3)} (1
1+ + 1+
2 3 5 4
1 1
+
x?
20. Prove
+ (1+3 +3)} 7

vers -1 17 1 1.3 .22 1.3.5 23

(a) 3 + + + ... )
V 2.0 4 5.42 2 ! 7.43 3!

(vers 1 x)2 = x + 1 22 1.2 23 1.2.3 24

(6) 2 3 2
구
3.5
.

3
+
3.5.7 4
+

21. Prove that

f(x + h)2+ f(x2–" ) =f(»)+ h22 !!F " (0)- + 424*! F " (x ) + ....
22. Prove that
(a) f (m.x )
x2
= f( )+ (m – 1) x_f"(-x)+(m – 1)2 2 ! "(x)+(m– 1)5"(a)+...,
3 !
22
f
(6 ) 167 )) 2,2 1 2013 1
=f(*x)-172M( *)+char(-)-uta
- + x f 'x) ( 1 + x )2 2 ! f" 3 ! f ""(10)+...,,
(1 + x )3337
22 23
(2 – 278"(x)
(c) f ( x ) = f (0 ) + xf'(x) ! + 3z7f"(x)-
if
! etc.
 CHAPTER VII.

INFINITESIMALS.

74. Orders of Smallness .

If we conceive any magnitude A divided into
any large number of equal parts, say a billion (1012),
A
then each part
1012 is extremely small, and for all
practical purposes negligible, in comparison with A.
If this part be againsubdivided into a billion equal
A
parts , each 1024 > each of these last is extremely small
A
in comparison with >
and so on. We thus obtain
1012 ?
A A A
a series of magnitudes, A, 1012" 1102 103 each
of which is excessively small in comparison with the
one which precedes it, but very large compared with
the one which follows it. This furnishes us with what
we may designate a scale of smallness.
75. More generally, if we agree to consider any
given fraction f as being small in comparison with
unity, then fÀ will be small in comparison with A ,
and we may term the expressions fa, f’A , f’A, ... , )

small quantities of the first, second 3, third, etc., orders ;

and the numerical quantities f, f ?, f },...,may be called
small fractions of the first second, third, etc., orders..
6-2
84 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

Thus, supposing A to be any given finite magni

tude, any given fraction of A ' is at our choice to
designate a small quantity of the first order in com
parison with A. When this is chosen , any quantity
which has to this small quantity of the first order a
ratio which is a small fraction of the first order, is itself
a small quantity of the second order. Similarly, any
quantity whose ratio to a small quantity of the second
order is a small fraction of the first order is a small
quantityof the third order, and so on. So that generally,
if a small quantity
th
be such that its ratio to a small
quantity of thepeh order be a small fraction of the qth
order, it is itself termed a small quantity of the ( p + q5th
order.

76. Infinitesimals.
If these small quantities Af, Af?, Af*, ... , be all
quantities whose limits are zero, then supposing f made 1
smaller than any assignable quantity by sufficiently 1
increasing its denominator, these small quantities of the !

first, second, third, etc., orders are termed infinitesimals

of the first,second, third, etc., orders.
From the nature of an infinitesimal it is clear that,
if any equation contain finite quantities and infinitesimals,
the infinitesimals maybe rejected.
77. PROP. In any equation between infinitesimals
of different orders, none butthose of the lowest order need
be retained .
Suppose, for instance the equation to be
A,+ B +C , + D, + E , + F,i+t ... = 0...... (i),
2 2

each letter denoting an infinitesimal of the order in

dicated by the suffix.
Then, dividing by A2 ,
1+ B , C , D E. + F3
+
A , + A , ++ ... = 0 ......(ii),
Ai
A 1 ' A + AĀz,+ A
 INFINITESIMALS. 85

B, C D, E, 2
the limiting ratios Aj and A , are finite, while Al ' A '
are infinitesimals of the first order, FE is an infinitesimal
A
of the second order, and so on. Hence, by Art.. 76,
equation (ii) may be replaced by
B C

09
1+ + =

A ' A
and therefore equation (i) by
A, + B + C = 0,
which proves the statement.

78. PROP. In any equation connecting infinitesimals

we may substitute for any one of the quantities involved
any other which differs from it by a quantity of higher
order.

For if AL + B + C + D, + ... == 0 2

be the equation, and if A, = Fi + f2,

f, denoting an infinitesimal of higher order than F1, we
have Fi + B + C, + fa + D , + ... = 0,
2

i.e. by the last proposition we may write

Fi + B + C = 0,
which may therefore, if desirable, replace the equation
A , + B + C = 0.
79. Illustrations.
03 05
(1) Since sin 0 = 0 +
3! 5!
02 44
and cos O = 1 +
2! 4!
sin 0, 1 - cos 0, 0 - sin 0 are respectively of the first, second, and third
orders of small quantities, when 0 is of the first order; also, may
be written instead of cos 0 if second order quantities are to be re
jected, and 0 for sin 0 when cubes and higher powers are rejected.
86 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

(2) Again , suppose AP the arc of a circle of centre 0 and radius

a. Suppose the angle AOP ( =0) to be a small quantity of the first
order . Let PN be the perpendicular from P upon 04 and AQ the
tangent at A , meeting OP produced in Q. Join P, A.
Then arc AP = a0 and is of the first order,
NP = a sin 0 do. do.,
AQ = a tano do. do .,
0
chord AP = 2a sin do. do .
2
NA = a ( 1 - cos ) and is of the second order.
So that OP - ON is a small quantity of the second order .

P
S

0 N A

Again , arc AP - chord AP = 10 – 2a sin

0
= a0 - 2a

a03
(4-8.3! +...)
!

etc
4.3 ! - . ,
and is of the third order.
PQ – NA = NA (sec 0 - 1)
2 sina
2
= NA .
cos e

= (second order)(second order)

= fourth order of small quantities,
and similarly for others.
80. The base angles of a triangle being given to be
small quantities of the first order, to find the order of the
difference between the base and the sum of the sides.
By what has gone before, (Art. 79 (2)), if APB be the
 INFINITESIMALS. 87

triangle and PM the perpendicular on AB, AP - AM

A M B

and BP – BM are both small quantities of the second

order as compared with AB.
Hence AP + PB – AB is of the second order com
-

pared with AB.

If AB itself be of the first order of small quantities,
then AP + PB – AB is of the third order.

81. Degree of approximation in taking a small

chord for a small arc in any curve.
Let AB be an arc of a curve supposed continuous
between A and B, and so small as to be concave at each
P

А B

point throughout its length to the foot of the perpen

dicular from that point upon the chord. Let ÅP, BP >

be the tangents at A andB. Then, when A and B are

taken sufficiently near together, the chord AB and the
angles at A and B may each be considered small quan
tities of at least the first order, and therefore, by what
has gone before, AP + PB - AB will be at least of the
-

third order. Now we may take as an axiom that the

length of the arc AB is intermediate between the length
of the chord AB and the sum of the tangents AP, BP.
Hence the difference of the arcAB and the chord AB,
which is less than that between AP + PB and the chord
AB, must be at least of the third order.
88
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

EXAMPLES

1. In the figure on page 86 suppose PM drawn at right

angles to AQ, and prove
( a) Segment cut off by AP is of the third order of small
quantities,
(6) Triangle PNA is of the third order,
(c) Triangle PQM is of the fifth order.
2. 0A, B is a triangle right-angled at A , and of which the
angle at 0 is small and of the first order. A ,B, is drawn per
pendicular to OB, B,A, to A , B, A , B, to OB, and so on.
Prove
( a ) AnBn is a small quantity of the ( 2n – 1 )th order,
(6) BAn + 1 is of the 2nth order,
(c) B,B is of the 2nth order,
( d ) triangle B AmB,n is of the (2m + 2n - 1 )th order.
3. A straight line of constant length slides between two
straight lines at right angles, viz. CAO , CbB ; AB, ab are two
positions of the line, and P their point ofintersection. Show
that, in the limit, when the two positions coincide, we have
Αα CB PA CB2
and
Bb CA PB CA2

4. From a point T in a radius of a circle, produced, a tangent

TP is drawn to the circle touching it in P. PN is drawn per
pendicular to the radius 0A. Show that, in the limit when P
moves up to A ,
NA = AT.

5. Tangents are drawn to a circular arc at its middle point

and at its extremities; show that the area of the triangle formed
by the chord of the arc and the two tangents at the extremities 5
is ultimately four times that of the triangle formed by the three
tangents.
6. A regular polygon of n sides is inscribed in a circle. Show
that when n is very great the ratio of the difference of the
circumferences to the circumference of the circle is approximately
7 /6n ?
7. Show that the difference between the perimeters of the
earth and that of an inscribed regular polygon of ten thousand
sides is less than a yard (rad. of Earth = 4000 miles).
 EXAMPLES. 89

8. The sides of a triangle are 5 and 6 feet and the included

angle exceeds 60° by 10". Calculating the third side for an
angle of 60°, find the correction to be applied for the extra 10%.
9. A person at a distance 용 from a tower of heightPp observes
that a flag-poleuponthe topof it subtends an angle 8 at his eye.
Neglecting his height, show that if the observed angle be subject
to a small error a, the corresponding error in thelength of the
pole has to the calculated length theratio
qa cosec 0/(q cos 6 -p sin 8).
10. If in the equation sin (w - 6) = sin w cos a, o be small,
show that its approximate value is
a
2 tan wsin?
(11- tan ’ wsin ? )
[1. C. s.]
11 . A small error x is made in measuring the side a of a
triangle, a small error y in measuring b, anda small error n "
in measuring C. Prove that the consequent errors in A and B
are each {n ", provided the relation
2 bx — ay sin C = n sin 1 "
a? – 62
be satisfied. [1. C. S., 1892.]
 Rec . CHAPTER VIII.
TANGENTS AND NORMALS .

82. Equation of TANGENT.

It was shown in Art. 18 that the equation of the
tangent at the point (x, y) on the curve y =f(x) is
Y - y =
dy
dx ( X - « )..... . ( 1 ),
X and Y being the current co-ordinates of any point on
the tangent.
Suppose the equation of the curve to be given in the
form f (x , y) = 0.
It is shown in Art. 58 that
Əf
dy дах
da of
>>

oy
dy
Substituting this expression for dx in (1 ) we obtain

of
дх
Y = y = -3 (YX —a),
dy
 TANGENTS AND NORMALS. 91

of
or

(X++(Y 9 , дах
for the equation of the tangent.
+ ( Y – y ) ду 0 ............ ( 2 )

ди ди
If the partial differential coefficients dic oy etc. be >

denoted by fa,fy, etc., equation (2) may then be written

>

( 8 - x ) fx + ( Y - y ) fy = 0.
83. Simplification for Algebraic Curves .
If f(x, y) be an algebraic function of x and Y of
degree n , suppose it made homogeneous in x , y, and z by
the introduction of a proper power of the linear unit z
wherever necessary. Call the function thus altered
f( x, y, z). Then f( , y, z) is a homogeneous algebraic
function of the nth degree ; hence we have by Euler's
Theorem (Art. 59 )
fx + yfy + zf2 = nf(x ,y, z) = 0,
=

by virtue of the equation to the curve .

Adding this to equation (2), the equation of the
tangent takes the form
Xfx + Yfy + zf, = 0 .........
Z (3) ,
where the z2 is to be put = 1 after the differentiations
have been performed .
We often for the sake of symmetry write Z instead
of z in this equation and writethe tangent in the form
Xfx + Yfy + Zfz = 0.
Ex. f (x , y) = x ++ a -xy + b3y + c4 = 0 .
The equation, when made homogeneous in x, y, z by the introduction
of a proper power of 2 , is
f(x,y, z) = x4 + aʻxyz2 + bºyz3 + c+z4 = 0,
and fe = 4.c3 + a'yza,
fy = a’xz² +6373,
f: = 2a +ry2 + 3b3y22 + 4c4z3.
92 DIFFERENTIAL C'ALCULUS.
Substituting these in Equation 3, and putting Z= = 1, we have for
the equation of the tangent to the curve at the point (x, y )
X ( 4.x3 + a’y) + Y (aⓇx +63) + 2a’ry + 36%y + 4c+ = 0.
With very little practice the introduction of the z
can be performed mentally. It is generally more ad
vantageous to use equation ( 3) than equation (2), be
cause ( 3) gives the result in its simplest form , whereas
if (2) be used it is often necessary to reduce by substitu
tions from the equation of the curre.
84. NORMAL .

DEF. The normal at any point ofa curve isa straight

line through that point and perpendicular to the tangent
to the curve at that point.
Let the axes be assumed rectangular. The equation
of the normal may then be at once written down. For
if the equation of the curve be
y = f (x ),
the tangent at (x, y) is
Y -y- ddyx (X – x4),
and the normal is therefore
dy
(X – «) + ( Y - y) dx -0 .

If the equation of the curve be given in the form

f (x,, y) = 0, =

the equation of the tangent is

(X – X )fx + ( Y - y) fy = 0,
2

and therefore that of the normal is

X - & _ Y - Yy
-

- fa fy
 TANGENTS AND NORMALS. 93

Ex. 1. Consider the ellipse 222 + ya : 1.

a

This requires 22 in the last term to make a homogeneous equation

in x, y, and z. We have then
x2 y? za = 0 .
22 . 62

Hence the equation of the tangent is

x.2+ v . 2y.
a2
Y
62
- % ..22 = 0,

where z is to be put = 1 . Hence we get

-

Xx Yy
+
62
- = 1 for the tangent,
a ?
X- X Y- y
and therefore for the normal.
y
|
8

a ? 62

Ex. 2. Take the general equation of a conic

ax2 + 2hxy + by2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0.
When made homogeneous this becomes
ax* + 2hxy + by2 + 2gxz + 2fyz + cz = 0.
The equation of the tangent is therefore
X (ax + hy +9) + Y (hx + by + f) + 9x + fy + c = 1,
and that of the normal is
X- X Y-Y
ax + hy +ghx + by + f *

Ex. 3. Consider the curve y = log secara

a

dy -tap ..
Then
dir

and the equation of the tangent is

30

and of the normal

Y - y = tan (X–x),
x a

2
( YY – y ))tan a + ( Xx – x ) .
= 0.
 t REN L US
mi FE CU
F L
94 DI CA .

85. If f (x , y) = 0 and F (x, y) = 0 be two curves

intersecting at the point x, y, their respective tangents
at that point are
Xfx + Yfy + Zf = 0,
and XF: + YF , + ZF, = 0.
X

The angle at which these lines cut is

tan -1fxF , – f, F .
y y X
.

f« F : + f, F y,
Hence if the curves touch
fa / F : = fy/ F,;
and if they cut orthogonally,
fxF : + fyF, = 0.
Ex. Find the angle of intersection of the curves
23 – 3xyº = a ,
3.ray – y' = .
Calling the left-hand members f and F respectively, we have
3 (zº - ) = F ,,
fy = - 6xy = - Fx :
-

Hence clearly f F + Fy = 0 ,
2

and the curves cut orthogonally.

86. If the form of a curve be given by the equations

x = $ (t), y = % (t)
the tangent at the point determined by the third variable
t is by equation 1, Art. 82,
Y - 7 (t)=
t) '(t) {X – (t)} ,
φ' (t)
or
Xy' (t) - Y ¢' (t) = $ (t) { ' (t) – 7 (t) $' (t).
Similarly by Art. 84 the corresponding normal is
X$' (t) + Y '(t) = $ (t) $'(t)+ f (t) ( t).
=
 TANGENTS AND NORMALS. 95

EXAMPLES
1. Find the equations of the tangents and normals at the
point ( x, y) on each of the following curves :
(1) 202 + y2 = c2. (5 ) x + y + xy = a3.
(2) y2 = 4ax. (6) ev = sin x.
(3) ay = k ( 7) 2-3 - 3axy + y2 = 0 .
Ꮖ
(4) Y = ccosh (8) ( 22 + y2) = a ? (x2 - y ).
2. Write down the equations of the tangents and normals to
a
the curve y (x2 + a ?) = ax2at the points where 4
2 y
3. Prove that at the
a +3 = 1 touches the curve y = be
point where the curve crosses the axis of y.
14. Find where the tangent is parallel to the axis of x and
where it is perpendicular to that axis for the following curves :
( a) ax? + 2hxy + bya = 1.
X3 – a3
(B) y = ах

( y) ys = 32 (2a - x).
5. Find the tangent and normal at the point determined
by 0 on
(a) The ellipse 0
y =b sin o )
(B) The cycloid x = a (@ + sin 8)
y = a ( 1 - cos 6))
A
( v ) The epicycloid X = A cos A - B cos B

y = A sin 0 - B sin B 11/2

6. If p = x cos a + y sin a touch the curve
xm+ ym
am im = 1,
m mn m

prove that b ajo

pm - 1 = (a cos a )m - 1 + (b sin a)m --1.
96 DIFFERENTLIL CALCULUS.
Hence write down the polar equation of the locus of the foot
of the perpendicular from the origin on the tangent to this
curve .

Examine the cases of an ellipse and of a rectangular hyper

bola.

7. Find the condition that the conics

ax2 + by2 = 1, a'x ? + B'ya = 1
shall cut orthogonally.

8. Prove that, if the axes be oblique and inclined at an

angle w, the equation of the normal to y = f (-x) at (x, y) is
dy dy = .
( 1-2)(cos +)%)+(x-7)(1+
Y y X–
( 8 - x)dx
6cos w dx
--
9. Show that the parabolas x2 = ay and y? = 2ux intersect
upon the Folium of Descartes x3 + y3 = 3axy; and find the angles
between each pair at the points of intersection .

87. Tangents at the Origin .

It will be shown in a subsequent article ( 124) that
in the case in which a curve, whose equation is given
in the rational algebraic form , passes through the origin,
the equation of the tangent or tangents at that point
can be at once written down by inspection ; the rule
being to equate to zero the terms of lowest degree in the
equation of the curve .
Ex . 1. In the curve x2 + y2 + ax + by = 0, ax + by = 0 is the equation
of the tangent at the origin ; and in the curve ( x3 + y)2 = aº (22 - y²),
x2 - y2 = 0 is the equation of a pair of tangents at the origin .
.

Ex.2. Write down the equations of the tangents at the origin

in the following curves:
(a) (x2 + y2)2 = a2.x2 – bạya.
(B) x + y = 5axºy
( ) (y - a)2X2 + y - _ .
y2 B.
 TANGENTS AND NORMALS. 97

GEOMETRICAL RESULTS.

88. Cartesians. Intercepts.

dy
From the equation Y -– y = dx
de( X – X)
it is clear that the intercepts which the tangent cuts off
from the axes of x and y are respectively
y dy
X
à dy, and y - cadeau ?
dac

for these are respectively the values of X when Y = 0

and of Y when X = 0.

A
P

Yt
Y
Y 4
T N. G X

Let PN , PT, PG be the ordinate, tangent, and

normal to the curve, and let PT make an angle y with
dy
the axis of a ; then tan y = doc '
Let the tangent cut
the axis of yy in t, and let OY, OY, be perpendiculars
from 0, the origin , on the tangent and normal. Then
the above values of the intercepts are also obvious from
the figure.
E. D. C. 7
98 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

89. Subtangent, etc.

DEF. The line TN is called the subtangent and the
line NG is called the subnormal.
From the figure
Subtangent = TN = y cot of dy
da

dy
Subnormal NG = y tan = 9 doc

Normal = PG = y sec y = y V1 + tanº of

(dy)
=Y
Ni 1+
\ dx )
V1 + tan of
Tangent = TP = y cosec y = y tan of
2

=y
V11+ (ddx)y )
dy
dx 1

dy dy
Y — X da y- SC doc
OY = Ot cos yra
J1 + tany
V (dy\dx )
* 71+
dy
ON + NG x + y da
OY, = OG cosa
1 + tany dy
to V 1+
(dx ,
These and other results may of course also be
obtained analytically from the equation of the tangent.
 TANG ENTS AND NORMALS. 99

Thus if the equation of the curve be given in the

form f (x, y) = 0,
the tangent Xfx + Yfy + Zfz = 0
makes intercepts - fzlfx and – fulfy upon the co -ordinate
axes, and the perpendicular from the origin upon the
tangent is
2
fzl1fe + fy ;
and indeed, any lengths or angles desired may be written
down by the ordinary methods and formulae of analytical
geometry.
Ex. 1. For the chainette ”
с

=
y = 5 (eº + e C)
1
we have
3 3 - .
yi = (ec - es).-/
*
y ecte
Hence Subtangent = C
Yı C
eC e

2x 2x

Subnormal = yy1 = с4 (ec -e " ).

Normal = Y n
11 + y ? y? -
с
etc.

xº
Ex . 2. Find that curve of the class y = an whose subnormal is
constant.
xn -1
Here Yı = n an

22n - 1
and subnormal = yyı = n n
a2 -2

Thus if 2n = 1 the x disappears and leaves

a
subnormal
2'
and the curve is the ordinary parabola
ya = ax .
7-2
100 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.
ds dc
90. Values of > etc.
dx ' ds
Let P , Q be contiguous points on a curve . Let
the co-ordinates of P be (x , y ) and of Q (x + 8x, y + dy).
Y

xt tx 17 cm

P
R

To M N X
=
Then the perpendicular PR = da, and RQ = dy. Let
the arc AP measured from some fixed point A on the
curve be called s and the arc AQ = s + ds. Then arc =

PQ = ds . When travels along the curve so as to

come indefinitely near to P, the arc PQ and the chord
PQ differ ultimately by a quantity of higher order of
smallness than the arcPQ itself. (Art. 81.)
Hence, rejecting infinitesimals of order higher than
the second, we have
8s? = (chord PQ)2 = (8x2 + 8yº),
=

Sa” бу? dx 2 2

or 1 = Lt +
8s2 8s ent) = ( )* + (dy). ds
8
Similarly Lt Lt ( 1+ dy ?)
da ? (1 да ?,
>

2
ds 12 = l + ay
or
dx)
and in the same manner
ds 2 -1+ da ) 2
(dy ( dy)
 TANGENTS AND NORMALE 101

If to be the angle which the tangent makes with

the axis of x we have as in Art. 18,
RQ dy dy
tan f = Lt PR = Lt 8x doc
and also
PR PR δα dx
cos y = Lt chord PQ Lt · Lt
arc PQ ds ds '
and
RQ RQ - Lt
dy dy
sin y = Lt chord PQ =
Lt
arc PQ Os ds

EXAMPLES
1. Find the length of the perpendicular from the origin
on the tangent at thepoint x, y of the curve
2 ++ y = c4
2. Show that in the curve y = bea the subtangent is of con
stant length .
3. Show that in the curve by - = ( x + a )3 the square of the
subtangent varies as the subnormal.
4. For the parabola ya = 4ax, prove
ds a +x
dx
22
32
5. Prove that for the ellipse a2 +32 = 1 , if x = a sin ,
ds
= αa V1- e sind 0 .
do
6. For the cycloid x = a vers A
y = a (@ + sin o}
ds 2a
prove dx Van 2
7. In the curve ข=
= a log sec a

ds ds 2
prove dx
= sec
a ' dy
= cosec and xray.
102 DIFFERENTI IL CALCULUS.
X
8. Show that the portion of the tangent to the curve
..* ++ y = aa?,
which is intercepted between the axes, is of constant length.
Find the area of the portion included between the axes and
the tangent.
9. Find for what value of n the length of the subnormal
of the curve xy " = an +1 is constant. Also for what value of n
the area of the triangle included between the axes and any tan
gent is constant.
2
10. Prove that for the catenary y = c cosh the length of
the perpendicular from the foot of the ordinate on the tangent
is of constant length.
11. In the tractory
с
Q = Vc2 - y2+ 2 log
C - 102 y2
c + V0-72
prove that the portion of the tangent intercepted between the
point of contact and the axis of x is of constant length.
91. Polar Co -ordinates,
If the equation of the curve be referred to polar co
ordinates, suppose ( to be the pole and P, Q two con
tiguous points on the curve. Let the co -ordinates of P
and Q be (r, ) and (r + dr, 8 + 80) respectively. Let
PN be the perpendicular on OQ, then NQ differs from

do P
0

T
 TANGENTS AND NORMALS. 103

dr and NP from rd by a quantity of higher order of

smallness than 80. ( Art. 79.)
Let the arc measured from some fixed point A to P
be called s and from A to Q, s + ds. Then arc PQ = ds. =

Hence, rejecting infinitesimals of order higher than the

second, we have
Ssa = (chord PQ)2 = (NQ2 + PN2) = (8r2 + 7288),
and therefore
2
dr ds ) do 2
(ds7)*+ro ( )*= 1, or .)
ds dr )
= l + p2
( ,
dr )
ds 2 dr ) ?
or
()"
do
= 22 +
d Ꮎ.
>

according as we divide by ds ”, 8r , or 882 before proceeding

to the limit.

92. Inclination of the Radius Vector to the

Tangent.
Next, let o be the angle which the tangent at any
point P makes with the radius vector, then
dᎾ dr rdo
tan ø = r dr ' cos º ds sin
ds .
For, with the figure of the preceding article, since, when
Q has moved along the curve so near to P that Q and
P may be considered as ultimately coincident, QP be
comes the tangent at P and the angles OQT and OPT
are each of them ultimately equal to 0, and
NP ree de
tan $ = Lt tan NQP = Lt QN Lt
or
= r
dr i

cos $ = Lt cos NQP = Lt choNQ

rd QP
NQ dr dr
Lt : Lt. =
arc QP Os ds ;
104 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULL'S.

NP
sin $ = Lt sin NQP = Lt chord QP
NP roa rde
Lt Lt
arc QP as ds

Ex . Find the angle o in the case of the curve

gen = a " sec (no + a) ,
and prove that this curve is intersected by the curve
yon = b" sec (n0 + B)
at an angle which is independent of a and l. [ I. C. S., 1886.)
Taking the logarithmic differential,
1 dr
r do
tan (n0 + a) ,

whence p = no + a.
2

In aa similar manner for the second curve

п

2 d'== n0 + ß ,
d' being the angle which the radius vector makes with the tangent to
the second curve. Hence the angle between the tangents at the point
of intersection is a ~ ß.

93. Polar Subtangent, Subnormal.

Let OY be the perpendicular from the origin on the
tangent at P.
Let Tot be drawn through O perpendicular to OP
P
Y

and cutting the tangent in T and the normal in t. Then

 TANGENTS AND NORMALS. 105

OT is called the “Polar Subtangent” and Ot is called the

" Polar Subnormal.”
It is clear that
de
OT = OP tan $ = 72 dr
=
.. ( 1 ),
dr
and that Ot = OP cot $
=
.. ( 2).
dᎾ

94. It is often found convenient when using polar

1 1 du
co -ordinates to write for r , and therefore u ” do
for
U
dr
With this notation ,
do '
de de
Polar Subtangent = 72
74 dr du '
Ex . In the conic lu = 1 + e cos 0
do
we have 1 = -esin e .

du
Thus the length of the polar subtangent is lle sin 0.
Also, from the figure, the angular co-ordinate of its extremity is
TT
0
2

Hence the co -ordinates of T (11, 0,) satisfy the equation

7T
rn = lle sin
( +03).
The locus of the extremity is therefore
lure cos 0 ;
that is, the directrix corresponding to that focus which is taken as
origin .

95. Perpendicular from Pole on Tangent.

Let OY = p.
Then p = r sin ,
106 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS .

and therefore
1 1 1 1 /dr
cosec ( 1 + cotº)
p? 72

1 1 1 (dr ) 2
1+
{ )}
p2 do

therefore + -( 1 )
p2 22 pot (do

do)
(due
? + . ( 2 ).
02
Ex. In the spiral 1a
02 - 1
we have au= 1-0-2,
du
whence
do = 20-3 ;
a

and therefore, squaring and adding,

a
-1 - 20 -% + 0 - + 48-6.
Thus, corresponding to 0 = £ 1 , we have
a? a
= 4 and p 二土
p? 2

96. The Pedal Equation .

The relation between p and r often forms a very
convenient equation to the curve. It is called the
Pedal equation .
(1 ) If the curve be given in Cartesians,
say FF (x, y) = 0 .. ( 1 ),
the tangent is
XF: + YF y, + ZF , = 0) 2

and p = =
( 2 ).
F ** + Fy?2
2

If x,
X yY be eliminated between equations ( 1 ), (2) and
cº + 2° = ... ..(3),
the required equation will result.
 TANGENTS AND NORMALS. 107

Ex. If xº + y2 = 2ax,
X ( x – a) + Yy = ax
is the equation of the tangent, and
a ”.x2 1 got
pa =
( x – a )2 + y2-1 a ? '
or pe = 2ap.
This result will also be evident geometrically.
( 2) If the curve be given in Polars we may first
obtain p in terms of r and a by Art. 95, and then
eliminate e between this result and the equation to the
curve.

Ex. Required the pedal equation of qm = am sin mo.

By logarithmic differentiation ,
m dr
po do= m cot mo,
: . coto = cot mo or o = mo,
ተ ።
whence p = r sin p = r sin mo = r am '
or pam = qmti

EXAMPLES.
1. In the equiangular spiral r = ae® cot “;a, prove
dr
ds = cos a and p = r sin a.
2. For the involute of a circle, viz.,
p2 - a2
COS -1
A=
a Leon
a
prove cos ♡ 19

2a
3. In the parabola 19
1 - cos0, prove the following re
sults :
A
(a)
(α) φ=π = 2
108 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS .
a
(B) P 0
sin
2

(y) pa = ar.
(8) Polar subtangent = 2a cosec 8.
4. For the cardioide r == a ( 1 - cos 8), prove
A
(a) • 2

(B) p = 2a sin
po3
(y) pe = 2a

DINI
NOI
sin3
(8) Polar subtangent = 2a
COS
2

97. Maximum number of tangents from a

point to a curve of the nth degree.
Let the equation of the curve be f (x ,y) = 0. The
equation of the tangent at the point (x, y) is
Xfx + Yfy + Zf; = 0,
where z is to be put equal to unity after the differen
tiation is performed. If this pass through the point
h, k we have
hfe + kf, + fq = 0.
This is an equation of the ( n − 1)th degree in x and
y and represents a curve of the (n − 1 )th degree passing
through the points of contact of the tangents drawn from
the point (ħ, k) to the curve f(x, y ) = 0. These two
curves have n (12 – 1) points of intersection, and there
fore there are n (n − 1) points of contact corresponding
to n ( n − 1) tangents, real or imaginary, which can be
drawn from a given point to a curve of the nth degree.
 TANGENTS AND NORMALS, 109

Thus for a conic, a cubic, a quartic, the maximum

number of tangents which can be drawn from a given
point is 2, 6, 12 respectively.
98. Number of Normals which can be drawn
to a Curve to pass through a given point.
Let h, k be the point through which the normals are
to pass.
The equation of the normal to the curve f(x,y) = 0
at the point ( x, y) is
X - x _Y - y
fx fy
If this pass through h, k ,
-

(h – x ) fy = (k - y) fr.
This equation is of the nth degree in x and y and
represents a curve which goes through the feet of all
normals which can be drawn from the pointh, k to the
curve. Combining this with f (x, y ) = 0, which is also
of the nth degree, it appears that there are nº points of
intersection, and that therefore there can be nº normals,
real or imaginary, drawn to a given curve to pass through
a given point.
For example, if the curve be an ellipse, n = 2 , and the number of
x2
normals is 4.Let 2 + ya 62
= 1 be the equation of the curve, then
Q
.
(1 – x) * = (x – y) a ?
is the curve which , with the ellipse, determines the feet of the normals
drawn from the point (h , k). This is a rectangular hyperbola which
passes through the origin and through the point (h, k ).
The student should consider how it is that an infinite number of
normals can be drawn from the centre of a circle to the circumference.
99. The curves
(h – «x) fx + (k – y ) fy = 0 ............ ( 1 ),
and (h – x ) fy – (k – y ) fx = 0... . . . . . . ...( 2),
110 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

on which lie the points of contact of tangents and the

feet of the normals respectively, which can be drawn to
the curve f ( , y) = 0 so as to pass through the point
(h , k), are the same for the curve f ( x , y) = a. And, as
equations (1 ) and (2) do not depend on a, they represent
the loci of the points of contact and of the feet of the
normals respectively for all values of a, that is, for all
members of the family of curves obtained by varying a
in f ( x , y) = a in any manner.
EXAMPLES .
1. Through the point h , k tangents are drawn to the curve
A.x3 + Bys = 1 ;
show that the points of contact lie on a conic.
2. If from any point P normals be drawn to the curve whose
equation is ym = max ”, show that the feet of the normalslie on a
conic of which the straight line joining P to the origin is a dia
meter. Find the position of theaxes of this conic.
3. The points of contact of tangents from the point h, k to
the curve 23 + y3 = 3axy lie on a conic which passes through the
origin .
4. Through a given point h, k tangents are drawn to curves
where the ordinate varies as the cube of the abscissa . Show that
the locus of the points of contact is the rectangular hyperbola
2xy + kx – 3hy = 0,
and the locus of the remaining point in which each tangent cuts
the curve is the rectangular hyperbola
XY – 4kx + 3hy = 0.

EXAMPLES.

1. Find the points on the curve

y = (x - 1 ) ( -2) (6-3 )
at which the tangent is parallel to the axis of x .
Show also that the tangents at the first and third inter
sections with the x-axis are parallel, and at the middle inter
section the tangent makes an angle 135º with that axis,
 EXAMPLES. 111

X 2. In any Cartesian curve the rectangle contained by the

subtangent and the subnormal is equal to the square on the
corresponding ordinate.
3. Show that the only Cartesian locus in which the ratio
of the subtangent to the subnormal is constant is a straight
line.
X
4. If the ratio of the subnormal to the subtangent vary as
the square of the abscissa the curve is a parabola.
W 5. Show that in any curve
Subnormal 2
Subtangent
-

Tangent )
w6. Find that normal to
Vay = a + 2,
which makes equal intercepts upon the co -ordinate axes.
7. Prove that the sum of the intercepts of the tangent to
Nx + Ny= Na
upon the co - ordinate axes is constant.
8. Show that in the curve
yra log ( 2c2 – a ),
thesum of the tangent and the subtangent varies as the product
of the co -ordinates ofthe point.
9. Show that in the curve
2m + n = am - ny2n,
the mth power of the subtangent varies as the nth power of the
subnormal.
10. In the curve yn = an -1x the subnormal cc32
2
and the sub
tangent oc x .
11. Show that in the curve y=beå the subtangent varies as
the square of the abscissa.
12. If in a curve the normal varies as the cube of the ordinate,
find the subtangent and the subnormal.
13. Show that in the curve for which
с
8 = clog
ข
the tangent is of constant length .
112 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

14. Show that in the curve for which

y2 = 12 +82, (The Catenary )
the perpendicular from the foot of the ordinate upon the tangent
is of constant length .
15. Show that the polar subtangent in the curve r= að (The
Spiral of Archimedes) varies as the square of the radius vector,
and the polar subnormal is constant.
16. Show that the polar subtangent is constant in the curve
re =a. (The Reciprocal Spiral.)
17. Show that in the curve
r = aeocot a> (The Equiangular Spiral.)
( 1 ) the tangent makes a constant angle with the radius
vector ;
(2) the Polar Subtangent = r tan a ;
the Polar Subnormal = r cota ;
(3) the loci of the extremities of the polar subtangent,
the polar subnormal, the perpendicular upon the tangent from
the pole are curves of the same species as the original.
18. Show that each of the several classes of curves (Cotes's
Spirals )
= aemo, rd = a, r sin n6 = a, * sinh mạ = 1 ,
r cosh nd = a ,
have pedal equations of the form
1 A
+ B,
p² 202
where A and B are certain constants.

19. Find the angle of intersection of the Cardioides

pra ( 1 + cos ),
p = b ( 1 - cos 6).
20. Find the angle of intersection of
-

x2 - y2 = a2
2 + y = a? V21
 EXAMPLES. 113

21. Show that the condition of tangency of

x cos a + y sin a =P,
with Ximyn = amin,
n
is pm + n.m " .N " = (m + n )m +ram + n com a sin " a .

Hence write down the equation of the locus of the foot of the
perpendicular from the origin upon a tangent.
22. Show that in the curve (the cycloid )
x = a (0 + sin o),
y = a (1 - cos ),
ds A ds
and = =V2a /y.
do = 20 cos 2 dy

23. Show that in the curve (an epicycloid)

a+6
= (a + b) cos 0 - 6 cos b
0,

y = (a + b) sin – b sin atb 0,

we have
a a + 26 p = ( a +26 ) sin aayv
p = (a +26) sin 26 0 ; 0;
26 a +26 ;
and that the pedal equation is
go2 = a ? +4 (a + b) 6 pl.
( a +26 )
24. Show that the normal to ya = 4ax touches the curve
27aya = 4 (x - 2a )

25. Show that the locus of the extremity of the polar sub
tangent of the curve
u = f (0 ),
is
* +/+ * +0 -0. =

8
E. D. C.
114 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.
26. Show that the locus of the extremity of the polar sub
normal of the curve
r = f (0 ),
is
r=f' (0–5) .
27. In the curve

r (m +utan9.)-1 ++tan 2 '

show that the locus of the extremity of the polar subtangent is
m - n
p = 1 + cos .
2
 CHAPTER IX .

ASYMPTOTES.

100. DEF. If a straight line cut a curve in two

points at an infinite distance from the origin and yet is
not itself wholly at infinity, it is called anasymptote to
the curve.

101. To obtain the Asymptotes.

If $ (x, y ) = () ......... .. ( 1 )
be the equation of any rational algebraic curve of the
nch degree, and
Y = mx + С ..... ( 2)
that of any straight line, the equation
$ (x, mx + c) = 0 ........ :(3)
obtained by substituting the expression mu + c for y
gives the abscissae of the points of intersection.
This equation is in general of the nth degree,showing
that a curve of the nth degree is in general cut in
n points real or imaginary by any straight line.
The two constants of the straight line, viz. m and c,
are at our choice. We are to choose them so as to
make two of the roots of equation (3) infinite. We
then have a line cutting the given curve so that two
of the points of intersection are at an infinite distance
from the origin.
8-2
116 DIFFERENTIAL CALCI'LU'S.

Imagine equation ( 3) expanded out and expressed in

descending powers of a as
Ax" + Bxn-1 + Cr"— + + K = 0 ...... ( 4),
A , B, C , etc. being certain functions of m and c.
>

The equation whose roots are the reciprocals of the

roots of this equation is
A + B2 + Cz? + + K2" = 0

(by putting x =1); Z

and it is evident that if A and B be both zero two roots

of this equation for 2 will become evanescent, and
therefore two roots of the equation for a become infinite.
If then we choose m and c to satisfy the equations
A = 0, B = 0,
and substitute their values in the equation
y == mx + c,
we shall obtain the equation of an asymptote.

102. It will be found in examples (and it admits

of general proof) that the equation A = 0 contains m
only and in a degree not higher than n . Also that
B = 0 contains c in the first degree. Hence a curve of
the nth degree does not possess more than n asymptotes.
Ex. Find the asymptotes of the curve
y3 – x ? y + 2y2 + 4y + x = 0.
Putting y = mx + c,
(mx + c )3 – xº (mx + c) +2 (mx + c)2 + 4 (mx + c) + x = 0,
or (m3 – m ) x3 + (3m²c - сc + 2m2) x² + ... etc. = 0.
We now are to choose m and c so that
m3 – m = 0
and 3mºc – C + 2m2 = of
The first equation is a cubic for m and gives m = 0, 1 or - 1.
 ASYMPTOTES. 117

The second equation is of the first degree in c and gives

2m2
CE
1 - 3m ? '
If m = 0 we have c=0;
if m = 1 we have C =- 1;
if m = -1 we have CE 1.

Hence we obtain three asymptotes, viz.

y = 0,
y=x - 1,
Y = -x - 1 .

EXAMPLES.

Find the asymptotes of

♡ X 1. 43 – 6xy2 + 11.x2y – 6.23 + 2 + y = 0.
*Ý y 2. y3 – 4.x2y – xy2 + 4.23 + 4xy – 4.x2 = 5.
3. y* - 3e'y + xy – 3.23 + 2y +2.24+4.x + 5y + 6 = 0.
4. ( + 2 + 1) (y + 2.x + 2 ) (y + 3 ++ 3) (y - 7) + 22 + y - 2 = 0.
5. ( 2.c + 3y) (30 + 4y) (4.c + 5y) + 26.cº + 70.cy + 47y2 + 2.0+38
+ 3y,.
1

103. The case of parallel Asymptotes.

After having formed equation (4) of Art. 101
by substitution of mx + c for y and rearrangement,
it sometimes happens that one or more of the values
=
of m , deduced from the equation A = 0, will make
B vanish identically, and therefore any value of c will
give a line cutting the curve in two points at infinity.
In this case as the letter c is still at our choice,
it may be chosen so as to make the third coefficient
.
vanish.
Cvalue It will be seen from examples that each such
of m now gives rise to two values of c. This is
the case of parallelasymptotes. Thetwo linesthus
obtained each cut the curve at three points at infinity.
118 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

Ex. Find the asymptotes of the cubic curve,

y3 – 5xy ° + 8x’y - 4x3 – 3y2 + 9xy – 6.x2 + 2y – 2.x = 1 .
Putting mx + c for y and rearranging,
-

(m3 - 5m ~ + 8m -- 4) x3 + ( 3mºc - 10mc + 8c – 3m ™ + 9m - 6) x2

+ (3mc2 - 5c – 6mc + 9c + 2m – 2) x + c3 – 3c ? + 2c - 1 = 0.
Choosing m3 – 5m2 + 8m - 4 = 0) 2

and 3mºc – 10mc + 8c – 3m ” + 9m – 6 = 0j ?

the first gives (m – 1) (m – 2)" = 0,
whence m = 1, 2 or 2.
If m = 1 the second equation gives c = 0 and the corresponding
asymptote is y = x .
If m = 2 we have 12c – 20c + 80 - 12 + 18 - 6 which vanishes identi
cally for all finite values of c. Thus any line parallel to y = 2x will
cut the curve in two points at infinity. We may however choose. c so
that the next coefficient
3mc2 - 50" - 6mc + 90 + 2m - 2
vanishes for the value m = 2, giving
cº – 30 + 2 = 0, i.e. c = 1 or 2.
Thus each of the system of lines parallel to y = 2x cuts the curve
in two points at infinity. But of all this infinite system of parallel
straight lines the two whose equations are
y = 2x + 1,
and 3 = 2c + 2,
are the only ones which cut the curve in three points at infinity and
therefore the name asymptote is confined to them .
The asymptotes are therefore
Y =2
y = 2x + 1
y = 2x + 2

EXAMPLES .

Find the asymptotes of

1. y - ay - x + y + 23 + x2 - y = 1.
2. y ' - 2xy + 2.x-* y - 24 -3.23 + 3.c- y + 3.cy? -- 3y - 2.2 + 2y = 1.
3. (yº – 12)2 -- 2 (.x2 + y2) = 1 .
 ASYMPTOTES. 119

104. Those asymptotes which are parallel to the y

axis will not be discovered by the above processes for
their equations are of the form x == a , and are not
included in the form y = mx + c for a finite value of m .
We, therefore, specially consider the case of those
asymptotes which may be parallel to one or other of
the co -ordinate axes.

105. Asymptotes Parallel to the Axes .

Let the equation of the curve be
a ." + ax"-"y + WW"1-2? y* + ... + an - xy " -1 + any "
+ b2n- + bxny + .... + bnyn-1
+ CqX " =2 t ...
+ ... = 0 ..( 1 ).
If arranged in descending powers of a this is
xn- + ... = 0)0 ............ (2).
ayx " + (ay + b ) an1
Hence, if a , vanish, and y be so chosen that
any + b = 0 ,
the coefficients of the two highest powers of x in equa
tion (2) vanish, and therefore two of its roots are infinite.
Hence the straight line ay + b = 0 is an asymptote.
In the same way, if An = 0, Un - 1X + bn = 0 is an
>

asymptote.
Again, if a , = 0, a, = 0, b, = 0, and if y be so chosen
>

that
a.y° + by + Cg = 0,
three roots of equation (2) become infinite, and the
lines represented by
a.y + b.y + C = 0 -

represent a pair of asymptotes, real or imaginary, parallel

to the axis of x,
120 DIFFERENTLIL C.ILCULU'S.

Hence the rule to find those asymptotes which are

parallel to the axes is, “ equate to zero the coefficients of
the highest powers of a and y."
Ex . 1. Find the asymptotes of the curve
x ?y2 - x’y – xy” + x + y + 1 = 0.
Here the coefficient of xº is yº - y and the coefficient of ya is x2 –x.
Hence x = 0 , x = 1, y = 0, and y =1 are asymptotes.' Also, since the
curve is one of the fourth degree, we have thus obtained all the
asymptotes.
Ex. 2. Find the asymptotes of the cubic curve
x3 + 2.x²y + xy2 – x2 - xy + 2 = 0.
Equating to zero the coefficient of yº we obtain x = 0, the only asym
ptote parallel to either axis.
Putting mx + c for y ,
x3 + 2.1 % (mx + c) + x (mx + c )2 – xP – x (mx + c) + 2 = 0,
or rearranging,
x3 (1 + 2m + mº) + x2 (2c + 2mc - 1 - m ) + x (ca – c) + 2 = 0,
-

1+ 2m + m2 = 0 gives two roots m = -1 . 2c + 2mc - 1 - m = 0 is an

identity if m =-- 1 and this fails to find c. Proceeding to the next
coefficient c2 - c = 0 gives Cc = 0 or 1 .
Hence the three asymptotes are x = 0, and the pair of parallel lines
y + x = 0,
y + x = 1.

EXAMPLES.

1. The asymptotes of y2 (22— a ) = a are

y =0
x = + al
2. The co -ordinate axes are the asymptotes of
Xy3 + xºy = u4
3. The asymptotes of the curve 22ys = c2 (22 + ya) are the
sides of a square.

106. Themethods given above will obtain all linear

asymptotes. It is often more expeditious however to
 ASYMPTOTES. 121

obtain the oblique asymptotes as an approximation of

the curve to a linear form at infinity as described in the
next article.

107. Form of the Curve at Infinity . Another

Method for Oblique Asymptotes.
Let Pr, F , be used to denote rational algebraical
) r

expressions which contain terms of the pth and lower, but

of no higher degrees.
Suppose the equation of a curve of the nth degree to
be thrown into the form
(ax + by + c) Pn -- 1 + Fn - 1 = 0..... .... ( 1).
Then any straight line parallel to aix + by = 0 obviously
cutsthe curve in one point at infinity ; and to find the
particular member of this family of parallel straight
lines which cuts the curve in a second point at infinity,
let us examine what is the ultimate linear form to
which the curve gradually approximates as we travel to
infinity in the above direction , thus obtaining the ulti
mate direction of the curve and forming the equation
of the tangent at infinity. To do this we make the w
and y of the curve become large in the ratio given by
XC : Y -b : a ,
and we obtain the equation
Fn- 1
Ax + by + c + Lty =- = P. X= 0 = 0.
n

If this limit be finite we have arrived at the equa

tion of a straight line which at infinity represents the
limiting form of the curve, and which satisfies the
definition of an asymptote.
To obtain the value of the limit it is advantageous
b a
to put t and y = t, and then after simplification
make t = 0.
122 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

Ex. Find the asymptote of

rẻ + 3ưởy + 3tuº + 2y = x^ + * + .
We may write this curve as
(.x + 2y) (x® + xy + y~) = x? + yº + r,
whence the equation of the asymptote is given by
x2 + yº + x
x + 2y = Lt -200
x + xy + y2 '
2
and putting .r = y = t we have
t

4 1 2

core
+
t2 t? t 5 - 20 5
x + 2y = Lt,-0 2 + = Lt20
-0
3
To
!

5
i.e., x + 2y = .

EXAMPLE. Show that 3 + y = g is the only real asymptote of the

curve (x + y) (x* + y^) = a (x* + a “).

108. Next, suppose the equation of a curve put

into the form

(ax + by + c) Fn-1 + Fn_2 = 0, - -

then the line ax + by + c = 0 cuts the curve in two

points at infinity, for no terms of the net or (n - 1)
degrees remain in the equation determining the points
of intersection. Hence in general the line
ax + by + c = 0 =

is an asymptote. We say, in general , because if Fn

be of the form (ax + by + c) Pn - 2, itself containing a
factor ax + by + c, there will be a pair of asymptotes
parallel to ax + by + c = 00, each cutting the curve in
three points at infinity. The equation of the curve
then becomes

(ax + by + c) Pn --2 + Fn-2 = 0,

 ASYMPTOTES. 123

and the equations of the parallel asymptotes are

F.n-2
ax +by+ c = v - Lt
Pn -- z'
2

where x and y in the limit on the right -hand side be

C 0
come infinite in the ratio
y a

Or, if the curve be written in the form

' -2
(ax + by )? Pn – + (ax + by ) Fn -:2 + fn -2 = 0,
in proceeding to infinity in the direction ax + by = 0,
we have
-2 _2Fn
(ax + by) + (ax + by) . LtPn- 2+ It IPn n-2 -0 ,
.

b
when the limits are to be obtained by putting x = t
>

y = t , and then diminishing t indefinitely. We thus

obtain a pair of parallel asymptotes,
ax + by = a and ax + by = B,
where a and B are the roots of
Fn- - 2+ It fine2
pº + pLt
n - 2
Para 0.

And other particular forms which the equation of

the curve may assume can be treated similarly.
Ex. 1. To find the pair of parallel asymptotes of the curve
(22 – 3y + 1)2 ( x + y ) - 8x + 2y - 9 = 0.
-

Here 2x – 3y + 1 = + vi 8x x– +2yy+9
Lt 7

where x and y become infinite in the direction of the line 2x = 3y. .

3 2
Putting x =7 y = īs the right side becomes 2. Hence the
asymptotes required are 2x – 3y = 1 and 2x – 3y + 3 = 0.
124 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.
Ex. 2. Find the asymptotes of
(c – y) (x* + y ^) – 10 (x – Y) x2 + 12y* + 2x + y = 0.
2 " y?
(x - y )2 - 10 ( -y) Ltx = y = 12
rº + y + Ltx =y = * x2 + ya
Here = 0,

or
(x - y )2 – 5 (x - y) + 6 = 0,
giving the parallel asymptotes x - y = 2 and x -- Y = 3.

109. Asymptotes by Inspection .

It is now clear that if the equation Fn = break up
into linear factors so as to represent a system of n
straight lines, no two of which are parallel, they will be
the asymptotes of any curve of the form
Fn + F_ = 0.
Ex . 1 . ( - y) (2 + y) (x + 2y - 1) = 3.0 + 4y +5
is a cubic curve whose asymptotes are obviously
X – y = 0,
x + y = 0,
x + 2y - 1 = 0.
Ex . 2 . (x - y) 2 (x + 2y - 1) = 3x + 4y +5 .
Here x + 2y - 1 = 0 is one asymptote. The other two asymptotes
are parallel to y = x . Their equations are

Lt = 0 3 + 4 + 50 --
X – Y = EN ✓ 1+2-t
+
Vio
110. Case in which all the Asymptotes pass
through the Origin .
If then, when the equation of a curve is arranged in
homogeneous sets of terms, as
Un + Un–2 + Un -33+ = 0,
it be found that there are no terms of degree n 1 , and
if also un contain no repeated factor, the n straight lines
passing through the origin , and whose equation is Un = 0 ,
are the n asymptotes .
 ASYMPTOTES. 125

EXAMPLES.

Find the asymptotes of the following curves :

1. y = x2 ( 2a - «). 2. y = x ( a ? - .3 ).
-

3. 203 + y3 = a ?. 4. y (a2 + x2) = aⓇx .

5. a.xy = 23 - a . 6. y (2a - 2) = x?
7. 23 + y = 3axy. 8. x4y + y'x = a .
9. x +y2 = (a + y)2 (62 – y ). 10.Ay = a'y - 622 *
11. XY (x - y) - a (x2 - y2) = 63. 12. (a – x2) y2 = x2 ( a ” + x4).
13. y ' = 4a2 ( 2a - x ). 14. y' ( a -3) = < (6-2).
15.xy = 23 + x + y. 16. Xy + a'y = 23 +mx? + n.3 + p .
17. 23 + 2.x2y – xy2 – 2y3 + 4y2 + 2xy + y - 1 = 0.
18. 23 - 2. % y + xy + x2 - xy + 2 = 0.
19. y ( x -7) =y (x - 7 ) +2.
20. 23 + 2x2y -- 4xy? – By3 – 4x + 8y = 1.
21. ( x + y) ( x + 2y + 2) = x + 9y - 2.
22. 3.23 + 17x2y + 21xy2 – 9y3 – 2ax2 – 12axy - 18uy- – 3a xi + =a’y
0.

111. Intersections of a Curve with its Asym

ptotes.

If a curve of the nth degree have n asymptotes, no

two of which are parallel, we have seen in Art. 109 that
the equations of the asymptotes and of the curve may
be respectively written
Frn = 0,
and F + Fn - ,2 = 0.
n

The n asymptotes therefore intersect the curve again

at points lying upon the curve Fn- = 0. Now each 2

asymptote cuts its curve in two points at infinity, and

therefore in n - 2 other points. Hence these n ( n − 2 )
points lie on a certain curve of degree n – 2. For
example,
126 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

1. The asymptotes of a cubic will cut the curve

again in three points lying in a straight line ;
2. The asymptotes of a quartic curve will cut the
curve again in eight points lying on a conic
section ;
and so on with curves of higher degree.
EXAMPLES .
1. Find the equation of a cubic which has the same asym
-

ptotes as the curve 23 – 6.x2y + 11xy? – 6y? + x + y + 1 = 0,and which

touches the axis of y at the origin, and goes through the point
(3, 2).
2. Show that the asymptotes of the cubic
a'y- xy + xy + y2 + x - y = 0
cut the curve again in three points which lie on the line
x + y = 0.
3. Find the equation of the conic on which lie the eight
points of intersection of the quartic curve
xy ( 2.2 - y2) + a y2 + 62,2 = aºl2
with its asymptotes.
4. Show that the four asymptotes of the curve
-

(22-y) (y2 - 4.22) - 6.23 + 5x + y + 3xy? - 2y3 – 2:2 + 3xy - 1 = 0

cut the curve again in eight points which lie or a circle.
112. Polar co -ordinates .
When the equation of a curve is given in the form
rf ( 0 ) + f ( 0) = 0...... ..(1 ),
it is clear that the directions given by
fi ( 0 ) = 0 ....... . (2),
are those in which r becomes infinite.
Let this equation be solved, and let the roots be
A , B, y, etc.
 ASYMPTOTES. 127

Let XOP = aa. Then the radius OP, the curve, and
the asymptote meet at infinity towards P. Let OY ( = p )
P

P
r

be the perpendicular upon the asymptote. Since OY

is at right angles to OP it is the polar subtangent, and
dᎾ
P du ' Let XOY = A', and let Q be any point whose
0
>

co -ordinates are r , & upon the asymptote. Then the

equation of the asymptote is
p = r cos (O – a') .......
-

( 3 ).
T
It is clear from the figure that a' = a - 2
dᎾ 1
To find the value of -

du
when u = 0, write u

for r in equation (1), and we have

fi (0) + uf.(O ) = 0.
Whence differentiating
du
( + ufo (0)
fi' (0) o 0 =0.
0 + daof.(O)
128 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

Putting O = a, and therefore u = 0, we have (if fo (a )

be finite )
do fo (a )
(- ) . o = fi' (a)
du)(u=
de
.. (4).

Substitute this value of

( 3 ) and we obtain
() dulu = 0 for p in equation

f . (a) = rcos e
fi' (a) (0 - a + i = r sin (Q - 0).
2

Hence the equations of the asymptotes are

f (a)a
r sin (a - 6)0 = . =

fi' @)
r sin (B - 0 ) f .fi' (B)
(B )
etc.

113. Rule for Drawing the Asymptote.

do
After having found the value of
(-d.)... imagine
du u =

we stand at the origin looking in the direction of that

value of 0 which makes u = 0. Draw a line at right
angles to that direction through the origin and of length
equal to the calculated value of du) u = 0 to the right( .)
or to the left, according as that value is positive or
negative. Through the endof this line draw a perpen
dicular to it of indefinite length. This straight line
will be the asymptote.
Ex. Find the asymptotes of the curve
r cos 0 - a sin 0 = 0.

Here fi (0 ) = cos 0 and f. (O)== - a sin 0,

TT 37
cos ( = 0 gives a = > B = etc.
 ASYMPTOTES. 129

and the length of the polar subtangent

fo (a) a sin a
= a.
L '( a) - sin a

Hence the equations of the asymptotes are

31
= r
rsin (1 - 0) -a and twin ( - ) =-. 2 0 = a,

i.e. r cos 0 = a and r cos 0 = -a.

These are perpendicular to the initial line and at distances a respec

tively to right and left of the origin.
EXAMPLES.

Find the asymptotes and draw their positions for the follow
ing curves :
1. roš == a. 2. rA = a.
3. rsin no = a . 4. p = a cosec A + b.
5. p = 2a sin A tan . 6. r sin 20 = u cos 38.

7. r = a + b cot no. 8. pon sin no= a ”.

114 . Circular Asymptotes.

In many polar curves when 0 is increased indefinitely
it happens that the equation ultimately takes the form
of anequation in r which represents one or more con
centric circles.
o
For example, in the curve r=a
0-1 '
1
which may be written 1= a

it is clear that if o becomes very large the curve approaches in

definitely near the limiting circle r = a.
Such a circle is called an asymptotic circle of the
curve.

E. D. C. 9
130 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.
EXAMPLES
Find the asymptotes of the following curves :
1. - = alry. 2. 206 — yb = aat.
x2 +1
3. 20% - Yø = ay . 4. y = x2-19
(2-3)
5. ( 2 - a ) y ' = (20 - ) . 6. Y=
(x - 1)( - 2)
2.2
7. 8. (y - r) = 24 - a'.
y- 1 X – 2

9. (.22 - y2) = u ”x2 -- bºya 10. y' (a? – 2:2) = (.22 – 2a4) .
11. ya_ (a – )2 12. y' = (x - 1 )' (2-4).
xata ?

13. (y - 2 )2 x2 = 4 ( - x )" +16 . 14. (0° - 4y = 2 (12 + y ").

15. xy2 – y = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d .
16. ( -2.c )2 (3x + 4y) +3y - 2.x ) ( 3.x + 4y ) = 5.
17. (y - 2 ) ( 3x + 4y) + 3y - 2.c) (3x + 4y ) + lly = 5.
18. y4 - 4x43 + 3x4y2 +4.734 – 4.24
+ 3y3 - 6xy - 3.0" y + 6.2-3 + 2y2 - 2.42 = 2 .
19. go = b sec ad.

20. (e® – 1) = aa (e®+1).

Find also the circular asymptote.
21. 90 (02--1) = a02.
Find also the circular asymptote.
sin 8
22. r cos 0 = 2a 23. re cos 2A = a sin 30.
1 + sin
24. Show that the asymptotes of
(.22 - y2)2 = 2.4.2 + y )
form a square .
25. Show that the asymptotes of
x +y2 - a2 (x2 + yº)– Q } ( x + y ) + at = 0
form a square, through two of whose angular points the curve
passes.
 EXAMPLES 131

26. Show that the asymptotes of

.223 + 2.cy - ay - 2y3 + x2 - ya = 2x + 3y
-

cut the curve again in three points collinear with the origin.
27. Show that the asymptotes of the quartic
24 – 5x2y2 + 4y4 + 203– xy2 – 2x2y + 2y3 – xy = 1
cut the curve again in eight points lying upon a rectangular
hyperbola.
28. Show that the asymptotes of the quartic
( 22 - y2) (-2,2- 4y4) +2.03 - 2xy2 + 2x2 - 2xy = 2x + 2y - 1
cut the curve again in eight points lying upon a parabola which
touches the co -ordinate axes.
29. Show that the three quartics
(a) xy ( 22 - y2) +222 + ya = 1,
( b) xy ( 22 - y ) + x + 2y = 1,
( c) wy (22- y %) + 2.c2 + 2.cy + 2y = 1
have the same asymptotes ; and that each of the three conics
on which lie the other eight points of intersection of each curve
with its asymptotes have double contact with a certain circle .
30. Find the asymptotes of the sextic
Xy ( x2 - y2) (x2 -- 4y2) + 2x2y ( 202 - y2)+5.2.2 + 5yº= 1.
-

Show that they cut the curve again in twenty -four points
lying upon a certain quartic. Find the equation to this quartic
andshow that its own asymptotes are common with fourasymp
totes of the sextic and that they cut the quartic again in eight
points lying upon a circle. Also that the remaining asymptotes
of the sextic are tangents to this circle.

9_2
 CHAPTER X.

CURVATURE .

115. Angle of Contingence .

Let PQ be an arc of a curve. Suppose that between
P and Q the bending is continuously in one direction.
Let LPR and MQ be the tangents at P and Q, inter

R
oy

Y / 4 + oy
L V z

secting atT and cutting a given fixed straight line LZ

in L and M. Then theangle RTQ is called the angle
of contingence of the arc PQ.
The angle of contingence of any arc is therefore the
difference of the angles which the tangents at its ex
tremities make with any given fixed straight line. It
is also obviously the angle turned through by a line
which rolls along the curve from one extremity of the
arc to the other.
 CURVATURE . 133

116. Measure of Curvature .

It is clear that the whole bending or curvature which
the curve undergoes between P and Q is greater or less
according as the angle of contingence RTQ is greater or
less. The fraction angle of contingence is called the
length of arc
average bending or average curvature of the arc. We
shall define the curvature of a curve in the immediate
neighbourhood of a given point to be the rate of deflection
from the tangent at that point. And we shall take as
a measure of this rate of deflection at the given point
the limit of the expression angle of contingence when
length of arc
the length of the arc measured from the given point,
and therefore also the angle of contingence are inde
finitely diminished.
117. Curvature of a Circle.
In the case of the circle the curvature is the same at
every point and is measured by the RECIPROCAL OF THE
RADIUS.
R
T

For let r be the radius, 0 the centre. Then

arc PQ
RÎQ = PÔQ = n

the angle being supposed measured in circular measure.

134 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

Hence
angle of contingence_1
length of arc 19

and this is true whether the limit be taken or not.

Hence the “ curvature ” of a circle at any point is
measured by the reciprocal of the radius.
118. Circle of Curvature .
If three contiguous points P, Q, R be taken on a
curve, a circle may be drawn to pass through them.
When the points are indefinitely close together, PQ and
QR are ultimately tangents both to the curve and to
the circle. Hence at the point of ultimate coincidence
the curve and the circle have the same angle of con
tingence, viz. the angle RQZ ( see Fig.). Moreover,
the arcs PR of the circle and the curve differ by a
small quantity of order higher than their own, and
therefore may be considered equal in the limit (see Art.
81 ). Hence the curvatures of this circle and of the

curve at the point ofcontact are equal. It is therefore

convenient to describe the curvature of a curve at a
given point by reference to a circle thus drawn, the
 CURVATURE. 135

reciprocal of the radius being a correct measure of the

rate of bend. We shall therefore considersuch aa circle
to exist for each point of a curve and shall speak of it
as the circle of curvature of that point. Its radius
and centre will be called the radius and centre of
curvature respectively, and a chord of this circle
drawn through the point of contact in any direction
will be referred to as the chord of curvature in that
direction .

119. Formula for Radius of Curvature .

Let PQ and QR be considered equal chords, and
therefore when we proceed to the limit the elementary
arcs PQ and QR may be considered equal. Call each
es, and the angle RQZ = sy.
Now the radius of the circum -circle of the triangle
PQR is
PR
2 sin PQR
Hence if p be the radius of curvature, we have
PR 28s
p = Lt - It - 209
2 sin PQR 2 sin dys
ds Sy ds
= Lt ...(A ).
of sin dy dy
Also, it is clear that the lines which bisect at right
angles the chords PQ, QR intersect at the circum
centre of PQR, i.e. in the limit the centre of curvature
ofany point on a curve may be considered as the point
of intersection of the normalat that point with the normal
at a contiguousand ultimately coincident point.
120 . The formula (A) is useful in the case in which the equation
of the curve is given in its intrinsic form , i.e. when the equation is
given as a relation between s and y. For example, that relation for
a catenary is 8 = c tan y, whence
ds
p= = c secay,
dy
136 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.
and the rate of its deflection at any point is measured by
1 cosa y с

P C 8" + c

121. Transformations,
This formula must be transformed so as to suit each
of the systems of co -ordinates in which it is usual to
express the equation of a curve. These transformations
we proceed to perform .
We have the equations
d. dy
cos y sing
ds ' ds .
Hence, differentiating each of these with respect to s,
dy dx dy dạy
- sin y ds ds2 ) cos y ds ds2 )
dºc
1 ds: ?ds
whence . (B ),
р dy dac
ds ds

and by squaring and adding

1 dºc 2 (day )) 2
p \ds?
+
ds" ... (c).

These formulae (B) and (c) are only suitable for the
case in which both x and y are known functions of s .
122. Cartesian Formula . Explicit Functions.
Again , since tanf = dy
doc '

we have secº y dy _ d'y

da dx2 )
by differentiating with regard to %.
 CURVATURE. 137

Now dy _df .
ds 1
da ds dx p cos y

therefore secs y .
1 dy
>

р dx2
2

and (dy)
secº y = 1 + tanº y = 1 + da , i

dy
therefore p=t
(alm )"}'
+

dạy .... (D).

daca

This important form of the result is adapted to the

evaluation of the radius of curvature when the equation
of the curve is given in Cartesian co -ordinates, уy being
an explicit function of x.
Ex. In the curve y = log sin x,
we have y= cotx,
Y2 = - cosecax .

Hence
1 y;7) ខ្ញុំ
p == + (1+ Y2
(1 + cotax) = cosec X,
cosecas

123. Curvature at the Origin .

When the curve passes through the origin the values
of dy( = p) and dạy
doc = da ? (= 9) at the origin may be deduced
without actual differentiation by substituting for y the
expression px + 922
2 ! + ... (the expansion of y by
Mac
laurin's Theorem) and equating coefficients of like
138 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

powers of x in the identity obtained. The radius of

curvature at the origin may then be at once deduced
from the formula

p= t
(1 + p )* [Formula (D )].
9

Ex. Find the curvature of the conic y - x = x² + 2xy + y2 at the

origin.
x?
Putting y = px +421 + ...
we have 9x2 +
(P - 1) x + 2
Exº + 2px? + p?ra + ...

identically ;
whence by equating coefficients of like powers of x,
p = 1 , q = 2 ( 2 + 1)2 = 8,

and
=(1+p*) = 2-1 = -3535...
pa
9

124 . If we apply the same method to the general curve

ax + by
+ a'x2 + 2h'xy + b'y
t .. = 0 ..... .. (1 ) ,
we obtain after substituting
9x2 +
for y ,
px + 2 !

and collecting the powers of x,

202 ba
(a+bp)2+ (a +26+p+b'p2+ \?]**+...=0. 2

Hence a + bp = 0 .... ..( 2 ),

bq
a' + 2h'p + b'p2 + = 0 =0 ( 3 ),
etc.,
 CURVATURE. 139
a a' + 2h'p + b'pa 9 etc.,
giving p = -ý q = -2 6

whence
(1 + p ) 1 (a ? +82)
p = +
9 2 a'b ? - 2h'ab + b'a ..(4 ),
3

the value of the radius of curvature of the given curve at the origin.

125 . Tangents at the origin Double point.

It will be noted that the equation
a
P= b

dy
indicating the value of d.c
at the origin proves the equation of the
tangent there to be
Y a

X b ' or aX + bY= 0,

which therefore might be at once written down as being the terms of

the lowest degree in the equation of the curve (see Art. 87) .
When no linear terms occur in the equation of the curve we have
dy
a = 0 and b = 0, and the value of da at the origin takes an undeter
mined form . We however obtain from equation (3) the quadratic
D'pa + 2h'p + a' = 0 ............. (5) ,
giving two values of p at the origin . It is thus indicated that in this
case two branches of the curve pass through the origin in the direc
tions given by equation (5) . The tangents to the curve at the origin
are therefore
a'X ? + 21'XY + U'Y = 0 ,
a result which may be written down by inspection from the equation
of the curve, by equating to zero the second degree terms ; i.e. the
terms of lowest degree (Art. 87). The origin is now said to be a
double point upon the curve.
The curvatures of the two branches at the double point may be
obtained by the same method as before (Art. 123) as shown in the
following example.

Ex. Find the radii of curvature at the origin for the curve
y – 3xy + 2x2 – x + y4 = 0.
140 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

9 r + .
Substituting p.x + 2 ! for y , and collecting the powers of X,
we have
(7*–3p + 2)x2+ (ru
PI -11 ) 7+ ... = 0,
-32,-1).
whence 2. - 3P + 2 = 0,
3
PI 29-1 = 0,
etc.,
whence p = 1 or 2,
and q= 2 or 2,

and therefore
(1 + p )
p= 12 = - 1.414 ... ,
9
5
or -
2 = 315 = 5.590....
The difference of sign introduced by the q indicates that the two
branches passing through the origin bend in opposite directions.

N P х
А

126. Newtonian Method.

The Newtonian Method of finding the curvature of
the curve at the origin is instructive and interesting.
Suppose the axes taken so that the axis of ais a tangent
to the curve at the point A , and the axis of y, viz. AB,
 CURVATURE. 141

is therefore the normal. Let APB be the circle of

curvature, P the point adjacent to and ultimately co
incident with A in which the curve and the circle inter
sect ; PN a perpendicular upon AB.. Then
PNº = AN.NB,=

PN2
or NB =
AN
Now in the limit
NB = AB = twice the radius of curvature.
1 PN x²
Hence p = Ltā AN = Lt 2y
( E ).

Similarly, if the axis of y be the tangent at the

origin, we have p = Lt y
2x
Ex. Find the radius of curvature at the origin for the curve
2.c4 + 3y4 + 4x y + xy - y2 + 2x = 0.
In this case the axis of y is a tangent at the origin, and therefore
we shall endeavour to find Lt ya .

2.x
y? y? + 2 = 0 .
Dividing by x, 2.x3 + 3y2 . + 4xy + y C

y?
Now, at the origin Lt 2
= 2p, x = 0, y = 0, and the equation becomes
.

- 2p + 2 = 0,
or p = 1.

EXAMPLES.

1. Apply formula (A) to the curves

8 = ay, s = a sin te s = a sec3 y,
8 = a log tan
(* ) +
2
142 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS .

2. Apply formula (D) to the curves

y = x, y = c cosh y = a log sec a

3. Apply formulae (B and c) to the curve for which

8
X = a cOS -
a

8
yra sin

4. Prove that in the case of the equiangular spiral whose

intrinsic equation is
8 = a ( emy – 1 ),
p = maemy.

5. For the tractrix s = c log sec y prove that

p = ctan y.
6. Show that in the curve
y = x + 3x2 – 2 :3
the radius of curvature at the origin = :4714 ... , and that at
the point ( 1 , 3) it is infinite.
7. Show that in the curve
y2 – 3xy – 4.rº +.23 + x +y + yó = 0
the radii of curvature at the origin are
85
2
117 and 512

8. Show that the radii of curvature of the curve

atx
ya = x2 a-X

for the origin ta 12,

a
and for the point ( -a , 0)

9. Show that the radii of curvature at the origin for the

curve

202 + y2 = 3axy
3a
are each
2
 CURVATURE. 143

10. Prove that the chord of curvature parallel to the axis

of y for the curve
y= a log sec a

is of constant length.

11. Prove that for the curve

s = m ( sec3 y - 1),
p = 3m tan y sec3 y,
and hence that
3m dy day = 1.
dx dx²

Also, that this differential equation is satisfied by the semicubical

parabola
27my2 = 82-3

12. Prove that for the curve

TT sin
8 = a log cot 4 2 +
ta
cosº y
p= 2a secPy ;
and hence that
dly 1
>
d.x2 2a

and that this differential equation is satisfied by the parabola

x = 4ay.

13. Show that for the curve in which s = aec

cp = 8 (82 – c2 }.
14. Show that the curve for which s = Nday ( the cycloid)
has for its intrinsic equation
S= = 4a sin y.

Hence prove p = 4a NIE 2a

144 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.
15. Prove that the curve for which ya = c2 +52 ( the catenary)
has for its intrinsic equation
s = ctany.

Hence prove p = y*-с? =the part of the normal intercepted be

tween the curve and the x -axis.

127. Formula for Pedal Equations.

Since a curve and its circle of curvature at any point
Pintersect in three contiguous and ultimately coincident
points they may be regarded as having two contiguous
tangents common. Therefore the values of r + 8r and

p + op are common in addition to those of r and P ; i.e.

dr
the value of is common . Now let O be the pole and
dp
C the centre of curvature corresponding to the point P
on the curve.

Then OC2 = y2 + p’ – 2rp cos OPC

= y2 + p’ — 2rp sin $
= y + p - 2pp.
 CURVATURE . 145

Considering this as referring to the circle ( for which OC

and р are constant) we obtain by differentiating
dr
0 = 2r 2
dp p ,
=

and it has been pointed out that the values of r and

dr
dp are the same at the point P for the curve and for
the circle. Hence for the curve itself we also have
dr
p=r . (F ).
dp
Ex . In the equation pa= Ara + B, which represents any epi- or
hypocycloid [p. 113 , Ex. 23], we have
dr
p = Ar
dp '
and therefore por p .
The equiangular spiral, in which por, is included as the case in
which B = 0.

128. Polar Curves.

Weshall next reduce the formula to a shape suited
for application to curves given by their polar equations.
We proved in Art. 95 that
1 du \
U +
pa (d Ꮎ . .
1 dp d²u du
d’u
Hence
p3 do = ( +do ))do '
ut

dp du
or
2.---'(v+
du
rdr
u adv )
1
de

Now p= and r = ;
dp u

E. D. C. 10
146 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.
1 du 1
therefore p=
u dp d'u
p'u ( u + d02
du

Or p=
su² +
dᎾ ()
d'u . (G).
u ut
(11 d82

129. This may easily be put in the r, o form

thus :
1
Since U =

du 1 dr
we have >
dᎾ pa do
du 2 / dr12 1 dar
and therefore
dA2 qui (do za dozi
1 + 1 /dr

therefore p =
1/1
(72

2 ( dr ) ?
) **
got ( do
1 der
93 lm
+
93 ( do " pº 202)

22+
Idri
()
dr
de
2
dar
.. (H ).
92 + 2 -T
de ) dA2

130. Tangential Polar Form .

Let the tangent P T make an angley with the
initial line. Then the perpendicular makes an angle
TT
a == f - with
2 the same line. Let OY == p. Let P,P PP,
be the normal, and P , its point of intersection with the
normal at the contiguous point Q. Let OY, be the
perpendicular from 0 upon the normal. Call this pi.
 CURVATURE. 147

Let P2P , be drawn at right angles to P P2, and let the )

Pi

4
T X
P2

length of OY ,, the perpendicular upon it from 0, be pz.

2

The equation of P T is clearly

p = x cos a + y sin a ....... .( 1 ).
The contiguous tangent at Q has for its equation
p + Sp = x cos (a + 8a) + y sin (a + da)... (2).
Hence subtracting and proceeding to the limit it ap
pears that
dp =
x sin a + y cos a . (3 )
da
is a straight line passing through the point of inter
section of (1) and (2) ; also being perpendicular to ( 1 ) it
is the equation of the normal PP,
dạp
Similarly da? 8C COS Q – y sin a.. ( 4)
represents a straight line through the point of inter
section of two contiguous positions of the line P , P , and
perpendicular to P P2, viz. the line P , P3, and so on for
further differentiations.
10_ - 2
148 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

From this it is obvious that

dp dp since
dy
ΟΥ, = da
1;
da dy '
ΟΥ , =d'p
OY _ dºp
- da" dy ?'
etc.

Hence PY =
dp
dy '
dạP
and p = P , P , = 0Y + OY . = P +
dyz ... (1).
This formula is suitable for the case in which P is given
in terms of f.
Ex. It is known that the general p, y equation of all epi- and
hypocycloids can be written in the form
p = A sin By.
Hence p = A sin By – A Bº sin By,
and therefore poc p .

131. Point of Inflexion .

If at some point upon a curve the tangent, after its
cross and recross, crosses the curve again at a third
ultimately coincident point, as shewn magnified in the

figure, the point is called a point of inflexion . At such

a point the two successive chords PQ, QR are in line
and the angle of contingence vanishes.
 CURVATURE. 149

At aa point of inflexion the circle of curvature passes

through three collinear points, and the radius of curva
ture becomes infinite and changes sign. We may hence
deduce various forms of the condition for a point of
inflexion ;; thus if
p= 0,

we get
dy ( ) from (A),
ds

dạy O from (D),

dx²
d'u
u+ = ( from (G),
dA2
dr) ? dar
O from (H).
po2 + 2
(do) or
dA2

132. List of Formulae.

The formulae proved above are now collected for
convenience.
ds
р ......... (A ),
dy
dºc dºg
1 d. ds
dy dx .. ( B),
р
ds ds
2
1 dex \ 2 ( dạy
pa ds
+
ds? ....( c ),

р
(1 + y:2) ( D ),
Y2
x2
p = Lt .. ( E),
2y
dr
p =r . (F ),
dp
150 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

( u” + unº) .(G),
ps * (
t+1 )
( 74 +0,3
p= ...(H ),
7.2 + 2ri’ – 17 ,-

dap
p = p + ..(1).
dyr

EXAMPLES.

1. Apply formula (F) to the curves

pom +1
pa = ar, ap = r ?, p = am

2. Apply formulæ ( 6 ), (h) to the curves

au= 0 , r = al, r = a sin 0.
3. Apply the polar formula for radius of curvature to show
that the radius of the circle
a
p = a cos A is
2

4. Show that for the cardioide r = a ( 1 + cos 8 )

4a
p= 3 COS
2
; i.e., ocvr.

Also deduce the same result from the pedal equation of the
curve , viz.,
P V2a = i .
5. Show that at the points in which the Archimedean spiral
p = a0 intersects the reciprocal spiral rd = a their curvatures are
in the ratio 3 : 1 .

6. For the equiangular spiral r = aemo prove that the centre

of curvature is at the point where the perpendicular to the
radius vector through the pole intersects the normal.
7. Prove that for the curve
r = a sec 28,
24
р .

3p3
 CURVATURE. 151

8. For any curve prove the formula

r
p=
sinº ( 1+dф
dᎾ
rde
where tan p =
dr
Deduce the ordinary formula in terms of r and 0.
9. Show that the chord of curvature through the pole for
the curve

p = f (r)
is given by chord = 2p dr - 2of (r)
dp f '(r)
10. Show that the chord of curvature through the pole of
the cardioide
4
r = a ( 1 + cos 6) is 1.

11. Show that the chord of curvature through the pole of

the equiangular spiral
p = aemo is 2r.

12. Show that the chord of curvature through the pole of

the curve
2r
pm = am cos mo is
m + 1
Examine the cases when m = -2, - l , - }, }, 1 , 2.
13. Show that the radius of curvature of the curve
r = a sin no
na
at the origin is 2

14. For the curve pom = am cos mo,

am
prove that p=
(m + 1) pon -1
Examine the particular cases of a rectangular hyperbola ,
lemniscate, parabola, cardioide, straight line, circle.
152 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

133. Centre of Curvature .

The Cartesian co-ordinates of the centre of curva
ture may be found thus :
Let Q be the centre of curvature corresponding to
the point P of the curve. Let OX be the axis of 2 ;
O the origin ; x, y the co -ordinates of P ; , those of

R
4

☺
o T M N X

Q ; & the angle the tangent makes with the axis of a .

Draw PN , QM perpendiculars upon the x -axis and PR
a perpendicular upon QM. Then
= OM = ON - RP
= ON – QP sin yr
= x − p sin ,
=

and y = MQ = NP + RQ
= y + p cos y
Now tan y = yii
Yı
therefore sin of >
Di
11 +yi '
1
and cos y -

11 + yi?
 CURVATURE. 153

Also p (1 + y13)*
Y2

är a y ( 1 + y )) (a),
Hence Y2

y =y +
1 + yi ( B ).
Y2

EXAMPLES.

1. For the parabola

y = x2/4a,
23 3.x2
prove ã= į = 2a +
4a2 » 4a

2. For the parabola

y = 4ax,
prove ã = 2a + 3x, j= - 2.ch/a), p = 25P#/a},
SP being the focal distance of the point of the parabola whose
coordinates are (x, y).
3. For the ellipse
22/a2 + y2/62 = 1,
a? – 62 ‫دہ‬ 62 - a ?
-

a2b2
ã= y=
prove a4 74 y , p=
p3
>

p being the central perpendicular upon the tangent at ( x, y).

4. For the cubical parabola
ały = 23,
X 9.x4 5 23
C x
prove
= (1-P ), -% * at y 2 a2 6.x

CONTACT.

134. Consider the point P at which two curves cut.

It is clear that in general each has its own tangent at
that point, and that if the curves be of the mth and oth
154 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

degrees respectively, they will cut in min - 1 other

points real or imaginary.
P

Next, suppose one of these other points ( say Q ) to

move along one of the curves up to coincidence with P.
The curves now cut in two ultimately coincident points
at P , and therefore have a common tangent. There is
then said to be contact of the first order. It will be
observed that at such a point the curves do not on the
whole cross each other.
Again, suppose another of the mn points of inter
section ( viz. R) to follow Q along one of the curves to

coincidence with P. There are now three contiguous

points on each curve common, and therefore the curves
have two contiguous tangents common, namely, the
ultimate position of the chord PQ and the ultimate
position of the chord QR. Contact of this kind is said
to be of the second order, and the curves on the whole
cross each other.
Finally, if other points of intersection follow Q and
>

R up to P, so that ultimately k points of intersection

)
 CURVATURE. 155

coincide at P, there will be k - 1 contiguous common

tangents at P, and the contact is said to be of the
(k – 1 )th order. And if k be odd and the contact there
fore of an even order the curves will cross, but if k be
even and the contact therefore of an odd order they will
not cross .

135. Closest Degree of Contact of the Conic Sections with a

Curve.
The simplest curve which can be drawn so as to pass
through two given points is a straight line.
do. three do. circle.
do. four do. parabola.
do . five do . conic.
Hence, if the points be contiguous and ultimately coincident points
on a given curve , we can have respectively the
Straight Line of Closest Contact ( or tangent), having contact of the
first order and cutting the curve in two ultimately coincident
points, and therefore not in general crossing its curve; the
Circle of Closest Contact, having contact of the second order and cut
ting the curve in three ultimately coincident points, and therefore
in general crossing its curve (this is the circle already investigated
as the circle of curvature ); the
Parabola of Closest Contact, having contact of the third order and
cutting the curve in four ultimately coincident points, and there
fore in general not crossing ; and the
Conic of Closest Contact, having contact of the fourth order and cut
ting the curve in five ultimately coincident points, and therefore
in general crossing.
It is often necessary to qualify such propositions as these by the
words in general. Consider for instance the circle of closest contact”
at a given point on a conic section . A circle and a conic section
intersect in four points, real or imaginary, and since three of these
are real and coincident, the circle of closest contact cuts the curve
again in some one real fourth point. But it may happen, as in the case
in which thethree ultimately coincidentpoints are at an end of one of
the axes of the conic that the fourth point is coincident with the other
three, in which case the circle of closest contact has a contact of
higher order than usual, viz. , of the third order, cutting the curve
in four ultimately coincident points, and therefore on the whole not
crossing the curve. The student should draw for himself figures of
the circle of closest contact at various points of a conic section,
remembering that the common chord of the circle and conic and the
tangent at the point of contact make equal angles with either axis.
The conic which has the closest possible contact is said to osculate
156 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.
its curve at the point of contact, and is called the osculating conic.
Thus the circle of curvature is called the osculating circle, the para
bola of closest contact is called the osculating parabola , and so on.
136. Analytical Conditions for Contact of a
given order.
We may treat this subject analytically as follows.
Let y = $ (x) ?
y = x (x)
be the equations of two curves which cut at the point
P ( C, y).
Consider the values of the respective ordinates at
the points P1, P , whose common abscissa is x + h.
Let MN = h.
Then NP, = $ (x + h),
1

NP , = (x + h),
and P ,P, = NP, - NP, = (x + h ) -f (x + h)
= [$ (x) – f ( x )] + h [$' (x) – 4' (x)]
ha
+ 2 ! [[$ " (x) – 4 " (x)] + ....
y : (x )
P ‫) = لا‬s (
P.
(x,y )

M N X

If the expression for P2P, be equated to zero, the

1

roots of the resulting equation for h will determine the

points at which the curves cut.
 CURVATURE. 157

If $ (x) = f (x), the equation has one root zero and

the curves cut at P.
If also $' (x) = %' ( ) for the same value of x, the
equation has two roots zero and the curves cut
in two contiguous points at P, and therefore >

havea common tangent. The contact is now of

the first order.
If also ď$ " ( x ) = Yf " (a) for the same value of x , the
equation for h has three roots zero and the
curves cut in three ultimately coincident points
at P. There are now two contiguous tangents
common, and the contact is said to be of the
second order ; and so on .
Similarly for curves given by their polar equations,
if r =f(0), r = * (0 ) be the two equations, there will be
1 + 1 equations to be satisfied for the same value of 0
in order that for that value there may be contact of the
nth order, viz.
f(0) = + (O), f ' (0) = ( ), f " (0 ) = $ " ( 0),
fn (0) = $ " (0).
EXAMPLES .

1. Shew that the parabola whose axis is parallel to the y axis

and which has the closest contact possible with the curve y = 24
at the point ( 1, 1 ) is
y = 3 – 8x + 6x2
-

2. Draw carefully the circle of curvature

( 1 ) at an ordinary point on an ellipse,
(2) at the end of the major axis,
(3) at the end of the minor axis,
(4) at an ordinary point on a parabola,
(5) at the vertex of the parabola,
and name the order of contact in each case.
158 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.
3. Shew that the curves
y = un +1(x – a) (x – b),
c^ 1+1( c-x c ) (x - d ),
y=+
have contact of the rh order at the origin .
EXAMPLES
1. Find the curvature at the origin in the curves
( a ) y = 2x + 3.x2 + 4.2.1,
(6) Y = 2x + 3x2 +4.29,
(c) (y - 2) (y - 2.2 ) 4 + y ,
(d) ( c - y)'(.c - 2y)(x - 3y) = 2a (23- y ) + 2a +(x + y)( x - 2y).
2. In the curve y = aea ,
prove p = a sec cosec 8, where A = tan -19
1

and that the curve has no point of inflexion .

3. In the limaçon q = a + b cos ,

prove
(a2 + 2ab cos 0 +62)
p
a² + 3ab cos 6 +262 )
and hence shew that if a and b are both positive the limaçon can
only have points of inflexion when a is intermediate between b
and 26.
Deduce for a cardioide (b = a),
4 Ꮎ
a cos
PE 3 2

4. Shew that the curve y = e -r has points of inflexion where

2=
= + 1 //2.
a
5. Shew that yra sin a has points of inflexion wherever it
cuts the x -axis .

6. Shew that the points of inflexion upon

2 - y = a ’ (.x - y ),
are given by x == ( and < = ta 13.
 EXAMPLES. 159

7. Shew that the curve

< (x2 - ay ) = a3
has a point of inflexion where it cuts the x-axis. Find the
equation of the tangent there.
8. Shew that the curve
23 + y = a3
has inflexions where it cuts the coordinate axes.

9. Shew that the curve x == log has a point of inflexion

2

at ( -2, – 2e - 2).
10. Shew that r Jo = a has a point of inflexion at a distance
a /2 from the pole.
11. Find the points of inflexion upon
12y = 24 – 16.x3 + 42x2 + 12x +1 .
12. Shew that in a parabola the chord of curvature through
the focus and the chord of curvature parallel to the axis are each
four times the focal distance of the point of contact.
13. In a parabola the common chord of the curve and its
circle of curvature = 8 N7 (r - a ).
2
14. In the chainette y = ccosh с the chord of curvature
parallel to the y-axis is double of the ordinate, and that parallel
to the x -axis
2.x
c sinh
с

15. If Cx and C , be the chords of curvature parallel to the

axes at any point of the curve
2

y = aen,
prove that
1 + 1 1

0.72 * C, 2002
16. If Cp and Co be the chords of curvature respectively
along and perpendicular to the radius vector, shew that
20p , Co= 2pNr²_p²
Cr = 1 1
160 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

17. At the point upon the Archimedean Spiral

p = ad,
at which the tangent makes half a right angle with the radius
vector,
4
prove CY = Co 3= aa.
18. Shew that for each of the curves
T = ae, = a, r sin = , ở sinh ng = a,
r cosh nd = a (Cotes's Spirals),
the curvature oc p
3
pl .

19. Shew that in the curve for which

y = a cogm" y ,
the radius of curvature is m times the normal.

20. Shew that in the curve for which

y = demy,
the radius of curvature is m times the tangent.
21. Shew that in the curve for which
72 = a + bºy,
the radius of curvature varies inversely as the perpendicular
from the origin upon the normal.
22. Shew that in the chainette the radius of curvature varies
as the square of its projection upon the y-axis.
23. In the curve

A=
V p2 - a? COS1
a

a 7

shew that pa = 2as,

8 being so measured that and s vanish together .
24. Prove that in any curve
dp
ds : {341922 – Y3 ( 1 + y;2)}|yz?,
and shew that at every point of a circle
Y3 = 3y1y2/( 1 + y ).
 EXAMPLES. 161

25. For any plane curve prove

1 dºg dºg dºg dºg
(a) ds? ds3 ds? ds3 >
p3
2 2
dux ( düy ) 2
(6)
ht{1+ ds}=( ) d83
+
ds3

( c)
dar du
dx , dy
+
dy _ 33 dp
ds4 · ds d34 dsp3 ds >
( d ) d4x dy dy dux 3 dp
ds4 ds2 d34 · ds? pf ds '
d4x dx ddy dy
+
dst · ds ds4'ds
(e) p = dx dy dty durº
dst.ds? ds4ds2

E. D, C. 11
 1

CHAPTER XI.

ENVELOPES.

137. Families of Curves .

If in the equation $ (x ,y, c) = 0 we give any arbitrary
numerical values to the constant c, we obtain a number
of equations representing a certain family of curves ;
and any member of the family may be specified by the
particular value assigned to the constant c. The quan
tity c, which is constant for the same curve but different
for different curves, is called the parameter of the
family.
138. Envelope. Definition ,
Let all the members of the family of curves
$ (x, y, c) = 0
be drawn which correspond to a system of infinitesimally
close values of the parameter, supposed arranged in
order of magnitude. We shall designate as consecutive
curves any two curves which correspond to two consecu
tive values of c from the list. Then the locus of the
ultimate points of intersection of consecutive members
of this family of rves is called the ENVELOPE of th
family.
 ENVELOPES. 163

139. The Envelope touches each of the Inter

secting Members of the Family .
Let A , B, C represent three consecutive intersecting
>

P
Q

members of the family. Let P be the point of inter

section of A and B, and that of B and C.
Now, by definition, P and Q are points on the en
velope. Thus the curve B and the envelope have two
contiguous points common, and therefore have ulti
mately a common tangent, and therefore touch each
other . Similarly, the envelope may be shown to touch
any other curve of the system.
140. The Envelope of AX2 + 232 + C = 0 is
BP = AC .

If A , B, C be any functions of x, y and the equation

of any curve be
AX + BX + C = 0 ,
being an arbitrary parameter, the envelope of all such
curves for different values of 2 is BP = AC .
For the equation
AX2 + 2BX + C = 0
may be regarded as a quadratic equation to find the
values of for the two particular members of the family
which pass through a given point ( x, y). Now, if (x, y)
be supposed to be a point on the envelope, these mem
bers will in the limit be coincident. Hence for such
values of x, y the quadratic for 2 must have two equal
roots, and the locus of such points is therefore
B' = AC.
11-2
164 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

Ex . 1 . Thus the line y = m.r + m

may be written in the form

mér – my + a = 0,
whence the equation of the envelope for different values of mm is plainly
y ’ = 4ax.

Ex. 2. The line y = mx + Vaʼm2 + 62

may be written in the form
mạ (x2 – a”) – 2mxy + y2 – b2 = 0,
and the envelope is
xºy2 = (x2 – a?) (y2 – 62) ,
or xa/aº.+ y2/02 = 1.

141. Envelope of $ ( x , y, c) = 0.
The envelope of the more general family of curves
$ ( x, y, c) = 0
may be considered in the same way.
It is proved in Theory of Equations that if f(c)= 0
be a rational algebraicequation for cс the condition for a
pair of equal roots is obtained by eliminating c between
f (c ) = 0 and f ' (c) = 0.
Hence to find the envelope of
$ ( x, y, c) = 0
we differentiate with regard to c thus forming
a
aº ( , 9,Y c) = 0
and then eliminate c.
Ex . 1. Thus to find the envelope of the line
a
y = cx + + с

for different values of c, we have upon differentiating with regard to c

a
0=x
c2
 ENVELOPES. 165

whence cy = a + cºx = 2a ,
and squaring, ym.:=4a
2 ,
giving ya = 4ax.
Ex. 2. Find the envelope of
X cos30 + y sin30 = a
for different values of 0 .
Differentiating with regard to 0,
- x cosa & sin 0 + y sina 0 cos 0 = 0,
cos sin 0 cosa0+ sina0 1
giving
y 2
Vx + y? V x² + y2
Hence the equation of the envelope is
y3 జాతి
2 +y =a,
(.x2 + y2) (.x2 +y2)
or xy
= a ,
Neº
+*
1 + 1 1
which may be written
x? ya a2

EXAMPLES.
1. Show that the envelope of the line

6 + ==1,,
a

when ab = c , a constant, is
4.xy = c%.
2. Find the equation of the curve whose tangent is of the
form
y = mx + m4,
m being independent of x and y.
3. Find the envelope of the curves
Cie

a' cos e 62 sin e

2 у
for different values of 0.
166 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS .
4. Find the envelope of the family of trajectories
1 x2
Y = x tan A.
29 u ? cos2 0 '
O being the arbitrary parameter.
5. Find the envelopes of straight lines drawn at right angles
to tangents to a given parabola and passing through the points
in which those tangents cut
( 1 ) the axis of the parabola,
(2) a fixed line parallel to the directrix.
6. Find the envelope of straight lines drawn at right angles
to normals to a given parabola and passing through the points
in which those normals cut the axis of the parabola.
7. A series of circles have their centres on a given straight
line, and their radii are proportional to the distances of their
corresponding centres from agiven point in that line. Find the
envelope.
8. P is a point which moves along a given straight line.
PM, PN are perpendiculars on the co-ordinate axes supposed
rectangular. Find the envelope of the line MN.
142 The envelope of
$ (x, y , c) = 0 ....... . (1 )
may also be obtained as follows:
Let $ (x, y, c + dc) = 0) : (2)
be the consecutive member of the family.
This, by Taylor's Theorem, may be expressed in its
expanded form as
$ (x, y, c) +80aде $$ (x, c
φ ( , 9, ) y, c) +...=
+ 0.
Hence in the limit when dc is infinitesimally small
we obtain
a
ac • (@ , y , c) = 0
as the equation of a curve passing through the ultimate
point of intersection of the curves ( 1 ) and (2).
 ENVELOPES. 167

If then we eliminate cс between

$ (x, y, c) = 0
ə
and
oc $ (x, y, c) = 0
• X, =
we obtain the locus of that point of intersection for all
values of the parameter c. This is the Envelope .
Polar curves of the form
$ ( , 0, c) = 0
may be treated in the same manner.
Ex. 1. Find the envelope of a circle drawn upon radii vectores of
the circle r = 2a cos 0 as diameters .

Let d, a be the polar co-ordinates of any point on the given circle ,

then d = 2a cos a.
&
The equation of a circle on the radius vector d for diameter is
r = d cos (0 – a) . ( 1) ,
or
ro = 2a cos a cos (0 – a) ( 2) .
Here a is the parameter. Differentiating with regard to a,
- sin a cos (8 – a) + cos a sin (0 – a) = 0,
0
whence sin (0 – 2a) = 0 or a = ( 3) .
2
Substituting this value of a in (2) ,
r = 2a cosa
2 or r = a (1 + cos ) ,
the equation of a cardioide.
Ex. 2. Find the envelope of a straight line drawn at right angles
to radii vectores of the cardioide r = a( 1 + cos 6) through their ex
tremities.
Here we are to find the envelope of the line
x cos a ty
- sina = d,
where d, a are the polar co-ordinates of any point on the cardioide ;
i.e. where d = a (1 + cos a) .
=

The equation of the line is therefore

x cos a + y sina = a (1 + cos a ), 9
168 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.
or ( x – a) cos a + y sin a = a ,
a line which from its form obviously touches the circle
(.x - a)2 + y2 = a” or r = 2u cos 0,
which is therefore its envelope.
Ex . 3. Find the envelope of

with the condition

e u
+
=1 ( 1) ,

a" + 11 = constant= c " say (2).

Here there are two parameters with a condition connecting them, so
that only one is independent. Imagine a and b to be both functions
of some third arbitrary parameter t. Differentiating both equations
with regard to t,
x da y db
+ = 0,
a? dt 12 dt
da db
+ in - 1 = 0);
dt dt
2 y
a? ሁ”
an in - 1 )
‫اعی‬
‫اب‬

y 2 y
+
a b 1
i.e.
Il

a” + cn

Thus anti = cºx and Intl = chy.

=

:: substituting in (2) ,

zJv 2
cºyy)nti = ec ",
(c" x )n + 1 + (c”
n n

or xn +2 + ynti = cn + 1,
which is the required envelope.

EXAMPLES.

1. Find the envelope of

.
y = mx - 2am – am3,
i, e, of normals parabola
y2 = 4ax,
 EXAMPLES. 169

2. Find the envelope of

ax by
cos A sin A = a ? – ?,
i.e. of normals of the ellipse
xºa + y4b4 = 1.
3. Find the envelopes of
(a) y = mx + am ”,
(B) y = mx + am ?,
( ) y = mx + amp;
m being the arbitrary parameter.
4. Find the envelopes of
(a) x cos 6 +y sin 0 = a,
(B ) x Vcos 6 + y Vsin 6 = a ,
X + y
-a,
cosesin 8
(8) x cost 0 +y sin 0 = a,
(6 ) cos! + y sin A = a,
x cos4 0 + y sin* 0 =d,
(n) x cos " 0 +-Yy sin " A = a ;
O being the arbitrary parameter in each case.
5. Find the envelopes of
(a) x cos a +y sin a = a Ncos 2a ,
(B) x cos 2a +y sin 2a = a cos'a,
m

(w ) x cos ma + y sin ma = a (cos na)";

a being the parameter in each case.
6. Find the envelopes of circles described on the radii vectores
of the following curves as diameters :
(a) 24/a2 + y /62 = 1,
(B) ya = 4ax,
170 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

(y) ya = 4a (.x + a),

(8) r = u (1 + cos A),
1
(€ ) 1
= 1 + e cos 0 ,

( 8) p2 cos 20 = a ?,
( n) 72 = a ? cos 20,
(0) qon = a " cos no.

7. Find the envelopes of the circles which pass through

the pole and whose centres lie on the several curves of ques
tion 6.

8. Find the envelopes of straight lines at right angles to

the radii vectores of the following curves drawn through their
extremities :

(a) a straight line,

(B ) a circle through the pole,
(y) any circle,
(8) a cardioide r = a ( 1 + cos 0),
(6) a limaçon r = a + b cos 0,
(8) a lemniscate pe = a² cos 20,
mo
( 6) an equiangular spiral r = ue "
(0) yon = an cos no.

9. Find the envelopes of the straight line

ข
=1
a
+
=
6

under the several conditions

(a) a + b = c,
(B) a² + b2 = c%,
(y) ambn = « m + n,
 EXAMPLES 171

10. Find the envelopes of the ellipse

.22 у? = 1
2x a 62
under the several conditions
(a) a + b2 = c,
(B) an + b " = 0",
() ambº = cm + n.
11. Find the envelopes of the parabola

under the several conditions

Vä + Vi =1 =1

(a) a + b = C,
(B ) an + b = 0",
(v) ab = cm + .

12. Find the envelope of

um ym
+ im 1
am

under the condition

AP + bP = CP .
13. Show that the envelope of the family of curves
A3 + 3B1 ? + 3C + D = 0 ,
where 1 is the arbitrary parameter, and A, B, C, D are functions
of x and y, is
(BC – AD)2 = 4 (BD- C2) (AC – B2).
14. If A , B, C be any functions of u and y the envelope of
in

A cos ma + B sin mar-C (cosna )"

n

A2 + B2 m - n n B
is
(4 , )ས༌
C2
Ecos2
m -n
tan -1
A '

15. A straight line of given length slides with its extremities

on two fixed straight lines at right angles. Find the envelope
of a circle drawn on the sliding line as diameter.
172 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.
16. Show that the envelope of straight lines joining the
extremities of a pair of conjugate diameters of an ellipse is a
similar ellipse.

17. The envelope of the polars with respect to the circle

p = 2u cos

of points which lie upon the circle r = 2b cos A is

{(a - b ) x + ab) = b2 { ( - a ) + y ).
18. Show that the pedal equation of the envelope of the
line
a' cos mo + y sin mo= u cos no
is m2 = (ma - n ") p + n'a ”.
19. Two particles move along parallel lines, the one with
uniform velocity and the other with the same initial velocity
but with uniform acceleration. Show that the line joining them
always touches a fixed hyperbola.
20. Show that the radius of curvature of the envelope of
the line
x cos a +y sin a = f (a )
is f(a) +f"(a),
and that the centre of curvature is at the point
X=
= -f'(a) sin a - f " (a) cos al
y = f'(a) cos a - f"(a) sin af
 CHAPTER XII.

ASSOCIATED LOCI ,

143. It is intended in the present chapter to present

a brief introduction to a study of several important loci
which are intrinsically connected with every curve.
PEDAL CURVES .

144. DEF. If a perpendicular OY be drawn from

any fixed point 0 upon the tangent to any curve the
locus of Y is called the “first Positive Pedal” of the
original curve with regard to the given point 0.
Two important cases occur in the Conic Sections :
(1) In a parabola the locus of the foot of the per
pendicular from the focus upon a tangent is
the tangent at the vertex. This line isthere
fore the first positive pedal of the parabola
with regard tothe focus.
(2) In a central conic the locus of the foot of the
perpendicular from a focus upon aa tangent is
the auxiliary circle. This circle is therefore
the first positive pedal of the conic with regard
to the focus.

145. To find the Pedal with regard to the

Origin for Cartesian Curves .
When the Cartesian equation of a curve is given ,
the condition of tangency of
X cos a + Y sin a =: P
174 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

may be obtained by comparison of this line with the

tangent at any point (x, y ).
Let this condition when found be
f ( p , a) = 0.
Then since p, a are the polar co-ordinates of the point
whose locus is sought we may replace them by the
current co-ordinates r, 0, and the equation of thepedal
will be
f (r , 0) = 0).
Ex . 1. The condition that
x cos a + y sin a =p touches x</a² + y /b2 = 1
is known to be pe = aºcosºa + b2 sin’a.
Hence the first positive pedal with regard to the origin is
pe = a cosa 0 + b2 sin²0 .

Ex. 2. Find the first positive pedal of the curve xyn = amtn with
regard to the origin.
The equation of the tangent is plainly
m n
X + Y- = m + n .
.
y
Comparing with X cos a + Y sin a = p ,
X cos a y sin a р
m ገን m + n '
m n
giving P
.
y=
m + n COS a m + n ' sin a
Hence the condition of tangency is
m P m n
n
P
= amun,
m + n cos a asa)"( m + n sin a 1

and replacing p and a by r and 0, the equation of the pedal becomes

22
pom + n = amtn (m + n )m + n cos" o sinne .
man "

146. To find the Pedal with regard to the

Pole of any curve whose Polar Equation is
given .
 PEDALS. 175

Let F (r, 6) = 0 ... > (1)

be the equation of the curve.
P (r, 0 )
yre

Let r', o be the polar co -ordinates ofthe point Y,

which is the foot of the perpendicular OY drawn from
the pole on a tangent. " Let OA be the initial line.
Then
AỐP = ABY , YẾP
T
=Ꮎ + ф (2) ,
2
dᎾ
also tan $ = r ( 3 ),
dr

and r = r sin ,
(Art. 95 ) . . . . ...(4).
or
1
72
1
702
+
1 / dr
pot do ) otis
If r, 0, be eliminated from equations 1 , 2, 3, and 4,
> > >

there will remain an equation in 1 ', O'. The dashes >

may then be dropped and the required equation will be

obtained .
Ex. To find the equation of the first positive pedal of the curve
29 = am cos mo.
Taking the logarithmic differential
m dr
r do m tan mo ;

therefore cot p = --
tan mo ;
TT
therefore p = 2ö + mo.
176 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.
TT
But 0 = 0' + ф,
2

Ꮎ
therefore 0 = 0 ' – mo, or 0 =
m + 1
Again p = r sin p = r cos mo
1

= a cosm mo . cos mo
m+1
mo '
= a cosm
m+1 '
Hence the equation of the pedal curve is
m m
m
7 + 1 = qm + l cos 0.
m + 1

147. DEF. If there be a series of curves which we

may designate as
A , A1 , A2 , A3 , ... An,, ...
)

such that each is the first positive pedal curve of the

one which immediately precedes it ; then A2 , A3,) etc.,
are respectively called the second, third, etc., positive
pedals of A. Also, any one of this series of curves may
be regarded as the original curve, e.g. A ;; then A, is
called thefirst negative pedal of A3 , Ä, the second nega
tive pedal ,and so on .
Ex. 1. Find the kth positive pedal of
pomn = am cos mó.
It has been shown that the first positive pedal is
ተካ i = ali cos on ,
m
where m2 = 1 + mi
Similarly the second positive pedal is
pM2 = a^2 cos m, 0,
mi m
where 14 1
ขใจ 1 + 2017:
and generally the kth positive pedal is
pMk = amk cos mx0,
m
where mika
1+ km :
 PEDALS. + 177
Ex . 2. Find the kth negative pedal of the curve
pom = am cos mo.

We have shown above that pm = am cos me is the kth positive pedal

n
of the curve pn = a ” cos nė, provided m = 1+
; kn
m
This gives N
1 - km '
=
Hence the kth negative pedal of rm= am cos mo is
gone = a" cos no,
m
where N=
1- km

EXAMPLES .

1. Show that the first positive pedal of a circle with regard

to any point is a Limaçon (r = a+ b cos 8), which becomes a
Cardioide {r = a (1 + cos 8)} when the point is on the circum
ference.

2. Show that the first positive pedal of a central conic with

regard to the centre is of the form qe = A + B cos 20, which
becomes a Bernoulli's Lemniscate (r2 = a2 cos 20) when the conic
is a rectangular hyperbola.
3. Show that the first positive pedal of the parabola ya = 4ax
with regard to the vertex is the cissoid
3 ( 4 % + y ) + ay = 0.
4. Show that
9/
gol = a cos 20, ro = a coso ,, mas cosao, COS

sžo, w.de 9 ,
2
go' = a ' cos 50, 1 = a COS

are the first, second, third, fourth and fifth pedals of a rect
angular hyperbola.
5. Show that the 10th positive and negative pedals of the
circle r = a cos 0 are respectively
o
r = a cos11 and go = a sec
11 ' 9

E. D , C. 12
178 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

6. Show that the first positive pedal of

2n + yn = an,
n 72 n n

is (x2 +y2) =1 =un n -=1(2m

( x2 + y2)n -1 = un
n
1(2-1-i++ ynyn –?).1).
148. Perpendicular on Tangent to Pedal.
Let PY, QY' be tangents at the contiguous points
P , Q on the curve, and let OY, OY' be perpendiculars
from 0 upon these tangents. Let OZ be drawn at right
angles to Y'Y produced. Let the tangents at P and Q
intersect at T.

O R S х

It is clear that since

YÔY' = YÎY",
the points O, Y , Y ', T are concyclic, and therefore
> >

OÛZ = 4 - OÛY' = oÎY';

= T -

and the triangles OYZ and OTY' are similar. Therefore

OZ OY '
-;
OYOT

and in the limit when Q comes into coincidence with P,

Y ' comes into coincidence with Y, and the limiting
 PEDALS. 179

position of YY' is the tangent to the pedal curve. Let

the perpendicular on the tangent at Y to the pedal
curve be called pı , then the above result becomes
P.P
>
10
P
or
Pir = p?.

149. Circle on Radius Vector for diameter

touches Pedal.

This fact is clear from the figure of Art. 148, for OT

is in the limit а
a radius vector and the circle on OT for
diameter cuts the pedal in the ultimately coincident
points Y and Y ', and therefore in the limit has the
2

same tangent at Y as the pedal curve.

150. Pedals regarded as Envelopes .
It is clear then that the problem of finding the first
positive pedal of a given curve is identical with that of
finding the envelope of circles described on radii vec
tores as diameters (see Art. 142).
Again, the first negative pedal is the curve touched
by (i.e. the envelope of) a straight line drawn through
any point of the curve and at right angles to the radius
vector to the point.
Thus by Art. 142, Ex . 1 , the first positive pedal of
r = 2a cos

with regard to the origin is the cardioide

r = a (1 + cos ) ,
and by Ex. 2 , the first negative pedal of
r = a ( 1 + cos )
with regard to the origin is the circle
r = 2a cos 0 .
12-2
180 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

INVERSION.
151. DEF. Let O be the pole, and suppose any
point P be given ; then if a second point Q be taken on
OP, or OP produced , such that OP.OQ = constant, ka
say, then Q is said to bethe inverse of the point P with
respect to a circle of radius k and centre 0 (or shortly,
with respect to 0).
If the point P move in any given manner,the path
of Q is said to be inverse to the path of P. If (r, 7) be
the polar co -ordinates of the point P, and (r', 2) those
of the inverse point Q, then
ropo' = k .
Hence if the locus of P be
=
f (r , 0) = 0 ,
that of Q will be

17,0)=0 .

For example the curves

pom = am cos mo and pm cos moram
are inverse to each other with regard to a circle of radius a .

152. Tangents to Curve and Inverse inclined

to Radius Vector at Supplementary Angles.
If P , P be two contiguous points on a curve, and
 IN VERSION . 181

Q, Q' the inverse points, then, since

OP.OQ = OP' . OQ', >

the points P , P', Q , Q are concyclic ; and since the

angles OPT and OQTare therefore supplementary , it
follows that in the limit when P' ultimately coincides
with P and Q' with Q the tangents at P and Q make
supplementary angles with OPQ.
EXAMPLES.
1. Show that the inverse of the conic
1
-1 + e cos
1

with regard to the focus is the Limaçon

1
k2
= 1 + e cos 0

which becomes a cardioide

[r = a (1 + cos 8)]
in the case when the conic is a parabola.
2. If the point x ', y' be inverse to ( 2, y), show that
k2x'
X= and y = x k’y
2 +'y 2
2 2+ y '
3. Show that the inverses of the lines x = a , y = b are re
spectively
K2
x2 + y2 = -X
a
,
k2
and
12 + y2 = 7 %.
22
4. Show that the inverse of the conic
ax2 + 2bxy + cya = 2y ,
is the cubic kºax? + 2xy + cya) = 2y ( + y ").
5. Find the inverses of the straight lines
3x + 4y = 5, 4x – 3y = 5
with regard to the origin, and show that they are circles cutting
orthogonally.
182 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

POLAR RECIPROCALS .

153. Polar Reciprocal of a Curve with regard

to a given Circle .
DEF. If OY be the perpendicular from the pole
upon the tangent to a given curve, and if a point Žbe
taken on OY
or OY produced such that OY . OZ is con
stant (= kº say ), the locus of Z is called the polar reci
procal of the given curve with regard to a circle of
radius k and centre at 0.
From the definition it is obvious that this curve is the
inverse of the first positive pedal curve, and therefore its
equation can at once be found.
Ex . Polar reciprocal of an ellipse with regard to its centre .
x2 y?
For the ellipse 62- = 1 ,
a2
the condition that p = x cosa + y sina touches the curve is
pe = a cosa a + b2 sin’a.
Hence the polar equation of the pedal with regard to the origin is
72 = aº cos2 0 + b2 sin 0.
Again, the inverse of this curve is
= aº cos 0 + b2 sinº 0,
p2
or aạx2 + bºy2 = k4,
which is therefore the equation of the polar reciprocal of the ellipse
with regard to a circle with centre at the origin and radius k.

EXAMPLES.
Find the polar reciprocals with regard to a circle of radius k
and centre at the origin of the curves.
1. p = a cos 8. 5. gon =a" cos no.
2. Any circle. 6. Xmy" = qm + n
1
3. 1 + e cos 0. 7. 2º + yn = a".
r
m

4. r = u ( 1 + cos 8 ). 8. ly
*+ +
-.
 INVOLUTES AND EVOLUTES. 183

INVOLUTES AND EVOLUTES.

154. DEF. The locus of the centres of curvature

of all points on a given curve is called the evolute.
If the evolute itself be regarded as the original
curve, a curve of which it is the evolute is called an
involute.

Ex. To find the evolute of the parabola

ya = 4ax.
By Ex. 2, p. 153, the co-ordinates of the centre of curvature are
T = 2a + 3.3

3 =-221;}}
Thearbitrary abscissa x must be eliminated between these equations.
We have
(T – 2a)} = 33.x } = - 3 $ały/2,
=

or squaring and dropping the bar,

4 (cc - 2a)3 = 27ay ?
a semicubical parabola.

EXAMPLES.
1. Show that the locus of the centres of curvature of the
ellipse
2 ° a ? + ya/b2 = 1,
等
is ( )* + (by)2*= (az2–- 62)?
(ax
2. Show that the locus of the centres of curvature of the
catenary
y =ccosha
is c log Y + V y2 – 4c2= x +
ข
Vy2 –4c2.
2c 4c

155. Evolute touched by the Normals .

Let P1, P2, P, be contiguous points on a given curve,
3

and let the normals at P1, P , and at P. , P , intersect at

Qı , Q. respectively. Then in the limit when P.,, P; 2
184 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.
move along the curve to ultimate coincidence with P ,
the limiting positions of Qı , Q, are the centres of curva

P2
Qz Q.

YP

ture corresponding to the points P1, P, of the curve. )

Now Qı and Q , both lie on the normal at P 2,, and there

fore it is clear that the normal is a tangent to the locus
of such points as Qı , Qa , i.e. each of the normals of the
original curve is atangent to the evolute ; and in general
the best method of investigating the equationof the
evolute ofany proposed curve is to consider it as the
envelope of the normals of that curve.
Ex . 1. To find the evolute of the ellipse
X2 y? -1
+ 72 .
a2
The equation of the normal at the point whose eccentric angle is
p is
ax by
sin • = a2 - 12 . ( 1) .
-
-

cos º
We have to find the envelope of this line for different values of the
parameter :
Differentiating with regard to ø,
sin • cos
ax
cosa o + by sin • = 0 ....... . (2 ),

or
sin3 + cos® P = 0.
by 0.0

sinº cos 1
Hence 3 . (3) .
-by Max Diaz)i+(by)?
Substituting these values of sin p and cos o in equation (1) we obtain,
after reduction (ax)i + (vy)} = (a” - 12
 INVOLUTES AND EVOLUTES. 185
-
Ex. 2. Shew that the envelope of y = mx – 2am – am3 (i.e. the
normal to y2 = 4ax) is 27aya = 4 (x – 2a )3.
-

156. There is but one Evolute, but an infinite

number of Involutes .
Let ABCD ... be the original curve on which the
successive points A , B, C , D , ... are indefinitely close to
>

each other. Let a, b, c, ... be the successive points of

intersection of normals at A , B, C , ... and therefore the
> >

centres of curvature of those points. Then looking at

ABC... as the original curve, abcd ... is its evolute.
And regarding abcd ... as the original curve, ABCD...
is an involute.

a
A

B
B

D
E
3

H
O

If we suppose any equal lengths AA ', BB', CC", ...

to be taken along each normal, as shown in the figure,
then a new curve is formed, viz. A'B'C' ..., which may
be called a parallel to the original curve, having the
same normals as the original curve and therefore having
the same evolute . It is therefore clear that if any
186 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

curve be given it can have but one evolute, but an

infinite number of curves may have the same evolute,
and therefore any curve may have an infinite number of
involutes. The involutes of a given curve thus form a
system of parallel curves.
157. Involutes traced out by the several points
of a string unwound from a curve. Length of
Arc of Evolute .

Since a is the centre of the circle of curvature for

the point A (Fig., Art. 156),
AA = ab

= bB + elementary arc ab (Art. 81).

=

Hence aA – B == arc ab.

Similarly bB - C = are be,

-
bc
CC – db = arc cd ,
etc. ,
fF - 3G = arc fg .
Hence by addition
aA - GG = arc ab + arc bc + + arcfg
= arc ag .

Hence the difference between the radii of curvature at

two points of acurve is equal to the length of the corre
sponding arc of the evolute. Also, if the evolute abc...
be regarded as a rigid curve and a string be unwound
from it, being kept tight, then the points of the unwind
ing string describe a system of parallel curves, each
of which is an involute of the curve abcd ... , one of
them coinciding with the original curve ABC.... It is
from this property that the names involute and evolute
are derived .
 EXAMPLES. 187

EXAMPLES .
1. Show that the whole length of the evolute of the ellipse
24 /aº + y /62 = 1,
is
4-5) a

2. Show that in the parabola

y2 = 4ax
the length of the part of the evolute intercepted within the
parabola is
4a (3 / 3-1).
EXAMPLES .

1. Show that the fourth negative pedal of the cardioide

po = a ( 1 + cos 6)
is a parabola.
2. Show that the fourth and fifth positive pedals of the
curve
울
1=a
(see 30)*9

are respectively a rectangular hyperbola and aa leniniscate

[ r =acos 28).
3. Show that the first positive pedal may be obtained by
go2
writing r instead of p and instead of r in the pedal equation of
р
the original curve .
4. Show that the first positive pedal of the epicycloid
pa = Ar2 + B,
has for its pedal equation
204
7B
p2 = A 102

5. Show that the equation of the nth pedal of the curve

f(p, r) = 0,
gon pon +1
is f = 0,
(pn - pn
188 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

j.e. it may be obtained from the original equation by writing

12 n

р for P, and p for r.

©)* 2 (9)".
6. Show that the inverse of the hyperbola
1 1 1
+
a
y
with regard to the origin is
a ( c++ y ") (. + y) = k ?cy.
7. Show that the inverse of the ellipse
x2 92
-1 ,
a2 62

with regard to the origin is

x2 x
(22 + y4) = 24 a2 62

8. Show that the equation of the inverse of a curve with

regard to the pole may be obtained from the pedal equation
by writing
kap K2
for P and for 1 ,
go2 1

i.e. if f ( p, r ) = 0
be the original curve
( kp 0
>
72
will be the inverse .

9. Show that the inverse of the curve

p ? = Ar + B ,
is k4p2 = Ak4j2 + Br4.
10. Show that the pedal equation of the evolute of the
curve p =f(r) will be obtained by eliminating p and r between
p =f (r) ,
Pe= -p,
2
dr dr
-2prº dp
m2 = p2-* + p2r (op)*–2pr
dp
 EXAMPLES. 189

11. Show that the evolute of the epi- or hypocycloid

pa = Ap2 + B
B
is
pa = Ar2 + Ā (A - 1 )
( i.e. a similar epi- or hypocycloid , see Q. 23, p. 113).
12. Prove the following series of results for the Equiangular
or Logarithmic spiral O cota
1 = ae

( 1 ) ø = a. (Hence the name “Equiangular.”)

(2) The pedal equation is
p = r sin a.
(3) p = r cosec a.
(4) Let O be the pole, PT the tangent at P, OY the
perpendicular, OT the polar subtangent cutting the normal in C.
Prove that C is the centre of curvature.

(5) S = r sec a (s being supposed measured from the pole ).

( 6) 3== PT.

(7 ) Prove geometrically that all the pedals, the inverse,

the polar reciprocal, the evolute are equal equiangular spirals
(i.e. for which ® is the same).
(8) The equation of the first positive pedal is
TT
r=a sina e(:-a)co cota
e @cota .
(9) The nth pedal is
TT

r=a sin " a é” (5 -a)co n -a cota

O cota.
( 10) The inverse is
K:2 - cota
7 =
a

(11 ) The Polar reciprocal is

a
7=
k2
e
- ( -a) cot -

e
-Ocota
a sin a
190 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.
( 12) The evolute is
п
cota
r = a cot ae e cot a

13. Prove the following series of results for the cardioide

p = a ( 1 - сos ).
( 1 ) The curve may be constructed as the locus of a point
on the circumference of a circle of diameter a which rolls without
sliding upon the circumference of aa circle of equal radius.
(2) Hence prove geometrically
A
φ: 2

Prove this also from the equation by means of the formula

tan = r do
dr

(3 ) If O be a fixed point upon a circle of radius a and

entre C, and P any other point upon the circumference, mak
the angle cPQ = CPO. Prove that PQ always touches a car a
dioide formed by the rolling of a circle of radius 3; upon a circle
of equal radius (geometrical).
(4) The curve may also be constructed thus : - Take a
circle OQD of diameter a and centre E. Let a straight rod PP
of length 2a move in such a manner that its mid -point Q de
scribes the given circle whilst the rod is constrained to pass
through a fixed point 0 onthe circumference. The points P, P '
trace out the cardioide. The point O may be called the focus.
(5) Any “focal chord ” is of constant length.
(6) The “ Instantaneous Centre ” for the motion of the
rod is at the point R of the circle in (4) diametrically opposite
to Q.
(7) The lines RP, RP are normals (geometrical).
(8) Normals at the ends of a focal chord intersect at right
angles on the circle in (4) (geometrical).
(9) Tangents at the ends of a focal chord intersect at
right angles on a concentric circle of three times the radius
( geometrical).
(10) If RP cuts the circle in (4) again at S the angle OSR
is bisected by ES ( geometrical).
 EXAMPLES. 191

(11 ) Hence show (by 3) that the evolute of the cardioide

is aa cardioide of one-third the linear dimensions and turned the
opposite way ( geometrical).
(12) Show (by 11 ) that the whole length of the arc of
the cardioide
r = a ( 1 -- cos 6) is 8a.
(13) The cardioide is the first positive pedal of a circle
with regard to a point upon the circumference.
(14) The pedal equation is
p=
(2a)]
(15) The curvature at any point is
3/2 Qar.
( 16) The nth pedal of
g = a ( 1 + cos 6),
1 1
0
is (24)n
pon + 2 = (2a)n ++2 cos
n+2
.

( 17) The Inverse of the cardioide with regard to the pole

is a parabola.
14. Show that if p be the radius of curvature at any point
P, ? upon the curve f (P , r ) = 0 and p. that at the corresponding
point upon the inverse, then
Pi = k2 / ( 2p
where k2 is the constant of inversion.
15. With the same notation the radius of curvature at the
corresponding point of the polar reciprocal is
k2 p3
pp
where k2 is the constant of reciprocation.
16. With the samenotation if en be the radius of curvature
at the corresponding point of the nth pedal, prove that
gon -2 1 1 1 1 PP
Pn 2-2 -2 2-72
pn -1 ...

(where there are n + 1 quotients)

nr2 – (n − 1 ) pp
(n + 1) 9.2 --npp
 CHAPTER XIII.

MAXIMA AND MINIMA . ONE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE,

158. Elementary Algebraical and Geome.

trical methods.
Examples frequently occur in Algebra and Geometry
in which it is required to find whether any limitations
exist to the admissible values of certain proposed
functions for real values of the variable upon which
they depend. These investigations can often be con
ducted in an elementary manner. A few examples
follow in illustration .
b
Ex . 1. The function ax + may be written in the form
2
2

(Wax- 19)*+2 Wad,

from which it is obvious that the expression can never be less than

2 Nač, the value it attains when Naaz Vio >

Van
or 2 =

the square of a real quantity is essentially positive and therefore any

For

value of x other than x = will give to the expression a greater

Van
value than 2 Vab.
Ex. 2. Investigate whether any limitation exists to the real values
3.x2 - 4x + 3
of the expression 3.x2 + 4x + 3 for real values of x .
3.x2 - 4x +3
Let
3.x2 + 4x + 3 = y.
Then 3 (1 - y ) . * - 4 (1 + y ) < + 3 (1- y ) == 0 .
-
 MAXIMA AND MINIMA. 193
If x be real, we must have
-

4 ( 1 + y )2 - 9 (1 -- y) > 0,
i.e. (5y - 1) (5 – y) must be positive.
1
Hence y must lie between the values 5 and

Therefore the maximum value of the expression is 5 and the

minimum value is 3 .
Ex. 3. If the sum of two quantities be given , when is their pro
duct a maximum ?
Let x + y = a, a constant,
then 4xy = (x + y ) - ( - y ) = a.- ( x - y ).
The right-hand side has its maximum value when (x - y)2 has its
minimum, i.e. when x = y , for being a square it cannot be negative.
a
Thus the maximum value of xy is 4
:
This may be shown geometrically as follows :-the problem is to
divide a given line AB in such manner that the rectangle of the
segments is as great as possible. Let C be the centre and P any other
point of the line. Then by Euc. 11. 5,
rect. AP . PB + sq. on CP = sq. on AC = rect. AC.CB ,
i.e. the rect. AP.PB is less than the rect. AC.CB.
Hence the point of division is the mid-point, or the line must be
bisected .

Ex. 4. If x + y +2 + w be constant, when will xyzw have its

maximum value ?
So long as any two, say x and y , are unequal we can without
altering z and w (and thus keeping x + y constant) increase xy , and
therefore also xyzw by making & and y more nearly equal (by Ex. 3) .
Hence xyzw does not attain its maximum value until
x = y = 2 = w.
The same argument obviously applies to the product of any number
of quantities whose sum is constant.
If we are searching for the maximum value of such an expression
as xy223, say , with condition x + y + z = a , we proceed thus
уу 2 z 2 and is to be a maximum ,
xy_23 = 2233.x. 22 ' 3'3'3
y Y z z z
+

+
where X+ + + -a ;
+

2 2 3 3 3

E. D, C. 13
194 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

and by the preceding work we are to make

y 2 a
>
1 2 3 6

22.33a6 26
whence the maximum value is
66 2 + .33

Ex . 5. In any triangle the maximum value of

cos A cos B cos C is

For 2 cos A cos B cos C = cos A {cos (B - C) - Cos A } ,

and therefore as long as B and C are unequal we may increase the
expression by making them more nearly equal and keeping their sum
constant. Thus cos A cos B cos C does not attain its maximum value
TT 1
until A = B = C = 3
and then its value is
8

Ex. 6. What are the greatest and least values of a sin x + b cos x ?
Let a = ccos a and b = c sin a,
6
so that cº = a² + b2 and tan a =
a

Thus a sin x + b cos x = c sin x cos a + c cos x sin a

= Na2 + b2 sin (x + a),
and as the greatest and least values of a sine are 1 and -1 , the
2
maximum and minimum values required are Vaz+62 and - Wa? + b2
respectively.
Ex . 7. If A , B, C ... be a number of points and P any other
point, and if G be the centroid of masses 1 at A , u at B, etc., then it
is a known proposition that
XPA2 + uPB2 + ... = (XGA² + uGB? + ...) + (1 + 4 + ...) PG ,
or ΣΑΡΑ2 = ΣλGA2 +( Σλ) PG2.
Hence since EXGA2 is a fixed quantity for all positions of P, EXPA2
has its minimum value when P is at G.

EXAMPLES .
1. Show that the minimum value of
22 – 4.x +9 is 5.

2. Show that the expression x + 1 cannot have any value

intermediate between 2 and -2.
 EXAMPLES. 195

22 + x + 1
3. Show that has 3 for its maximum value, and
22 - x +1
for its minimum .
3

4. Show that the value of

22 + p.c + 1 is intermediate be
22 – px + 1
tween
2 + P and 2 - P
2 -P 2+p
ax2 + 25x + c
5. Show that is unlimited in value if
cx2 + 2bx + a
a + c < 26.
6. Show that the shortest distance from a given point to a
given straight line is the perpendicular distance .
7. Show that the greatest triangle inscribed in a given circle
is equilateral.
8. Deduce from 7 by projection that a maximum triangle
inscribed in an ellipse
(a ) is such that the tangent at each angular point is
parallelto the opposite side,
(6) has its centroid at the centre of the ellipse,
3/3
( c) that its area = 4
ab, where a and b are the semi
axes.

9. Show that the triangle of greatest area with given base

and vertical angle is isosceles.
10. Show that if ABC be a triangle, and P any point
PA ? + PB2 + PC2
will be aa minimum when P is at the centroid.
11. Show that
PA’tan A + PB2 tan B + PC2tan C
has its minimum value when P is at the orthocentre.
12. Show that
PA sin A + PB2 sin B + PC2 sin C
has its minimum value when P is at the incentre.
13-2
196 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.
1

13. If ABCD be a quadrilateral, and P any point,

PA + PB2 + PC ? + PD2
has its minimum value when P is at the intersection of the
joins of mid -points of opposite sides.
14. Find the maximum rectangle inscribable in a given
ellipse, i.e. find the maximum value of xy, having given
2 % /aº + y4/12 = 1.
15. Find the maximum value of xyz, having given
x + y + z = a.
16. Find the maximum value of xyz, having given
22 32
+ + -1 .
a2 62 c2

17. Find the maximum value of xy ?, having given

x + y = a.
18. Find the maximum value of xPy ?, having given
x +y = a.
19. If 0 + 0 = constant, the maximum value of sin & sin is
attained when Q = .
20. Find the maximum value of
sin A sin B sin C
for a triangle. 1
21. Find the maximum and minimum values of
a sina x + b cosa x .

22. Show that the greatest chord through a point of inter

section of two given circles is that which is parallel to the line of
centres.

23. Find the greatest triangle of given species whose sides

pass through three fixed points.
24. Find the greatest rectangle whose sides pass through the
angular points of a given rectangle.
25. Find the two perpendicular focal chords of a given conic
whose sum is a maximum .
 MAXIMA AND MINIMA. 197

THE GENERAL PROBLEM .

159. Suppose x to be any independent variable

capable of assuming any real value whatever, and let
• ( a) be any given function of a . Let the curve
y = $ (2 ) be represented in the adjoining figure, and
let A , B, C , D, ... be those points on the curve at
which the tangent is parallel to one of the co -ordinate
axes.

B
A
F

O
M , M2 х

Suppose an ordinate to travel from left to right

along the axis of c . Then it will be seen that as the
ordinate passes such points as A, C, or E it ceases to
increase and begins to decrease; whilst when it passes
through B, D, or F it ceases to decrease and begins to
>

increase. At each of the former sets of points the

ordinate is said to have a maximum value, whilst at
the latter it is said to have a minimum value.
160. Points of Inflexion .

On inspection of the accompanying figure it will be at

once obvious that at such points of inflexion as G or H,
198 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

where the tangent is parallel to one of the co -ordinate

axes, there is neither a maximum nor a minimum or

O N х

dinate. Near G, for instance, the ordinate increases up

to a certain value NG, and then as it passes through
G it continues to increase without any prior sensible
decrease.
This point may however be considered as a com
bination of two such points as A and B in the figure of

N, N2
Art. 159, the ordinate increasing up to a certain value
NG,, then decreasing through an indefinitely small and
negligible interval toN.G., and then increasing again
as shown in the magnified figure, the points G1 , G, being
ultimately coincident.
161. We are thus led to the following definition :
DEF. If, while the independent variable a increases
continuously, a function dependent upon it, say • (x),
 MAXIMA AVD MINIMA. 199

increase through any finite interval however small until

x = a and then decrease, $ (a) is said to be a MAXIMUM
value of $ (« ). And if $ (x) decrease to $ (a) and then
increase, 'both decrease and increase being through a
finite interval, then • (a) is said to be a MINIMUM value
of $ (3 )
162. Criteria for the discrimination of Maxima
and Minima Values.
The criteria may be deduced at once from the aspect
of dy as a rate -measurer. For dy is positive or negative
dx
according as y is an increasing or a decreasing function.
Now, if yY have a maximum value it is ceasing to in
dy
crease and beginning to decrease , and therefore doc
must be changing from positive to negative ; and if y
have a minimum value it is ceasing to decrease and
beginning to increase,and therefore dy
da
must be changing
from negative to positive. Moreover, since a change
from positive to negative, or vice versa, can only occur
by passing through one of the values zero or infinity,
we must search for the maximum and minimum values
among those corresponding to the values of a given by
$ (2 ) = 0 or by $ ' (x ) = 0 .
dy
163. Further , since da must be increasing when it
dạy
changes from negative to positive , dx if not zero must
dy
then be positive ; and similarly, when dac changes from
dạy
positive to negative daca must be negative , so we arrive
at another form of the criterion for maxima and minima
values, viz, that there will be a maximum or minimum
200 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

according as the value of x which makes dy

dx
zero or

dạy
infinite, gives d. a negative or a positive sign.
164. Properties ofMaxima and Minima Values .
Criteria obtained Geometrically .
The following statements will be obvious from the
figures of Arts. 159, 160.
(a) According to the definition given in Art. 161 ,
the term maximum value does not mean the absolutely
greatest nor minimum the absolutely least value of the
function discussed. Moreover there may be several
maxima values and several minima values of the same
function, some greater and some less than others, as
in the case of the ordinates at A , B , C , ... (Fig. ,
Art. 159)
(B) Between two equal values of a function at
least one maximum or one minimum must lie ; for
whether the function be increasing or decreasing as
it passes the value [ M , P, in Fig., Art. 159] it must, if
continuous, respectively decrease or increase again at
least once before it attains its original value, and there
fore must pass through at least one maximum or mini
mum value in the interval.
(w) For a similar reason it is clear that between
two maxima at least one minimum must lie ; and be
tween two minima at least one maximum must lie. In
other words, maxima and minima values must occur
alternately . Thus we have a maximum at A , a
minimum at B, a maximum at C, etc.
(8) In the immediate neighbourhood of аa maximum
or minimum ordinate two contiguous ordinates are equal,
one on each side of the maximum or minimum ordi
nate ; and these may be considered as ultimately co
incident with the maximum or minimum ordinate.
Moreover as the ordinate is ccasing to increase and
 MAXIMA AND MINIMA. 201

beginning to decrease, or vice versa, its rate of variation

is itself in general an infinitesimal. This is expressed
by saying that at a maximum or minimum the function
discussed has a stationary value. This principle is of
much use in the geometrical treatment of maxima and
minima problems.
( €) At all points, such as A , B , C , D, E , ..., at
>

which maxima or minima ordinates occur the tangent

is parallel to one or other of the co -ordinate axes. At
dy
points like A, B, C, D the value of da
>
aly,vanishes, whilst
dy becomes infinite.
at the cuspidal points E , F , >
The
dx
positions of maxima and minima ordinates are therefore
given by the roots of the equations
$ (2 ) = 0
$ (x ) = 00
dy dy= 0 , are not in themselves
(5) That da 0, or dac
sufficient conditions for the existence of a maximum or
minimum value is clear from observing the points G , H
of the figure of Art. 160, at which the tangent is parallel
to one of the co-ordinate axes, but at which the ordinate
р

Viacute Vaohtuse
N X

has not a maximum or minimum value. But in passing

a maximum value of the ordinate the angle y which the
tangent makes with OX changes from acute to obtuse,
and therefore tan y ; or dy
de changes from positive to
dx '
negative ; while in passing a minimum value ff changes
202 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

dy
from obtuse to acute, and therefore doc changes from
negative to positive.

P.

Urobtuse 2 acute
N X

165. Working Rule .

We can therefore make the following rule for the
detection and discrimination of maxima and minima
dy
values. First find dac and by equating it to zero find
for what values of a it vanishes ; also observe if any
values of a will make it become infinite. Then test for
each of these values whether the sign of dydoc
changes
from + to - or from –to + as a increases through that
value. If the former be the case y has a maximum
value for that value of x ; but if the latter, a minimum .
If no change of sign take place the point is a point of
inflexion at which the tangent is parallel to one
mo
of
the co-ordinate axes ; or, in some cases it may be re
convenient to discriminate by applying the test of
Art. 163. Find the sign of dạy da ? corr
esponding to the
value of x under discussion. A positive sign indicates a
minimum value for y ; a negative sign, a maximum .
When
dạy = 0) this test fails and there is need of further
1
daca
investigation *
* See Art. 488 of the author's larger book on the subject.
 EXAMPLES. 203

EXAMPLES
1. Find the maximum and minimum values of y where
y = (x - 1)(3-2)
Here
dy
= ( x - 2) + 2 (x - 1 ) (x - 2)
dx
.

= (x - 2 ) (3.x - 4) .
Putting this expression = 0 we obtain for the values of x which
give possible maxima or minima values
4
x = 2 and x =
30
To test these : we have
dy
if x be a little less than 2, doc
= ( - ) ( + ) = negative ,
dy
if x be a little greater than 2, dx= ( + ) ( + ) = positive.
Hence there is a change of sign, viz ., from negative to positive as x
passes through the value 2, and therefore x = 2 gives y a minimum
value.
dy
Again , if x be aa little less than z4 ' dx = (- )( -) = positive,
dy= ( - ) ( + ) = negativ ,
and if x be a little greater than 4 e
3 ' dx
dy
showing that there is a change of sign in dx viz . from positive to>

4
negative, and therefore x = 3 gives a maximum value for y. This we
might have anticipated from Art. 164 , (y) .
Otherwise :
dy
dx = (x – 2) ( 3.C – 4) ,
so that when dy is put = 0 we obtain x = 2 or
=
dx

And
dạy - 6x – 10,
dx²
d'y
so that, when x = 2 , d.x2
= 2,
a positive quantity, showing that, when x = 2, y assumes a minimum
4 đều
value , whilst, when z ' dx?= -2 ,
which is negative, showing that, for this value of x, y assumes a
maximum value.
204 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

dy
2. If dx 2n (x – b)20 +1,
= ( x – a )2n
where n and p are positive integers, show that x = a gives neither
maximum nor minimum values of y, but that x =
= b gives a mini
mum .
It will be clear from this example that neither maxima nor
minima values can arise from the vanishing of such factors ofdy
as have even indices.
x ? – 7x +6
3. Show that has a maximum value when x = 4
- 10
and a minimum when x == 16.
dy
4. If
dx: = x (x – 1 ) (x – 3 )3,
show that x = 0 gives a maximum value to y
and 3 gives a minimum .
5. Find the maximum and minimum values of
2.x3 - 1522 + 36.0 +6.
6. Show that the expression
(x - 2) (x - 3)
7
has a maximum value when x = and a minimum value when
3'
X= 3.

7. Show that the expression

23 – 3.x2 + 6x +3
has neither a maximum nor a minimum value.
8. Investigate the maximum and minimum values of the
expression
3.2005 – 25x3 + 60x.
9. For a certain curve
dy
die = (xx - 1) ( x −– 2)2 (x – 3)3 (x – 4)4 ;
dx
discuss the character of the curve at the points
x = l , x = 2, X = 3, 2 = 4.
 EXAMPLES. 205

10. Find the positions of the maximum and minimum ordi

nates of the curve for which
dy -

dx = (x - 2)3 (2x – 3 )4 ( 3x – 4)5 ( 4.x – 5)%.

11. To show that a triangle of maximum area inscribed in any
oval curve is such that the tangent at each angular point is parallel
to the opposite side.
If PQR be a maximum triangle inscribed in the oval, its vertex P
lies between the vertices L , M of two equal triangles LQR, MQR
P
M

inscribed in the oval. Now, the chord LM is parallelto QRand the

tangent at P is the limiting position of the chord LM , which proves
he proposition .
It follows that, if the oval be an ellipse, the medians of the tri
angle are diameters of the curve, and therefore the centre of gravity
of the triangle is at the centre of the ellipse.
12. Show that the sides of a triangle of minimum area circum
scribing any oval curve are bisected at the points of contact; and
C.

с
C2

P
PIXZ
Pi

BI
206 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

hence that, if the oval be an ellipse, the centre of gravity of such

a trianglecoincides with the centre of the ellipse.
Let ABC be a triangle of minimum area circumscribing the oval.
Suppose P the point of contact of BC. Let AB, C ,, AB, C, be two
equal circumscribing triangles such that B ,C1, B , C, touch the oval at
P1 , P , on opposite sides of P and intersect in T. Then
triangle TB , B , = triangle TC , C2
or
TB,. TB,, sin B ,TB, == TC,. TC, sin C , TC ,.
=

If we bring P , and P , nearer and nearer to P so as to entrap the

minimum triangle, the above equation ultimately becomes
TB2 = TC2;
and T being ultimately the point of contact P, the side BC is bisected
at its point of contact. The remainder of the question follows as
in Ex . 11 .

EXAMPLES .

1. Find the position of the maximum and minimum ordi

nates of the curves
(a) y = ( x - 1) (x - 2 ) (x - 3),
(b) 4y = 24– 8.x3 + 22x2 – 24x, -

(c) a_y = ( x – a)2 (x – 5),

( d ) a $y2 = (x - a )* (x - b ).
2. Find the maxima and minima radii vectores of the
curves

(a) pra sin 0 + b cos 6,

(6) r = a sin? 0 + b cosa ,
(c) (x2 + y2)2 = ax2+ 2hxy + by ?,
C4 a2 + 62
(d ) 72
=

sin 8
9
cos? A '
1
a2 62
22X y2 1,
@S

( f) r = a sin ? 8 cos4 0.
 EXAMPLES. 207

3. Discuss the maxima and minima values of the following

expressions :
(a) * (1 - x) (1 - x2),
(6) (32-1)/ (.22 + 3) ,
(c) sin x cos3 x,
(d) log / ,
(e) sin” x sin nx.

4. Discuss the maxima and minima values of the following

expressions :
(a) 22+ y2 where ax2 + 2hxy + by2 = 1,
(b) ax + by where xy = c ,
(c) sin 0+ sin $ where 0 + 0 = a,
( d) sina0 + sina$ where 0 + 0 = a.
5. What fraction exceeds its pth power by the greatest
number possible ?
6. Divide a given number a into two parts such that the
product of the pth power of one and the qth power of the other
shall be as great as possible.
7. Given the length of an arc of a circle, find the radius
when the corresponding segment has a maximum or minimum
area .

8. In a submarine telegraph cable the speed of signalling

1
varies as 22 log X- where x is the ratio of the radius of the core to
that of the covering. Show that the greatest speed is attained
when this ratio is 1 : Nē.
9. An open tank is to be constructed with a square base
and verticalsides so as to contain a given quantity of water.
Show that the expense of lining it with lead will be least if
the depth is made half of the width .
10. From a fixed point A on the circumference of a circle
of radius c the perpendicular A Y is let fall on the tangent at P ;
prove that the maximum area of the triangle APY is

2013.
8
c .
208 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.
11. The sum of the perimeters of a circle and a square is l.
Show that when the sum of the areas is least the side of the
square is double the radius of the circle.
12. The sum of the surfaces of a sphere and aa cube is given.
Show that when the sum of the volumes is least, eight times the
radius of the sphere is thrice the edge of the cube.
13. Show that the cone of greatest volume which can be
inscribed in a given sphere is such that three times its altitude
is twice the diameter of the sphere. Show also that this is the
cone of greatest convex surface inscribable in the sphere.
14. Find the cylinder of greatest volume which can be in
scribed in a given cone.
15. Show that the right circular cylinder of given surface
and maximum volume is such that its height is equal to the
diameter of its base.
16. Show that the semivertical angle of the right cone of
given surface and maximum volume is sin - 1 3
- .

17. Show that a triangle of maximum perimeter inscribed

in any oval curve is such that the tangent at any angular point
makes equal angles with the sides which meet at that point.
Show also that if the oval be an ellipse, the sides of the triangle
will touch a confocal.
18. If a triangle of minimum perimeter circumscribe an
oval show that the points of contact of the sides are also the
points where they are touched by the e-circles of the triangle.
19. Show that the chord of a given curve which passes
through a given point and cuts off aa maximum or minimum area
is bisectedat the point.
20. Find the area of the greatest triangle which can be
inscribed in a given parabolic segment having for its base the
bounding chord of the segment.
21. In any oval curve the maximum or minimum chord
which is normal at one end is either a radius of curvature at
that end or normal at both ends.
22. Show that if a triangle of minimum area be circum
scribed about an ellipse the normals at the points of contact
meet in a point, and find the equation of its locus.
 EXAMPLES . 209

23. Find the co-ordinates of the limiting position, when

a'ra, b' = b of the intersection of the straight lines
2

*+ % = 1,
a a +%b' =1,1
+

where an + bn = a'n + Ein = 2cn.

Find the co -ordinates of the point on the locus of the limiting
position of the intersection, which is at a maximum distance
с
from the origin, and prove that the maximum distance is
V2
[I. C. S. , 1892.]

E, D. C. 14
 CHAPTER XIV.

UNDETERMINED FORMS .

166. ELEMENTARYmethodsof procedure have been

explained in the first chapter.
We propose now to show how the processes of the
Differential Calculus may be employedin the deter
mination of the true values of functions assuming
singular forms, and shall discuss each singularity in
order (see Art. 16).
0
167. I. Form
0
Consider a curve passing through the origin and
defined by the equations
x = f (t),
y = (t).)
Let a, y be the co-ordinates of a point P on the
Y

N X
 UNDETERMINED FORMS. 211

curve very near the origin, and suppose a to be the

value of tcorresponding to the origin , so that
$ (a) = 0 and f (a ) = 0. =

Then ultimately we have

Lt
LtY = Lt tan PON = Ltx= 0 dody – eza φ' (t)
c Y' (t)
Hence Ltera $ (t) Lttua φ' (1) ;
y (t) Ur' ( t)
$ (t) 0
and if be not of the form 0 when t takes its assigned
t ' (t)
value a, we therefore obtain
Ltt= a φ (t) φ' ( α)
8 (t) ' ( a)'
But, if φ' (1) be also of undetermined form , we may
t' (t)
repeat the process ; thus
Lttaa $ (t) = Ltt a $ " (t)
= =
etc. ,
' (t) Y " (t)
proceeding in this manner until we arrive at a fraction
such that when the value a is substituted for t its
numerator and denominator do not both vanish, and
thus obtaining an intelligible result-zero, finite, or
infinite.
1- cos
Ex. 1 . Lte = 0 02
Here 0 (0) = 1 - cos 0 and y ( 0) = 0%, which both vanish when 0
vanishes .
$' ( ) = sin 0 and ¥' (0) = 20,
which again both vanish when 0 vanishes.
(0) = cos 8 and y '' (O) = 2 ,
whence $ (0 ) = 1 and 4 " (0) = 2.
1- cos e 1
Therefore Lte = 0 02 2:
14-2
212 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

Lte = 0 20+ e - + 2 cos 0 -- 4

Ex . 2 .
04 [form 6]
eᎾ . e - 0-2 sin e
= Lto = 0 form
403

e + e - 0 -- 2 cos 0 form
= Lt = 0 1202

e0 - e - 0 +2sin
form
= Lte = 0 240

4
ni
1
co + e - 0 + 2 cos 0
= Lto = 0 24 24

EXAMPLES .

Find by the above method the following limits :

a* - 1 - sin x COS X
1. Ltz = 0 13 – 1 6. LtzX == 00 " 23
sin ax 2006 – 2.x3 - 4x2 + 9x - 4
2. Ltz = 0 sin ba 7. Lex =1
24 — 223 + 2x – 1
ce – log ( 1 + 2 ) ex sin x - x - 22
3. Ltz = 0 8. Ltz = 0 23
X2
3 tan x 3x - 203
4. Lt == 0 x cos x – log (1 + 2)
x2
9. Lt = 0 65

T
1

5. Ltz == 00
cosh x COS X
10. LtX = TT
(++ ) -1
sản1
X sin x log sin 2.2

168. II. Form ( xoo .

Let • (a ) = 0 and of ( a ) = 00 , so that $ ( x) & (x )
takes the form ( x co when & approaches and ultimately
coincides with the value a.
φ (α)
Then Ltx = a $ ( 2 ) 4 (W) = Ltx = = a
() 1
y (2)
1 1
and since 0,
t (a)
8
 UNDETERMINED FORMS. 213

0
the limit may be supposed to take the form and may
be treated like Form I.
0 1
Ex . 1. Lte = 0Ocot 0 = Lte = 0 - Lt9=
e 0 seca -1 .
tan a 0

sin
a 20
Ex. 2 . Lt, & sin 2 = Lt, so Lta a = a.
1 0
a

SI
2

2 X

169. III. Form

Let $ (a ) = , 7 (a) = 0 , so that φ( α ) takes the

form
0 X (2 ) near the
when x approaches indefinitely
value a.
The artifice adopted in this case is to write
1
$ (w ) _4
(2a)
f (x) 1
φ (α)
1 1 1 1
Then since 0 , and
0, y ---
we ma
H ( a) φ (α)
0
consider this as taking the form Ō and therefore we >

may apply the rule of Art. 167.

1
H (2)
Ltx = a φ (α) = Ltx y ( x )
2
Ltx -a [ (a ) ]
8 ( 20) 1 φ' (0)
( c) [$ ( x ) ]

Let
Cea
$( ) (2)
f (x ) $ (w )
214 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.
2
$ (a ) $ (x ) Ltxe= a Y (x)
Therefore Ltx -a
=

3-[ Lt = a
* (Q) φ' ( α) '

Hence, unless Itx =- a $

(x ) be zero or infinite, we have
ya)
Ltx - a 4 (z )
1 ={It $ ((x)}) S { It
Ltx= a
$ ' (a )S
or Ltz = 0
$ (3) = Ltx-a $ (x )
X (X) L' ( )

170. If, however , Lt, = a (3 ) be zero, then

( a)

Ltx = a
$ (x) + (x) = 1, =

y (2)
and therefore, by the former case (the limit being neither zero nor
infinite ),
= Ltzua
' (x ) + V '(x)
¥' (x)
Hence, subtracting unity from each side,
Ltra $ ( x) . = Ltr - a $' (x)
y (0 ) 4 ' (x )
Finally, in the case in wbich

Ltzza ♡ ( x) y (.r)
then Lteza = 0,

and therefore by the last case

Lt = . ' (r) .
(0)
therefore Ltrza ♡ (x) - Ltx - a $ ' (x )
(x)
This result is therefore proved true in all cases.

171. If any function become infinite for any finite value of the
independent variable, then all its differential coefficients will also
 UNDETERMINED FORMS. 215

become infinite for the same value. An algebraical function only

becomes infinite by the vanishing of some factor in the denominator.
Now, the process of differentiating never removes such a factor, but
raises it to a higher power in the denominator. Hence all differential
coefficients of the given function will contain that vanishing factor
in the denominator, and will therefore become infinite when such a
value is given to the independent variable as will make that factor
vanish .
It is obvious too that the circular functions which admit of infinite
values, viz. , tan x, cot x, sec x, cosec x, are really fractional forms,
and become infinite by the vanishing of a sine or cosine in the deno
minator, and therefore these follow the same rule as the above.
The rule is also true for the logarithmic
1
function log ( x - a) when
x = a, or for the exponential function 12 – a when x = a, being sup.
posed greater than unity.

172. From the above remarks it willappear that if • ( a ) and

4 (a ) become infinite so also in general will & '( a) and y' (a). Hence
$ ' ( x ) is no
at first sight it would appear that the formula Ltxea
( a) ' ( x)
better than the original form Ltx = a But it generally happens
.

that the limit of the expression $' (x) when x = a, can be more easily
>

evaluated .
T

Ex . 1. Find Lt = TT
log ( 6 - ) which is of the form
0 2

2
tan

Following the rule of differentiating numerator for new numerator,

and denominator for new denominator, we may write the above limit
1
TT
.

2
Ito= sec? °
TT

which is still of the form But it can be written

cos2 0
= Lto TT T
which is of the form
:)
- 2 cos 0 sin 0
= 0.
= Lt 2
1
216 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

Ex . 2 . Evaluate Lt, = 9 which is of the form

ex
Xn пxn -
Ltx put Lo
e²
n ! n!
= Ltoo ex 0.
0

It is obvious that the same result is true when n is fractional.

Ex. 3. Evaluate Ltx= 0&m (log x )”, m and n being positive.

This is of the form 0 x co , but may be written
n
( log x
Lt = 0
U
m
n
[ Forms]
m

and by putting xņ = e-y this expression is reduced to

n n

m
у
Lty = 0 = 0 as in Ex . 2 .
ey

173. Form oo

Next, suppose ( • a ) = 0 and 4 (a ) = 0 , so that

•$ («)
Qc – 7 (x )) takes the form of -- ,when x approaches
and ultimately coincides with the value a.
Let U == $ («x ) –- 4 ( xa ) == f ( x) $$ (x) ly ( 2 )
1

From this method of writing the expression it is obvious

that unless Ltz-a 0y1 (( )) 1 the limit of u becomes

H (a ) x (a quantity which does not vanish );

and therefore the limit sought is c .
But if Ltga $ ( x ) = 1 , the problem is reduced to
(c )
the evaluation of an expression which takes the form
20x 0, a form which has already been already discussed
( II.).
 UNDETERMINED FORMS. 217
1
Ex . Ltx = 0 -
( - cot «x))== Lt,
Lt =
= 0
20
(1 - x cot x )

sin x - x cos X
Lt = 0 x sin x
which is of the form 8)
which is of the same
x sin x
Ltz = 0 sin
x + x COS X form still
sin x + x cos x
Ltz == 00 2 cos X - x sin x
-0 .

EXAMPLES.
a
1. Find Ltx = » 2x sin 23 C

TT
2. Find
Ltz== 1 sec ,
=
2.x log a.
x
1
3. Find Ltx = 00 cosec” x 2N

for the values n = 1, 2, 3.

4. Find Lte = 0 logan y: tan 2c.
5. Find Ltz = 1 Si cot TX + (3x2 – 1)
? x 2,2 – 14 )
174. V. Forms Oº, Dº, 1º . >

Let y = u ”, u and v being functions of x ; then

loge y = v logeu .
Now logel = 0, loge 0 = 00 , loge0 = -00; and therefore
when the expression u ' takes one of the forms Oº, 0 °, >

1 ", log y takes the undetermined form 0 x 0 The

rule is therefore to take the logarithm and proceed as in
Art. 168.
Ex. 1. Find Ltx== 00.02, which takes the undetermined form 0°.
9

1
logex 2
Ltrzo log.x2 = Ltx== 0 1
Lt =0 1 = Ltx = 0 -- x) = 0,
1

whence Ltr = 020 = eº = 1 .

218 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.
Ex . 2 . Find Lt # (sin x )" ut. This takes the form 1" .
2

Lt tan z log sin :

– (sin x )tan = Ltr = 9

2 2

log sin x cot 3

and Lt a tan x log sin x = Lt X = Lt
2 2
cot 3 X=
2
- coseca &
= Lt;2 = ( - sin x cos x) = 0,

whence required limit = e = 1.

A slightly different arrangement of the work is exemplified here.

175. The following example is worthy of notice,

viz .
Ltz- a { 1 + ( x)}* ( *) , >

given that $ ( a ) = 0, y (a ) = ,
Ltz-a
= $ (x) y (x) = m.
We can write the above in the form
1
$ (x) • 4 (2),
.

tena[11+++ ((x)}#m
Ltz-a L{1+ )}$( -) ]017
which is clearly em by Art. 14 ,Chap . I.
It will be observed that many examples take this
form , such, for example, as
1

( gyi
Ltgo tan
SC

on p. 9, and Exs. 21 to 26 on p. 12.

dy
176.
da of doubtful value at a Multiple Point.

The value of dy takes the undetermined form 0

at
da
a multiple point.
 EXAMPLES. 219

The rule of Art. 167 may be applied to find the

true limiting values of docdy
for such cases, but it is
generally better to proceed otherwise.
If the multiple point be at the origin, the equations
of the tangents at that point can be at once written
down
found.
by inspection and the required values of dy
dac
thus
If the multiple point be not at the origin, the
equation of the curveshould be transformed to parallel
axes through the multiple point and the problem is
then solved as before.

Ex . Consider the value of dy at the origin for the curve

dx

24 + axay + bxya + y4 = 0.
The tangents at the origin are obviously
x = 0, y = 0, ax + by = 0,
making with the axis of x angles whose tangents are respectively
a
00 , 0,
7
dy
which are therefore the required values of dx '

EXAMPLES .

Investigate the following limiting forms :

log (1-2) 1 + cOS TX
1. Ltr -o log cos x 4. Ltx = 1 tan 77X
2.33 – 3.02 + 1
2. Lt c == 11 3.25 – 523 +2
-

5. Ima
Ltx = long (2- cot
a) esit(irx -a).
–
1- tan x loggina COS
12 sin?x
TT
3. Lt ,-411 - N2 6. Lt = 0
-

lore inacons"
2
220 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.
8
cot & tan - 1 (m tan 8) - m cosa
7. LtO = 0
sin?
1

8. Ltzno ( cos x)cot*2 .

= 0 =
-
-qulog(1–2).
1
9. Ltx = 1 (1 – x2)log (1-x)
10. Ltz -o
= 0 (log x )log (1 -~ )

Axn + Bun - 1 + Can---2 + ... or

11. Ltx ax + b.cm - 1 + cxm –2+ . according as n is >, = ,
< m .
sinha x
12. Find Lt ;C == 00 22 cos X

-1
vers 2
13. Find Lt =0
V2x – 22
Wa? + ax + 32 - a2 - ax + 22
14. Find Lt 0
Na + x - Na - x
X 1 e-3
15. Find Ltz = 0 22 +
2x sinha
sin 2.x + a sin x
16. If Ite = 0 203
be finite, find the value of a and the limit.
sinh 3x + a, sinh 2c + a, sinh ở
17. If Ltz = 0 206
have a finite limit, find it and determine the necessary values
of di and 02.

18. If Ltgo cos4x + a, cos2x +

=
X4
have a finite limit, find it and determine the necessary values
of di and 02 .

19. If Ligo sin x + a ,et tage -% + azlog 1 + x 1

2013

have a finite limit, find it and determine the values of an, da, 1

03 .
 EXAMPLES. 221

20. Show that

1
ec

Ltz = 0
( 1 +-..
2*)* – e + 2 e lle
x2 24

21 . Find Ltoo dạy

des ?
where y = 0/sin and 0 = vers - 1 2.
1
22
Ltx = 0 sinh
22. Find
( 10)** 20

1
sinh 2 - 2 \ cº
23 . Find
• (6s-
Ltz = 0 6

1
24 . Find
)
(a) Ltx == 0,(cosh x ;)ac ,
1

cosh x 1 ) x2
()Librode contente
b) =0 22
>

(c) Ltx = 0 (24 cosh x2–4 24 – 12x2

(0) en -
 1

CHAPTER XV.

LIMITATIONS OF TAYLOR'S THEOREM.

CONTINUITY.

177. SUPPOSE that portion of the curve y = px which

lies between two givenordinates
AL (x = a) and BM (x = b )
to be drawn. Then if we find that as x increases
through some value, as ON, the ordinate px suddenly
changes from NP to NQ (say) without going through
the intermediate values, the function is said to be dis
continuous for the value x = ON of the independent
variable .

M 1

1
0 A N B x

Thus for a function pc to be continuous between

two values a and b of the independent variable, it is
necessary that its Cartesian graph y = x shall be able
to be described by the motion of a particle travelling
 CONTINUITY. 223

along it from the point (a, þa) to the point (6, 06)
without moving off the curve.
178. In the same way, if at a point P on a curve,
if the tangent suddenly changes its inclination to the
axis of x without going through the intermediate
positions there, as shown in the accompanying figure,
there is said to be a discontinuity in the value of $'».

T '",

A B х

179. If the curve y = pæ cut the x -axis at two

points A (x = a, y = 0) and B (x = b, y = 0 ), it is obvious
that provided that the curve y = px and the inclination
of its tangent be finite and continuous between A and
B , the tangent to the curve must be parallel to the
>

c -axis at some intermediate point P between A and B.

Y

P
XI

B
224 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

It is also evident from a figure that the tangent

may be parallel to the x-axis at more than one inter
mediate point .
Y!

P
R

А BI X

180. We thus arrive at the following important

result :
If any function of x, say px, vanish when x = a and
also when x = b, and is finite and continuous, as also its
=

first differential coefficient d'« between those values, then

$ x must vanish for at least one intermediate value.
EXAMPLES .

1. Show that e x takes the form 0 or according as x

is very small and positive, or very small and negative. Give
a graphical illustration by tracing the1 curve
y+ 1 =e
2. Show that if a rational integral function of x vanish for
n values between given limits, its first and second differential
coefficients will vanish for at least (n - 1) and (12 – 2) values of x
respectively between the same limits. Illustrate these results
geometrically.
3. Prove that no more than one root of an equation f (x ) = 0
1
can lie between any adjacent two of the roots of the equation
f' (x) = 0.
4. Establish the result of Art. 179 from the aspect of a
differential coefficient as a measurer of the rate of increase.
5. Show that no algebraic curve ever stops abruptly at a
point.
 TAYLOR'S SERIES. 225

Taylor's Series,

181. From the extreme generality of Taylor's Series

there is much difficulty in giving a rigorous direct
proof.
It is found best to consider what is left after taking
n termsof Taylor's series from f(x + h). If the form ofthis
remainder be such that it can be made smaller than any
assignable quantity when sufficient terms of the series are
taken the difference between f (x + h ) and Taylor's Series
for f (x + h ) will be indefinitely small, and under these
circumstances we shall be able to assert the truth of the
Theorem .

182. Lagrange - Formula for the remainder

after the first n terms have been taken from
Taylor's Series.

THEOREM . — If f (x + 2 ) and all its differential coeffi

cients, viz. f'(x + 2), f" (x + 2 ),...... fr (x + 2), up to
the nth inclusive be finite and continuous between the
values z = 0 and z = h of the variable increment , then
will
h2 -1 hn
- )) + n !
f (x + h) =f(x) + hf'(x)+ q; f" (x)+ ... +(n - 1)]**-1(2 "((x +01)
Oh
! 0
where 0 is some positive proper fraction.
Let
h2 hn - h"
f (x+ h) = f(x) + hf'(x)+ 2*5"(2)+ ... +in( - 1)ism–1(x)+%? R ... (1),,
R being some function of x and h, whose form remains
to be discovered.
E. D. C. 15
 226 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
Consider the function
22
5( )= ( - MAI15"(2)- ...-(n- 1)!**- (2) - RR= (2),say;
$(x + 2) -f(x) - 2f '(x) - , ; 1
n!

then differentiating n times with regard to 2 (keeping

a constant ),
an -2 2-1
f' (x + 2) - f' (x) – zf" (x ) – ... (n −2)!**-?(z)– (n− 1) R = $'(2),
2n-3 21-2
1" (x + 2) f *- * ) : (n − 2) ! R = 0 " (2 ),
f " (2 ) - ... (n - 3 )!'
etc., etc., etc.

f*- (c + z) fr-1 (x) – zR = 09-1 (2 ),

f » (x + 2 ) R = øn ( 2).
All the functions $ (2), $ '( )..., $ ( 2) are finite and
>

continuous between the values 0 and h of the variable 2,

and evidently + (0), 4 ( 0 ), " (0 ) ..., - (0) are all zero .
Also from equation ( 1) $ (h ) = 0 . Therefore by Art. 180,
$ (2) = 0 for some value ( h ) of 2 between 0 and h,
: $ " (2) = 0 for some value (h.) of 2z between 0 and hi,
:: $ '" (z ) = 0 for some value (hz) of z between 0 and ha,
and so on ; and finally
$ " (2) = 0 for some value (hn) of z between 0 and hn–1 .
Thus fr (a + hon ) – R = 0 .
Now since hn < hn- < hn -2 ... < h , < h , < h,
we may put hon = Oh where @ is some positive proper
fraction .

Thus R = fn ( 3C + Oh).
Hence substituting in equation (1)
h hn - 1 hn
5(f +h) =f(x)+
) hf'"(x)+ *:5"(x)+...+
21 ) +
(n - 1)7 fa** 1(xx) +ñf" (x+@h)
c n (2 .
.....(2)
 TAYLOR'S SERIES. 227

This method of establishing the result is aa modifica

tion of one due to Mr Homersham Cox (Camb. and
Dublin Math . Journal).
183. If then the form of the function f(x) be such
that by making n sufficiently great the expression
hn
n } f" ( x + 0h)
can be made less than any assignable quantity however
small, we can make the true series for f (x + h ) differ by
as little as we please from Taylor's form
ha
f( )+ hf”' (x)
a +28" (x ) + ... to co .
The above form of the remainder is due toLagrange,
and the investigation is spoken of as Lagrange's Theorem
on the Limits of Taylor's Theorem .
184. The corresponding Lagrange- formula for the
remainder after n terms of Maclaurin's Series is ob
tained by writing 0 for x and x for h and becomes
ап
Shen !f " ( 0x ),
thus giving
x2 xn-1 .2 "
n ! "(0x ).
f (x)=f(0) ++23xf" (0) + 1"(0)+ ... + (n − 1) !-fn' "-1(0) + mif" .

185. The student should notice the special cases of

equation (2), Art. 182, when n = 1 , 2, 3 , etc. , viz.
>

f(a + h) =f(x) + hf (x + 0 h),

hº
f (x + h ) f
= f( xx) + hf”(x)
' ++ 2 ! 8"(x
f +0.6 ),)
etc.;
all that is known with respect to the 0 in each case
being that it is a positive proper fraction .
15--2
228 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

186 . Geometrical Illustration .

It is easy to give a geometrical illustration of the
equation
f (x + h) =f (x) + hf ' ( x + Oh).
For let x , f(a), be the co-ordinates of a point P on the
curve y = f (x ), and let x + h, f ( x + h) be the co -ordinates
of another point Q , also on the curve. And suppose
the curve and the inclination of the tangent to the
curve to the axis of x to be continuous and finite
between P and Q ; draw PM , QN perpendicular to OX
and PL perpendicular to QN , then
f(a+ h )-f( x)_NQ – MP LQ
le MN PL = tan LPQ.

T M N X

Also, x + Oh is the abscissa of some point R on the

curve between P and Q, and f' (x + Oh) is the tangent
of the angle which the tangent line tothe curve at R
makes with the axis of x . Hence the assertion that
f (a + h ) -f(x) = f ' ( x + 0h)
h

is equivalent to the obvious geometrical fact that there

must be a point R somewhere between P and Q at which
the tangent to the curve is parallel to the chord PQ.
 TAYLOR'S SERIES. 229

187. Failure of Taylor's Theorem .

The cases in which Taylor's Theorem is said to fail
are those in which it happens
(1) That f(x), or one of its differential coefficients,
becomes infinite between the values of the
variable considered ;
(2) Or that f (x ), or one of its differential co
efficients, becomes discontinuous between
the same values ;
hn
(3) Or that the remainder ni
of"(x + oh
Oh), cannot
be made to vanish in the limit when n is
taken sufficiently large, so that the series
does not approach a finite limit.
Ex. If f (x) = 7x,
1.
h Væ
f(xx + 1)= 1 + h f'(x) = 2.Ja ,etc. 2

Hence Taylor's Theorem gives

1
f(x + ha ) = væ+h=wx+
h ZNE-ht .
2x
1
If, however, we put x = 0, becomes infinite, while væ + h
2 JX
becomes Jh.
Thus, as we might expect, we fail at the second term to expand
h in a series of integral powers of h.
188. In Art. 70 the proof of Taylor's Theorem is
not general, the assumption being made that a con
vergent expansion in ascending positive integral powers
of x is possible. The above article shews when this
assumption is legitimate.
For any continuous function f (x ) in which the (p+ 1 ) Ch
differential coefficient is the first to become infinite or
discontinuous between the values « and ath of the
variable, the theorem
hP
f + h) =f(x)) + hf '(x ) + ... + 011”( xx + Oh )),
f(x
230 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

which involves no differential coefficients of higher

order than the ph, is rigorously true, although Taylor's
Theorem ,
hP hP+1 1
f (x +h)= ff(x)+1f"(x)+...+
hf' f (a ) + (p +1)? fP
?!"(x)+
P !.
$9+ (x)+ ...
fails to furnish us with an intelligible result.
189. The remarks made with respect to the failure
of Taylor's Theorem obviously also apply to the par
ticular form of it, Maclaurin's Theorem, so that Mac
laurin's Theorem is said to fail when any of the
expressions f(0), f (0), f"(0), ... become infinite, or if
there be a discontinuity in the function or any of its
differential coefficients as x passes through the value
zero and increases to the value x , or if the remainder
an
;f " (0x) does not become infinitely small when n becomes
n !
infinitely large, for in this case the series is divergent
and does not tend to any finite limit.

EXAMPLES .
1. Prove that
X2 xn - 1
ax = 1 + x logeat 27 (loge a )2 + ... +
(n - 1) ! ( loge a )n -1
-

un
+ n! (loge a )" .

[ Here f (x ) = a *, F " (x ) = a * (loge a)", f " (0 ) = ( loge a )",

xn un
and
n]
0.3
f " ( 0x ) = n!
alx ( loge a ) "
a®z .
Hence the result follows by Art. 184.
The student should notice that
x " Q © x ( logea )"
n!
 EXAMPLES. 231

can be made smaller than any assignable quantity bysufficiently

increasing n. Hence the remainder after n terms of Maclaurin's
expansion have been taken ultimately vanishes when n is taken
very large. Therefore Maclaurin's Theorem is applicable and
gives
x2
q * = 1 + x loge ato
2!
(loge a )2 + + to o .]
2. Shew that
a’x3 a 25 anan NTT
sin ax = AX - + + sin + ... ,
3! 5! n! 2

and that the remainder after r terms may be expressed as

arxr т
p! sin (aox+"").
( +
2

3. Shew that the remainder after r terms of eax cos bx have

been taken is

(a + 0232 2c"ea8x cos ( box + r. tan - 1

po ! - ).
4. Shew for what values of x and at what differential coeffi
cient Taylor's Theorem will fail if
f(x)= ( – a)10(x – 6) **(x –c)**
W

(x - d)
5. How does Maclaurin's Theorem fail to expand
log x, tan - 1 Nă, or e x

in ascending positive integral powers of x ? Is e & continuous

as x passes through zero ?
 MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES .

1. A circle is drawn with its centre on a given parabola and

touching its axis , shew that if the point of contact recede
with a constant velocity from the vertex, the rate of increase of
the area of the circle is also constant.

2. If V be the volume of a sphere of radius r and S its sur

face, shew that
dV
dr = S,
and interpret this equation geometrically.
3. If V be the volume of a cube whose edge is x, and S its
surface, interpret geometrically the equations
dV ds
3.x ; = 12x .
dx dx

4. If V be the volume of a rectangular parallelepiped of

edges x, y, z interpret the equations
ду av ƏV
= 2X , OZ -ay.
дх = yz,
oy
5. Evaluate the limits :
x2

(1)
(rtan )".
Ltz = ( tan
a
)
(2) Ltx = - 2x tan 2x :
d ( axl + bx + c
Lụ =
(3) = - da ex + f + C).
cos ? TTX 3
6. Prove that Lt = 3 24 – 2e30 2e
 MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES. 233

Evaluate Ltx =0 tan (a + x) – tan (a – x)

7.
tan - (a + x ) - tan - 1(a – x )
1 1
8. Prove that Ltx=0
2.x2 2. tan x :) 6°

9. Find the limiting values of the following functions

a sin A - sin ao
(i ) when A = 0.
0 (cos cos af)
TT T
x sin x when x =
2
( ii ) COS X

x
(iii) (sin x)tan when x= 0.
(iv)
Nx - Natix - a when x = d.
Vx - a ?
X
10. Find the intercept made by the curve y = x cot 2a (The
Quadratrix) upon the y-axis.
11. If u = x Vx2 + a²+ a² log (x + V 22 + a2),
du
shew that =2 x2 + al.
dx

12. If x + Wa? – y = a log a + Na? – y2

y
shew that
dy y
dx Na² - y²
d 1, 1, 1, 1
13. Find
dx 1, X , 1, 1
1, 1, X , 1
1 , 1, 1 , X
14. If X, a, b, с

- , X, -C, 6
-6, C, X, -a
-C, - b, a, 2

shew that
dạy
d.x2
12x2 = 4 ( a + b2 + ca).
234 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

15. If V1 -2 + V1 - y' = a (x - y),

prove that
dy V1 - y
du V1 - 22
1 1 + 2V2 + .22 + 1 tan --1
" x12
16. If y = log 1 - x2 )
4.12 1- x 12+ x2 2,12
dy 1
prove that
dac 1 + x1)
Hence expand y in powers of x.
17. If
a1 Azt
y= 1 + x + t ...
– Qy ' ( - a )(x – az) +* (x - ay)(2 - an)(x – az) ?
to n + 1 terms,
dy _ y s al + Az an
shew that + +
dx X la1 - 2 A2 -X Un x

Differentiate
( x - 1) twice with respect to x, and find
18.
(x + 2)3
the value of the result when x =
= 0.

19. If Un = cosh" X and vn = sinh " x, prove that

?un= n22n – n (n − 1) Un -– 23
ddx²
d²vn
and
da2 = n ?on +n (n—
1) Vn– 2 .
20. If x = cos log y, shew that ( 1 – 32) Y2 – XY1 = y.
21. If y = (ax2 + bx + c)/(1 – x ),
shew that (1 – X) Y3 = 3y2
dn d
(eax . u ) = eax
22. Prove that
dxn
.

( cm +a)"
dx
u.

dny 1
23. Find where y
dan 22 + 60 + 8
dn p.x2 + 9.2 + r
24. Shew that
d . ( x - a )( x - 6 ) (2 - c)
= ( - 1 ) *η ! Σ pa ' + qa + r 1
-c) (x – a)*n +1 °
(a - b)(a
 MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES 235

dry
25. If y = xm sin x , find dan •

d ) * ( 1 + x )"
26. Shew that
(dx)) (1 - 2x )3
3+ ( n +2 ) ! n. 3n - 1
(n + 1 ) ! n (n − 1 ) 3n-2 n !
2 (1-2 ) +3 ( 1 -2.2)* +3+
2 2 ( 1 - 20) +1
dm
27. Shew that
dixm2-1-1 (x + 1) -1(x + 2 ) -1...(x + n ) -1
= ( - 1)mm ! S "CCo n * C, C2
+
n ! lam + 1 (x + 1)m + 1 ' (x + 2 )m + 1
C
+ ( - 1)) "(Le+nym +1} +

28. If $ (x)= (1 - x )-1(1 – cx) -1 (1 - c2x ) – 1 ...... to oo , where

c is less than unity, shew that
** (0 ) = n !/(1 - c) (1 -c)......(1 -c ).
29. Prove that if ac > 6 %,
dn b + cx
dain a + 26x + cx2
n 1
2
–6
n tan- b + ox 4
ac --

= (-1 ) !(atbirtane)".08{*+1)
- ) n!
+ 2+ la 2bx + cx )
-1

30. If
ex te - x
then x2d
ly + 4.x
dy
y = x2 dx2 dx+ 2y == x2y,
and if n be any even integer ,
dny dr - ly dn - 2y
22 + 2nx
dan dxn - 1 + n (n - 1) Lan- = x*y.
31. If y = ( x2-1)", prove
(a) (22 - 1) yı = 2n.xy,
(b) (22 – 1) Yn + 2 + 2xYn + 11- n (n + 1) Yn = 0.
-

da
Hence if Pn = A n (x2 – 1 )", shew that
da
d dPx
+ n (n + 1)Pn = 0.
{ -23, Vilnik) +1
dx ( 1 – x2) dx ) +n(n+
236 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

32. Prove that ea + bx + cx2+ dw8 + ...

= en
62 + 2c X2 63 + 6bc + 6d
{1++ bx + 2!
+ 23+
3! + -}
33. If x = f (x ), shew that
x du 1 C 2 d’u 1 x \ 3 d3r
s (1 = -, + 2 (7)
= U
2 da 2 ! ( 2 d.x2 )'
3 ! (2) dx3
to ...

34. x == &dqX ", shew that

If ex sin x
NTT
sin
an -
An - 1 An - 2 an 3+ 2
+ .

n !! [ I. C. S.]
1 ! 2! 3!

35. If ex = log ( ao + Aqux: + 29x2 + . + Ametin + ... ), prove that

( n + 1) an + 1 = Ant On- 1 + an- 2 + An -3+ +
do
1 ! 2! 3! n! '

36. If A0 , A1 , etc. be the successive coefficients in the ex

pansion of y = ecos mæ + sinmx; prove
m n ma
An + 1 =
n41 {d4en + 19 4n-r(cov". sin"m)}. [t.c.8.]
A +Σ
ir !
An- ,
C. 2 2

37. Given that

+31
4 31202
sin log(1+x)= 4x+ 23 + ...

coslog(1+x)= B
) 1+ x +
B.
x 2:2+ B
; 23 + ...
1 ! 2 ! 3!
calculate the first eight coefficients of each expansion .
[M. TRIPOS.]
38. From the expansion of sin - 1X /N1 - .x ?, deduce
X 2 x2 2.4 X2 2
tan - 1x = +

Also establish the series

1 + x2
{1+3 17X + 3.5 (142) +...}
31 + x2 + .x2

1 2 1.2 . 3
(a) 2en 1+
3
+
3.5
+
3.5.7
+

21 1/1 1.2 /12 + 1.2.3 3

(6) 1+
3/3 312 + 3.5 2 3.5.72 t.
 MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES. 237

39. Establish the expansions

72 1 1 1 1.2 + 11.2.3
(a) 1+ 23 + 3.3 5 t ......
8 . 43.5.7
3
11 11.2 / 1 2 11.2.3
(6) + 43.5
= 1+
23
4 .
2
+

3
33.5 ( 2
3.6 3.6.9
. 7 ( 9)*+ t.

40. Prove that ltat

33 = 6 6. 10
+
6.10.14 t .

41. Shew that if f(x + h) be expanded by Taylor's Theorem

and then h be put equal to – X , the sum of the first n + 1 terms
-

may be expressed as
xn + 1 dn Tf (w )
( -1 )" n ! d.cn [4.com]
203 33
42. In the curve a + b = XY, find the points at which the
tangent is parallel to one of the co -ordinate axes.
43. Find at what angle the circle x2 + y2= a ( x - y) cuts the
co - ordinate axes.
ds
44. In the curve y = log coth shew that coth x .
dx
45. In any curve prove that
golde
(a ) P = ds
rdr
(6) N72 – po ? ds
46. Find the sine of the angle of intersection of the rect
angular hyperbola 22 – ye = a and the circle x2 + y2= 4a2.
a²x
47. Shew that the points of inflexion on the cubic y = a3 + x2
are given by x = 0 and x = ta /3.
Shew that these three points of inflexion lie on the straight
line x = 4y.
48. If a line be drawn through any point of a given curve
at right angles to the radius vector (and therefore touching the
first negative pedal), then the portion of it intercepted between
the two curves is equal to the polar subnormal of the point on
the original curve through which it is drawn .
dr
What is the geometrical meaning of do ?
238 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

49. In any curve the radius of curvature of the evolute at a

point corresponding to the point p, r on the original curve is
d dr '
V po2 - p2
VF dp ( dp.)
r

50. If p and p' be the radii of curvature at corresponding

points of a curve and its evolute, and p, q, r are the first, second
and third differential coefficients of y with espect to X , prove
that
p'lp = {3pq* - * (1 + p )}/9%
51. If p, p be the radii of curvature at the extremities of
two conjugate diameters of an ellipse, then
68 + pi) (ab)} = a +62
52. The projections on the x -axis of the radii of curvature
at corresponding points of y = log sec x and its evolute are equal.
53. In the curve for which
2
'dy )
yem dx = a2m -32m ,

prove that the normal is m times the radius of curvature.

54. Shew that there is an infinite series of parallel asymptotes
to the curve (r – b) 8 = a cosec , whose distances from the pole
are in Harmonical Progression. Find also the circular asymptote.
55. Shew that the asymptotes of the curve
4 (24 + y4)– 17.x2y – 4.x (4y - 24) +2 (22 – 2) =0
cut the curve in eight points lying upon an ellipse whose eccen
tricity = /3/2.
Va? – 72
56. In the curve 1' COS
a
@ = Wa? -63,
an
shew that p
VS + 72
762
57. Find the asymptotes of the curves
( 1 ) 24 - y = aⓇay.
( 2) (22 - 2ax) (2 ° + y ) = 5224
 MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES. 239

58. Find the asymptotes of the curve

(x - y )2 ( x – 2y) (x – 3y) – 2a (23 — Y3) – 2a+ (x +y) ( x – 2y) = 0.
59. Determine from the equation
( x - a ) +7(7-6) = (x + y - a - b ) 3,
dy when
the values of x = a, y = b.
dx

60. Find that point on the curve

72 2
--
a

where the angle which the tangent makes with a radius vector
from the origin has a maximumor minimum value.
61. Find the area and position of the maximum triangle
having a given angle which can be inscribed in a given circle
and prove that the area cannot have a minimum value.
62. If four straight rods be freely hinged at their extremities,
the greatest quadrilateral they can form is inscribable in a circle.
63. Find the triangle of minimum area which can be de
scribed about a given ellipse, having a side parallel to the major
ellipse
axis of the .
Also shew that the triangle formed by joining the points of
contact is an inscribed triangle of maximum area.
64. A tree in the form of a frustum of a cone is n feet long
and the greater and less diameters are a and b feet respectively,
greatest beam of square section that can be cut
shew that the na
out of it is feet long.
3 (a - b )
65. Find the maximum radius vector of the spiral
y cosh A = a.

66. Investigate the maximum value of cosmx.cosmx.

67. Investigate the maxima and minima of
cOS X + cos 2x + cos 3x .

68. Find the maximum and minimum values of ex cos .x and

trace the curve y = eX COS X.
240 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

69. The corner of a leaf is turned down, so as just to reach

the other edge of the page ; find when the length of the crease
is a minimum ; also whenthe part turned down is aa minimum .
70. If the angle C of a triangle ABC be acute and constant,
prove that sinº A + sinº B is a maximum and cos? A + cos² B a
minimum , when A = B .
71. Shew that the shortest normal chord of the parabola
y2 = 4ax is 6a /3 and its inclination to the axis is tan- / 2 .
72. Find the maximum value of
(1 ) when a>b,
(x - a )'(3-6), (2) when a <b.
What happens if a = b ? Illustrate your answers by diagrams
curve
of the
y = (.c - a )' (2-6)
in the three different cases. [1. C. s.]
73. Prove that the pedal equation of the envelope of the
4
line x cos 20+ y sin 20 = 2a cos 0 is pa. (72 – a ).
3

74. A square slides with two of its adjacent sides passing

through two fixed points. Shew that its remaining sides touch
a pair of fixed circles, one diagonal passes through a fixed point,
and that the envelope of the other is a circle.
75. The tangent at any point P of a parabola meets the
tangent at the vertex in Q, and the normal at P meets the axis
in Ř : find the envelope of QR.
76. Ellipses of given eccentricity e, have for their major
axes parallel chords of a circle of radius c. Shew that their
- e2
envelope is an ellipse whose eccentricity is 2 - 2 W
X ex + 1
77. Shew that the expansion of 2 ex
is

x2 26 208
1 + B12!- B324 ! + BiB.6 ! - By 81
where
Ba=16,' B = 1 Bo= 22,B , = 30, etc.
3
30 '
1
42 >
1

[ These numbers are called Bernoulli's numbers.]

 MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES. 241
78. Shew that if
25
tanx== s,i + Som3 + sont
1! S + 5!

then S2n -- 1 = B2n -1 22n(221

2n
– 1)

79. Shew that

22 x4 2: 6
secx= 1+ S, ! +SE
4 ! + Sca,
6 ! t ......
where Sq = 1, S = 5, So = 61, etc.
[ These numbers are called Euler's numbers.]

X2
80. If secx +tan x = 1+ $.1 ! + S, 2!
+ Sz +

prove

(a) Sp+z= S, ++ pP 1.2

(p = 1)Sp$ -282
__ $
+
+ P (P - 1) (P - 2) (p - 3 ) S7-45 + .......
1.2.3.4

(which when pis even expresses any Bernoulli's number in terms

of lower order Euler's numbers ).

Sp
p (p - 1 ) p (p - 1) ( -2) ( -3) -

(6) 1.2 Sp - 2 + 1.2.3.4 Sp - 41

+ cos
PTT sin PT .

2 2

(c) Si = 1, S2 = 1, Sz = 2, Sn = 5, Sz = 16, S6 = 61,

Sy = 272, Sn = 1385, Sn = 7936 , etc.
p +1 p 1
d Sv = 2vтр+2p!
( D) ? {(C)
+1 : +( $)** +**
(3) 3
+1

+ (- 3)*** + (*)***+....}.
E. D, C. 16
242 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

(e) Deduce the several results

1 1 1 TT
1 + +
3 5 7
1 1 1 72
1+ + +
72 X ;
32 52 8

1 1 1 mp3
1 +
33 53 73+ 32
1 + 1 1
1+ +
96
34 54

1 1 1 575
- 35 + 55 76 + 1536 ;
etc.
 ANSWERS TO THE EXAMPLES.

CHAPTER I.

PAGE 5.
a

1. (a)) co,, (u)) a , (c) . b

2. ( i )
a
(ii) ő
4. 5. -1 .
3. 3a?, 4a", 543/2. a' e

NICU
3 1
7. 8.
0 , 0, 0 , -1, -00 , .00 , 0, 0 . >
2

PAGE 11 .
.
erla

m
.
2

.
4

1. logga . 3. 5. 4.
5 n n

1 3
.

6. 4. 7. 2. 8. 1. 9. 10.
ia

‫ܩܬ‬
‫ܙܦ‬

2 2
2 1 1
11 . 12. 13. 1. 14. 1. 15 .
‫ܙܟܣܬܘ‬

3° 6° 15
!

11 13 2 1
16 . -

17. 18. -
19. 20 . 1.
6 60 2
21. 22. 1. 23. e 24. 0. 25. e-1 26. e .
CHAPTER II.
PAGE 16.

1. Y - y = 3x? (X -– x). 2. Y - y = 4.-' (x - 2).

3.2 V ( Y - y) = X - x. -
4. Y - y = (2x + 3x4) ( X – x ).
8. Y - y = cos x (x - x). 6. Y - y = ex (X –x).
7.7 ( Y- y) = X - X. 8. Y - y = sec x (x - x) .
9. Xx + Yy = ca. 10. Xx/a ? + Yy /bº = 1.
16--2
244 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

PAGE 17.

1. 2. 2. 1. 3. 3. 4. 6xx . 5. - 1 /x2.
6. - 1/x?. 7. - 2 / x3. 8. a/2 Viz. 9. XIVx2 + a ?.
10. Vz12 J. 11. esin 2 cos X. 12 . tan x.
13 . sin x + x cos x . 14. (x cos x – sin x )/x . 15. 2 (log x + 1) .

CHAPTER III .

PAGE 27 .

1. x® (3 sin x + x cos x) ; (3 + x) xºek; æ? (3 logex + 1 ) ;

x2 (3 tan x + x sec2x ); x2 (3 loge sin x + x cotx) .
2. x3 (4 – x cot x ) cosec 3 ; (x cos x — 4 sin x )/2c5; (cos x – sin x )/ex ;
ex (sin x cos x) cosecx.
secº x loge sin x +1; ex ( logex + 2 ; sin x (2 + tanºx) .
3.
(1080x+ );
4. x ?ex sin x (3 + x + x cot x) ; tan x logex + x seca x logex + tan x.
5. xạe-* { (3 – x) sin x + x cos x } ; x e- * cosec x { 3 - x - x cotx } ;
– (3 + x + x cot x )/x + ext sin x .
6. (sin x + 2x cos x)/ ã ; 3 (2. sec2x – tanx )/2c2; 2e * ( 2x – 1 )/27.
7. * (2x + 6.2$ + 2x + 1)/2x) ; ex logex ( x* + 5x3 + 3x) + e* (x3 + x2).
PAGE 30.
COS 1
1. 3e3x ; -e- 4 ; 3 sina x cos x ; ;
2 sin x 2x loge
secax cos vã
2 tan x 2
2. esin & cos x ; etan X sec? x ; 3.x20x8 ; e V772.Jæ ; 1.
1 3
3. cot r ; 2 cosec 2x ; 2c 20

cos (log x) seca (loge x ) ; cos (logex )

4. ;
2 X
2x Vsin
( logex)
cos Via
NX cot C
;
4 N N sin ve 2 x
5.
ſex cot Jet;3 sec2 loge sin eevo .coteVicevi 1

2 Sx
 ANSWERS TO THE EXAMPLES. 215

CHAPTER IV.
Page 32.
1. 1 ; 10.x9 ; - x ^ 2; -10x-11 ;
3 1 1 5 5
;;
2.c 3.73
2 C -4 .
1 1 1 1
2. n (x + a)n-1 ; nxn -1 ; 3
2.3 (x + aj**
) 21x +a)?
3.
na (ax + b)n - 1; naxn- '?; na " .xn-- ?; na (a + b)n - 1 ; an.
x2 23 + 24
4. 1+ x + + +
! 3 ! 4!

5. - (15a + 110 8/3)/12 / 39 ; / a/ c ( a – Mỹ) ;

-

2 Pa/3 Sz? (Ja - Vz)”; al(a – x)} (a + ~)* ; 2a/3 (a – x ){ (a + x) .

6. (a – c) {bx2 +2 (a + c) x + B } ;
(cx” + bx + a )2
(x + a )r --+( x + b)9-1 { ( p + q) x + pb + qa } ;
(x + a ) r - 1
{ ( p - 2) x + pb - qa .
(x + b)4 + 1

PAGE 34.
1. 2¢2x ; -e-% ; nena ; sinh x ; cosh x ; 3e3x.
2.
1 1 a 2ax + b 2 4.2 ( logx a)2
2x ; *+a ax + b ' ax2 + bx + c ; 1-22; 1 – 24; x logea
1 1 $' (x )
3. 2.0 d ( c ) ; - * ' (log x ) ;
2 + (x )
n [° (a + x)]n -10' (a + x); n (a + «)r -i ' [(a + x)" ].
co

1
4. ex
[log (x + a) + X+ ] ;

an- lex (x + n ) ; ( 1+ log a) am.ex ; 2x loge 2 ; 1º.

1 + ex ex
5. x + ex i ext 2 3 + ( a log x - 1 ).
-

2 (log x)2
2+1
6. ex log 2. log ex ; ; log ex .
X

PAGE 35.
1. 2 cos2x ; n cos nx ; n sinn–1 x cos x ; n cos xn.xn - 1 ;
cos Vice
2*
246 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

COs re sina
1 s
2. cos 12 ; cot c ;
C
cot = ; cos xe in 5 ; 2 sin x
4 dasin ſe
sinm - 1
3. sinº- 1 x cosa -1 x (m cosa x – nn sinº x) ; cogn + 1 2
(m cos x + n sinºx) ;
n3xn -1 sinn-1 (nx”) cos ( n.x ") ; eax (a sin bx + b cos bx ).
4. (1 cos 2x + 2 cos 4x – 3 cos 6x) ; sin x (sin 3x +3 sin x)/sin”3x.
;

5. (sin 2x + 2 sin 4x + 3 sin 6x) ;

- COSP ax . cos' bæ . cos" cx (ap tan ax + bq tan bx + cr tan cx).

Page 38.

2
1. 2x sec x2 . tan xa ; ; 2x sec? x2 ;
x dx4 - 1
2.3 2
11 ; 22 sin c ” ;
2 – x2
1 1
2.
2 cosh &
et sec? ex ; 2 cosec 2x ; (1 + x2) tan –1x ; - 2 cosec 2x.
1 1 a 2
3.
a ” + x2 ) 1 + x2
2ax -- 22' Va (2 – a ) + 2x(1 – a ) – x2
-- cos x/2 Icovers x ; pqx9-1 tan p –129.sec ? xº ; .

2
PqXP -1 (tan-1 XP)9-1/(1+ x2P) ; log tan-1x + ( 1 + x2) tan -1x *
tan 3 1
5. sec.x.sin -1x +
N1- x2'sina sinº x -- cos2x
sin a 1
e² sin -1x +
1 + cosa a i (( sin -x ). .22

PAGE 42 ( first set).

sin 3
sina
1.
( 2
+ cos x.logx ) ;
ga) ;
C
( sin - 2) ( log sin-1 x + ; 2x2+ 1 log ex ? ; 2x24 log ex .
sin- 1x . x2
 ANSWERS TO THE EXAMPLES. 247

cos2 x
2. (sin x)cos x sin x sin log sin a
sina x
C
+ (cos a )oina (acos x log cos x – COS 3
1
(tan x)* (log tan x + 2x cosec 2x) + x tan x ( seca x log x + tan 2
( 2 x ).
1
3. tan x . logx.ex.22 .Vã ( 2 cosec 2x + x log xla(2 + 2 + log x + 2.x

PAGE 42 (second set).

3 1 1' 1 1
1. 2. 3. 4.
1 + x2 1 + 22• 2 1 + x2 11 – x2
2 20 2
5. 1. 6. 7. 8.
71 – x2 Vi + x2 1 + x2 "
3 x2 – 2x – 2.c +1 -
2 22-1
9. 10. 11 . 12.
22 -4 °
Ji 2.x2 (1 +x ) (1 + x2) N1 - 22

PAGE 46.

x2 xn - 1 y
1. 2. 3.
y2 • yu -j . X (y - 1)
y 2x2 - 1 log 6.
cº - l + gº log 9
log
4.
x 2y2 - 1 6. –ya108.5/22108. cuc- 1 + cº log &

PAGE 47.
1-n 1 -n
22 + 2x – 2 - 2.0 n
1.
(x + 1)
2.
n
(a + x ) * 3.
n (a² + x2))* .
1 3.2 + x3 204 – 2a ”x2 + 4a4
6.

(1 + ax)
5.

(1 – x)} nt
1-zi 3
(1 ++ x2) ( x2 – a?! (x2 – 422)!'
7.
2 + 2x – x2
8. 2 (1 – x2)
1 + x2 + xt
2 (1 — «)*(1 + x +22)
1 TT
9. 10. cos xº.
x {1+ (log ) 180

sin ea
12.
log cotx 2 tan - 10 %
11 . cos ex .ex.logs + 2 cosh 3 sin 2.c
248 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.
sinh ở 2 cosec 2 x
13 . i.e. tanh T. 14 .
cosh x [ 2log cotx – (log cot x )2
COS X 1
15. 16. . 17.
1+ sin2 = 1 + x2 x x² 1
18 .
( sin - 2x )" --1 (cos -1x)" - 1 ( m cos-? x - n sin - 1 x) .
V1-x ?
19 . cos ( ex log a) ex log (.rem) 11 - (log x )2 1

loga
z . *
- sin (ex log r)
V1- (log x)?
n.c 2
er
20 .
(7)"*{»(1**) ) n

ab
log
n
+

2 12
-1
21. tan +
a a " + x2
***
a² + x2 ( tan - 1.2
cos -1
x- x V1 - 22 a sin (a cosec -2 X) 162 – a ?
-
22 . 23 . 24 .
x Vix ?-1 b + a cos x
(1 – r2)
25 . 2e tan - 1.30
ſlog sec X3 + 3.x'tan 23!
1 + x2 .
26 .
za {afucos (b tan 1 x2) - ritenin(ltan- )}37).
eax
1 +

27. xacx (2+ cx loge a ) 28 . x loga e sin (loga Va? + x>) .

1 + x4a2cx
(a2 + x2) cos” (loga Va² + x2)
2 1 1
29 . 30 . 31 .
1-24 x log x æ log x logº x log' x .... logr -1x
1 1 1
32 . 33 . . 34 . 10% . 10104 ( loge 10 ) .
a + bcos x ví X2 2 .22
1

35. ex . eet. 33 . pat.x3 . log (ex ).

. 37. ret , EexX log (xex ).
1-2
1)
38. x ** . **
.

{( log x )2 + log x + af 39 . 22 log (ex) – 2012 log

40. - (cot x) cot« cosec- x log (e cot x) + (cosh x) cosh x sinh x log (e cosh x).
sinx
X2 acxac sin x
41.
3 1 + a2cxx2 sin
1 + x2
log 2C x cos x e ")
1-2.c
+ tan- (acz y sinx)
2x} (1 + x )2
 ANSWERS TO THE EXAMPLES. 249

1 e tan - 12
42 .
VI - e2 tan - T3. 1 + x ?
m m m m m
1 - sin
43 .
sin
2 ) (1
+ cos
C 3
+ cos
m x
m m

27 ( ) (1
2 / (1+0 cos
2
- sin
20 )
44 . 11 – 22 – 2 Vic
4 Va V1 –x2✓Væ + cos-1 x (1 + Vx + cos -1x)
sin exc?
48. 3y [212.xexe cos ex log 11 ++2 V 2/2 (1 + Vx) (1 + 2 +2wor ]
46. -y cot x ( 1 + 2 cosec2 x log cos x) .
cot 1 . 1
47 .
- flor ent +x1112 ਜੇ
x ( 1 + x ) cot-'
log 2 + 1
-1
3
48 . + + x
(1 +2)* {10* 7 # +1} { x +1 – log x }.
2

49 .
x2 + y2 - ay
a 50 . cos x . cos 2x . cosa y . e cos? 2.
.

( x2 +y2) sec?? - b.x

51 . ax + hy 52.
n a
53.
y tan x + log sin y
h.r + by 2.c. ( a + bxn log cos x - x coty
64. & (3 + 2 tan log x + tanº log x) . 55.
y X -- y
56 .
y?
X X+ XC – xy log x

57. y log y 1 + æ log a log y 58.

y {(a + bx) y – bx2 }
a log xc 1 - x log y x (y – x) (a + bx)
59.
ax + hy + g y
60.
hx + by +f 2

61 . 6x2 ( 1 + y2) tan x' etan- y 63 .

logio e
1+ y2 log secº xi etan -lyº 2.x2
64 . - ( 1 + a” cos bx ) ( x2 + ax + a2)n -1
2

[~ (2x+a) log cot cosec 3 (z* + ax + a” ]/aab sin b.x.

n
2

( log x + V1
1
acsin
6.
65
(108 + v1=*-in--- -). 2
66 .

67.
1 1 + x2 + 1 - x2 68 .
2
69.
1
70. 1.
V1 +/- Ji- 22 20
250 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.
2n + 3
71. 2
n (1 + aca) tan - 1 x log tan- 2x + XC
2

(1 + ) tan-1x( Væcos Vä- 3 sin Vö)

e x2 824+ 5.75
80 .
[ 2.ro
473 + x+ L2xz \ x22 (52* + 4.« ") sec=?«wz].
1 2
85 . [ Deduce from first result of 83 by putting ex
log x .x2 -1 .
for X , then using exponential values and writing
z for ex.]
21+2 (y - 2 ) + yn+? (2 – x) + z1+2 (x - y ) and then
86. (b) Prove HR x " (y - 2 ) + y * (2 - x) + z ( - y) differentiate .

CHAPTER V.
PAGE 55.

( -1)" arn! n! bn.n !

1. 2. 3.
(ax + b) + 1 (a -- x )nti: (a – bx)nti :
4.
( -1) -abn - in ! 5.
(-1)" (bc – ad) cn-in !
(a + b.x )" + 1 (cx + d )* +1
6.
(-1)" a'n ! (-1)" (n + 3) !
( n > 1). 7.
(c -a ) +1 3 ! (x + a)" + 4
1.3.5 ...(2n – 3) 1
8. ( -1)^ - 1 2n 2n - 1

(x + a ) 2
9. 3.8.13.18 ...(51 – 2) (-1)" 10. ( -1)n-1 pa" (n − 1)!
5» бm + 3 ° (ax + )"
( + a) 5
1 пп NTT

1. ) {c05
11
fox(2+ )--- (***
2
ea
3x+""}) .
cos
2
пп
3 cos ( 3x +

22 cos
12 .
2
ex
{a (2 +1))-1
n
- 102 cos (3x + n tan-1
+
-13)} .
13 . { 1 - 52 cos ( 2x + n tan -12 )}.
2
n
eax 26
14.
{an+ ( a? + 462)2 cos(( 26x + n tan- a)}
2
пт NTT пт

16. 1 {2( sin (25+) + chain (** :)) - --in( 6x + ")

4
2n 2x
n
2
+4"
T} 4x +
2
n
620
2
ತಿ пт
16.107 {2.( 70 ) (2 +utan- :)- (137oou 18 cos (s3x + ")
n 1 -

(243*008(55+m
– ) cos tan- 9)} 5x n
 ANSWERS TO THE EXAMPLES. 251

пт
17.
{2n-1 sin ((2x + ":)n
2
- 4n - 1 sin ( 4x +
(4x +"7)} .

em n
18 . 9 42. 53sin (2x + n tan-12) – (17)*sin (4x + n tan
4
.

n -141}
Page 57.

1 1
1. (-1)" 2n - 1n !
-
(2x – 1)nti (2x + 1)n+1) 1 } 1
2. ( -1)" . 2nn ! sin (n + 1) 0 sinnti 0, where tan 0 = 24

3. (-1) -1 (n − 1 ) ! | 1 1
2 lz a* - 160 -an}
(x + a)" (x – a )" ||
( -1 )" n ! 1 1 2
4.
for4a3 [le-djati (ie tamati con isin (n+ 1)0 sinn+ 10 ],
_(. – ) n +1
where x = a coto.
x + ) + 1 an +

3.
( -1)" n ! 1 1 1
[
a2 – 62 L2a (x – a)" + 1 (x +a )n + 1) (x +4)*+71 1 1
20 11.2 - b) +i (x + b)n+i le+Zvw }]
6. ( -1)^ n ! [ sin (n +1) • sinnti1 ° sin (n + 1 ) 0 sinn + 1
a’ – 62
where
in + 2 a+2 to]
x = a cot 0 = b coto.
-

7. 2 ( -1 )n-1 (n − 1) ! sin në sin " 0, where x = cot 0.

8.
(-1)" . 2n +2n !
n + 2 sin ( n + 1) 0 sinnti 0, where x =
bos ( +5)
Ꮎ +
6

sin e
32

9.
( -1)^ 2n +in !
n -t2 {sin (n + 1) 0 sinn + 18 – sin (n + 1) * sinn+1 °} ,
-

3 2
T T

where 2=
COS
(0-5)
sin e
6
cos (
si
+
$+ 5)
nº
TT

n1 {sin
10. ( -1)" n !{sin (n + 1) 0 sinnti8 – secn +2a6 sin (n + 1) ° sinnti
-

T
2 },
COS φ+
where x = cot 0 = sin • +) 6
252 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.
PAGE 60 .

1. e * (x + n). 2. an -2eax {a_x2 + 2nax + n (n − 1) } . -

3. 2 (-1)" -1 (n - 3)!
.cn - 2

n- 17 n
4. rº sin ( x + + 2nx sin ( x +

6. eax
(2+ ")2 (z+"=\") + n (n − 1) sin ( x + 2-.
++nn ( "-21)
( P sin bx + Q cos bx), where P + 1Q = ( a + 1b ) .
2

n !
6.
(x + 1)n +1
1
7. ( -1 )" - (n 2) ! sinº - 10 cos 0 cos no {n tan 8 - tan no } , where
x = cot a.
8. ( -1)n-1 ( n − 3)! sin"-20 { (n − 1)(n − 2) sin nô cos20
- 2n ( n − 2) sin ( n − 1) 8 cos 0 + n (n - 1) sin ( n - 2) 8 } , where x = cot 0 .
-

Page 63.

1. YA = (16.x4 – 12) sin xº -. 48.x2 cos x2.

2. 44 = x sin x – 4 cos x. 3. Y6 = - 8eä сos x.
4. Yn = an-3 pax {a3x3 + 3na x2 + 3n (n − 1) ax + n (n − 1) (n − 2) } .
(-1)" n ! fc - a)(c- ) (d - a)(a - b)
10. Yn =
Le
C - d 1 (2 -c)" + 1 (x – d)n+1
.

+?}
11. Yn = ( -1)n- 19 ! J(n2 (+ 02)(n + 1) + ( n + 1)
- 1)" + 3 (x - 1) + 2
1 1
+
12– +1 " (x --22 )n +1}
(x - 1 )**+ 2

1 1 11
12 . Y3 = n (n − 1) ( n − 2 ).xn - {log x + n + n
+
1 n -2
1 + 1 1 +
Yn = n !
n!
{log#x +í 2
+
3
** }
+

Yn + 1 2

( -1)^ n ! sinnti 0
( 0+
14 . Yn n+3
32
{coscenta (o +5)
T
+ 2n + 2 sin ( n + 10
1
:)} ; where 2x + 1=73 sin (0+ 5)/
6
sin 0.

15 .
yn = } ( - )1)»" n! sinu +19 {sin (n + 1) 00 – cos (nn + 1)0
+ (sin @ + cos ) - - 1}, where 0 = cot-14.
 ANSWERS TO THE EXAMPLES. 253

16. yn =((- 1)4 * n!! f(n(x+ -1)(n

( + 2)+ ) 3(n n ++1))
-
1 )* + 3 ( 20 – 1 )n + 2
+ 1 1
2 18 –1)~+1- (2+1)*t;}
CHAPTER VI.
PAGE 68.
2005
8. x++*+++ 2

9. (a ) tan - 1 P - 92 tan -12 - tan-1x = etc.

9 +px 9
3.2 - 23
(6 ) tan - 1 1-3.x2= 3 tan-? x = etc.
2.x
( c) sin - 1 1 + x2
2 tan-1x = etc.
x - x -- 1
( d ) cos - 1 2 cot-lx = - 2 tan --2x = etc.
x+ x -1

CHAPTER VII.
PAGE 89.
8. 0027 of an inch .

CHAPTER VIII.

PAGE 95.

Tangents.
1. (1) Xx + Yy = c%. (2) Yy = 2u ( x + x ).
X Y 20
(3) + = 2.
X ญ (4) Y- y = sinh (x - 2).
с

(5 ) X ( 2.cy + y ) + Y ( ** + 2.cy ) = 3a3.

(6 ) Y - y = cot x ( x - 2).
(7 ) X (22 - ay ) + Y (ya- ax ) = axy .
(8) X {2.0 (x2 + y ") - aⓇx} + Y {2y (cº + y ) + a'y} = a " (xº - ).
Normals .
X - 30 Y - LY = 0, etc.
(1 ) 2 (2) 2a y
254
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.
3 J3 X a
Tangents are Y = + 8
2.
8 N
3 41
Normals are Y = F X+ a.
9 36

4. (a) JParallel at points of intersection with ax + hy = 0.

(Perpendicular at points of intersection with hx + by = 0.
a 3a 3/2
(Parallel at ( 32 ' ). 2
( )
( Perpendicular where x = 0.

(Parallel at (4a 24.a).

)
8
(

2
3 3

(Perpendicular at (0, 00), (2a, 0).

C
Tangent, cos + y sin 0 = 1 .
5. ( a) a 6
Normal , ax sec 0 - by cosec 0 = a – 12.
е
Tangent, x sin y
2
COS
ad ;
= að sin
)
B
(

B a 0
Normal, x cos + y sin = a0 cos + 2a sin
2 2 2 2 '
A +B A +B A-B
Tangent, x sin 2B
0 - y cos 2B
0 = ( A + B ) sin 2B
0.

A +B A +B A -B
Normal , x cos 0+ y sin 0 = (A – B) cos 2B 8.
2B 2B

6. For an ellipse, 72 = aº cosa 0 + b2 sin- 0.

For a rectangular hyperbola, ra = a² cos 28.
1 1 1 1
7.
a b a'
-

b'
i.e. they must be confocal.
9. The axes are tangents at the origin. Also at the point (2 $a, 2ša)
the tangents to the parabolas make angles tan-123, tan - 12-1
respectively with the tangent to the Folium .
PAGE 96.

2. (a) ax = + by, (B) x = 0 and y = 0, () ax = + y J12 – a ?.

PAGE 101 .
1
1. c / a6 + y6. area =
Tatay.
9. m= - 2 ; =-1 .
 ANSWERS TO THE EXAMPLES. 255

PAGE 110.
1 a
1. At x = 2 + 6. Where x = +
13 12
12.
If normal = y3/12, subtangent = bºyl Vyt – 64, -

subnormal = y Vy4– 64112.

kia

7T
19. 20.
4*

CHAPTER IX.
PAGE 117.

1. y = x ; Y = 2x ; y = 3x. 2. Y = x ; y = + (2x – 1 ).
3. YY + x = 0; y + 1 = #x
3x 3.
4. y = x ; y + x + 1 = 0 ; y + 2x + 2 = 0 ; y + 3x + 3 = 0 .
5. 2x + 3y + 1 = 0 ; 3x + 4y + 1 = 0 ; 4x + 5y + 1 = 0.

PAGE 118.

1. Y + x = 0 ; y - x = 0 ; y - x = 1 .
2. Y + x = 0 ; y - x = 0 ; y - x = 1 ; y - x = 2. 3. Y + x = +1.

PAGE 125.
2a
1. x +y= 3 " 2. x + y = 0. 3. x + y = 0.
4. y = 0. 5. x = 0. 6. x = 2a .
7. x + y + a = 0. 8. x = 0 ; y = 0 ; x + y = 0. 9. Y = 0.
10 . X = £ a. 11 . X = a ; y = a ; X = y. 12. X = £ a.
13 . x = 0. 14. = a . 15. x = +1 ; y = x .
m
16. x=0 ; y = +
+ ( 3+ ") .
x 17. x + 2y = 0 ; x + y = 1 ; x - Y = -1.
18. x = 0 ; x – y = 0 ; x- Y + 1 = 0. 19. y = 0 ; x = y ; x = y + 1.
20. x – 2y = 0 ; x + 2y = 2. 21. x + y = + 2 /2 ; x + 2y + 2 = 0 .
22. y = 3. – 2a ; x + 3y = £ a.

PAGE 126.

x2 y?
1. x3 – 6xạy + 11xy ? – 6y3 = x. 3. + = 1.
256 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.
PAGE 129.

1. 0 = 0. 2. r sin = a.
ko
3.
(6 - L) = a sec ka, where k is any integer.
nr sin ( 0
n

5. r cos 0 = 2a.
4. rsin = a .
TT a
r sino
6
6. O
ka b
7. rsin where k is any integer.
8.
(6- ) =
n n

no = kt, where k is any integer.

PAGE 130 .
a a
.
1

x = y. 2. -Y = 5 3. X4 - y =k5
4. =
2= £ 1, y = x. 5. X = a. 6. x = 1, x = 2, y = 0.
7. x = 2, y = 1 , y = x + 1. 8. y = 0, y = 2x.
9. x + y = + Va - 62/2 . 10. X = ta .

11. y - 2 + a = 0, y + x - a = 0. 12. x = y + 2.

13. x = +2, y - x = 0. 14. x +2y= + V/io

6 b
2 Ta' y +x da=z 2
16. x= 0, y- < JaazVa (

Ja
16. 3x + 4y = 0, y - 2x = 0, y - 2x + 3 = 0 . -

17. 3x + 4y = 0, y - 2x + 1 = 0, y – 2.c + 2 = 0.
18. Y = £ x, y -- 2x + 1 = 0, y - 2x + 2 = 0 . -

b TT
rsin 2k + 1 cosec (2k +1) 2 where k is any integer.
19.
{2x+1) =0} = 2a
.

a
20. r sin 0 = 2a, r = a. 21. r sin (1 + 0) + " = 0, r = a .
) +" = 0, r= a.
=

a
22. rcos O = a . 23 . = cos 0 - sin 0 .
2r

CHAPTER X.

PAGE 141.
1. p = a ; p = a cos y ; p = 3a seca y sin y ; p = a sec y.
2
2. p = (1 + 9q4)</6a; pevºlc; p = a seo 3. p = a.
 ANSWERS TO THE EXAMPLES. 257

PAGE 150.

1. p = 2rå/at; p = a /2 ; pram /(m + 1) pon- ),

2. p = a ( 02 + 1)8/04; p = a (62+ 1) /( + 2); p = a /2.
PAGE 158.

1. (a) p = 5. / 5 /6. ( b) p = 5 / 5/ 22.

( c) p = 2/2 and p = 5 / 5/18.
(d) p = 15a 15/14 and p = : 3a 12
11 . x = 7 and x = 1 .

CHAPTER XI .

PAGE 165.

2. 256y3 + 27x4 = 0 . 3. ( 4/x * + b */yº = c*/a².

1 22 u? 5. (i) 4.x3 + 27aya = 0 ;
4. y toguz
2gº (ii) y2 = 4h (a + h – x) .
6. y2 +40 (x – 2a) = 0. 7. Two straight lines.
8. A parabola touching the axes.
PAGE 168.

1. 27ay2 = 4 ( 3x – 2a)3. 2. (ax)} + (by) i= (a” – 12).

3. (a) x2 + 4ay = 0, ( B) 4.x3 + 27aya = 0, (v) ( - 1) P-1XP +pPayp-1 = 0.
2 2

4. (n) x=-1 + 42-13 n = a =n; (a),(8), (»), etc. being special cases,their
answers may be at once tested by this result.
12 22
n
5. (y) 7 - La
n = amen COS m - 1
0 ; and the results of ( a) and (b) may be
verified by this result.
6. ( a) ra = aʼcos 0 + b2 sinº 0 ; (B ) r cos 0 + a sin- 0 = 0 ;
(v) x + a = 0 ; (8) p$ = (2a) : cos 3 ;
(e) The auxiliary circle ; ( 5) ra = a ' cos 20 ;
11 n n

(n) på= aicos3 0; (0) ponti = anti cos n + 1

Ꮎ.

7. Similar loci to the results of 6 but of twice the linear dimensions.

E. D. C. 17
258 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

8. ( a) a parabola ; ( B ) a point ;
(y) a conic with focus at the pole and of which the given circle
is the auxiliary circle ;
( 8 ) a circle through the pole ; (e) a circle;
(5 a rectangular hyperbola ; (n) an equiangular spiral;
n n
n

(0) pol - = al-n cos 1 - 1-0 .

9. (a) Vã + Vý = Vc; (B) x3 + yš = c ;
m -
(m + n )mtn
(7) mm . n " x" y =cmtn .
.

212 2n an

10. (a) x + y = £ c ; (B) xn + 2 + yn + 2 = cn + 2;

(m + n )"mtn . x2my2n = c2m + 21
(v) man"
.

n n 22

11. (a) x ++ ys = c}; C ( B) x2n + 1 + y2n + 1 = c2n +1;

( m + n )2(m +n) xMyr =cmtn.
(0 ) mam nan
mp mp mp
12 . xm + P + YM + P = cm + P. = 15. A circle,

CHAPTER XII.
PAGE 182 .

1. A parabola with focus at the origin .

2. A conic with focus at the origin . 3. A circle.
n
n
k2 \ } 1 k2 n + i n
2a
sec -0 .

k2 mtn
3 .
mmnn
5.
(( ) ਕ
ponti
n
a

n
sec

(k2 \ n - 1
n+ 1
0.

6. zmyn = (*) a ( m + n )m + n 7. 20*1+ym=i= ( a

m m 2m
8. (ax )m - 1 + (by )m - 1 = km - 1.

CHAPTER XIII.

PAGE 196.
14. Area = 2ab . 15. aș/27 . 16. abc/3 / 3.
17. 4a3 /27 . 18. pPq9apta /( p + q ) p + q. 20. 3 13/8.
 ANSWERS TO THE EXAMPLES. 259

21 . If a > b Max. = a, Min . = b/

If a < b Max. = b. Min. = a} .
24. If a and b are the sides the maximum area = 52 (a + b)2 .

25 . SA Max. when chords coincide with Transverse Axis and Lat. Rect.
A Min. when chords are equally inclined to Transverse Axis.

PAGE 204.
5 . Max. value = 34, Min. = 33.
8. x = --2, -1 , 1, 2 give Max. and Min. alternately,
9. At x = 1, y = Max. ; x = 3, y = Min .
At x = 2 and x = 4 there are points of contrary flexure .
4
10. At x = 2, y = Min. Atæ = ž , y = Max.

PAGE 205.
1 1
1. ( a ) Max. for x = 2 - ; Min, for x =E2 +
73 73
( b) x = 1 , 2, 3 give respectively a Minimum, a Max. , and a Min .
>

2b + a
(c) If a > b x = a gives a Min.; x = 3
gives a Max .
2b + a
If a < b x = a gives a Max.; x = 3
gives a Min .

( d ) If a > 0, the positive value of y is a Max. when x = (a +46 )/5.

The negative value is a minimum . Also when x = a, y = 0
and there is a maximum ordinate for the portion of the curve
beneath the x -axis, and a minimum ordinate for the portion
above the axis .
If a < b the point (a, 0) is an isolated point upon the curve.
2. (a) The greatest and least values are respectively + Va? + 62.
(6) If a > b Max . = a, If asb Max . = b,
Min . = b . Min . = a.
a + b 1
( c) 72 --
2 #ava
2 – b)2 + 4h2.
ca a
(d) Max. =
a+b
when tan 0 = $
vo
(e) Min . = a +6.
260 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.

13 ī - tan - 1 13
V , T + tan -1
√3 3
(f ) A = tan- 1 2 2
-

2 2
7
2 >

27 – tan - 1
13
2
...
give maxima and minima alternately.

3. (a) x = 1 gives a minimum , x = ( + / 17 - 1)/8 gives a maximum and

x = ( - 17 - 1)/8 a minimum .
(6) x = 0 gives a minimum, x = + /3 give maxima.
TT 5п
(c ) x = nt +
6
give maxima, x = NT + 6
give minima.

(d ) x = e gives a maximum .
ka
(e ) The solutions of x = ; where k is any integer, give maxima
n+ 1 '
and minima alternately, beginning with k = 1 ; omitting when
n is even those solutions for which k is zero or a multiple of
n + 1.

?.
4. (a) The roots of
a( -:-) - )=*
2 72

(6) Min. value = 2c ab.

a
(c) Max, and Min . values respectively = + 2 sin
2
(d) Max, and Min. values respectively = 1 & cos a .
ap aq
5. 119 -VP. p + q' p + q
6.

7. A Max, when the segment is aa semicircle.

A Min . when the radius is infinite.
14. If height of cone be h and semivertical angle -ra, Max. Volume
4
of Cylinder Th3 tan'a
.
27
20 .
Half the triangle formed by the chord and the tangents at its
extremities, or three- fourths of the area of the segment.

CHAPTER XIV.

PAGE 212.
a 3 1
1. logoa. 2.
‫ا‬‫مان‬

1.
‫ر‬

.
!
c 3. 4. 5.
‫ن‬

2 2
arim

to

6. 7. 4. 8. 9. 10 .
or 4.
 ANSWERS TO THE EXAMPLES. 261

PAGE 217.

Nico
1 3
1. a. 2.
T
3.
0 ; 3}' 4. 1. 5. 2•

PAGE 219.
1
1. 2. 2.
50
3. 2. 5.
an a

4m 1
6. 4. 7. m -
8. 9. e. 10. 1.
3
Ve
11 . If n > m , 00 ; = m , in < m , 0 . 12. 1. 13 . 1.

1
14. Ja 15 . 16 . a = -2 ; Limit = -1 .
6
17. , = -4 ; a, = ; Limit = 1. 18. a; = - 4 ; ag = 3 ; Limit = 8 .
1 1 1 4
21 .
19 . au ; a, = ā ; Az = 0 ; Limit
=
3 15 •
22. et. 23. ext. 24. (a) ed ; (b) er's; (c) est.
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES.

1 + a2
5. (1) e$ ; ( 2) a; (3) 7.
cos? a
1 211
9. (i) ; (ii) -1 ; (iii) 1 ; ( iv) 10.
J2a п

13 .
108 (x - 1 )2 . 27
3 (x - 1) 18 .
(* + 2 )5 8

( -1 )^ n ! 1 1
23.
2 ( x + 2)n + 1
пп
(x + 4 )n + ij
NT
}
25.
Pein( +" :))-2005(
( x
Qcos x +" ).
2
X

-2
2
9

where P = xm – " Com ( m – 1) wm – 2 + * C m (m – 1)(m – 2)(m – 3) x ^ -4 - ... - -

and Q = " Cymxm -1 – " Czm (m – 1) (m – 2) xm-3 + ...

42 . At the origin and at the points of intersection with y = x
a
3
6
and y = x
2a

43. Half a right angle . 46 .

15
262 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.
57. ( i) x + y = 0 ; (ii) xr = 0, x = 2a.
58. X = 2y – 14a , x = 3y + 131, x - y = a, x- y = 2u .
1
59. 0, 1, 2 60. When y = + x Vī.
61. Maximum area = 4r2 sin a cosia , where r is the radius of the circle
and 2a the given angle.
63. The Centroid is at the centre . 65 . a.

KTT 7T
66. If m be even x = and x = (21 +1) 2 where k and 1 are in
>
m +1
tegers. If the several angles be arranged in order of magnitude
we have Max. and Min . alternately, beginning with x = 0.
If m be odd the solutions which give Max, and Min . are those of
KTT
=
m+1 '
and we have Max. and Min. alternately, beginning
with x = 0.
67 . x = 0 gives a maximum. Then the series of angles (arranged in
# 17-1
order of magnitude) defined by sin x = 0 and by cos x === 6
=

give alternate maxima and minima.

TT
68. Alternate Max . and Min. are given by x = ka + k = 0 gives
a max .

69 . If the breadth be 2a the minimum length of crease is

За /зN
and
8a2
minimum area =
313
a > b Max. if x = a + 26
72 .
fazo
a < b Max. if x = a ,
3

a = b gives a point of inflexion .

75. yº (x + 16a)2+4 { 6y2 – (24 – x)2} { y2 - 3a (2a – x) } = 0.

CANBRIDGE : PRINTED BY C. J. CLAY, M.A. & SONS, AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS.

1

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