Perception
UNIT 4 PERCEPTION: TYPES AND ERRORS
OF PERCEPTION*
Content
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Perception of Depth and Distance
4.2.1 Monocular Cues
4.2.1.1 Relative Size
4.2.1.2 Texture Gradient
4.2.1.3 Ariel Perspective
4.2.1.4 Linear Perspective
4.2.1.5 Interposition
4.2.1.6 Accommodation
4.2.2 Binocular Cues
4.2.2.1 Retinal Disparity
4.2.2.2 Convergence
4.3 Movement Perception
4.4 Size Perception
4.5 Errors in Perception
4.6 Types of Illusion
4.6.1 Muller-lyre Illusion
4.6.2 Ponzo Illusion
4.6.3 Ebbinghaus Illusion
4.6.4 The Ames Room Illusion
4.6.5 The Moon Illusion
4.7 Let Us Sum Up
4.8 Unit End Questions
4.9 Glossary
4.10 Answers to Self Assessment Questions
4.11 Suggested Readings and References
4.0 INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit, we studied the meaning, nature, and laws of perception. In
this unit also we will continue with the topic of perception. Since, vision seems
an effortless process, we often take this process for granted. However, in reality,
the process of perceiving colour, shape, form, movement is not simple. In this
unit, we will make an attempt to solve the mystery of perceiving various types of
perception such as depth, distance, movement, and size. Further, we will see
how various types of illusions affect our process of perception.
4.1 OBJECTIVES
After studying this Unit, you will be able to:
Describe the nature of depth and distance perception;
50 * Dr Arti Singh, SOSS,IGNOU
Articulate the role of monocular and binocular cues on depth and distance Perception: Types and
Errors of Perception
perception;
Explain the nature of movement and size perception;
Discuss the basis of perceptual illusion; and
Describe the different types of illusions.
4.2 PERCEPTION OF DEPTH AND DISTANCE
Depth perception refers to one’s visual ability to perceive the world in three
dimensions and thus enabling us to judge the distance of an object. Whereas, the
process by which we determine the distance of an object is known as distance
perception. Our brain uses both monocular and binocular cues to judge depth
and distance.
4.2.1 Monocular Cues
Fig. 4.1: A one-eyed minion
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These are those information or cues that our brain receives from one eye only.
These cues are weaker than binocular cues (information that our brain receives
from both eyes) in strength. Following are some of the common monocular cues:
4.2.1.1 Relative Size
Fig. 4.2: Hot air balloons flying in the air
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Perception This cue gives us information about the distance of an object based on its relative
size with a similar object. This cue works on both two-dimensional and three-
dimensional images. The basic premise is that if two objects are of the
approximately similar size, then the object which is closer is perceived as larger.
4.2.1.2 Texture Gradient
Fig. 4.3: Flower meadows
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This cue is based on our perception of the change in the gradient or degree of
texture. The texture of the objects which are nearer to our eyes are rough or
distinct, but as you move further away from it, the texture of the object will
become less distinct or smooth and thus suggesting the perception of more
distance. For example, if you look at your wall of the room from 30 feet, it seems
smoother, but if you look at the same wall from one foot, you can notice the
details on the wall. This change in the texture correlates with the distance.
4.2.1.3 Arial Perspective or Haze
Fig. 4.4: Near Salt Lake City by Albert Bierstadt
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Objects are perceived at a distance if there is a presence of haze in the environment. Perception: Types and
Errors of Perception
Haze is the result of atmospheric dust particles, fog or water vapours. Sometimes
perception of distance based on haze can be deceptive. The same mountain can
be perceived as nearer or at distance depending on the presence of haze.
4.2.1.4 Linear Perspective
Fig. 4.5: An example of monocular cue-linear perspective
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This cue is based on the convergence of straight lines at a point on the horizon.
An appropriate example of this cue could be the perception of convergence of
rail tracks at a distance. This cue suggests that closure the lines are; the greater
will be the distance.
4.2.1.5 Interposition/Occlusion
Fig. 4.6: An example of monocular cue-occlusion
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When two objects are overlapped, then the object which has been overlapped or
obscured will be perceived as farther away than the overlapping object.
4.2.1.6 Accommodation
Even though this cue occurs with both eyes, it is still considered as a monocular
cue. It is known as accommodation because the size of our lenses accommodates
themselves based on the distance. Our lenses become thicker when an object lies
closer to eyes while it becomes thinner when an object lies at a distance.
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Perception 4.2.2 Binocular Cues
Fig. 4.7: A two-eyed minion
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The cues that we receive from both eyes are known as binocular cues. These
cues are more powerful than monocular cues. The process of gaining binocular
cues to assess depth is known as stereopsis.
Following are two types of binocular cues:
4.2.2.1 Retinal Disparity
L= Left eye
R=Right eye
Fig. 4.8: Formation of different retinal image by left and right eyes
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We humans have two eyes, separated by the distance of average 6.3 cm. Therefore,
the retinal image of the same object differs slightly from each other. The closer
an object is to eyes; greater will be the difference in its retinal image. Our brain
analyses the degree of disparity between these two separate retinal images and
produces a single image of the object to judge information on depth, height and
width.
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4.2.2.2 Convergence Perception: Types and
Errors of Perception
Fig.4.9: Two convergence angles formed by our eyes.
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Our eyes make an angle while focusing on an object, known as convergence
angle. Convergence angle for distant and near-by objects are different. When an
object is at a distance, our eyes make smaller convergence angle, but when an
object is closer to our eyes, our eyeballs rotate inwards and form large convergence
angle. This change in convergence gives a clue about distance and depth to the
perceiver.
Self Assessment Questions (SAQ-I)
Fill in the blanks:
1) The retinal image of the same object ........................from each other.
2) The cues that we receive from both eyes are known as ....................................
3) Objects are perceived at ................................if there is a presence of haze
in the environment.
4) Depth perception refers to one’s ...................................ability to perceive
the world in three dimensions.
5) The texture of the objects which are nearer to our eyes are
.............................,but as you further move away from it, the texture of the
object will become...........................
4.3 MOVEMENT PERCEPTION
How do we know that if a car is coming towards us or moving away from us?
Movement perception is our ability to judge the direction and speed of a moving
object. Psychologists have tried to answer the questions on movement perception
using following four factors:
Retinal motion: When an object moves its image on retina also moves. This
motion of the retinal image is detected by special visual neurons which are
sensitive to change in motion and direction. In this way we perceive movement.
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Perception Motion after-effect (MAE): If you fixate your gaze on a moving object for
some time (few seconds to minutes) and then move your gaze to a stationary
object. Then the stationary object will be perceived as moving in opposite direction
to the original moving object. This phenomenon is known as MAE and occurs
due to motion adaption.
Induced movement: When a smaller stationary body is surrounded by larger
moving body then smaller body is perceived to move in the direction opposite to
the larger body. Due to this phenomenon, we perceive moon as moving when it
is surrounded by slowly moving clouds.
Fig. 4.10: Moon behind clouds
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Apparent movement/Stroboscopic motion: First given by Gestalt theorist
Wertheimer (1912). In this phenomenon, when stationary stimuli are presented
in succession, it is perceived in a motion. This phenomenon is used to explain
the movement perception in videos.
Stimulus lights
percept
(b)
(a)
Fig.4.11: The sequence of still frames in (a) shown at the appropriate intervals, results in
the percept shown in (b). The illusion of continuous motion resulting from
successively viewed still pictures is the basis of motion in movies, video, and
television.
Source: Atkinson and Hilgard (2009), pp. 163
4.4 SIZE PERCEPTION
In this section, we will discuss those mechanisms that are involved in judging
the size of the stimuli. Our ability to judge the size of the stimuli correctly even
with the change in the distance has been explained using three hypotheses: the
size-distance invariance hypothesis, familiar size hypothesis and the direct
56 perception hypothesis.
1) Size-distance invariance hypothesis (SDIH): The basic premise of this Perception: Types and
Errors of Perception
hypothesis is that the perceived size of a stimulus is proportional to the
perceived distance (Kilpatrick and Ittelson, 1953). It further states that if
information about the distance is available then size of the stimuli is
interpreted based on retinal image. However, if the information about the
distance is not available then size of the stimuli is judged based on the
visual angle alone. The mathematical expression of this relationship is as
follows:
S‘/D‘=f(theta sign)
Where,
S‘=perceived size
D‘=perceived distance
Theta= visual angle
Here, before proceeding further, it is important to explain the term “visual angle”
first. It is the angle made by our eyes after looking at the object.
2) Familiar Size Theory/Cue: This cue is used to judge not only size but also
the distance and depth of the stimuli. We know the visual angle for a stimulus
decreases with the decrease in the distance. Our brain uses this information
(visual angle) along with our previous information of the size of the targeted
stimulus and determines its actual size, distance and depth. Thus, according
to this theory familiar size influences our size perception, which in turn
influences our distance perception (Ittelson, 1960). However, later two
psychologists (Gogel & Da Silva, 1987) proposed that the theory of familiar
size is valid in all conditions. When the condition of viewing is improvised
then we use egocentric reference distance to determine the size of the familiar
object.
3) Theory of Direct Perception: Gibson in 1979 proposed the theory of direct
perception. His ideas regarding size perception were summarised by Epstein
(1982) as: “(i) there is no perceptual representation of size correlated with
the retinal size of the object, (ii) perceived size and perceived distance are
independent functions of information in stimulation, and (iii) perceived
size and perceived distance are not causally linked, nor is the perception of
size mediated by operations combining information about retinal size and
perceived distance. The correlation between perceived size and perceived
distance is attributed to the correlation between the specific variables of
stimulation which governs these precepts in the particular situations” (p.78).
4.5 ERRORS IN PERCEPTION
As discussed in previous unit, perception is the process of analysing and
understanding a stimulus as it is. But it may not be always possible to perceive
the stimuli as they are. Knowingly or unknowingly, we mistake the stimulus and
perceive it wrongly.
It may be due to defect in our sense organs or defective functioning of the brain.
Many times the prejudices in the individual, time of perception, unfavourable
background, lack of clarity of stimulus, confusion, conflict in mind and such
other factors are responsible for errors in perception. There are two kinds of
errors: 57
Perception a) Illusion
Illusion is a false perception. Here, an individual perceives a stimulus
incorrectly. For example, in the dark, a rope is mistaken as a snake or vice
versa. The voice of an unknown person is mistaken as a friend’s voice. A
person standing at a distance who is not known may be perceived as a known
person.
Most of our illusions are visual and auditory. But illusions pertaining to
other senses are also possible.
b) Hallucination
Sometimes we come across instances where the individual perceives some
stimulus, even when it is not present. This phenomenon is known as
hallucination. The person may see an object, person, etc. or s/he may listen
to some voice though there are no objects and sounds in reality.
Hallucinations pertain to all the sensations that appear to people, but visual
and auditory hallucinations are more common. Usually individuals with
unsound mind, emotionally disturbed, alcoholics and those who are in
confused states may experience hallucinations. However, among abnormal
and intoxicated people, hallucinations are very common.
In addition to these errors, abnormalities in our sense perceptions may also
occur and known as anaesthesia (no sensation), hyperesthesia (excessive
sensitivity) and paraesthesia (distorted or wrongly localised sensation). In
these cases the tactile (skin) sensation is wrongly perceived.
4.6 TYPES OF ILLUSION
Is perception reality? Not always. The process of perception is not always
foolproof. Knowingly or unknowingly, we tend to make mistakes and misperceive
stimuli. When we ‘misinterpret’ the sensory information then it is known as an
illusion. It has also been defined as “a discrepancy between one’s awareness and
some stimulus” (Reynolds, 2008). Some typical examples of illusions include
perceiving tree branches as ghosts or perceive rope as a snake at night. In this
section, we will talk about some common forms of illusion.
Types of illusion:
4.6.1 Muller-lyre Illusion
Which of the following lines appear longest?
Line A Line B
Fig. 4.12: Muller-lyre illusion
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If your answer is line A, then you are wrong. And if your answer is line B, then Perception: Types and
Errors of Perception
again you have given an incorrect answer, because both lines are of equal length.
The illusion you have just seen is a geometrical-optical illusion known as Muller-
Lyer illusion. In this illusion, two straight lines of the same length appeared to be
of different length. Lines with inward pointing arrow seem shorter than the
outward-pointing line.
4.6.2 Ponzo Illusion
It is also an optical illusion, in which two converging straight lines distort our
perception of the size of two identical lines drawn across it. The upper yellow
line appears to be longer than the lower yellow line, when in fact both are of the
same length. The incorrect judgment of the size of yellow lines happens because
we use liner perspective cue to judge its size.
Fig. 4.13: The ponzo illusion
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4.6.3 Ebbinghaus Illusion
It is an optical illusion of relative size perception. Discovered by Hermann
Ebbinghaus but popularised by Edward B. Titchener, this illusion is also known
as Titchener circles. Now, answer this. Which of the following orange circle is
smaller?
Flower B
Flower A
Fig. 4.14: The Ebbinghaus illusion
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Perception Irrespective of your answer, both orange circles are of the same size. This is
known as Ebbignhaus illusion. The perception of the size of orange circle depends
on the relative sizes of grey circles.
4.6.4 The Ames Room Illusion
Named after its creator, American ophthalmologist Adelbert Ames, Jr., this optical
illusion leads to the distortion of perception of relative size. To an observer, a
person standing in one corner of the room is perceived as significantly larger
than the person standing in another corner.
Fig. 4.15: The Ames room illusion
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4.6.5 The Moon Illusion
Have you ever noticed that the size of the moon when it is coming over the
horizon? If yes, then you must have noticed that it looks bigger on the horizon
than when it comes overhead. However, in reality, there are no differences in the
size of the moon. Our perception of the moon having different sizes at horizon
and zenith is known as moon illusion. This illusion occurs because of our
perception of the sky as a flattened dome and thus forcing our brain to reduce the
size of the moon at zenith.
Fig. 4.16: The moon illusion
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Perception: Types and
Self Assessment Questions (SAQ II) Errors of Perception
State whether the following are ‘True’ or ‘False’:
1) The process of perception is always foolproof. .........................
2) Some typical examples of illusions include perceiving tree branches as
ghosts or perceive rope as a snake at night ..................... .
3) Gibson in 1979 proposed the theory of Familiar Size.............
4) Sometimes we come across instances where the individual perceives some
stimulus, even when it is not present. .......................
5) When an object moves its image on retina also moves. ...................
4.7 LET US SUM UP
In this unit, the types of perception were introduced to you. Specifically, the
factors responsible for depth, distance, movement, and size perception were
discussed. Lastly, the different types of errors involved in the process of perception
were also discussed. To explain these errors in more detail, the various forms of
illusions such as Muller-lyre illusion, Ponzo illusion, Ebbinghaus illusion, Ames
room illusion, and moon illusion were discussed accordingly.
4.8 UNIT END QUESTIONS
1) Differentiate between monocular and binocular cues of perception.
2) Explain the factors responsible for movement perception.
3) Explain the size-distance invariance hypothesis, familiar size hypothesis
and the direct perception hypothesis with reference to the process of size
perception.
4) Is perception always correct? Support your view with some appropriate
examples of illusions.
5) Differentiate between illusion and hallucination.
4.9 GLOSSARY
Perception : It is a process of selecting, organising and
interpreting the sensory information.
Monocular Cues : Perceptual cues obtained from one eye only.
Binocular Cues : Perceptual cues obtained from both eyes.
Illusion : It is a process of perceptual distortion, leading to
misinterpretation of the stimulus.
Relative Size : This cue gives us information about the distance
of an object based on its relative size with a similar
object. The basic premise is that if two objects are
of the approximately similar size, then the object
which is perceived as larger is closer.
Linear Perspective : This cue is based on the convergence of straight
lines at a point on the horizon. This cue suggests 61
Perception that closure the lines are; the greater will be the
distance.
Convergence angle : Our eyes make an angle while focusing on an
object, known as convergence angle. Convergence
angle for distant and near-by objects are different.
Movement perception : It is our ability to judge the direction and speed of
a moving object.
Stroboscopic motion : In this phenomenon, when stationary stimuli are
or phenomenon presented in succession, it is perceived in a motion.
This phenomenon is used to explain the movement
perception in videos.
4.10 ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT
QUESTIONS (SAQ)
SAQ-I
1) differs slightly
2) binocular cues
3) a distance
4) visual
5) rough or distinct; less distinct or smooth
SAQ-II
1) False
2) True
3) False
4) True
5) True
4.11 SUGGESTED READINGS AND REFERENCES
Sanford, R. N. (1936). The effects of abstinence from food upon imaginal
processes: a preliminary experiment. The Journal of Psychology, 2(1), 129-136.
Atkinson, R. L., Atkinson, R. C., Smith, E. E., Bem, D. J., & Nolen Hoeksema,
S. (2009). Hilgard’s Introduction to Psychology. Fort Wirth. Texas: Harcourt
Brace College Publishers.
Changizi, M.A. & Hall, W. G. (2001). Thirst modulates a perception. Perception,
30(12), 1489-1497.
Mishra, G. & Baron, R. A. (2006). Psychology : Indian Subcontinent (5th Edition).
New Delhi, Pearson Publication
Morgan, C. T., King, R. A., Weisz, J. R. & Schopler, J. (2004). Introduction to
Psychology. New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill.
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Moore, B.C.J. (2003). An introduction to the psychology of hearing. Academic Perception: Types and
Errors of Perception
Press.
Gibson, J.J. (1979). The theory of information pickup and its consequences. In The
ecological approach to visual perception (pp. 238-263). Boston, MA:
Houghton Miflin Co.
Strawson, P. F. (1979). Perception and its objects. In Perception and Identity.
Palgrave, London.
Mather, G. (2006). Psychology of Motion Perception.
Rookes, P., & Willson, J. (2005). Perception: Theory, Development and
Organisation. Routledge.
Fish, W. (2010). Philosophy of Perception: A Contemporary Introduction.
Routledge.
Smith, A. D. (2004). The Problem of Perception. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers
private Limited, New Delhi.
Reynolds, R. I. (1988). A psychological definition of illusion. Philosophical
Psychology, 1(2), 217-223.
Foster, J. (2000). The Nature of Perception. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Coon, D. & Mitterer, J.O. (2007). Introduction to Psychology: Gateways to
Mind and Behaviour (11th edition). Delhi (India): Thomson Wadsworth.
Baron, R.A.(1999). Essentials of Psychology (2nd edition). USA: Allyn and
Bacon.
References for Images
A one-eyed minion. Retrieved May 5, 2018, from https://wallpaperscraft.ru/
download/minon_kostyum_ten_103711/1280x1024
Hot air balloons flying in the air. Retrieved May 5, 2018, from http://
www.freestockphotos.biz/stockphoto/5579
Flower meadows. Retrieved May 5, 2018, from https://commons. wikimedia.org/
wiki/File:Flowers_meadows.jpg
Near Salt Lake City by Albert Bierstadt. Retrieved May 6, 2018, from https://
psych.hanover.edu/Krantz/art/aerial.html
An example of monocular cue-linear perspective. Retrieved May 6, 2018, from
http://acddpsych.blogspot.in/2014/11/monocular-cues.html
An example of monocular cue-occlusion. Retrieved May 6, 2018, from https://
in.pinterest.com/pin/93731235972658147/
A two-eyed minion. Retrieved May 6, 2018, from http://amostpeculiarmademoi
selle.blogspot.in/2013/12/a-minion-for-little-b.html
Formation of different retinal image by left and right eyes. Retrieved May 6,
2018, from http://artnet.nmu.edu/foundations/doku.php?id=retinal_ disparity
Two convergence angles formed by our eyes. Retrieved May 6, 2018, from https:/
/psychlopedia.wikispaces.com/binocular+convergence
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Perception Moon behind clouds. Retrieved May 6, 2018, from http://courses. washington.edu/
psy333/lecture_pdfs/Week8_Day1.pdf
Muller-lyre illusion. Retrieved May 6, 2018, from https://isle.hanover.edu/
Ch07DepthSize/Ch07MuellerLyer.html
The ponzo illusion. Retrieved May 6, 2018, from http://www.illusionsindex. org/
i/ponzo-illusion
The Ebbinghaus illusion. Retrieved May 6, 2018, from http://
www.illusionsindex.org/ir/ebbinghaus-illusion
The Ames room illusion. Retrieved May 6, 2018, from http://conwaypsy
chology.webs.com/apps/photos/photo?photoid=65795121
The moon illusion. Retrieved May 6, 2018, from http://www.skyandtele
scope.com/observing/moon-illusion-confusion11252015/
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