History of Ethiopia and the Horn Module (Hist.

1102)

Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION TO THE MODULE
UNIT ONE
INTRODUCTION (3 HOURS)
1.1. THE NATURE AND USES OF HISTORY
1.2. SOURCES AND METHODS OF HISTORICAL STUDY
1.3. HISTORIOGRAPHY OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN
1.4. THE GEOGRAPHICAL CONTEXT
UNIT TWO 24
PEOPLES AND CULTURES IN ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN (4 HOURS)
2.1. HUMAN EVOLUTION
2.2. NEOLITHIC REVOLUTION
2.3. THE PEOPLING OF THE REGION
2.4. RELIGION AND RELIGIOUS PROCESSES
UNIT THREE
POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIETY IN ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN TO THE END OF THE THIRTEENTH
CENTURY (6 HOURS)
3.1. EMERGENCE OF STATES
3.2. ANCIENT STATES
3.3. EXTERNAL CONTACTS
3.4. ECONOMIC FORMATIONS
3.5. SOCIO-CULTURAL ACHIEVEMENTS
UNIT FOUR 59
POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIETY FROM THE LATE THIRTEENTH TO THE BEGINNING OF THE
SIXTEENTH CENTURIES (6 HOURS)
4.1. THE “RESTORATION” OF THE “SOLOMONIC’’ DYNASTY
4.2. POWER STRUGGLE, CONSOLIDATION, TERRITORIAL EXPANSION AND RELIGIOUS PROCESSES
4.3. POLITICAL AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC DYNAMICS IN MUSLIM SULTANATES
4.4. RIVALRY BETWEEN THE CHRISTIAN KINGDOM AND THE MUSLIM SULTANATES
4.5. EXTERNAL RELATIONS
UNIT FIVE
POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIAL PROCESSES FROM THE EARLY SIXTEENTH TO THE END OF THE
EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES (10 HRS)
5.1. CONFLICT BETWEEN THE CHRISTIAN KINGDOM AND THE SULTANATE OF ADAL AND AFTER
5.2. FOREIGN INTERVENTION AND RELIGIOUS CONTROVERSIES
5.3. POPULATION MOVEMENTS
5.4. INTERACTION AND INTEGRATION ACROSS ETHNIC AND RELIGIOUS DIVERSITIES
5.5. PEOPLES AND STATES IN EASTERN, CENTRAL, SOUTHERN AND WESTERN REGIONS
5.6. THE GONDARINE PERIOD AND ZEMENE-MESAFINT
UNIT SIX
INTERNAL DEVELOPMENTS AND EXTERNAL RELATIONS OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN, 1800-1941 (10
HOURS)
6.1. THE NATURE OF INTERACTIONS AMONG PEOPLES AND STATES OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN
6.2. THE MAKING OF MODERN ETHIOPIAN STATE
6.3. MODERNIZATION ATTEMPTS
6.4. SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENTS
6.5. EXTERNAL RELATIONS
UNIT SEVEN
INTERNAL DEVELOPMENTS AND EXTERNAL RELATIONS, 1941–1995 (5 HOURS)
7.1. POST-1941 IMPERIAL PERIOD
7.2. THE DERG REGIME (1974-1991)
7.3. TRANSITIONAL GOVERNMENT

Introduction to the Module

This teaching material is prepared for a common course given to Students of Higher Learning
Institutions.
The purpose is:
to help students understand the history of Ethiopia and the Horn from ancient times to 1995 as
a base for shaping and bettering the future.
The module generally focuses on:
major topics in the history of Ethiopia and the Horn including social, cultural, economic, and
political developments and their interrelationships thereof.
The contents of the module:
consider the chronology and thematic relations of events in time and space. To make this course
inclusive and representative, the module also includes regional histories across the period.
The module is divided into seven units each of which has its own specific objectives.

1. The first unit defines history, describes why history is important, how history is studied and
introduces the region of Ethiopia and the Horn.
2. The second unit describes peoples and cultures in the region. The major topics treated in the
unit are human evolution, Neolithic Revolution and settlement patterns, as well as religion and
religious processes.
3. The third unit Based on these historical backgrounds the third unit discusses states, external
contacts, economic formations and cultural achievements in terms of architecture, writing,
calendar, and others to the end of the thirteenth century.
4. The Fourth Unit treats political developments, evangelization and religious movements, trade
and external relations of the region from the late thirteenth to the beginning of the sixteenth
centuries. It explains how the Christian Kingdom and the Muslim sultanates evolved in the
region and how their interactions shaped the history of the region in the pre-sixteenth century
5. Unit Five discusses a history of the region from the early sixteenth to the end of the eighteenth
centuries. It deals with interaction between states, foreign interventions, religious
controversies, population movements, and how these contributed to the integration of peoples
across ethnic and religious diversities to the end of the eighteenth century. Besides, the unit
describes peoples and states in different parts of Ethiopia and the Horn. The unit ends up its
discussion depicting major conditions and achievements of the Gondarine period, and the
Zemene -Mesafint (Era of Princes) in which the Yejju lords played a dominant role.
6. Unit Six The social, cultural, economic, and political experiences of Ethiopia and the Horn in the
nineteenth and the early twentieth centuries that played significant role in shaping the modern
history of the region are given space in unit six. Historical processes including state formation
and power rivalry, trade, external relations, foreign threats and major battles, centralization and
 modernization attempts, Italian occupation, and socio-economic conditions from 1800 to 1941
holds central position in the modern history of the region. It also underlines how personalities
helped change the setting, how societies interacted, and its implication for history of Ethiopia
and the Horn
7. The last unit (Seven) discusses the historical developments in the region from the period of
liberation from the Italian occupation (1941) to the period of the ratification of the FDRE
Constitution (1995). Important issues discussed in this regard include consolidation of Imperial
Power and socio-economic conditions, oppositions made by various social groups, national
questions, reforms, and political developments.

Despite serious attempts made, the module is far from being comprehensive in terms of coverage of
themes and issues across time and spaces in the region. Certainly, however, the topics and approaches
considered in the module merit the attention of learners and instructors of higher institutions
Module Objectives
General objective:
To introduce students to the diverse histories of Ethiopia and the Horn and the extent to which
interaction between peoples throughout the region and with the outside world have shaped the
history of the region.
Specific objectives:
distinguish the nature and uses of history;
identify pertinent sources for the history of the peoples of Ethiopia and the Horn;
describe changes and continuities that unfolded in Ethiopia and the Horn;
elucidate the causes, courses and consequences of events that happened in the region;
explain the nature of the region’s external contacts and their effects;
appreciate peoples’ achievements, heritages and cultural diversities of the region.
Competences
This module enables students to:
comprehend the nature of history;
analyze relevant sources for History of Ethiopia and the Horn;
describe Ethiopia and the Horn in relation to Human Evolution and Neolithic Revolution;
trace the origin, developments and achievements of states;
analyze the role of the legend of Queen of Sheba in shaping historical developments in Ethiopia from
1270 to 1974;
assess dynamics of the relations between the Christian kingdom and Muslim Sultanates;
appreciate the interplay between local and global developments in shaping the history of the region;
explicate the role of population movements in shaping the history of Ethiopia and the Horn;
assess the evolution of states and societies in Eastern, Central, Southern and Western parts of Ethiopia
and the Horn;
identify the major socio-economic, religious and political achievements of the Gondarine period;
discuss the salient features and effects of the Zemene-Mesafint;
expound the political process for formation of Modern Ethiopia and the Horn;
discern the efforts and challenges of modernization in the region;
point out the legacies of major battles, victories and the role of patriots in the resistance struggle against
colonialism;
discuss the major socio-economic and political developments from 1941-74;
reveals the political momentum, reforms and oppositions during the Derg period;
clarify the political developments undertaken from 1991 to 1995.
 UNIT ONE
INTRODUCTION (3 hours)
This unit introduces you with:
1. The nature of history and historiography, the diverse histories of Ethiopia and the Horn and
The purpose of historical study is not simply to produce a mere list of chronological events about the deeds
of the dead but to find patterns and establish meaning through the rigorous study and interpretation of
surviving records.
Historiography, on the other hand, refers to the history of history; it explores changes in historical
interpretations through time.
Accordingly, the unit considers: popular and academic conceptions of history, the why and how of studying
history and trends in historical writing in Ethiopia and the Horn focusing on Ethiopia.
History is a systematic study and organized knowledge of the past.
2. The extent to which interactions between societies throughout the region have shaped human history.
the unit discusses the role of geography in the region’s human history.
In this regard, it shows that despite the region’s diverse environments, peoples of Ethiopia and the Horn
were never isolated but they interacted throughout history.
As a result, the social, economic, cultural and political history of Ethiopia and the Horn is highly
intertwined.
Unit Objectives
At the end of this unit, students will be able to:
differentiate between past and history.
distinguish between popular and professional conceptions of history.
identify categories of historical sources.
explain what methods historians use to study the past.
discern basic patterns of continuity and change.
explain the uses of history.
avoid judging the past solely in terms of present-day norms and values.
explain how the writing of history has evolved over time.
discuss the role of geography in human history.
Unit Starters
What do we mean by history?
What is the relevance of knowing about the past?
Have you ever read a historical work? Do you remember the title and author of the work?
Can you name some writers of the history of Ethiopia and the Horn?
1.1. The Nature and Uses of History

A. Nature of History

The term history derived from the Greek word Istoria, meaning “inquiry” or “an account of one’s
inquiries.” The first use of the term is attributed to one of the ancient Greek historians, Herodotus
(c. 484–425 B.C.E.), who is often held to be the “father of history.” In ordinary usage, history means
all the things that have happened in the human past. The past signifies events, which have taken
place and the facts of the past, which are kept in writing. More specifically, the distinction is
between what actually happened in the past or that part which exists independently of the
historian and still awaits to be recorded and the accounts of the past provided by historians, that is,
‘history’.
Historians apply their expertise to surviving records and write history in the form of accounts of the
past.

Academically, history can be defined as an organized and systematic study of the past. The study
involves the discovery, collection, organization, and presentation of information about past events.

Evidently, what actually happened in the past is almost infinite. Historians select which topics and
problems they wish to study, as do natural scientists. In this regard, the major concern of history is
the study of human society and its interaction with the natural environment, which is also the
subject of study by many other disciplines. What differentiates history from other disciplines is that
while the latter study the interaction between humans and their environment in the present state,
history studies the interaction between the two in the past within the framework of the continuous
process of change taking place in time. Because of the longevity of that time, historians organize
and divide the human past into discrete periods after identifying significant developments in
politics, society, economy, culture, environment etc. through the rigorous study of documents and
artifacts left by people of other times and other places. Then they give a label to each period to
convey the key characteristics and developments of that era. Accordingly, history is conventionally
divided into ancient, medieval and modern history. This is what we call periodization in history; one
of the key characteristics of the discipline.

When historians talk about continuities or persisting patterns, they are not implying that a
particular pattern applied to everyone in the world or even in a particular country or region. Nor are
they claiming that absolutely nothing changed in the pattern they are describing. All aspects of
human life that is, social, cultural, economic, and political in the past have been changing from time
to time; and none of them were practiced in exactly the same way in the lifetime of our ancestors.
Nevertheless, some things stay more or less the same for long periods, since few things ever change
completely. For example, we continue to speak the languages of our ancestors; follow their beliefs
and religious practices; wear the costumes they were wearing; continue to practice their
agricultural or pastoral ways of life; maintain the fundamental components or structures of their
social organization. In the same vein, the basic fabric of society in Ethiopia and the Horn remains
similar and continues to have special characteristics.

B. Uses of History

Peoples live in the present and plan for and worry about the future. History, however, is the study
of the past. Why bother with the past while living in the present and anticipating what is yet to
come? This section discusses the uses of history in the context of the relationship between the past
and the present.

History Helps Better Understand the Present

History is the only significant storehouse of information available for the examination and analysis
of how people behaved and acted in the past. People need to produce some sort of account of their
past because it is difficult to understand problems that face humanity and society today without
tracing their origins in the past. Put differently, knowledge of relevant historical background is
essential for a balanced and in-depth understanding of many current world situations.

History Provides a Sense of Identity

Knowledge of history is indispensable to understand who we are and where we fit in the world. As
memory is to the individual, history is to the society. An individual without memory finds great
difficulty in relating to others and making intelligent decisions. A society without history would be in
similar condition. It is only through sense of history that communities define their identity, orient
themselves, and understand their relationships with the past and with other societies.

History Provides the Basic Background for Other Disciplines

Historical knowledge is extremely valuable in the pursuit of other disciplines such as literature, art,
philosophy, religion, sociology, political science, anthropology, economics, etc.
History Teaches Critical Skills
Studying history helps students to develop key research skills. These include how to find and
evaluate sources; how to make coherent arguments based on various kinds of evidence and present
clearly in writing. These analytical and communication skills are highly usable in other academic
pursuits. Gaining skills in sorting through diverse interpretations is also essential to make informed
decisions in our day-to-day life.
History Helps Develop Tolerance and Open-Mindedness
Most of us have a tendency to regard our own cultural practices, styles, and values as right and
proper. Studying different societies in the past is like going to a foreign country, which contributes to
free ourselves from some of our inherent cultural provincialism. By studying the past, students of
history acquire broad perspectives that give them the range and flexibility required in many life
situations.
History Supplies Endless Source of Fascination
Exploring the ways people in distant ages constructed their lives offers a sense of beauty and
excitement, and ultimately another perspective on human life and society.
To conclude, history should be studied because it is essential to the individual and the society. Only
through studying history can we grasp how and why things change; and only through history are we
able understand what elements of a society persist despite change. Aesthetic and humanistic goals
also inspire people to study the past, far removed from present-day utility. Nevertheless, just as
history can be useful, it can also be abused. Such abuses come mainly from deliberate manipulation
of the past to fit current political agenda. In such cases, history is written backwards. That is, the
past is described and interpreted to justify the present. While personal biases are not always
avoidable, a historian is different from a propagandist in that the former takes care to document his
judgment and assertions so that they can be subjected to independent and external verification.
That said, how do historians study and interpret the past and the changes that took place in periods
during which they have not lived?

1.2. Sources and Methods of Historical Study

Historians are not creative writers like novelists. Therefore, the work of historians must be supported
by evidence arising from sources. Sources are instruments that bring to life what appear to have been
dead. It is said that “where there are no sources, there is no history”. Sources are, therefore, key to
the study and writing of history.
Historical sources are broadly classified into two types: Primary and Secondary. Primary sources are
surviving traces of the past available to us in the present. They are original or first hand in their
proximity to the event both in time and in space. Examples of primary sources are manuscripts
(handwritten materials), diaries, letters, minutes, court records and administrative files, travel
documents, photographs, maps, video and audiovisual materials, and artifacts such as coins, fossils,
weapons, utensils, and buildings. Secondary sources, on the other hand, are second-hand published
accounts about past events. They are written long after the event has occurred, providing an
interpretation of what happened, why it happened, and how it happened, often based on primary
sources. Examples of secondary sources are articles, books, textbooks, biographies, and published
stories or movies about historical events. Secondary materials give us what appear to be finished
accounts of certain historical periods and phenomena. Nevertheless, no history work can be taken
as final, as new sources keep coming to light. New sources make possible new historical
interpretations or entirely new historical reconstructions.

Oral data constitute the other category of historical sources. Oral sources are especially valuable to
study and document the history of non-literate societies. They can also be used to fill missing gaps
and corroborate written words. In many societies, people transmit information from one generation to
another, for example, through folk songs and folk sayings. This type of oral data is called oral
tradition. People can also provide oral testimonies or personal recollections of lived experience. Such
source material is known as oral history.
For the history of Ethiopia and the Horn, historians use a combination of the sources described
above. However, whatever the source of information-primary or secondary, written or oral- the
data should be subjected to critical evaluation before it is used as evidence. Primary sources have to
be verified for their originality and authenticity because sometimes primary sources like letters may
be forged. Secondary sources have to be examined for the reliability of their reconstructions. Oral
data may lose its originality and authenticity due to distortion through time. Therefore, it should be
crosschecked with other sources such as written documents to determine its veracity or
authenticity. In short, historians (unlike novelists) must find evidence about the past, ask questions
of that evidence, and come up with explanations that make sense of what the evidence says about
the people, events, places and time periods they study about. Historical Research Methods

1.3. Historiography of Ethiopia and the Horn

Historiography can be defined as the history of historical writing, studying how knowledge of the
past, either recent or distant, is obtained and transmitted. People have had some sense of the past
perhaps since the beginning of humanity. Yet historiography as an intentional attempt to understand
and represent descriptions of past events in writing has rather a briefer career throughout the world.
The organized study and narration of the past was introduced by ancient Greek historians notably
Herodotus (c. 484–425 B.C.E.) and Thucydides (c.455-400 B.C.E.) The other major tradition of
thinking and writing about the past is the Chinese. The most important early figure in Chinese
historical thought and writing was the Han dynasty figure Sima Qian (145–86 B.C.E.). Despite such
early historiographical traditions, history emerged as an academic discipline in the second half of the
nineteenth century first in Europe and subsequently in other parts of the world including the US. The
German historian, Leopold Von Ranke (1795–1886), and his colleagues established history as an
independent discipline in Berlin with its own set of methods and concepts by which historians collect
evidence of past events, evaluate that evidence, and present a meaningful discussion of the subject.
Ranke’s greatest contribution to the scientific study of the past is such that he is considered as the
“father of modern historiography.”
Historiography of Ethiopia and the Horn has changed enormously during the past hundred years in
ways that merit fuller treatment than can be afforded here. This section is devoted to exploring
significant transformations in historical writing. In order to appreciate twentieth-century
historiography of the region, it is first necessary to examine earlier forms of historiography (historical
writing). The earliest known reference that we have on history of Ethiopia and the Horn is the
Periplus of the Erythrean Sea, written in the first century A.D by an anonymous author. Another
document describing Aksum’s trade and the then Aksumite king’s campaigns on both sides of the sea
is the Christian Topography composed by Cosmas Indicopleustes, a Greek sailor, in the sixth century
A.D.
Inscriptions aside, the earliest written Ethiopian material dates from the seventh century A.D. The
document was found in Abba Gerima monastery in Yeha. This was followed by a manuscript
discovered in Haiq Istifanos monastery of present day Wollo in the thirteenth century A.D. The
value of manuscripts is essentially religious. Yet, for historians, they have the benefit of providing
insights into the country’s past. For example, the manuscript cited above contains the list of
medieval kings and their history in brief. The largest groups of sources available for medieval
Ethiopian history are hagiographies originating from Ethiopian Orthodox Church. Invariably written
in Ge’ez, an important function of hagiographies is enhancing the prestige of saints. Yet other
related anecdotes are also introduced, and often discussed in detail such as the development of the
church and the state including territorial conquests by reigning monarchs. A parallel hagiographical
tradition existed among Muslim communities of the country. One such account offers tremendous
insight into the life of a Muslim saint, Shaykh Ja’far Bukko of Gattira, in present day Wollo, in the
late nineteenth century. Besides the saint’s life, the development of indigenous Islam and contacts
between the region’s Muslim community and the outside world are some of the issues discussed in
this document.

Ethiopia had also an indigenous tradition of history writing called chronicles. Chronicles in the
ancient Ethiopian Ge’ez tongue first appeared in the fourteenth century and continue (sometimes in
Amharic) into the early twentieth century. Kings or their successors entrusted the writing of
chronicles to court scribes or clergymen of recognized clerical training and calligraphic skills. The
earliest and the last of such surviving documents are the Glorious Victories of Amde-Tsion and the
Chronicle of Abeto Iyasu and Empress Zewditu respectively. Chronicles incorporate both legends and
facts-past and contemporary about the monarch’s genealogy, upbringing, military exploits, piety and
statesmanship. Chronicles are known for their factual detail and strong chronological framework,
even if it would require considerable labor to convert their relative chronology to an absolute one.
They are also averse to quantification. Furthermore, chronicles explain historical events mainly in
religious terms; they offer little by way of social and economic developments even in the environs of
the palace. However, in conjunction with other varieties of written documents, such as hagiographies
and travel accounts by foreign observers, chronicles can provide us with a glimpse into the character
and lives of kings, their preoccupations and relations with subordinate officials and, though
inadequately, the evolution of the Ethiopian state and society.
Written accounts of Arabic-speaking visitors to the coast also provide useful information on various
aspects of the region’s history. For example, al-Masudi and Ibn Battuta described the culture,
language and import-export trade in the main central region of the east African coast in the tenth
and in the fourteenth centuries respectively. For the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries we have
two documents composed by Yemeni writers who were eyewitnesses to the events they described.
The first document titled Futuh al Habesha was composed by Shihab ad-Din, who recorded the
conflict between the Christian kingdom and the Muslim principalities in the sixteenth century.
Besides the operation of the war including the conquest of northern and central Ethiopia by Imam
Ahmed ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi, the document describes major towns and their inhabitants in the
southeastern part of Ethiopia, although the discussion abruptly ends in 1535. The other first-hand
account was left to us by Al-Haymi, who led a Yemeni delegation in 1647 to the court of Fasiledes (r.
1632-67).

Other materials that appeared in the sixteenth century include Abba Bahrey’s Geez script on the
Oromo written in 1593. Notwithstanding its limitations, the document provides us with first-hand
information about the Oromo population movement including the Gadaa System.

The contribution of European missionaries and travelers to the development of Ethiopian

historiography is also significant. From the early sixteenth until the late nineteenth centuries,
missionaries (Catholics and Protestants) came to the country with the intention of staying, and who,
nevertheless, maintained intimate links with Europe. Thus, the missionaries’ sources provide us with
valuable information covering a considerable period. Some of the major topics covered by these
sources include religious and political developments within Ethiopia, and the country’s foreign
relations. An example of such account is The Prester John of the Indies, composed by a Portuguese
priest, Francisco Alvarez who accompanied the Portuguese mission to the court of Lebne-Dengel in
1520. In addition to the missionary sources, travel documents had important contribution to the
development of Ethiopian historiography. One example of travel documents is James Bruce’s Travels
to Discover the Source of the Nile. Like other sources, however, both the missionaries and travelers’
materials can only be used with considerable reservations and with care for they are socially and
politically biased.
Foreign writers also developed interest in Ethiopian studies. One of these figures was a German,
Hiob Ludolf (1624-1704). Ludolf was the founder of Ethiopian studies in Europe in the seventeenth
century. He wrote Historia Aethiopica (translated into English as A New History of Ethiopia). Ludolf
never visited Ethiopia; he wrote the country’s history largely based on information he collected from
an Ethiopian priest named Abba Gorgorios (Abba Gregory) who was in Europe at that time. In the
nineteenth century, August Dillman published two studies on ancient Ethiopian history. Compared to
Ludolf, Dillman demonstrated all markers of objectivity in his historical research endeavors.
Historical writing made some departures from the chronicle tradition in the early twentieth century.
This period saw the emergence of traditional Ethiopian writers who made conscious efforts to
distance themselves from chroniclers whom they criticized for adulatory tone when writing about
monarchs. The earliest group of these writers include Aleqa Taye Gebre- Mariam, Aleqa Asme
Giorgis and Debtera Fisseha-Giorgis Abyezgi. Later, Negadrases Afework Gebre-Iyesus and Gebre-
Hiwot Baykedagn joined them. Unlike chroniclers, these writers dealt with a range of topics from
social justice, administrative reform and economic analysis to history. Taye and Fisseha-Giorgis
wrote books on the history of Ethiopia while Asme produced a similar work on the Oromo people.
Notwithstanding his other works, Afework wrote the first Amharic novel, Tobiya, in Ethiopian
history while Gebre-Hiwot has Atse Menilekna Ityopia (Emperor Menilek and Ethiopia) and
Mengistna Yehizb Astedader (Government and Public Administration) to his name. The most prolific
writer of the early twentieth century Ethiopia was, however, Blatten Geta Hiruy Wolde-Selassie.
Hiruy published four major works namely Ethiopiana Metema (Ethiopia and Metema), Wazema
(Eve), Yehiwot Tarik (A Biographical Dictionary) and Yeityopia Tarik (A History of Ethiopia). In
contrast to their predecessors, Gebre-Hiwot and Hiruy exhibited relative objectivity and
methodological sophistication in their works. Unfortunately, the Italian occupation of Ethiopia
interrupted the early experiment in modern history writing and publications.
After liberation, Tekle-Tsadik Mekuria formed a bridge between writers in pre-1935 and Ethiopia
professional historians who came after him. Tekle-Tsadik has published about eight historical works.
Tekle-Tsadik made better evaluation of his sources than his predecessors. Another work of
importance in this period is Yilma Deressa’s Ye Ityopiya Tarik Be’asra Sidistegnaw Kifle Zemen(A
History of Ethiopia in the Sixteenth Century). The book addresses the Oromo population movement
and the wars between the Christian kingdom and the Muslim sultanates as its main subjects. Blatten
Geta Mahteme-Selassie Wolde-Meskel also contributed his share. Among others, he wrote Zikre
Neger. Zikre Neger is a comprehensive account of Ethiopia’s prewar land tenure systems and
taxation. Another work dealing specifically with aspects of land tenure is left to us by Gebre-Wold
Engidawork. Another writer of the same category was Dejazmach Kebede Tesema. Kebede wrote his
memoir of the imperial period, published as Yetarik Mastawesha in 1962 E.C.
The 1960s was a crucial decade in the development of Ethiopian historiography for it was in this
period that history emerged as an academic discipline. The pursuit of historical studies as a full-time
occupation began with the opening of the Department of History in 1963 at the then Haile Selassie I
University (HSIU). The production of BA theses began towards the end of the decade. The
Department launched its MA and PhD programs in 1979 and 1990 respectively. Since then
researches by faculty (both Ethiopians and expatriates) and students have been produced on
various topics. Although mainly a research organization, the Institute of Ethiopian Studies (IES) is
the other institutional home of professional historiography of Ethiopia. The IES was founded in
1963. Since then the Institute housed a number of historians of whom the late Richard Pankhurst,
the first Director and founding member of the Institute is worthy of note here. Pankhurst’s prolific
publication record remains unmatched. He has authored or co-authored twenty-two books and
produced several hundred articles on Ethiopia. Since its foundation, the IES has been publishing the
Journal of Ethiopian Studies for the dissemination of historical research. The Institute’s library
contains literary works of diverse disciplines and has its fair share in the evolution of professional
historiography of Ethiopia.

The professionalization of history in other parts of the Horn is a post-colonial phenomenon. With
the establishment of independent nations, a deeper interest in exploring their own past quickly
emerged among African populations, perhaps stimulated by reactions to decades of education in an
alien imperial historiography. With this came an urgent need to recast the historical record and to
recover evidence of many lost pre-colonial civilizations. The decolonization of African historiography
required new methodological approach (tools of investigation) to the study of the past that
involved a critical use of oral data and tapping the percepts of ancillary disciplines like archeology,
anthropology and linguistics. At the same time, European intellectuals’ own discomfort with the
Euro-centrism of previous scholarship provided for the intensive academic study of African history,
an innovation that had spread to North America by the 1960s. Foundational research was done at
the School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS) in London and the Department of History at the
University of Wisconsin-Madison. Francophone scholars have been as influential as Anglophones.
Yet African historiography has not been the sole creation of interested Europeans. African
universities have, despite the instabilities of politics and civil war in many areas, trained their own
scholars and sent many others overseas for training who eventually published numerous works on
different aspects of the region’s history.

1.4. The Geographical Context

The term “Ethiopia and the Horn” refers to that part of Northeast Africa, which now contains the
countries of Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia. The region consists chiefly of mountains
uplifted through the formation of the Great Rift Valley. The Rift Valley is a fissure in the Earth’s
crust running down from Syria to Mozambique and marking the separation of the African and
Arabian tectonic plates. The major physiographic features of the region are a massive highland
complex of mountains and plateaus divided by the Great Rift Valley and surrounded by lowlands,
semi-desert, deserts and tropical forests along the periphery. The diversity of the terrain led to
regional variations in climate, natural vegetation, soil composition, and settlement patterns. As with
the physical features, people across the region are remarkably diverse: they speak a vast number of
different languages, profess to many distinct religions, live in various types of dwellings, and engage
in a wide range of economic activities. At the same time, however, peoples of the region were never
isolated; they interacted throughout history from various locations. Thus, as much as there are many
factors that make people of a certain area unique from the other, there are also many areas in which
peoples of Ethiopia and the Horn share common past.
The history of Ethiopia and the Horn has been shaped by contacts with others through commerce,
migrations, wars, slavery, colonialism, and the waxing and waning of state systems. Yet, the
evolution of human history owed much to geographical factors notably location, landforms, resource
endowment, climate and drainage systems which continue to impact, as incentives and deterrents, the
movement of people and goods in the region. In this section, we will study the impact that the
region’s geography has on the way people live and organize themselves into societies.
Spatial location in relationship to other spaces and locations in the world is one geographical factor
that has significant bearing on the ways in which history unfolds. Ethiopia and the Horn lies
between the Red Sea, Gulf of Aden and Indian Ocean on the one hand, and the present-day eastern
frontiers of Sudan and Kenya on the other. Since early times, the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden
linked Northeast Africa to the Eastern Mediterranean, the Near and Middle East, India, and the Far
East. Likewise, the Indian Ocean has linked East Africa to the Near and Middle East, India and the
Far East.

Another element of geographical factor that had profound impact on human history is drainage
system. Ethiopia and the Horn has five principal drainage systems. These are the Nile River,
Gibe/Omo–Gojeb, Genale/Jubba-Shebele, the Awash River, and the Ethiopian Rift Valley Lake
systems. Flowing from Uganda in the south to the Sudan in the north, the White Nile meets the
Blue Nile (Abay in Ethiopia that starts from the environs of Tana Lake) in Khartoum and eventually,
drains into the Mediterranean Sea through Egypt. The Awash River System is entirely confined to
Ethiopia and links the cool rich highlands of Central Ethiopia with the hot, dry lowlands of the
Danakil Depression. The Ethiopian Rift Valley Lakes System is a self-contained drainage basin, and
includes a string of lakes stretching from Lake Ziway in the north to Lake Turkana (formerly known
as Rudolf) on the Ethio-Kenyan border. The Gibe /Omo–Gojeb River System links southern Ethiopia
to the semi-desert lowlands of northern Kenya. The Shebele and Genale rivers originate in the
Eastern highlands and flow southeast toward Somalia and the Indian Ocean. Only the Genale
(known as the Jubba in Somalia) makes it to the Indian Ocean; the Shebele disappears in sand just
inside the coastline.

Map 2: Physical Map of Ethiopia

Source: Bahru Zewde (Compiled), A Short History of Ethiopia and the Horn (Addis Ababa, 1998), p. 9.

The above watersheds are very important in the life and history of the peoples inhabiting the region.
Besides providing people with the source of their livelihood, the drainage systems facilitated the
movement of peoples and goods across diverse environments, resulting in the exchange of ideas,
technology, knowledge, cultural expressions, and beliefs. Thus, studying the drainage systems of
Ethiopia and the Horn is crucial for proper understanding of the relationships of the peoples living
within the river basins mentioned previously.
Ethiopia and the Horn can be divided into three major distinct environmental zones. The vast Eastern
lowland covers the narrow coastal strip of northeastern Eritrea, widens gradually and descends
southwards to include much of lowland Eritrea, the Sahel, the Danakil Depression, the lower Awash
valley, and the arid terrain in northeast of the Republic of Djibouti. It then extends to the Ogaden, the
lower parts of Hararghe, Bale, Borana, Sidamo and the whole territory of the Republic of Somalia.
There is no much seasonal variation in climatic condition in this zone. Hot and dry conditions prevail
year-round along with periodic monsoon winds and irregular (little) rainfall except in limited areas
along the rivers Awash, Wabe-Shebele and Genale/Jubba that traverse the region and a few offshore
islands in the Red Sea, Gulf of Aden and Indian Ocean that are inhabited by people closely related to
those of immediate mainland districts. Much of the lowland territories are covered by shrub and bush
as its major vegetation.
Immediately to the west of and opposite to the eastern lowland region forms the highland massif that
starts from northern Eritrea and continues all the way to southern Ethiopia. The eastern extension of
the highland massif consists the Arsi, Bale and Hararghe plateau. The major divide between the
western and eastern parts of this zone is the Rift Valley. The major physiographic features of the
zone are complex of mountains, deep valleys, and extensive plateaus.
Further to the west, along the western foothills or on the periphery of the plateau and on borderlands
of the Sudan stretching from north to south are hot lowlands that were characterized in earlier times
by thick forests chiefly on the banks of the Nile and its tributaries.
Despite the varied physical environments discussed above, the countries of the Horn of Africa are,
for the most part, linguistically and ethnically linked together as far back as recorded history goes.
Population movements had caused a continuous process of interaction, creating a very complex
picture of settlement patterns. The high degree of interaction and the long common history of
much of the population had weakened ethnic dividing lines in large parts of the region. Linguistic
and cultural affinities are therefore as important as ethnic origin in the grouping of the population.

Learning Activities

Discuss the similarities and differences between the past and history?
Why is history worth attention as a subject of study?
What do we mean by change and continuity in history?
What techniques do historians use to write about the past?
What are the different sources of history? How do you evaluate them?
What is the difference between historiography and history?
Who was Leopold von Ranke?
Discuss how the writing of Ethiopian history has changed over the last hundred years by the
writings of individual historians.
Briefly describe the similarities and differences between chronicles and hagiographies and
contributions to write Ethiopian history.
Describe the role of travel and missionary accounts to the study of Ethiopian history.
Explain how geographical factors shaped human history in Ethiopia and the Horn.
Edward Hallet Carr, wHat is History?

References
Bahru Zewde. “A Century of Ethiopian Historiography”. Journal of Ethiopian Studies, Vol. 33, No.
2 (November, 2000).

Brundage Anthony. Going to the Sources: A Guide to Historical Research and Writing Third
Edition. Illinois: Harlan Davidson, Inc., 2002.

Carr, E.H. What is History?, Revised Edition, Palgrave Macmillan, 2002.

Hacker Diana. Rules for Writers. 3rd edition. Boston: Bedford Books of St. Martin’s Press, 1996.
Hamerows S. Theodore. Reflections on History and Historians. Madison, Wisconsin: University of
Wisconsin Press, 1987.
Marwick, Arthur. The New Nature of History: Knowledge, Evidence, Language. Basingstoke,
Hampshire RG21 6XS: Palgrave, 2001.
Mesfin Wolde Mariam. An Introductory Geography of Ethiopia. Addis Ababa, 1972.
Rampolla Lynn Mary. A Pocket Guide to Writing in History. 3rd edition. Boston: Books/St. Martin’s
Press, 2001.
Shafer J., Robert. A Guide to Historical Method. 3rd Edition. Homewood, Illinois: Dorsey Press,
1980.
Tosh, John. The Pursuit of History: Aims, Methods, And New Directions in the Study of Modern
History. 3rd Edition. United Kingdom: Pearson Education Limited, 2002.
Vansina, Jan. Oral Tradition as History. James Curry Publishers, 1985.

UNIT TWO

PEOPLES AND CULTURES IN ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN (4 hours)

Introduction

Ethiopia and the Horn Region is referred to as the cradle of humankind. It is also a
region where early civilizations including food production, making tools and
religious practices were initiated.. These developments contributed to the social
evolutions, economic formations, and socio-cultural and political settings. This unit
traces human evolution and the Neolithic Revolution and then describes languages and
peoples settlement along with cultural settings of the region. The purpose is to show
that the region is home to diverse peoples, cultures (languages, religion, customs…)
and economic activities.

Unit Objectives
At the end of this unit, students will be able to:
evaluate pieces of evidence related to Ethiopia and the Horn as the cradle of
mankind;
explain Ethiopia and the Horn in relation to Neolithic Revolution;
identify the peoples and languages of Ethiopia and the Horn;
elucidate settlement patterns and economic formations of the peoples of the region; 
discuss religion and religious processes in the region.

Unit Starters 
How do you think human beings came into being?
What do you know about the domestication of plants and animals? 
Explain how trade facilitates peoples’ relations.
Define language and language families.
What is religion?
Can you name some religious practices in Ethiopia and the Horn?

2.1. Human Evolution

Human evolution accounts only a fraction of history of the globe that had been
formed through gradual natural process since about (circa/c.) 4. 5 billion years before
present (B. P.) The earliest life came into being between 3 and 1 billion years B. P. Blue
green algae, small plants, fishes, birds and other small beings emerged at c. 800
million years B. P. Primates branched of placental mammal stream as of 200-170
million years B. P. and then some primates developed into Pongidae (such as gorilla,
chimpanzee, orangutan, gibbon etc) while others evolved into Hominidae (human
ancestors).

Archeological evidences suggest that East African Rift Valley is the cradle of humanity.
Evidences related to both biological and cultural evolution have been discovered in
the Lower Omo and Middle Awash River valleys both by Ethiopian and foreign
scholars. A fossil named Chororapithecus dated 10 million B. P. was unearthed in
Anchar (in West Hararghe) in 2007. Ardipithicus ramidus kadabba (dated 5.8-5.2
million years BP) was discovered in Middle Awash. Ardipithicus ramidus (dated 4. 2
million B.P.) was discovered at Aramis in Afar in 1994. Other Australopithecines were
uncovered at Belohdelie (dated back 3.6 million years B. P.) in Middle Awash. A
three years old child’s fossil named as Australopithecus afarensis, Selam, dated to 3.3
million years B.P was also discovered at Dikika, Mille, Afar in 2000. Another
Australopithecus afarnesis (Lucy/Dinkinesh, dated c. 3.18 million years B. P.) with
40% complete body parts, weight 30kg, height 1.07 meters with a pelvis looks like
bipedal female was discovered at Hadar in Afar in 1974 A. D. Picture 1: Fossil of Lucy

Source: Bahru Zewde, A Short History of Ethiopia and the Horn (AAU, 1998), p. 12.

Fossil named Australopithecus anamensis was discovered around Lake Turkana. An eco-fact
named as Australopithecus garhi (means surprise in Afar language) dated to 2.5 million years
B.P was discovered at Bouri, Middle Awash, between 1996 and 1999.
 The development of the human brain was the main feature of the next stage of
human evolution, which produced the genus Homo, believed to have emerged 2-2.5
million years B.P. Different evidences of the genus homo have been recovered in
different parts of Ethiopia and the Horn. A partial skull of a fossil named as Homo
habilis, which is derived from Latin terms "Homo" (human being) and "Habilis"
(skillful use of hands), dated 1.9 million years B. P. has been found in the Lower
Omo. A fossil named Homo erectus (walking upright, dated 1. 6 million years B. P.)
was discovered at Melka Kunture, Konso Gardula and Gadeb with 900-1100 cc brain
size. Homo erectus seems to have originated in Africa and then spread out to the rest
of the world. Skeleton of Archaic Homosapiens (knowledgeable human being, dated
400, 000 years B.P.) named Bodo with brain size of 1300-1400cc was discovered in
Middle Awash. Fossils of Homo sapiens sapiens (100, 000 years B.P.) were discovered
at Porc Epic near Dire Dawa, and Kibish around Lower Omo (in 1967). In 2004, Kibish
fossils were re-dated to 195, 000 B. P, the oldest date in the world for modern Homo
sapiens. Homo sapiens idaltu, found in Middle Awash in 1997, lived about 160, 000
years B.P.

Cultural evolution is related to technological changes that brought socio-

economic transformation on human life. It can be conventionally grouped in to Stone
Age, Bronze Age and Iron Age. Stone tools had been the first technologies to be
developed by human beings. By taking their features, ways and period of production,
stone tools can be grouped in to Mode I (Olduwan, which was named based on the
first report made at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania), Mode II (Acheulean, named after the
first report at St. Acheul, France) and Mode III (Sangoon). The Mode I stone tools are
mainly characterized by crude and mono-facial styles, and were produced by the direct
percussion. Mode II stone tools were produced by indirect percussion, by using hand-
ax or hammer, and mainly characterized by bifacial, pointed and convex features.
Mode III stone tools are characterized by flexible and fine form of production by the use
of obsidian.
Examples of the above types of stone tools have been found in Ethiopia and the Horn. Fossilized
animal bones (3. 4 million years B. P.) were found with stone-tool-inflicted marks on them (the
oldest evidence of stone tool in the world) at Dikika in 2010. Artifact findings suggest that Olduwan
tools made and used by Homo habilis were discovered near Gona (dated 2.52 million years B.P. in
1992) and at Shungura in Afar. Homo erectus produced Acheulean tools dated back to 1.7.million
years B.P, invented fire and started burial practice. Acheulian tools (over a million years old) were
found at Kella, Middle Awash in 1963. Homo sapiens produced Sangoon tools that trace back up to
300,000 years B. P. Gademotta site in central Ethiopian Rift Valley has been dated back to 200, 000
B. P. Other sites such as Gorgora, Ki’one and Yabello in Ethiopia and Midhidhishi and Gudgud in
Somalia have offered noteworthy information about Stone Age communities.
The period of usage of stone tools is divided into sub-periods. The first, the Paleolithic (Old Stone
Age, from 3.4 million to 11, 000 years B. P.) was the period when human being sheltered in caves,
developed language, and used stone , bone, wood, furs, and skin materials to prepare food and
clothing. There was sex-age labor division with able-bodied males as hunters of fauna, and children
and females as gatherers of flora. Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age /11, 000-10,000 B. P.) was
transition between Paleolithic and Neolithic (New Stone Age /10, 000-6, 000 B.P).
2.2. Neolithic Revolution
During the Neolithic period human beings transformed from mobile to sedentary way of life. This
was a radical shift involving changes from hunting and gathering to the domestication of plants and
animals. Climatic change and increased hunter-gatherers’ population resulted in the declining
number of animals and availability of plants. As food gatherers were already aware of growing cycle
of most grass types, they began to grow those, which were most common and yielded seeds that
are more edible. The big animals, which depended on dense bushes for sustenance, were reduced
by hunting while smaller animals that were easy to domesticate were easily domesticated. and
animals that people were able to domesticate easily were smaller ones.

The process of domestication took place independently in the various parts of the world. In Ethiopia
and the Horn chiefly in the more elevated and wetter-parts, people cultivated plants including Teff
(Eragrotis teff), dagussa (Eleusine coracana), nug (Guzotia abyssinica), enset (Ensete ventricosum)
etc. The domestication of enset plant (Ensete edule) reduced shifting cultivation (continuous clearing
of new plots), slowing down soil exhaustion.
The discovery of polished axes, ceramics, grinding stones, beads, stone figures and animal remains in
sites like Emba-Fakeda around Adigrat in Tigray as well as Aqordat and Barentu in Eritrea evinces
the existence of Neolithic material culture. The Gobodara rock shelter near Aksum has provided us
agricultural stone tools. Remains associated with domesticated cattle, chickpeas and vegetables have
been excavated from Lalibela Cave on the southeastern shore of Lake Tana. Stone tools used for
cutting grass and grass like plants as well as rock paintings of domesticated animals have been found
at Laga Oda rock shelter near Charchar. Evidence for domesticated cattle also comes from around
Lake Basaqa near Matahara. Playa Napata and Kado in the Sudan, Cyrenaica in Libya and Futajalon
in West Africa were among known places of domestication of animals like Nidamawa and Zebu ( Bos
indicus) cattle that in due course expanded to Ethiopia and the Horn.
2.3. The Peopling of the Region
2.3.1. Languages and Linguistic Processes
Ethiopia and the Horn in general is marked by ethnic and linguistic diversity. There are about 90
languages with 200 dialects in Ethiopia and the Horn. Beneath this apparent diversity, there is some
degree of unity. Linguists classify languages of Ethiopia and the Horn into two major language super
families. These are Afro-Asiatic and Nilo-Saharan.

A. Afro-Asiatic: this super family is sub-divided into the following families: 

Cushitic: linguists divided this language family into four branches:
Northern: is represented by Beja, spoken in northwestern Eritrea bordering the Sudan.
Central: Agaw includes Awign, Kunfel, Qimant; Hamtanga and Bilen
Eastern: this includes diversified linguistic groups like Afar, Ale, Arbore, Baiso, Burji,
Darashe, Dasanech, Gedeo, Hadiya, Halaba, Kambata, Konso, Libido, Mosiye, Oromo,
Saho, Sidama, Somali, Tambaro, Tsemai, etc.
Southern: represented by Dhalo in Kenya and Nbugua in Tanzania.
Semitic: is divided into two
North: Ge'ez, Rashaida (spoken around Eritrea-Sudanese border); Tigre (spoken in Eritrean
Lowland); Tigrigna (spoken in highland Eritrea and Tigray).
South: is further divided into two
Transverse: Amharic, Argoba, Harari, Silte, Wolane and Zay.
Outer: Gafat (extinct), Gurage and Mesmes (endangered).
 Omotic: Anfillo, Ari, Banna, Basketo, Bench, Boro-Shinasha, Chara, Dawuro, Dime, Dizi,
Gamo, Gofa, Hamer, Karo, Keficho, Konta, Korete, Male, Melo, Oyda, Sezo, Shekkacho, Sheko,
Wolayta, Yem, Zayse etc.

B. Nilo-Saharan: Anywa, Berta, Gumuz, Kacipo-Balesi, Komo, Kunama, Kwama, Kwegu,

Majang, Mi'en, Murle, Mursi, Nara, Nu’er, Nyangatom, Opo, Shabo, Suri and Uduk.

Language classification did not remain static. Factors like population movements, warfare, trade,
religious and territorial expansion, urbanization etc. have resulted in intense linguistic processes that
forced languages to be affected. In this process, some languages died out or have been in danger of
extinction while others thrived over time .

2.3.2. Settlement Patterns

A settlement pattern, the distribution of peoples across the landscape, is the results of long
historical processes in northeast Africa. In some areas, settlement was dense and in other areas
sparse. Some people inhabited extensive highlands and others the lowlands. Based on historical
linguistic and history of inter-peoples relations, studies indicate that environmental, socio-
economic, and political processes significantly shaped and reshaped the spatial distribution of
peoples in the region.

Since early times, the Cushitic and Semitic peoples had inhabited the area between the Red Sea in the
east and Blue Nile in the west from where they dispersed to different directions. In due course, the
Cushites have evolved to be the largest linguistic group in Ethiopia and the Horn and have also
spread over wide areas from Sudan to Tanzania. Similarly, the Semitic peoples spread over large area
and eventually settled the northern, north central, northeastern, south central and eastern parts of
Ethiopia and the Horn. The Semites are the second majority people next to the Cushites.
Except the Shinasha, who live in Benishangul-Gumuz and the South Mao in Wallagga, the majority
of Omotic peoples have inhabited southwestern Ethiopia along the Omo River basin. Yet, in the
earlier times, they had extended much further to the north.
In the west, the Nilotes are largely settled along the Ethiopia-Sudanese border although some of the
Chari-Nile family inhabited as far as southern Omo. The latter are identified as the Karamojo cluster
living around Turkana Lake along Ethio-Kenyan border.
2.3.3. Economic Formations
The domestication of plants and animals gave humanity two interdependent modes of life: agriculture
and pastoralism. While there may be pure pastoralists, it is very rare to think of a farmer without a
head of cattle or two. Likewise, in Ethiopia and the Horn, these two forms of livelihood have
coexisted and quite often intermingled . Topographic features and climatic conditions largely
influenced economic activities in Ethiopia and the Horn.
A predominantly pastoral economy has characterized the eastern lowland region since early periods.
Pastoral economy namely the production of camel, goat, and cattle has been the most common
economic practice among the Afar, Saho and Somali as well as Karayu and Borana Oromo. While
the Afar and Karrayu have depended on the Awash River, the Somali have owed a great deal to Wabi
Shebelle and Genale (Jubba) Rivers.
The plateaus have sustained plough agriculture for thousands of years supporting sizable populations.
Majority of the populations were engaged in mixed farming. It is here that sedentary agriculture had
been started and advanced at least since 10, 000 years B. P. by the Cushites, Semites and Omotic
groups. The major economic activity of the Omotic has been mixed farming and trade in northern
Omo while southern Omo have predominantly practiced pastoralism and fishing. Many of the
Omotic groups have also been famous in metallurgy, weaving and other crafts.
In the sparsely populated western lowland region, the dominant economic formations were
pastoralism, shifting agriculture, fishing, apiculture and hunting. For instance, sorghum, millet,
cotton and other crops have been largely cultivated in the lowlands along Ethio-Sudanese border
since antiquity. The Nilotes along the Blue Nile and Baro-Akobo Rivers have been shifting
cultivators where sorghum has been a staple food. Among majority Nilotic communities, cattle have
high economic and social values. Berta and other Nilotes had trade and other social contacts with
northern Sudan.
2.4. Religion and Religious Processes
2.4.1. Indigenous Religion This includes a variety of religious beliefs and practices, which are
native to the region and have been followed by the local people since ancient times. A distinctive
mark of indigenous religion is belief in Supreme Being, but special powers are attributed to natural
phenomena, which are considered sacred. Spiritual functionaries officiate over rituals, propitiate
divinities, and are held in a lot of respect as intermediaries between the society and spirits. Some
major indigenous religious groups that still claim adherents among the region's population are
discussed here under.
Waqeffanna of the Oromo is based on the existence of one Supreme Being called Waqa. Waqa's
power is manifested through the spirits called Ayyana. The major spirits include Abdar/Dache (soil
fertility spirit), Atete (women or human and animal fertility spirit), Awayi/Tiyyana (sanctity spirit),
Balas (victory spirit), Chato/Dora (wild animals defender), Gijare/ Nabi (father and mother’s sprit),
Jaricha (peace spirit), Qasa (anti-disease spirit) etc. There is also a belief that the dead exist in the
form of a ghost called Ekera in the surrounding of his/her abode after death, or his/her cemetery
(Hujuba). In the autumn and spring seasons every year at the edge of ever-flowing river and top of
mountain respectively, there is thanks giving festival called Irrecha besides New Year (Birbo) rite.
Revered experts known as Qallu (male) and Qallitti (female) have maintained link between the
Ayyana and the believers. Qallu's ritual house called galma is located on hilltop or in the groves of
large trees. On Wednesday and Friday nights, there is Dalaga/ecstasy at which Qallu or Qallitti is
possessed by Ayyana so that s/he can interpret mysteries. The Jila/Makkala (delegated messengers)
used to make pilgrimage to get consecration of senior Qallu (Abba Muda or anointment father) until
about 1900. Abba Muda had turban surrirufa of tri-colors: black at top, red at center and white at
bottom representing those in pre-active life, active (Luba) and those in post-active life respectively.
Among the Hadiya the Supreme Being is known as Waa, who is believed to exist before everything
(hundam issancho) or create world (qoccancho) and whose eyes are represented by elincho (sun) and
agana (moon). Spirits like Jara (male’s protector), Idota (female’s guard), Hausula, Qedane and
Warriqa attracted prayers and sacrifices at Shonkolla and Kallalamo mountains chosen by Anjancho
and Jaramanjcho. One of Hadiya's clans, Worqimene, is believed to have the power to send rain in
drought. Fandanano (sing. Fandancho) practice is believed to be introduced by either spiritual
leaders, Itto and Albaja from Bimado clan, or Boyamo, father of five Hadiya clans, and was largely
followed by inhabitants of Boshana, Misha etc.
The Kambata have Negita or Aricho Magano/Sky God and religious officials known as Magnancho.
The Gedeo called the Supreme Being, Mageno and had thanks giving ceremony called Deraro.The
Konso religion is centered on worship of Waaq/Wakh. The Gojjam Agaw used to call the Supreme
Being Diban (Sky God). Among sections of the Gurage, there have been Waq/Goita (Supreme
Being), Bozha (thunder deity) and Damwamwit (health goddess). Yem worshipped Ha’o (Sky God).
So’ala clan was considered as the top in religious duties as it was in charge of Shashokam (the most
vital deity). Religious functions were performed through couriers in each village called Magos. The
Konta’s spirit-cult was called Docho.
The Wolayta called God Tosa and spirit Ayyana including Tawa-Awa /Moytiliya (father’s spirit),
Sawuna (justice spirit), Wombo (rain spirit), Micho (goat spirit), Nago (sheep spirit), Kuchuruwa
(emergency spirit), Gomashera (war spirit), Talahiya (Beta Talaye or talheya, Omo spirit) etc.
Dufuwa (grave) was believed to be abode of Moytiliya. Annual worship of spirits was performed at a
sacred place called Mitta usually at the end of May and beginning of June to offer sacrifice of the
first fruits called Teramo or Pageta (Dubusha). People gathered around tree called Dongowa, which
varied from clan to clan: sycamore (Ficus sur exasperate) for the Bubula, podocarpo for Zatuwa etc.
The Qesiga called their meeting place Kasha (Dabre). To protect people from eating crop before
harvesting Zomboro clan used Diqaysa practice by planting in their fields sour olive and nubica
trees. The Wolayta also had the practice of Chaganna (prohibited days to work) to protect produce
from disaster. They also chose and kept dark brown heifer called Beka (Beqabe) or Baqa Potilliya
(Literally, ritual cattle) as birthday fate. If they made error in respecting this custom, they would
anoint their bodies with a leaf called Aydameta (ground red pepper) as repentance. Religious
practitioners known as Sharechuwa had Becha or Kera Eza Keta (ritual house).
The Keficho called Supreme Being as Yero; spirit as Eqo and a person who hosts Eqo is known as
Alamo or eke-nayo. Father of all spirits is dochi or dehe-tateno and its host is called dochi-nayo or
Ibedechino/Ibede-gudeno (including Arito and Wudia Riti), with residence at Adio. Harvest spirit is
called Kollo and sacrifice to it is dejo. Earth and area spirits are known as Showe-kollo and Dude-
baro respectively. There are also local spirits like damochechi of Channa, yaferochi of Sharada and
wogidochi of Adio as well as gepetato or king of hill identified by Yetecho clan as landowner.
Members of the Dugo clan led spiritual services.
The Boro-Shinasha people believe in super natural power called Iqa, which created everything and
presides over the universe. The indigenous religion elements prescribe praying for the prevention of
drought, flooding, erosion, disease and starvation within the community and their surrounding
environment. Among various prayer rituals, the first is Gure Shuka for preservation of their locality
through slaughtering animals by calling the name of God being at the tip of the mountains. The
second is Shode De’na, praying and slaughtering when unexpected disease happens. The third is
Marrowa Shuka; slaughtering for children to grow without disease and to prevent children from evil
spirits attack; for rehabilitation of wealth; to promote harmonious way of life and productivities in
the family. The rituals are led by recognized elders, whose pray and bless are trusted to reach God
among the three clans: Enoro, Endiwo and Dowa.

The Nuer believe in Kuoth Nhial (God in Heaven), but believe in the coming of God through rain,
lightning and thunder, and rainbow is necklace of God. Sun and moon as well as other entities are
also manifestation or sign of God. There are also spirits associated with clan-spears names such as
WiW (spirit of war) associated with thunder. The Nuer believe that when a person dies, flesh is
committed to earth while breath or life goes back to Kuoth and soul that signifies human personality
remains alive as a shadow or a reflection, and departs together with ox sacrificed to place of ghosts.
An interesting feature of indigenous religion is the way its practices and beliefs are fused with
Christianity and Islam. This phenomenon of mixing of religions is known as syncretism.
2.4.2. Judaism
Judaism is considered as the expression of the covenant that Yahweh/Jehovah (God) established
with the ancient Hebrew community. Sources indicate that Judaism has been followed in Ethiopia
and the Horn by peoples before Christianity reached the region. . The Bete-Israel practiced
Haymanot (religious practices, which are generally recognized as Israelite religion that differs from
Rabbinic Judaism). Many of the Bete-Israel accounts trace their religion from the very ancient
migration of some portion of the Tribe of Dan to Ethiopia, led it is said by sons of Moses, perhaps
even at the time of the Exodus (1400-1200 B.C.). Alternative timelines include perhaps the later
crises in Judea, e.g., split of the northern Kingdom of Israel from the southern Kingdom of Judah
after the death of King Solomon or Babylonian Exile. Other Bete-Israel take as their basis the
account of return to Ethiopia of Menilek I, who is believed to be the son of King Solomon (r. 974-
932 B.C.) of ancient Israel and Makeda, ancient Queen of Saba (Sheba), and considered to be the
first Solomonic Emperor of Ethiopia. Another group of Jews is said to have been arrived in Ethiopia
led by Azonos and Phinhas in 6 th century A.D. There are also other stories that attribute the
presence of the Bete-Isreal in Ethiopia to an intermarrige between Jewsh immigrants with native
Agaws. On the other hand, scholars such as Tadese Tamirat and Kay Shelmay argue that the Bete-
Israel are remenants of old testament followers of orthodox Christianity rather than Jews who
migrated from abroad.Whatever the case, the Jews appear to have been isolated from mainstream
Judiac practice for at least a millennium. The Jews developed and lived for centuries in northern and
northwestern Ethiopia.

2.4.3. Christianity
Christianity became state religion in 334 A.D. during the reign of King Ezana (r. 320-360), who
dropped pre-Christian gods like Ares (Hariman/Maharram/war god), Arwe (serpent-python god),
Bahir (sea god) and Midir (earth god), and embraced Christianity. Instrumental in conversion of the
king were Syrian brothers, Aedesius and Frumentius (Fremnatos). When Fremnatos (Kasate Birhane
or Abba Salama) visited Alexandria, Patriarch Atnatewos (328-373) appointed him as the first
Bishop of Ethiopian Orthodox Church (EOC). Consecration of bishops from Coptic Church in Egypt
continued until 1959, when Abune Baslios became the first Ethiopian Patriarch.
Christianity was further expanded to the mass of the society the later part the fifth century, during
the reign of Ella Amida II (478-86) by the Nine Saints shown in the table below:

Table I: The Nine Saints

Name Origin Church/ Location of the Church

Monastery
Abuna Aregawwi (Abba Za Constantinopole Debre Damo Eastern Tigray
Mika’el)
Abuna Isaq (Abba Gerima) Constantinopole Debre Gerima Medera (East of Adwa )
Abba Pentelwon Constantinopole Debre Pentelwon Asbo (North East of Aksum)
Abba Afse Ladocia Debre Afse Yeha (Northeast of Aksum)
Abba Alef Qa’esare’a Debre Haleluya Biheza (Northeast of Aksum)
Abba Gubba Cilicia Debre Gubba West of Medera
Abba Liqanos Constantinople Debre Qonasel North of Aksum
Abba Sehama Antioch Tsedania Southeast of Adwa
Abba Yima’ata Qosa’iti Debre Yima’ata Ger’alta

Source: Sergew Hable Sellassie, Ancient and Medieval Ethiopian History to 1270 (Addis Ababa:
Haile-Selassie I University Press, 1972), pp.115-119.
The saints also translated the Bible and other religious books into Geez.
The expansion of Christianity continued in Zagwe period (1150-1270) and chiefly gained fresh
momentum during the early Medieval Period (1270-1527), when many churches and monasteries
were constructed. These include Rock-hewn churches of Lalibela, Debra-Bizan of Hamasen in
Eritrea; Debra-Hayiq in Wollo, Debre-Dima and Debre-Werq in Gojjam; Debra-Libanos in Shewa,
Birbir Mariam in Gamo and Debre-Asabot on the way to Harar. These churches and monasteries are
not merely religious centers, but served through the ages as repositories of ancient manuscripts
and precious objects of art.

From mid-sixteenth to the early seventeenth centuries, the Jesuit missionaries tried to convert
Monophysite EOC to Dyophysite Catholic. Yet, this led to bloody conflicts that in turn led to
expulsion of the Jesuits. However, the Jesuits intervention triggered religious controversies within
the EOC that is discussed in subsequent units.
As of 1804, missionaries’ religious expansion also resulted in the conclusion of treties between
European diplomats and Ethiopian authorities. The Catholic Giuseppe Sapeto (Lazarist mission
founder), Giustino De Jacobis (Capuchin order founder), Cardinal Massaja, Antoine and Arnauld
d'Abbadie were active. Anglican Church Missionary Society (ACMS), Church Missionary Society of
London (CMSL) and Wesleyan Methodist Society led Protestant missionaries under such leaders as
Samuel Gobat, C.W. Isenberg and J. L. Krapf. Systematic approach of trained Protestants enabled
them to win confidence of local people. They translated spiritual books into vernaculars. They
adopted old names for Supreme Being like Waqayyo, Tosa etc and used them in new versions as
equivalent to God. Village schools were established as centers of preaching the faith. These schools
were open to all children of chiefs and farmers. They also provided medical facilities. All these
attracted a large number of followers. Eventually, continuous and systematic indoctrinations seem to
have resulted in grafting of new teaching on indigenous religion.
2.4.4. Islam
When Prophet Mohammed had preached Islam in Mecca since 610 AD, he faced opposition from the
Quraysh rulers. Under this circumstance, the Prophet sent some of his early followers to Aksum
including his daughter Rukiya and her husband Uthman as well as the
Prophet's future wives Umm Habiba and Umm Salma to Aksum .The first group of refugees was led
by Jafar Abu Talib. In his advice to his followers, the Prophet said of Ethiopia, "…a king under whom
none are persecuted. It is a land of righteousness, where God will give relief from what you are
suffering." The then Aksumite king, Armah Ella Seham (Ashama b. Abjar or Ahmed al-Nejash in
Arabic sources), gave them asylum from 615-28. Leaders of the Quraysh asked Armah to repatriate
the refugees, but the king did not comply. Armah is said to have replied, "If you were to offer me a
mountain of gold I would not give up these people who have taken refugees with me.”

Subsequently, Islam spread to the Horn of Africa largely through peaceful ways including trade.
Islam was well established in Dahlak (Alalay) Islands on the Red Sea by the beginning of the eighth
century. In the early tenth century, the Muslim community on the islands developed a sultanate. In
due course, Muslims settled other places on the Red Sea coast. It was from these coastal areas that
Islam gradually spread among the predominantly pastoral communities of the interior, largely
through the agency of preachers and merchants.
Notwithstanding the debates, the Dahlak route played a minor role in the introduction of Islam into
the interior as Christianity was strongly entrenched as a state religion in Aksum and later states of
northern Ethiopia and open proselytization of Islam was prohibited. Thus, the port of Zeila on
western coast of the Gulf of Aden served as an important gateway for the introduction of Islam
mainly into the present day Shewa, Wollo and Hararghe. Islam firmly established itself in the coastal
areas by the eighth and ninth centuries. From there, it radiated to central, southern, and eastern
Ethiopia through the role of Muslim clerics who followed in the footsteps of traders. In this regard, it
should be noted that Sheikh Hussein of Bale, a Muslim saint (Waliy) of medieval period, played very
important role in the expansion of Islam into Bale, Arsi and other southeastern parts of Ethiopia and
the Horn. Another Islamic center in this region is Sof Umar cave.
Islam was introduced into Somali territories in the eigth century A. D. through Benadir coasts of
Moqadishu, Brava and Merca. Abu Bakr Ibn Fukura al Din Sahil set up Moqadishu Minirate c.1269.
The mosques, Islamic learning and pilgrimage centers have been the depositories of cultures,
traditions and literature of local Muslims.

Learning Activities

Why do you think Lucy had attracted more attention from the world than other human remains
discovered in Ethiopia and the Horn?
Discuss the salient features of the three species of Homo family.
List major developments in the three Stone Ages.
Explain the link between hunting and taming animals, and gathering and plant domestication.
Explain the relations between the domestication of plants and animals and early civilizations in
Ethiopia and the Horn?
What are the major categories of language families in Ethiopia and the Horn? Describe also their
geographical distribution in the region.
Explain how the study of language can be useful in understanding cultures and societies.
Identify the commonalities among indigenous religions of Ethiopia.
Discuss the role of trade and religion in the relations among peoples of Ethiopia and the Horn.
Explain how physical environment-land forms, vegetation, climate- affect the way people live and
the ways that humans organize themselves in social, political, and economic institutions. Illustrate
your discussion with examples from the experience of peoples of Ethiopia and the Horn.

References
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_____. Society, State and History: Selected Essays. Addis Ababa: AAU Press, 2008.
Balisky, E. Paul. “Wolaitta Evangelists”. Ph.D Thesis, Aberder University, 1997.
Bender, M. L. et al. eds. The Languages of Ethiopia. London, 1976.
Clark, J.D. The Prehistoric Cultures of the Horn of Africa. Cambridge: Cambridge University
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Finneran, Neil. The Archaeology of Ethiopia. London: Routledge, 2007.
Gada Melba. Oromia. Khartoum, 1988.
Mohammed Hassen. The Oromo of Ethiopia 1570-1860. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
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_____. The Oromo and the Christian Kingdom of Ethiopia 1300-1700. James
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Pherron, Shannon P. MC et al. “Evidence for Stone-Tool-Assisted Consumption of Animal
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Phillipson, David. African Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
_____. Ancient Churches of Ethiopia; Fourth-Fourteenth Centuries. New Haven and London: Yale
University Press, 2009.
Sergew Hable-Selassie. Ancient and Medieval Ethiopian History to1270. Addis Ababa:
Haile-Selassie I University Press, 1972.
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Trimingham, J. Spencer. Islam in Ethiopia. London: Oxford University Press, 1952.
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