ANSC 332: FEEDS AND FEEDING

Definitions
Feedstuff -is any product, of natural or artificial origin, that has nutritional value in the
diet when properly prepared. Feed is a material which after ingestion by animals is capable
of being digested, absorbed and utilized. Feed, also called animal feed, food grown or
developed for livestock and poultry. Modern feeds are produced by carefully selecting and
blending ingredients to provide highly nutritional diets that both maintain the health of
the animals and increase the quality of such end products as meat, milk, or eggs.
Those components of food capable of being utilized by animals are described in feed are
Carbohydrates, Proteins. Lipids, Vitamins, Mineral and water.
Nutrients – those specific elements or compounds that can be digested, absorbed and
metabolized to promote the life processes. There are six essential nutrients: Water;
Carbohydrates; Lipids (Fats & oils); Proteins; Vitamins and Minerals.
Animals use these different nutrients for different purposes, including:
1. Energy production ~ used for body movement, digestion, biochemical reactions.
2. Used to build body tissues (muscle, skeleton) and products (milk, meat, wool, etc.).
3. Minerals are also involved in biochemical reactions within the body.
4. Vitamins act as catalysts of biochemical reactions in the body.

Terminologies Commonly Used in Animal Nutrition

Nutrition is the process by which animals take in and utilize food materials. It involves
seeking of the food, ingestion, digestion, absorption of various nutrients, their transport to
all body parts, removal of unusable elements and waste products of metabolism.

Nourish is to feed or sustain an organism with substances necessary for life and growth.

Nutrients are chemical elements or compounds that are required in the diet of a given
animal to permit functioning of life processes. Therefore, a nutrient is a chemical
substance that nourishes the body or participates in the body’s metabolic functions.

Food/Foodstuff is edible material that nourishes i.e. any material that can be eaten and
upon digestion release nutrients to nourish the body.

Feed is synonymous with food but is more commonly applied to animal food than
human.

Feedstuff is any product whether of natural origin or artificially prepared that when
 properly prepared has nutritional value in the diet.

Fodder is coarse feed for livestock, especially herbivores, composed of entire plant
including leaves, stalks and grains e.g. maize, sorghum, Napier, barley.

Diet is a mixture of feedstuffs used to supply nourishment to an animal.

Balanced diet is a mixture of feedstuffs in adequate amounts and optimum proportions

which supplies the nutrients required by an animal for either maintenance or production or
both.

Complete diet is a mixture of feedstuffs in adequate amount but not necessarily in

optimum proportions.

Ration is a daily supply of feed or food i.e. it is a 24 hr allowance of a feed.

Supplement is a feed mixture used with another to improve the nutritive balance e.g.
urea, Minerals, vitamins etc.
Non protein nitrogen(NPN)- Non-protein nitrogen (or NPN) is a term used in animal
nutrition to refer collectively to components such as urea, biuret, and ammonia, which
are not proteins but can be converted into proteins by microbes in the ruminant stomach.

Metabolism is the process of building up and breaking down of chemical substances in

the body at cellular level. It can be a building up process (anabolism) or a breakdown
processes (catabolism).
The Value of a Material as A Feed

The worthiness of any material as a feed for an animal can be gauged on the basis of a
combination of the following factors:

i. The quantity and quality of the nutrients that the feed contains and this can be
determined by chemical proximate analysis and other acceptable laboratory
methods,
ii. The digestibility of the feed by the animal

iii. The amount of the feed that the animal will eat i.e. voluntary intake,

iv. The efficiency of nutrient utilization by the animal

v. The cost of the feed when compared to other substitutes that can be used as
alternatives
All these factors come into play when deciding on the feed ingredient to use in ration
 formulation, especially for commercial use as happens in feed mills.

TYPES OF FEED STUFFS

The feedstuffs can be divided into the following categories:

A. ROUGHAGES
These are feedstuffs with high fibre content and often higher that 18% crude fibre.
They are therefore considered to be high in structural polysaccharides. Generally,
they are the natural feeds of choice for the herbivores, while their use in monogastrics
is very limited often to less than 6 of the diet. Roughages are further divided into two
groups – The Succulent and Dry roughages.
(i). Succulent roughages are characterized by a high moisture content and
therefore very low dry matter. They are highly palatable mainly, especially when
they the green roughage type. Examples of roughages in this group include: pastures
(grass, legumes and grass/legume mixtures), fodder crops (Napier grass, Guatemala
grass, Sudan grass, Forage Sorghums, Green maize thinning, Sweet potato vines,
edible cana, banana pseudo stems etc.), and preserved forage in the form of silage.
The high moisture content is a major impediment to both storage and feeding of
animals, not to mention of course the high transport cost. The problem of high
moisture content is sometimes solved through wilting of the green material overnight
prior to feeding so as to increase the DM content.
(ii). Dry roughages have a very high dry matter content and therefore low
moisture content. The main examples in this group include: dry pastures that are
common in the landscape during the dry season, conserved dry forage in the form of
hay and the crop residues including cereal stover and straw, grain legume straw, and
some agro- industrial by-products such as sugar cane bagasse etc. The dry
roughages are also generally high in structural polysaccharides and
also highly lignified. The main limitations in their use as feed for herbivores are the low
nitrogen content and the high degree of lignification. They are also less palatable and bulky
to handle or transport for long distances. The highly lignified ones such as maize stover can
be treated with Sodium hydroxide and urea prior to feeding. The Urea treatment is more
widely used mainly because it carries lower health risk and is also cheaper compared to the
treatment with stronger alkalis such as NaOH. Moreover, besides the treatment effect it also
adds the N to this low N forage. The dry roughages are widely used in the tropics as
livestock feeds, especially for cattle mainly during the dry period. However, due to their
low N content and high lignification, they are considered inadequate to sustain livestock
unless they are supplemented with deficient nutrients such as N and Sulphur to stimulate
rumen microbial growth. In recent years, the availability of cereal straws and stovers, and
sugar cane bagasse for use as livestock feed in some countries has come under intense
pressure mainly because of the often more lucrative alternative use of the same material for
energy production, paper manufacture, packaging industry among other uses.

B. CONCENTRATES
These are feedstuffs that are high in nutrient content and generally have low crude fibre
(less than 18% CF) and are readily digested by both herbivores and monogastrics.
Concentrates are broadly divided into two categories: The energy and protein
concentrates.
(i). Energy concentrates: These are basically cereals and by-products of cereal
milling. The main cereals that are variably used for livestock feeds.

depending on availability and cost include maize, wheat, barley, oats, triticale, rice,
sorghum and millets. The main cereal milling by-products include bran, pollard, and
maize germ meal. Root (cassava, sweet potatoes) and tubers (e.g. Irish potatoes) are
also used as energy concentrates.
(ii). Protein concentrates: These mainly include the oil seed cakes and meals that are
by-products of oil extraction industry that have a high protein content (>20% CP). Oil
can be extracted by either mechanical or solvent extraction methods leaving a protein-
rich cake that can be used as a livestock feed ingredient. These cakes/meals include those
from sunflower, cottonseed, soybean, linseed, canola/Rapeseed, groundnut etc. Besides,
these the other protein concentrates are basically slaughter by-products such as meat
meal, meat and bone meal, blood meal, feather meal and fish meal. With the exception of
fish meal and to some extent those from poultry, the use of these slaughter by-products
are under threat mainly due to their association with mad cow disease or Bovine
spongiform encephalopathy (BSE). Indeed, the use of these slaughter materials slaughter
by products has already been banned within the European Union.
Mineral and Vitamin Supplements

Mineral supplements are added to feeds so as to boost the mineral content of the ration.
Some of the mineral supplements that are used widely include: Dicalcium phosphate, lime,
rock phosphate, bone mineral etc. Minerals and vitamins are covered in details later in this
manual.
Vitamins
These are organic substances needed in minute quantities which are essential for various
metabolic processes. They function as metabolic catalysts in form of co – enzymes
Functions of lipids
Vitamins in general are required for;
- Growth
- Reproduction
- Production
- Immunity
- General health
They don’t play any structural role in the body.
Vitamins are not being available in feeds
The level is not sufficient / adequate. This leads to developmental specific abnormalities
Animals are not able to synthesize vitamins hence must come from feeds
Animals with microbes in digestion systems, vitamins is aby product of their activities
In general vitamins activities are influenced by several factors
- Heat….. most affected are ADK and B 12
- Oxidation… most affected are A, C and B12
- Exposure to moisture conditions……… most affected are water soluble
vitamins
- Exposure to light…… ADC and Riboflavin (B6)
- Length of storage period. In general, the longer you store the feed the lower will
the vitamins activity
NB Vitamins and nutrition
Animals that have microbes within the digestive will synthesize vitamins from by products
in own microbial activity eg ruminants
In ruminants
 All vitamins B and vitamins 12 will be produced in rumen at levels that meet
animal’s requirements
 Vitamins are also stored within the body tissues and hence daily intake may not be
necessary
 Most important are fat soluble vitamins because they are stored within fats deposits
and some within the liver e.g. vitamin A for a short of time e.g. 3-6 months
Classification
1. Fat soluble vitamins (ADEK)
2. Water soluble vitamins – vit. C and B-Complex Group
Water soluble vitamins, water turnover is high due to urination, products sweat and so
water has gone together with water soluble vitamins unlike fat soluble.
Minerals
Minerals are mandatory for maintaining good health in an animal.
General functions
1. They are critical in maintaining rigidity in body structural support and providing
surfaces for muscles attachment they are components of teeth and skeleton.
2. They have osmoregulation functions where they maintain optimal osmotic potential
in body fluids e.g blood plasma.
3. They act as PH buffers to maintain constant internal environment in body fluids e.g
phosphate and bicarbonates
4. They transport of respiratory gases including O2 and Co2
5. They are components of enzymes that are important in body’s metabolic reactions
6. Part of other nutrients cobalt is part of vit B12, sulphur is part of cysteine and
thiamine
7. Components of animal products e.g. calcium in milk.
Lipids (Fat and Oils/Ether Extract)
Lipids are organic compounds that are characterized by the fact that they are insoluble in
water, but soluble in organic solvent (benzene, ether, etc). Lipids give more energy than
CHOs.
Most common lipids are:
- Fats
- Oils
- Waxes
Phospholipids are lipids attached to phosphorus
Glycolipids are lipids attached to carbohydrates
Lipoproteins are lipids attached to proteins
Role of lipids.
a) Source of energy (Camel hump is an example of fat store used during dry season).
b) Are important constituents of cell structures or biological membranes.
c) Source of heat, insulation and protection for the animal body
d) Serve as a carrier for the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins (ADEK).
e) Serve as source of metabolic water
f) They cushion important organs within the body e.g. heart, kidneys hence shock
absorbers but this should be outside the organs
g) Provide the carbon skeleton or carbon chains used for synthesis of non-essential
amino acids. Provide a.a groups, energy and carbon
Why lipids in feed
 Whenever you want to boost energy content in the feed i.e. due to high energy
density. You include small amount to raise energy content hence not big part of
final ration
 Whenever dealing with processed ingredients to reduce dustiness. This improves on
- Intake
- Handling easier
- Increase improve feed texture i.e. palatability
- Binders that will help to fix feed particles together e.g. pellets
Levels of inclusion in feeds
 In general, farm ruminant’s maximum 5% non-ruminants less than 10% of the
ration
 Limit level of inclusion in animal feed
 High lipid intake may have effect on health of animal
 High intake also lowers the product quality ie consume preference
 Rancidity (prone to oxidation). This has effect on reduction of feed intake. The
higher the degree of unsaturation the higher the effect of oxidation
 It reduces feed intake
 It reduces digestibility of feed
 Compromises on fertility and milk synthesis, tissues will be replaced with fats hence
reduce production
- In rancidity we talk about feed quality or shelf life of feed. Hence feeds with
high levels should be fed immediately
- Minimizing oxidation requires an added cost e.g. anti-oxidants and structures to
minimize oxidation
 High levels of lipids in feeds also bring a problem in handling especially in
machinery eg
- Dairy meal ---- high lipids reduce efficiency during milling, lipids stick on
materials and machines
In Ruminants
- Minimize or compromise the movement of microorganism to colonize feed
- Enzyme activity is limited
- Are important in beef production because they have an impact on carcass quality.
Affects fat cover of marble fat
 - Unsaturated lipids lead to soft fats that are prone to oxidation in either meat or milk
hence short shelf life
- Brisket, hump or surface within the muscles fat deposits
- Marbling (fat within the lean) is brought about by genetic hence we can improve on
this
- Omega 3 fatty acids are part of lipids. this reduce incidences of diabetes, heart
disease and cancer. It rich source are fish and nuts e.g. soybean oil, fat seed oil.

C. FEED ADDITIVES
Feed additives- are ingredients added to feed for purposes other than nutritive value i.e.
they do not provide nutrients but may increase nutrient utilization efficiency. Feed
additives vary widely in nature and may be organic or inorganic, natural or synthetic.
Their effect may also be singular or multiple in nature. Feed additives can be added to the
feeds at any stage during processing or even during feeding.
Feed additives are broadly categorized as follows: -
1.Enzymes: Exogenous enzymes such as pentosanases, glucanases and pectinases are
added to feeds during feed manufacturing process so that they can ameliorate the effects of
non-starch polysaccharides (NSPs) in poultry rations, Phytase (Fitase) is added to feeds so
as to break

down phytates that bind phosphorus making it less available for

absorption in the gut.

2. Antibiotic growth promotant (AGP) (i.e. antimicrobials) – Most of these are

essentially antibiotics, most of them are currently banned in some countries such as the
European Union (EU).

3. Physiological growth promotant – Most of these are hormonal derivatives such as

Diethylstilbestrol (DES), Bovine Somatotrophin (BST) among others. Most of them exert
their effect on the animal by influencing the portioning of nutrients so that more nutrients
are diverted to specific physiological process/functions such as growth for DES and
lactation in the case of BST. In spite of their enormous economic benefits, the use of most
of these promotants has raised some concern and therefore has been banned in some
countries, especially those in EU. The concern is mainly in the area of livestock and human
health following the use of these growth/physiological promotants. However, in most cases
there is no concrete scientific evidence advanced against their use apart from mere
consumer perceptions. Rather than facts, nevertheless, in today’s marketing environment
perception will almost certainly carry the day.
4. Flavours: These add good flavour to the feed and therefore make it more palatable to the
animal.

5.Mould inhabitant (i.e. antifungals): These are added to the feeds to discourage growth
of moulds. Some of the molds such as Aspergillus spp (e.g. A. flavus, A. niger) are
potentially dangerous to livestock, due to production of aflatoxin that is highly toxic
particularly to monogastrics.

6. Acidifiers: These are added to feeds so that they can increase the level of acidity in the
gut and possibly make it inhospitable for other potentially harmful microbes. The other
category of acidifiers include those added to forage in silos during the ensiling process so
that low pH (<4.0) can be achieved fairly quickly to reduce aerobic loss of nutrients.

7. Sweeteners: These are added to feeds/ration to increase palatability and therefore

improve intake. For example, Saccharin, molasses etc. Some like molasses has multiple
uses as sweeteners and energy boosters.

8.Colour enhancers: These are added to feeds so that animals using those feeds can have
products with enriched colour attributes. For example, Xanthophylls are added to poultry
feeds so that the egg yolk can have a rich golden yellow colour. Yellow maize and Lucerne
is added to layers’ marsh essentially for the same reason.

9. Buffers: These are added to high concentrate diets for dairy cows so as to ameliorate
rumen acidity (e.g. Calcium Oxide).

10. Emulsifiers: These may be used as additives in high fat diets so as to help in
emulsification and therefore facilitate fat digestion.

11. Antioxidants: These are crucial especially in feed that are high in polyunsaturated fatty
acids (PUFAs) so that they can prevent them from undergoing rancidity and other forms of
peroxidation during manufacturing and up to the time such feed are fed to the animals.
ANTIBIOTICS
These are the most widely used feed additives mainly due their dramatic effect and
economic benefits. They are used to promote growth, feed utilization efficiency in farm
animals. They also promote better health in livestock by treating sub-clinical infections or
suppressing growth of pathogenic microorganisms that may happen to

invade the body of the animal. The use of antibiotics started at the time of Alexander
Fleming when he used the antibiotic penicillin for the first time in 1928. Since then, the
use of antibiotics has increased dramatically and by 1990s they were already in wide use
for sustaining health of both livestock and human. For example, a study done in 1998
found that 15% of all antibiotics were used for animal growth promotion and 33% for
veterinary therapeutic applications. Most of the antibiotics used as growth promotants
are added to feed and/ or water. After ingestion into the animal’s body, antibiotics
deliver their beneficial effects mainly through two ways: -

1. By suppressing the growth of potentially pathogenic microbes in the animal’s

body, including those that cause sub clinical ill health effects,
2. They kill or suppress the growth of some microbes in the gut that may not
necessary be harmful pathogenically, but capable of competing for scarce
nutrients such as vitamins and trace elements with the host animal. Most of
these are enteric bacteria such as E coli.
Examples of antibiotics commonly used in farm animals include; Tetramycin,
Chloromycin, Neomycin, Apramycin, Amoxylin and Pencillin. Some of the micro-
organisms whose growth is suppressed by antibiotics include: Pasturella multocidia,
Actinobacillus pleuropneumonia, Clostridium perfrigens and Lausonia intracellularis.
Most of these microorganisms are found in unhygienic environments such as dirty pig
units and calf pens

100
Benefits of using antibiotics include:
1. Promote better health of farm animals which translate into lower veterinary
bills., and lower cost of production
2. There is better production performance such as faster growth.
3. Higher feed conversion efficiency (FCE), and therefore making production
more economical and price of the final product more competitive in the
market.

Problems Associated with the use of Antibiotics:

In spite of their enormous beneficial effects, the use of antibiotics in livestock has come under
closer scrutiny mainly due to their perceived negative effects in human. These negative
effects include:
1. The risk of increasing drug resistance by pathogenic bacteria and also other enteric
bacteria. This reduces the effectiveness of antibiotics in future therapeutic measures.
This is currently a major problem in human health where some microorganisms have
developed resistance to commonly used antibiotics such as the development of multiple
resistance TB bacteria. Some of the reasons for rapid development of resistance to
antibiotics can be attributed to overdose, under dose and in some cases use of
antibiotics in animals for periods longer than is necessary.
2. Possibility of harmful residues of the antibiotics entering in the food chain,
especially in animal products destined for human consumption such as meat, milk and
eggs. People consuming such products therefore stand a significant risk of ingesting
some of these antibiotic residues. This may be partly contributed by failure by some
of the producers to observe the

recommended withdraw period before an animal on such medication has its

products used for human consumption.
3. Putting the health of livestock workers at risk, especially when such antibiotics as
Carbadox and Olaquidox are being used.
FEEDINGS STANDARDS
Feedings standards are the tables showing the quantities of nutrients to be fed to the various
classes of livestock for different physiological functions like growth, maintenance, lactation,

egg production and wool growth. Feeding standards may be expressed in quantities of
nutrients or in dietary proportions. The nutrient requirements are generally expressed separately
for each function or an overall figure for the combined functions. In case of dairy animal,
nutrient requirements are generally expressed for the separate body functions but in case of
poultry and pigs combined requirements of maintenance and other body functions are given.
Objectives of Feeding Standards
• To Guide Farmers to selecting properly balanced rations for their livestock.
• To classify different physiological functions like growth, maintenance, lactation, egg
production and wool growth.
• Considering individual animal for preparation of feeding standards due to their ability
to digest and utilize feed.
Various units used in feeding standards
• The energy requirements of ruminants may be stated in terms of
• Net energy (NE),
• Metabolisable energy (ME),
• Digestible energy (DE) or feed units
• Protein requirements in terms of crude protein (CP),
• Digestible crude protein (DCP)
• Metabolisable protein (MP).

Examples of feeding standards

1. Grouven’s Feeding Standard- In 1859 Grouven, a German chemist published his
feeding standard with crude protein, carbohydrates and fat contained in the feed as the
basis of the standard. According to this standard a cow weighing 1,000 lbs. should be fed
28.7 lbs. of dry matter containing 2.67 lbs. of crude protein 0.6 lb. of crude fat and 14.55
lbs. of crude carbohydrates. Very soon after standard of Grouven, Henneberg and
 Stohmann found that the total nutrient contained in a feed did not form an accurate guide
to its value. The proportion of digestible parts varied with different feeds and hence the
digestible nutrient would be more valuable. So due to this defect Grouven’s feeding
standard was abandoned.
2. Wolff’s Feeding Standard- Dr. Emil von Wolff (German Scientist) -based on digestible
protein, digestible carbohydrates and digestible fats contained in a feeding stuff. This
standard though an improvement over the standard of Grouven, it does not consider the
quantity and quality of milk produced and the maintenance and production requirement
were not considered separately. Keeping these shortcomings in mind Professor Kuhn
published feeding standards in 1867 based upon the maintenance and production
requirements along with quantity of milk production.
3. Haecker’s Feeding Standard -Keeping in view the demerits of Wolff Lehmann
standard, Haecker (1903) first time considered the quantity as well as the quality of milk
produced in formulating a milk standard. He took into account the allowance for the
percentage of fat in the milk in addition to the requirement for maintenance, production
and total milk yield.  He was also the first to separate the requirements for maintenance
from the requirements of production (milk yield).  His standards included digestible
crude protein, carbohydrates and fats.
4. Morrison Feeding Standard - called “Modified Wolff and Lehmann standard”. These
standards were expressed in terms of Dry Matter (D.M.), Digestible Protein (D.P.) and
Total Digestible Nutrients (T.D.N.). Morrison indicated the nutrient requirement of
animals in a range rather than in one figure. Morrison also included allowances for Ca, P
and Carotene besides digestible carbohydrates, digestible proteins and net energy in
terms. The average of Morrison standards has been accepted for Indian livestock.
5. National Research Council (N.R.C.) Standard -The standard includes digestible
protein and total digestible nutrients and also includes the recommended requirements for
Ca, P, carotene and vit. D for dairy cattle, beef cattle, pigs, poultry, sheep, dogs, horses,
laboratory animals etc. Today in a number of countries N.R.C. standards are followed
where they use ME for poultry, DE for swine and horses, DE, ME and TDN for sheep,
ME, TDN and NEm and NEg for beef cattle and for dairy cattle.
6. Indian Standards - Dr. K. C. Sen- standards for Zebu cattle and buffaloes, based on
 Morrison’s recommendations, where they adopted the average of maximum and
minimum values recommended by Morrison. Later on Sen, Ray and Ranjhan (1978)
revised the Sen and Ray (1964) standard on the basis of experimental trials conducted in
Indian animals. These modified values are still functioning in many of our established
dairy farms.

RATION FORMULATION
In Ration formulation is a process by which different feed ingredients are combined in a
proportion necessary to provide the animal with proper amount of nutrients needed at a particular
stage of production. It requires the knowledge about nutrients, feedstuffs and animal in the
development of nutritionally adequate rations that will be eaten in sufficient amounts to provide
the level of production at a reasonable cost. The ration should be palatable and will not cause any
serious digestive disturbance or toxic effects to the animal. 
Different species, strains or classes of animals have different requirements for energy
(carbohydrates and fats), proteins, minerals and vitamins in order to maintain its various
functions like maintenance, reproduction, egg production, lactation and/or growth. 
This chapter presents the ration formulation for non-ruminants (swine, poultry, etc.) and
ruminants (cattle, carabao, sheep, goat). Formulation of rations for non-ruminants emphasizes
the use of linear programming using a computer to derive the least-cost ration. Likewise, detailed
procedure in formulating rations for beef and dairy cattle is presented. The approach used is to
maximize the use of roughage, then, concentrate is used to supply the deficient nutrients to meet
the requirement of the animals. It should be rei-nembered that rations for ruminants are
formulated on dry matter basis due to wide variations in moisture content of feeds especially
roughage. 
Important Considerations in Feed Formulation 
Ration (or feed) formulation does not merely involve mathematical calculations to meet the
requirement of the animals, since the result of the calculation may turn out to be impractical and
not ideal for feeding animals. An experienced animal nutritionist, therefore, needs to evaluate the
feed formulation before it can be given to the animals. Factors to be considered in making good
feed formulations are: 
 1. Acceptability to the animal. The ration being formulated has to be palatable enough
to stimulate intake by the animal. Feed refused by the animal is worthless, since feed
has to be consumed and utilized by animals to serve its purpose. Moreover, feeds left
too long in the feed trough may spoil and become unfit for the animal.
2. Digestibility. The nutrients in the feed have to be digested and released into the
gastrointestinal tract to be utilized by the animal. Rations with high fiber content
cannot be tolerated by poultry and swine. 
3. Cost. The requirement of the animal can be met throu-h several combinations of feed
ingredients. However, when the cost of these ingredients is considered, there can only
be one least-cost formulation. The least-cost ration should ensure that tile
requirements of the animal are met and the desired objectives are achieved. 

4.   Presence of anti-nutritional factors and toxins. The presence of anti-nutritional

factors in the feed, such as anti-trypsin factor in soybean meal, affects the digestion of
some nutrients by making them unavailable to the animal. Some feed ingredients may
also contain toxic substances, which may be detrimental to the animal when given in
excessive amounts. The inclusion of these feed ingredients should therefore be limited or
eliminated in the formulation. 

Other factors that should be considered in feed formulation are texture, moisture and the
processing the feed has to undergo. 

Methods of Concentrate Formulation

This involves use of knowledge about the nutrients to feed animals for purposes of optimum
production. Basic information needed for ration formulation include;
 Nutrient requirement of the animals which can be obtained from feeding standards e.g.
National Research Council (NRC)
 List of available ingredients and their chemical composition which may be either locally
grown, available from local markets or by-products.
 Nutritive value of the available feedstuffs
 Cost of the feedstuffs to be used so as to come up with the least cost/affordable ration
 Limitations of the various ingredients available e.g. gossypol in cotton seed cake, fish meal
not to be used above 10% in dairy meal etc
 Identifying the type of ration to be formulated i.e. either complete or supplemental ration
 Expected feed consumption by an animal or the feed palatability
 Digestibility of the different feedstuff
When formulating rations, have a variety of feedstuffs because they make the ration more
palatable and a mixture from different sources takes care of deficiencies of minerals especially
trace elements and vitamins. Diet formulation is largely a set of mathematical procedures.
The following are common methods of concentrate feed formulation:
1. Trial and error method
This is basically simple substitution of ingredients at different levels. It plays around with the
amount of feeds to arrive at the required level of nutrients. The method is tedious and time
consuming and may not produce a least cost ration. It is used when dealing with a few
ingredients.
2. Use of computers (linear programming)
This method is used for least cost formulation. Complex equations are set up to satisfy the
requirements for energy, proteins and minerals. An equation with the unit cost of each ingredient
is included. It factors in unit cost, upper limits in percentage of ingredients etc. various softwares
are available but most of them are expensive and only economically worth for large enterprises.
3. Pearson square method
Step 1: Draw up a square
Step 2: write the percentage of protein required in the feed at the centre of the square
Step 3: Draw the diagonals of the square
Step 4: write the protein of the values of the feedstuffs to be used at the left corners of the square
Figure: Major steps in Pearson square method
 Step 5: Subtract diagonally across the square, the small number from the larger one and
write the resultant values at the right corners of the square
Step 6: The resultant number on the right side of the square gives the parts or proportions
of each feedstuff required to make the intended ration.
Step 7: Add the parts to obtain the base that will be used to calculate the amounts of each
feedstuff to be used in the feed
i. Step by step method
Step A: Make a list of the ingredients being available for uptake in concentrate formulation
Give in a schedule the following data:
- TDN
- % Digestible protein
- Price by 100 Kg
- Price per 1 TDN
- Price per % digestible protein
- Safe maximum (%)
- Absolute maximum (%)
At fixing the safe and absolute maximum percentages you have to consider:
- Any toxic matters
- Any influence on quality of products
- Any bad influence on the digestive tract
- Availability of the ingredient

Step B: Fix the requirements of the feed to be composed

- A range of TDN (Considering prices per TDN)
- A minimum % of Digestible protein
- A maximum % of Digestible protein
Step C:
- Reserve 2% for the addition of any premixes
- Take up 30% ingredients which are higher in TDN than the required optimum level of
the ration
- Take those which have the lowest price per % TDN but not more than the safe
maximum percentage
- Take up 18% ingredients which are higher in digestible protein than the required
optimum level in the ration
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- Take up those which have the lowest % digestible protein but not more than the safe
maximum
- Having 50% now, start building further on step by step adding 10% at time
- Do not exceed the absolute maximum
- At 50%, 60 %,70%, 80% and 90% check TDN and Digestible protein and select on a
base that 10 % ingredients which are balancing the feed and which are cheapest
- For the last 10% upto 100% we can make use of Pearson square
- If you take up percentages between the safe and absolute maximum, the ration must be
considered as being experimental
Methods of concentrate mixing
The main mixing methods are manual (hand) and machine. Manual mixing is only
applicable when the amount of feed being mixed is small and mostly done at farm level. It
may not be possible to achieve homogenous mixture. It is cheap because it does not involve
purchase and operation cost of heavy machines
Machine mixing involves a set up and operation of very simple to very complex machine
and equipment. It is economical for bulk mixing and it achieves homogeneity and different
forms of feed presentation can be achieved.
Total Mixed Ration (TMR) Formulation
Total Mixed Ration (TMR) can be described as a mixture of both the roughage and the
processed ingredients, formulated and mixed to supply the cow’s requirements, in a form
that precludes selection. It is designed to be the sole feed source given over a 24-hour
period and fed ad libitum for optimum results. This cannot be accomplished without the use
of accurate weighing equipment and adequate and proper mixing equipment (feed mixer
wagon).
Advantages of a TMR
The benefits of formulating and providing a TMR to dairy cattle are;
 Increased dry matter intakes (DMI). Peak DMI is achieved 4 to 8 weeks earlier than
conventional systems.
 Increased milk production by approximately 5 to 8%. Each additional kg DM consumed
increases milk yield by 0,9 to 1,5l.
 Improved fat tests as a result of improved rumen fermentation, and optimal pH (acidity)
levels of 6.2 to 6,8 achieved in the rumen, resulting in both maximal rumen fermentation
and cellulose digestion leading to the formation of acetic acid, the precursor of butterfat
production.

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 Reduced digestive upsets due to each bite of feed having the same composition,
minimizing pH fluctuations in the rumen.
 Optimal protein synthesis in the rumen, as microbial protein synthesis is maximized at a
rumen pH of 6.3 to 7.4.
 No need to feed mineral/vitamin supplements as all the requirements can be included in
the TMR.
 Eliminate concentrate feeding at milking.
 A wider variety of less palatable feeds can be utilized in the ration as these are masked
by the other ingredients by the elimination of selection.
 Better control of the cow's diet.
Keys to TMR success
The implementation of a successful TMR system depends on the following factors;
 Forage quality must be good.
 Accurate weighing.
 Accurate moisture determination of feeds.
 Correctly balanced ration.
 Dry cow programme, i.e. adequate preparation.
 Feed intake monitoring is absolutely critical.

STORAGE

Feed Storage Area means a designated area at the production facility, paved or
unpaved, covered or uncovered, that is utilized for storage of any materials used to
create the rations for livestock. Also included are those areas used to store spoiled,
spilled, or other unused rations for livestock. Livestock feed should be kept in a dry place
out of direct sunlight and out of any chance of exposure to rain or dew. Create
ventilation areas that are low on the ground so the wind and rain can't get at the feed
containers. This ventilation can even be tiny holes in the bottom of your storage building.

Bulk ingredients storage:

Processing feed requires storage of ingredients in either bulk or bagged form. Micro
ingredients such as vitamins or medications are often stored in bagged form, while
ingredients such as soybean meal or dical are stored in bulk form. Ingredients stored in bulk
form are delivered to the feed processing center in 3- to 20-ton shipments. Bulk ingredient
bins should be used exclusively for one ingredient. For example, soybean meal should not

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be placed in an empty dical bin if the soybean meal bin cannot hold all the meal when
delivered.

The importance of proper ingredient storage is highlighted in the Food and Drug
Administration’s (FDA) Good Manufacturing Practices (GMPs).

 These regulations stipulate that incoming ingredients should be accompanied with a

label and that an accurate inventory of medicated ingredients, including the date of
use, be kept. Bulk ingredient storage must be designed, constructed, and installed in
such a manner that facilitates inspection and clean out of the bins and mill.

 Proper planning, design, and installation of bulk storage will help meet regulatory
compliance and enhance the efficiency and profitability of the feed manufacturing
operation.

 A 2- to 8-week supply, of bulk ingredients should be maintained in storage. Bulk

bins should be sized at a minimum of 125 percent of the expected purchase
increment. For example, if 20 tons of meal is purchased at a time, the minimum
bulk bin capacity should be 25 tons. Allowances should be made for bad weather,
delayed deliveries, and rush seasons.

 Price advantages from timely, seasonal, or volume purchases of ingredients may

result in additional storage space being required. With proportional mills, volume
purchases may reduce the adjustment required in rations. For each new shipment of
ingredients, proportional mills require adjustment since moisture, protein, energy,
fiber, or other nutrient contents may vary appreciably between purchases.

TYPES OF STORAGE

Feed ingredients are stored or temporarily held in a variety of structures. The following are
normally employed:

1. Ground level, flat-bottom bins with unloading augers are normally used for the
storage of grain.

2. Ground level, hopper-bottom bins are normally used for soybean meal, complete
rations and/or grains, such as oats, that are required in relatively small amounts.

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 3. Overhead bins normally are used to provide gravity flow to processing or mixing
equipment. Because these bins are expensive (about twice the cost per ton capacity
as ground level, hopper-bottom bins), their use must be justified by flexibility,
efficiency and labor savings in feed preparation.

4. Bagged ingredients are normally stored on pallets or a raised wooden platform.

Small pallets can be moved by a portable hand-truck.

Factors Affecting Safe Product Storage

The three major factors affecting the storability of soybean and soybean meal are moisture
content, temperature, and duration of storage. The general condition of the product and
amount of foreign materials also affect their storability.

1. Moisture Content
Moisture is perhaps the most important single factor affecting storage of Feed Ingredients
Feed ingredients with moisture above 13% should be dried to reduce the risk of
deterioration due to seed respiration, mold attack, spontaneous heating and reduced
germination. The rate of moisture adsorption or desorption is directly related to the manner
by which a product is exposed to the atmosphere. For example, soybeans kept in jute sacks
tend to gain or lose moisture more readily than soybeans in bulk form. Hence, bag storage
has as self-ventilating and cooling characteristic that makes it the preferred method over

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bulk system in many developing countries. However, bulk storage of soybeans allows the
use of aeration or cooling techniques to maintain its desirable quality in a controlled
manner. Aerating soybeans in bags is also possible but is not practical because of the
uneven airflow patterns resulting in non-uniform grain temperature.

2. Temperature
Temperature is another very important factor influencing soybean storage. Growth of fungi
and chemical changes such as oxidation increased with temperature in both meal and whole
beans. Insects develop and reproduce best between 27 and 35 0C. Below 160C insects
become inactive and die of starvation. Exposure to temperature greater than 600C kills most
insect species in 10 minutes.

Temperature also influences moisture migration. The driving force in moisture migration in
a grain mass is temperature gradient. This condition causes very small air movements and
water vapor translocation in the grain mass. It has been estimated that a grain mass
temperature gradient of about 16.70C can induce an inter-seed airflow of 0.06 m / min (0.2
ft / min). Thus, grains stored at moisture contents considered safe, may spoil because of
moisture migration associated with inter-seed air currents. The air movements in the grain
bin is influenced by the outside air temperature that creates temperature gradients in the
entire grain mass. This phenomenon affects all types of storage silos whether it is made of
concrete or metal. They vary only on the magnitude of air movement. Because of the
insulating property of grains, the effect of diurnal temperature changes on the stored grain
is minimal but is cumulative. It takes a long time of relatively constant high temperature
gradients to initiate the air movements shown in the diagrams to occur. However,
experience indicates that under hot and humid tropical conditions, grains stored in metal
bins exhibit next to the wall. This can be attributed to extreme high temperatures reached at
the inner surface of the metal silo on a hot day. At night, rapid cooling of the metal results
in moisture condensation as the dew point is reached. Caking and charring in metal silos
can be attributed to this phenomenon.

3. Duration of Storage
Deterioration of soybeans and soybean meal in storage is a combined function of its
moisture content, temperature, and duration of storage. Therefore, for safe storage, a
combination of the three factors providing unfavorable conditions for mold development,
such as low product moisture, low temperature, and short storage period are desirable.

4. Foreign Material Present

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Fine foreign materials tend to segregate during bin loading and occupy void spaces in the
central region of the grain mass. Meanwhile, the large and lighter materials will accumulate
close to the walls of the silo. During aeration, the air will flow around spots with higher
concentration of fine foreign materials and through pockets of high concentration of large
foreign materials. This condition will create a non- uniform flow of air during aeration,
thus, making it an ineffective operation. Consequently, the non-aerated pockets in the grain
mass are potential sites for hot spots that will provide ideal environment for insects to grow
and multiply. Hence, cleaning soybeans prior to storage will minimize the risk of spoilage
and economic loss. This should be part of an integrated approach to any quality
maintenance program of grain processing companies.

5. Product Condition and History

Feed ingredients with cracked, split, and storage fungi are more susceptible to attack by
stored product insects and fungi. It is generally recognized that a sound seed coat provides
some degree of protection against insect and fungal attack. For this reason, it is preferred to
have a grain handling system that minimizes cracking and splitting of soybeans. Belt
conveyors are recommended as they handle grain gently and efficiently. Belt conveyors can
also move grains for great distances without damage.

DETERIORATION INDICATORS

1. Heating
Heating is the most common indicator of a problem in stored grains and oilseeds. High
grain temperatures normally indicate either microbial or insect activity. If left unchecked,
this may lead to heat-damaged or charred grains due to the phenomenon of stack burning.
Heating in cereal grains peaks at about 580C then declines to ambient temperature. At the
peak temperature, insects and molds are killed, thus making the process self-limiting. If no
action is taken when heating in feed ingredients occurs, either the product will be lost by
stack burning (charring) or at worst, the entire facility will be lost through fire. Aerating
feed ingredients when fire has already started makes the situation worse. A temperature
monitoring system in feed ingredients storage silos is essential. Immediate corrective
measures for heating cannot be over-emphasized.

2. Change in Color and General Appearance

Discolored feed ingredients usually indicate inferior quality and lower market value. The
change in color is usually associated with mold invasion accompanied by microbial
respiration and subsequent heating. This deterioration process can be detected by periodic
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drawing of samples from the stored feed ingredients as part of an integrated approach to
quality maintenance. Once detected, appropriate measures can then be taken such as
cooling the grain either by aeration or use of a portable cooling unit. Another corrective
measure is to transfer the grain to another silo thus breaking any hot spots present and
cooling the feed ingredients during the conveying process. However, this should be done
only as a last resort since it is costly and will increase the amount of broken or split
soybeans.

3. Mustiness and Off-odor Condition

Musty odor usually indicates an advanced stage of insect or mold infestation and should be
dealt with immediately. If this is detected, the feed ingredients should be aerated to remove
the bad odor and cool the material. Beans should then be used at the earliest opportunity.
The grain should be fumigated immediately if insects are present. A sharp odor may
indicate rancidity due to chemical changes in the oil component.

4. Presence of Storage Insects

The presence of large population of weevils and small moths usually indicate an advanced
stage of infestation. Sitophilus granarium (granary weevil) may infest whole soybeans but
not soybean meal while Tribolium castaneum (red flour beetle) and Trogoderma
granarium (khapra beetle) will infest soybean meal at relative humidities above 75% and
temperatures above 300C. Ephestia cautela (almond moth) can develop even at 8.8%
moisture (wet basis) and temperature of 250C.

5. Lumping and Caking

Lumping and caking indicate a very advanced stage of fungi invasion in feed ingredients.
In metal bins, caking usually occurs on the bin walls as a result of or moisture condense on
the inner surface of the cold bin wall. The condensing moisture is absorbed by the adjacent
grains resulting in either sprouting or mold growth. Lumping may also occur in spots where
the grain moisture increased due to a leaky roof or moisture migration or translocation by
natural convection. In a bag system of storage, caking of soybeans and soybean meal may
also occur as a result of increased moisture content adsorbed from the atmosphere, leaky
roof, or due to capillary moisture from the floor. Capillary moisture can be eliminated by
putting the bags on pallets. Concrete floors can be made water-proof during construction by
installing plastic sheets as moisture barriers before pouring in the floor slab.

6. Chemical Changes in Storage

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Stored feed ingredients may undergo physical, physiological and chemical changes even
under ideal storage conditions. Some of the changes may or may not have a negative effect
on the final use of feed ingredients depending on the degree of change. One common
indicator of chemical change in stored soybean is the level of free fatty acid (FFA) present.
An increase of FFA above 1% may translate into lower quality of its oil content.

Feed Processing

Milling Machinery

1. Hammer mill

In the feed processing process there may be a number of ingredients that require some form
of processing. These feed ingredients include coarse cereal grains, corn which require
particle size reduction which will improve the performance of the ingredient and increase
the nutritive value. There are a many ways to achieve this particle size reduction.

Both hammering and rolling can achieve the desired result of achieving adequately ground
ingredients, but other factors also need to be looked at before choosing the suitable method
to grind.

 Excessive size reduction can lead to wasted electrical energy, unnecessary wear on
mechanical equipment and possible digestive problems in livestock and poultry. For
more in depth information regarding what actually occurs to the ingredients during
size reduction please refer to this link: particle size reduction.

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Advantages of using hammermills:

 They are able to produce a wide range of particle sizes

 work with any friable material and fibre
 ease of use
 lower initial investment when compared with a roller mill
 minimal maintenance needed
 particles produced using a hammer mill will generally be spherical, with a surface
that appears polished.

Disadvantages:
 less energy efficient when compared to a roller mil
 may generate heat (source of energy loss)
 produce greater particle size variability (less uniform)
 hammer mills are noisy and can generate dust pollution

General Design

The major components of these hammer mills, shown in the picture, include:

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  a delivery device is used to introduce the material to be ground into the path of the
hammers. A rotor comprised of a series of machined disks mounted on the
horizontal shaft performs this task.
 free-swinging hammers that are suspended from rods running parallel to the shaft
and through the rotor disks. The hammers carry out the function of smashing the
ingredients in order to reduce their particle size.
 a perforated screen and either gravity- or air-assisted removal of ground product.
Acts to screen the particle size of the hammer mill to ensure particles meet a
specified maximum mesh size.

Feeder design

Materials are introduced into the paths of the hammers by a variable speed vein feeder.
This type of feeder can have its motor slaved by a programmable controller to the main
drive motor of the hammer mill. The operational speed of the feeder is controlled to
maintain optimum amperage loading of the main motor.

Hammer design and configuration

The design and placement of hammers is determined by operating parameters such as rotor
speed, motor horsepower, and open area in the screen. Optimal hammer design and
placement will provide maximum contact with the feed ingredient.

A common range of tip speeds seen in hammer mills is commonly in the range between
5,000 and 7,000 m/min (~ 16,000 and 23,000 feet per minute). When the tip speeds exceed
23,000 feet per minute, careful consideration must be given to the design of the hammer
mill, the materials used in its construction, and the fabrication of all the components.
Simply changing the rotational speed of the drive source is not a recommended method of
increasing hammer speed in excess of 23,000 feet per minute.

Impact is the primary force used in a hammer mill. Anything which increases the chance of
a collision between a hammer and a target; increases the magnitude of the collision; or
improves material take-away provides an advantage in particle size reduction. The
magnitude of the collisions can be escalated by increasing the speed of the hammers.

Screen Design

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The amount of open area in a hammer mill screen determines the particle size and grinding
efficiency. The screen must be designed to maintain its integrity and provide the greatest
amount of open area. Screen openings (holes) that are aligned in a 60-degree staggered
pattern optimize open area while maintaining screen strength. This method will result in a
40 percent open area using 3.2 mm (1/8 inch) holes aligned on 4.8 mm (3/16 inch) centers.
Feed producers need to pay particular attention to the ratio of open screen area to
horsepower. Recommended ratio for grains would be 55 cm2 (~ 8-9 inches square) per
horsepower (Bliss, 1990). Not enough open area per horsepower results in the generation of
heat. When the heat generated exceeds 44C to 46C (120-125F), capacity may be decreased
as much as 50 percent.
The removal of sized material from a hammer mill is a critical design feature. Proper output
of material affects not only the efficiency of operation, but also particle size. When the
correct ratio of screen area to horsepower is used and proper distance between hammers
and screen face is maintained, most of the correctly sized particles will exit the screen in a
timely manner. Anderson (1994) stated the particles that do not pass through the screen
holes become part of a fluidized bed of material swept along the face of the screen by the
high-speed rotation of the hammers. As these particles rub against the screen and each
other their size is continually reduced by attrition. This excessive size reduction is
counterproductive. Energy is wasted in the production of heat, throughput is restricted, and
particles become too small.

Most newer hammer mills are equipped with an air-assist system that draws air into the
hammer mill with the product to be ground. Systems are designed to provide reduced
pressure on the exit side of the screen to disrupt the fluidized bed of material on the face of
the screen, thus allowing particles to exit through screen holes. Some full circle hammer
mills are designed so the screen is in two pieces. It is possible to use a larger hole size on
the upward arc of the hammers to further reduce the amount of material on the face of the
screen.

2. Roller mill

Roller mills accomplish size reduction through a combination of forces and design features.
If the rolls rotate at the same speed, compression is the primary force used. If the rolls
rotate at different speeds, shearing and compression are the primary forces used. If the rolls
are grooved, a tearing or grinding component is introduced. There is little noise or dust

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pollution associated with properly designed and maintained roller mills. Their slower
operating speeds do not generate heat, and there is very little moisture loss. Particles
produced tend to be uniform in size; that is, very little fine material is generated. The shape
of the particles tends to be irregular, more cubic or rectangular than spherical. The irregular
shape of the particles means they do not pack as well. For similar-sized particles, bulk
density of material ground on a roller mill will be about 5 to 15 percent less than material
ground by a hammer mill.

Roller mills

Advantages:

 energy efficient

 uniform particle-size distribution

 little noise and dust generation

Disadvantages:

 little or no effect on fiber

 particles tend to be irregular in shape and dimension

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  may have high initial cost (depends on system design)

 when required, maintenance can be expensive

General Design
There are many manufacturers of roller mills, but they all share the following design
features shown adjacent picture:

 a delivery device to supply a constant and uniform amount of the material to be

ground

 a pair of rolls mounted horizontally in a rigid frame

 one roll is fixed in position and the other can be moved closer to or further from the
fixed roll

 the rolls counter rotate either at the same speed or one may rotate faster; roll surface
may be smooth or have various grooves or corrugations

 bar; pairs of rolls may be placed on top of one another in a frame.

To ensure optimum operation, material must be introduced between the rolls in a uniform
and constant manner. The simplest feeder is a bin hopper with an agitator located inside it
and a manually set discharge gate. This type of feeder is best suited for coarse processing.

For grinding operations, a roll feeder is suggested. In this type of feeder, the roll is located
below the bin hopper and has a manually set or automatic adjustable discharge gate. If the
gate is adjusted automatically, it will be slaved to the amperage load of the main motor of
the roller mill.

The rolls that make up a pair will be 9 to 12 inches (23 to 30.5 cm) in diameter, and their
ratio of length to diameter can be as great as 4:1. It is very important to maintain the
alignment between the roll pairs. Sizing of the material is dependent upon the gap between
the rolls along their length. If this gap is not uniform, mill performance will suffer, leading
to increased maintenance costs, reduced throughput, and overall increased operation costs.
The gap may be adjusted manually or automatically through the use of pneumatic or
hydraulic cylinders operated through a computer or programmable controller.

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Each pair of rolls is counter rotating. For improved size reduction one of the rolls rotates
faster. This results in a differential in speed between the roll pair. Usually a single motor is
used to power a two high roll pair, with either belt or chain reduction supplying the
differential. In a three high roll pair, the bottom pair will have a separate drive motor. In
addition, the roll faces can be grooved to further take advantage of the speed differential
and improve size reduction.

Vertical mixer

Mixing

Efficient mixing is the key to good feed production.

The feed will not be the balanced formulation it is designed to be unless it is properly
mixed. Dry mixers are a mechanical means of achieving this and come in two main types -
vertical mixers and horizontal mixers.

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The vertical mixer (illustrated on the Top) consists of one or more vertical screws which
elevate the ingredients to the top of the mixer where they fall by gravity to the bottom, to
be mixed and re-elevated.

Vertical mixers are the most common type found in small livestock feed mills. However,
the vertical type is less well suited to aquaculture, poultry and fish feeds than the horizontal
type, which are much more efficient in blending in small quantities of liquids (such as
added lipids) or in mixing ingredients with different particle sizes.

Horizontal mixers consist of a series of paddles or metal ribbon blades mounted on a

horizontal rotor within a semi-circular trough. The blades move the material from one end
of the mixer to the other, tumbling it as it goes. These mixers usually discharge the mixed
product from the bottom, using the same mixer blade action. See above for inside views of
both a paddle mixer and a ribbon mixer.

Another type of mixer, which is similar to the horizontal type in action, has a bowl-shaped
or flat-bottomed container in which a series of paddles are mounted on a spindle driven by
a motor mounted either above or below the mixer (See pictures below). This type of mixer
has the same advantages over the vertical type of mixer as the horizontal mixers mentioned
earlier. In addition, it is cheap and is therefore frequently used in farms, particularly in
South East and South Asia. It can also be used for mixing moist feeds.

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Mixers (For wet feed ingredients)

Vertical mixers are unsuitable for mixing wet ingredients. Horizontal mixers are more
suitable but, because of their complex construction, are often difficult to clean properly.
There is also a tendency for sticky materials to adhere to the blades and to accumulate at
one end of the mixer. Simple bowl or circular mixers, pictured above, are the most suitable
types for mixing wet ingredients or mixtures of wet and dry materials. They can also be
advantage (perhaps as high as 85 percent) over a hammer mill in terms of throughput/kwh
of energy. For cereal grains processed to typical sizes (600 to 900 microns) for the feed
industry, the advantage is about 30 to 50 percent. This translates into reduced operating
expense.

Pellet mills

The process of pelleting consists of forcing a soft feed through holes in a metal die plate to
form compacted pellets which are then cut to a pre-determined size. The machinery which
has been developed for this purpose is now very diverse in design and there is much
controversy between different equipment manufacturers as to which type is the most
effective. Pelleting is a key to the production of high quality nutritional feeds as they ensure
that the feed formulation is in the correct quantities for all that eat them. Each bite of a
pellet will have the same designed formulation ensuring all the stock are feed as intended.

Most pellet mills now have one or more conditioning units mounted above them where
liquids such as water and molasses can be added to improve pelletability. The water is
sometimes added in the form of steam which softens the feed and partially gelatinizes the

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starch content of the ingredients, resulting in firmer (and for aqua feed more water stable)
pellets.

From the conditioner, the feed falls into the center of the pelleter itself. In the pelleter two
or more rollers and feed ploughs push the material through the holes of the die plate (see
illustration below). A photograph of a die plate is shown in the photo above right:

Usually the die plate itself rotates, and on its outer-side stationary knives cut the pellets to a
pre-set length. From there, they are transferred to a cooler/drier to remove the heat which is
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generated during the pelleting process or is often added during steam conditioning. The
moisture content of the pellets also needs to be reduced for proper storage.

Pelleting and the efficient operation of pellet mills are specialized subjects on which many
books have been written. All makers of pelleting equipment provide instruction in their use
and some organize training courses in this and related topics.

Die hole sizes usually range from 1.5 mm (shrimp) up to 9.5 mm. The thickness of the die
plate helps to determine the compactness and stability of the pellet.

Pellet Feed Crumblers

A crumbler is a roller mill with rolls specially designed for breaking up pellets into smaller
particles. Usually the crumbler consists of two corrugated rolls situated below the
cooler/drier exit. The pellets can then be diverted into the crumbler, if crumbles or granules
are desired, or they can by-pass it.

Feed screeners, sieves and seperators

The sifter (also refered to as sieves, screens and screeners) is a separator, usually
oscillating, with a number of screens. It is used to separate crumbles or granules which are
too large, both in pellet and crumble manufacture, and to screen off the dusty portion
(fines) of the feed for return to the pelleter for further processing. The sifter (See picture
below) is a means of ensuring a good quality product with the right particle size and a low
level of fines, which are wasteful to feed.

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Feed Extruders
The extrusion cooking process, because it causes a high level of gelatinisation of starches,
results in feeds with good water stability. It can produce 'expanded' floating feeds as well as
sinking pellets. The process also improves the digestibility of the product. However,
extrusion cookers are usually very large and expensive to purchase and operate.

Feeds which have ingredients such as soybean meal and cereal grains can be made more
digestible, and the nutrients are therefore more available. Floating feeds are made using
extruders along with highly water-stable sinking feeds which can be made with extruders
as well. In some cases, extruders are used just to prepare feed materials, such as dry
extrusion of soybeans.

Basically, an extruder is a long barrel with a screw auger inside which is specially designed
to subject feed mixtures to high heat and steam pressure. When feed exits the die at the end
of the barrel, trapped steam blows off rapidly, the soft warm pellets expand, and a low
density floating pellet is produced. Extruders are very versatile, and can make feeds with
many different characteristics. The main problem with extruders is that they are expensive
to buy and maintain, and the feed manufacturers pass this cost on to feed buyers.

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Another type of feed which can be made on extruders are soft-dry feeds. This type of feeds
is usually high in moisture (12-15%) and fat (15%). They usually contain a number of
preservative agents to prevent spoilage. Soft-dry feeds can be used for fish that prefer to eat
soft feeds, yet they do not need refrigeration like moist feeds.

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Oil Coating Machinery

Most dry-expanded feed operations apply liquid fat and/or flavors after drying, cooling, and
sizing to enhance the acceptability and palatability of their products. Where it is preferred
that the drying and cooling modes be accomplished in separate pieces of equipment, these
feedstuffs often are coated after drying but prior to cooling. This choice has the advantage
of coating a warm product which improves absorption. Liquid fats and flavors are normally
applied in revolving cylindrical reels by spraying a mist of liquid or sprinkling a dry
powder over the product as it enters the rotating reel. The reels are heated to keep the fat
from solidifying on the inner surface of the reel. Fat heating tanks, used as a surge for the
fat addition system, normally have the capability of preheating the fat to 60°C which is the
recommended temperature. A metering device is used to meter the dry pet food into the
rotating applicator reel to ensure that an accurate level of dry material is mixed with the
added fat. When fat is added at percentages between one and five percent, a misting nozzle
is normally used inside the fat coating reel. When applying higher percentages, a flood type
nozzle is used.

Another coating device cascades the dry product through a “curtain” of liquid coating
created by a spinning disc assembly. This eliminates the need for spray nozzles. Recently,
high speed mixing machines have been utilized to uniformly apply liquids to pet foods.
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These machines load and discharge their contents rapidly to actually convert a batch
process to a continuous-batch system. Liquids are “slugged” into the mixer and depend
upon the tremendous particle movement to wipe it from particle to particle. Typical cycle
times per batch are 5 to 30 seconds.

Vacuum infusion coating systems have several process benefits over atmospheric systems,
such as up to a 40 percent liquid addition and the infusion of coatings into the pellet cell
structure. Vacuum infusion draws coating liquids into all air cells within the extruded
product while atmospheric processes result only in topical coating of the feed.

Bagging and Packaging Equipment

From the finished product bins there are a wide number of available options for storing or
bagging the feed. If finished feed is for own use the feed will be transferred to the storage
location.

For larger scale operations feed will either be bulk transport, loading directly onto trucks or
ships or it will be packed into bags. Packaging systems are available in both manual and
automatic form. For the manual system, the feed is deposited into bags positioned on a
weighing scale, release is done upon a manual gate.

An automatic system would normally comprise of a computer controlled system, where the
finished feed is weighed by the computer, then pneumatically discharge into the bags.
Weighed bags would then travel along a conveyor where machines are available for sewing
the tops of the bags in which dry feed may be placed for storage.

Steam Feed Conditioners

The importance of steam conditioning was quantified in an experiment comparing dry
pelleting with pelleting using steam conditioning. The results of this study indicated that
steam conditioning improved pellet durability and production rates and decreased the
amount of fines generated and energy consumption. From this, it was concluded that steam
acted as a lubricant to reduce friction during pelleting. Mash entering the conditioner may
be comprised of a wide variety of ingredients that make up the diet formulation. The
nutritional, as well as physical properties of this mash have an effect on conditioning and
eventual pellet quality. Pellet quality is proportionally dependent on the following factors:
40% diet formulation, 20% particle size, 20% conditioning, 15% die specifications, and 5%
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cooling and drying. If this is correct, 60% of pellet quality is determined before the mash
enters the conditioner. This increases to 80% after conditioning, but before mash has even
entered the die chamber of a pellet mill.

Steam feed Conditioners

Conditioning improves compressibility and binding properties of feed mixtures by using:

Heat - Moisture - Time. It is a very important process which needs to be taken before the
pelleting process, and most feed machinery manufacturers will have pellet mills fitted with
1-3 conditioners nowadays. Conditioning plays an even more important part in the
production of shrimp and aqua feeds as it provides the feed with better water stability
which is an essential part to these types of feed

Feed Conveying Equipment

There are many different types of equipment for conveying feeds from one part of a mill to
another or from one piece of equipment to another. Some are designed to operate
horizontally, some on a slope, others elevate the material vertically to a different level of
the building. The requirement for elevators and conveyors will depend on how automated
the mill is to be and how its plant is laid out.
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The utmost use of such equipment is made in the modern animal feed mill (often using
pneumatic systems) to minimize labour needs and to maximize the use of land by building
multi-storey, rather than horizontally arranged plants.

Bagging and Packaging Equipment

From the finished product bins there are a wide number of available options for storing or
bagging the feed. If finished feed is for own use the feed will be transferred to the storage
location.

For larger scale operations feed will either be bulk transport, loading directly onto trucks or
ships or it will be packed into bags. Packaging systems are available in both manual and
automatic form. For the manual system, the feed is deposited into bags positioned on a
weighing scale, release is done upon a manual gate.

An automatic system would normally comprise of a computer controlled system, where the
finished feed is weighed by the computer, then pneumatically discharge into the bags.
Weighed bags would then travel along a conveyor where machines are available for sewing
the tops of the bags in which dry feed may be placed for storage.

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OVERVIEW OF THE FEED INDUSTRY

Feed recourses

The abundant tropical feed resources are natural pastures, green fodder, cereal straws, food
crops and agro-industrial by-products upon which many animals depend on for all their
nutrients requirements. These feeds, which constitute the main diets as well as energy
supplements, are rainfall dependent.

They have common characteristics,

 They have low protein content, and they are poor in fermentable Nitrogen (N), they
are often imbalanced for minerals, but rich in carbohydrates. The high
carbohydrates content is due to their high fibre content.

 Consequently, these deficiencies and high variability in the nutrient content of feed
resources make supplementation with high density feeds inevitable. Unfortunately,
these supplements are very costly, limited in quantities and irregularly available

 They also have wide variability in quality depending on their source, and lack of
understanding by farmers as to their nutritive values. As a result of the low and
unbalanced energy, protein, minerals and vitamins content from these tropical
feeds, the performance of livestock is highly affected. In particular, the growth
rates and reproductive performance of heifers is low. This may be an additional
reason why most heifers in the tropical regions don’t achieve sexual maturity
before 14 – 15 months of age. Nutrition may hinder heifers not to achieve their
genetic pottential for the good milk.

Deficiencies of nutrients in the diets of ruminants fed low quality roughage (e.g. tropical
pastures or crop residues in the dry season) constrain animal growth. Most of these
deficiencies can be corrected by supplementation. Supplementation of tropical roughages
with leguminous fodder trees are a promising way of alleviating nitrogen deficiencies
(Palmer and Jones, 2000). The use of commercial concentrates is another way of improving
roughage utilization. However, for small-scale livestock farmers, these concentrates are
expensive and are not always available. Hence the use of home grown legumes would be
highly recommended. Supplementation of ruminant diets using forage legume trees is
expected to alleviate the deficiencies of crop residue diets by supplying nitrogen. Protein
rich supplementation with tree legume forages results in similar or increased intakes of the
basal diets.
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Feeding Dairy Animals

The major stampling block is the poor nutrition is mainly due to seasonality in the quantity
and quality of available feed resources. Increasing land subdivision aggregates this
shortage. Most cattle on smallholder farms subsist on natural pastures obtained either
within the homesteads, communal grazing areas or along the roadside. There is an
increasing trend towards stall feeding (zero- grazing) or semi-zero grazing, where Napier
grass is the principal fodder and an assortment of other feedstuffs such as cereal Stover’s
which stand at 67% of the farms, banana residues, Rhodes grass (Chloris gayana), sorghum
(Sorghum bicolor) among others.

On-farm availability of forage in most areas is very low, typically being less than 5 kg dry
matter per head per day. This is partly due to the small area available for forage production,
but undoubtedly it is also a result of the lack of use of technology which could support a
higher level of forage production. Ignorance of the technology and fears of lack of
economic return have limited forage yield at the farm level. It should also be noted that the
figures in the table are based on an average year-round forage supply, masking the
problems associated with a seasonal pattern of fodder or pasture growth.

The low level of on-farm forage supply indicated in Table 7 is completely inadequate for
even the maintenance requirements of the dairy animal. That the animals survive at all,
albeit to produce milk at a low level, indicates that they must be obtaining feed from other
sources. This must be particularly true during the dry seasons (normally two per year) when
fodder or pasture growth is reduced.

Feed-resource options available to the smallholder

The options open to the smallholder for feed for his livestock can be summarized as
follows: Fodders and pastures; On-farm by-products; Industrial by-products; Bought-in
roughages; and Concentrates

Fodders and Pastures

Napier grass, has considerably increased since then at the expense of grazing area

However, the effective exploitation of the higher potential of feed availability from the
fodder has required that the farmer switch to some form of "cut-and-carry" or stall-feeding
system to reduce the wastage that occurs from trampling and soiling by dung and urine
during grazing. This switch has a number of management implications, especially with

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regard to the need for a continual supply of labour and feed as the animal can no longer
find feed for itself.

The switch away from pasture use has also been encouraged by the lack of animal-
production research data on the limited range of locally available pasture grasses - whose
seeds are in any case extremely expensive at more than KSh. 50 per kilogram.

Establishment of planted pastures, especially essential early attention to weeding, is also

difficult for the small farmer who is tied up with his arable crops at the same time in the
season. Natural pastures containing grasses long known to be of high nutritional value,
such as star and Kikuyu grasses, though available in some areas, are losing ground to
folders, particularly Napier grass, due not only to their lower yield potential but also to the
desire of farmers to adopt the widely publicized technology of zero-grazing. Although off-
farm grazing, and even cutting of grass from outside the farmstead do occur throughout the
area under study, especially in Districts with higher proportions of non-agricultural land,
increasing land pressure will undoubtedly reduce the availability and reliability of this
supply.

Napier grass has been mentioned frequently as the example of a fodder crop in the
smallholder regions of Kenya and it is at present by far the most common in terms of its
contribution to the national on-farm feed supply

Conservation of either fodders or pasture material is extremely uncommon in the

smallholder areas at present. The availability of surpluses is extremely limited given the
high stocking densities on the farms. In addition, the technology for making hay or silage
on a scale appropriate to the actual farm-resource level has not yet been identified, although
promising results have been obtained from preliminary studies in Napier grass silage
production by the Dairy Development Programme in Coast Province (Voskuil, personal
communication).

Planted pastures

Pasture research for medium- and low-potential areas has been going on for many years.
However, it has not received adequate attention compared to pasture research in high-
potential areas, and thus development of relevant technology for farmers in these areas has
lagged behind.

Grasses for Planted Pastures

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The species that are recommended for dryland farming areas included Chloris gayana
(Kunth), (Mpwapwa, Mbarara and Rongai), Panicum coloratum L. (coloured Guinea
grass). Panicum maximum Jacq (Guinea grass, varieties Makueni and Mackinnon Road).
Other species which had been tested included Cenchrus ciliaris, Brachiaria brizantha,
Themeda triandra and Cynodon dactylon.

Table. Dry-matter yield of 12 selected pasture grass ecotypes at Katumani Research

Station

1983 long rains (good season) 1984 short rains

Ecotypes DM production Rank DM production Rank

(mean t/ha) (mean t/ha)

P. maximum

K7317/21 4.06 1 2.72 7

K583/87 4.03 2 0.36 11

P. coloratum K5389 3.33 7 2.82 6

P. maximum (Makueni) 3.28 8 4.90 2

P. maximum K6462 3.17 9 5.11 1

Brachiaria brizantha 3.10 10 1.10 8

P. coloratum 52430 2.89 11 0.39 10

Cenchrus ciliaris 2.64 12 4.06 4

Although suitable pasture species can be identified through vigorous introduction and
selection, the overall place of such grasses for ley farming in these dryland environments is
becoming questionable. This is because of the difficulty of establishing and maintaining
such pastures under an inadequate rainfall regime since, in the main, they have to be
established from seed. The use of fertilizers for establishing these pastures is not
economically feasible. Furthermore, the place of these pastures in small-farm systems is not
clear in view of the type of livestock-raising system presently being practiced.

Legumes for Planted Pastures

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A number of pasture legumes have been introduced and are being tested. Among these are
Stylosanthes scabra, Macroptilium atropurpureum (siratro) and Leucaena leucocephala.
These are still being examined both for use in grass/legume mixture leys or for improving
pasture grazing schemes. Much testing for drought tolerance and herbage yield will be
needed.

It has been suggested that productive legumes are absent from pastures in some parts of
Kenya either because they have not been introduced or because they have not been
maintained for various reasons including:

a) Inadequate supply of nutrients and possibly trace elements;

b) Failure to tolerate heavy grazing,

c) Drought stress;

d) Ineffective nodulation,

e) Insufficient quantity of germinable seed of annual species at the start of the growing
season; and

f) Availability and cost of seed.

It is therefore suggested that serious research gaps exist in the area of pasture legumes for
marginal- and low-potential areas and particularly the improvement of indigenous legume
species such as Neonotonia wightii and Trifolium semipilosum glabrescens. Development
of legumes which could be used to provide ground cover on arable land and high quality
livestock feeds during the dry season should be given high priority.

Fodder Crops

Planted fodder crops, annual and perennials, are becoming very important animal feed
resources in the medium-potential areas, mainly because of their apparent dry-matter-yield
superiority. The most important species are elephant grass or Napier grass (Pennisetum
purpureum), and Guinea grass (Panicum maximum). Napier grass has received more
research attention than most other potential fodder crops and has become very popular with
farmers in all areas. Two varieties of Napier grass, i.e. French Cameroon and Bana, and one
hybrid (Pennisetum purpureum x Pennisetum typhoides), known as Bajra, have been
studied the most.

On-Farm By-Products

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The principal food crops with residues that are suitable for animal feeding are maize,
sorghum, millet, beans, cow peas, pigeon peas, cassava and sweet potatoes. Maize is the
most abundant, followed by sorghum, beans and pigeon peas.

By-products as Feed Supplements

The majority of dairy cattle in the Kenya depend on low quality natural pastures and crop
residues. In smaller hold dairy farms, the by-products that were in common use included
maize Stover, bean husks, banana leaves and stems, cotton seed cake and maize germ
among others.

Agro-Industrial By-Products

The nutritional value of some of these materials is notably higher than that of most
roughages, with the value of materials such as brewer's waste (machicha) having been
recognized widely. Materials such as pyrethrum marc and poultry waste have levels of
protein which enable their use in the formulation of concentrate rations, or for raising the
feeding value of roughages such as silage.

Table. Agro-industrial by-products useful for animal feed

Source Residue Remarks

Coffee Hulls No availability estimate High fibre reduces

digestibility

Pulp No availability estimate High water

content/low palatability

Sisal Pulp Est. 41,000 tonnes available p.a. High water

content/low palatability

Coconuts Copra/meal Est. 33,000 tonnes available p.a. High

fibre/low digestibility

Cashew Waste Est. 20,000 tonnes available p.a. High

fibre/low digestibility

Pineapple Waste No availability estimate High water

content/low protein

Pyrethru Marc No availability estimate High protein feed,

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 m good quality

Barley Brewer's grains No availability estimate Excellent roughage

(Machicha) when available

Sugarcane Tops/waste No availability estimate High energy content

but high fibre

Cereals Milling residues No availability estimate Quality varies

according to fraction

Poultry Waste No availability estimate High protein content

from faeces source and possibly sanitization

Cattle Abattoir waste No availability estimate Quality variable from

high (blood) to roughage (rumen contents)

As with the on-farm by-products, there is a clear need for further evaluation of the
availability and animal-production-support capability of the agro-industrial materials. The
quantity of material, cost of purchase and transport to the farm will be a highly site-specific
combination, but general principles regarding the incorporation of such materials into the
whole farm budget may be clarified by research.

Commercial Feeds

 There are many companies producing commercial feeds. Most of them are cottage
industries, that are run by non-experts majorly former civil servants and farmers.

 Most of the feed ingredients come from local produce, and local imports from
several African countries.

 Majority of the ingredients have variable composition and ever changing prices.
Availability is seasonal, and so it is difficult to guarantee the ingredients of a
particular feed brand in the market.

 Quality assurance centres are few and expensive and therefore rarely done.

 Several of this feeds have additives of unspecified quantities and sources, i.e.
enzymes, growth promoters etc.

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