Presented by

Nimmagadda Srilatha, Asst.Professor

MED/VNRVJIET
Geometric modeling is a branch of applied
mathematics and computational geometry that
studies methods and algorithms for the
mathematical description of shapes.
The shapes studied in geometric modeling are
mostly two- or three-dimensional, although many
of its tools and principles can be applied to sets of
any finite dimension.
Total product cycle in a manufacturing environment

Geometric
Ideas Modelling

Design Production
Analysis

4
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W h y G e o m e t r i c m o d e l i n g is n e e d e d

 Geometric (3D) models are easier to interpret.

 Simulation under real-life conditions.
 L es s expensive than building a physicalmodel.
 3 D models can be used to perform finite element analysis
(stress, deflection, thermal)
 3D models can be used directly in manufacturing,
Computer Numerical Control (CNC).
 C a n be used for presentations andmarketing.
Types of geometric modeling
methods

 Wireframe modeling – The line model,

 Surface modeling
– The surface model, and
 Solid modeling
– The solid or volume model
3D geometric representation techniques
P2

P1 P3 S8
P10
S5
S6
P4 S4

P9 P12
P5 S3
P11
P8 S1
P6
S7 S2

P7
(a) LINE MODEL (b) SURFACE MODEL

V1
V2

(c) VOLUME MODEL

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 W i r e f r a me M o d e l i n g
 Wire-frame modelling uses points and curves (i.e. lines,
circles, arcs) to define objects.
 The user uses edges and vertices of the part to form a 3-D
object

Wireframe model Part

One can use a wire frame model to
1. View the model from any vantage point
2. Generate standard orthographic and auxiliary
views automatically
3.Generate exploded and perspective views easily
4. Analyze spatial relationships, including the
shortest distance between corners and edges, and
checking for interferences
5. Reduce the number of prototypes required
Advantages of Wireframe model:
1. Simple to construct
2. Designer needs little training
3.System needs little memory
4. Take less manipulation time
5. Retrieving and editing can be done easy
6.Consumes less time
7. Best suitable for manipulations as orthographic isometric and perspective
views.
Disadvantages of Wireframe model:
1. Image causes confusion
2. Cannot get required information from this model
3. Hidden line removal features not available
4. Not possible for volume and mass calculation, NC programming cross
sectioning etc
5. Not suitable to represent complex solids
Wireframe mo d elin g - Ad vantages

 Can quickly and efficiently convey information than

multiview drawings.

 Can be used for finite elementanalysis.

 Can be used as input for CNC

machines to generate simple parts.

 Contain most of the information needed to create surface,

solid and higher order models
 Wireframe mo d el i n g -
Disadvantages

 T e n d to be not realistic
 D o not represent an actual solids (no surface and
volume).
 Cannot model complex curved surfaces.
 Cannot be used to calculate dynamic properties.
 Ambiguity
 complex model difficult to interpret.
Fig. 4.3 A geometric model represented in
wire-frame model

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Fig. 4.4 Ambiguities present in the wire-frame
model

CAD/CAM Principles and 42

Applications by P N Rao, 2nd Ed
Fig. 4.5 Impossible objects that can be
modelled using a wire-frame model

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Wi r e f ra me m o d e l i n g -D i s a d v a n t a g e s

What does thisobject look like?

 Ambiguous views
 Surface Modeling

“ A surface model represents the skin of an object,

these skins have no thickness or material type ”

 Surface modeling is more sophisticated than wireframe

modeling in that it defines not only the edges of a 3D
object, but also its surfaces.
 I n surface modeling, objects are defined by their
boundingfaces.
 3D Surface Model
A surface model can be used to represent the surface profile of
these objects.
1. Surface models are created using points, lines, and planes.
2. It is more complete and less ambiguous representation than
its wire frame model
3. It is an extension of a wire frame model with additional
information
4. A wire frame model can be extracted from a surface model by
deleting all surface entities

5. Databases of surface models are centralized.

6. Hence, manipulation of surface entities in one view is

automatically reflected in the other views.

7. Surface models can be shaded and represented with hidden

lines
From CAD/CAM point of view surfaces are as
important as curves and solids. We need to have
an idea of curves for surface creation. In the
same way surfaces form the boundaries of the
solids.
Types
Analytical surfaces
Eg. Plane surfaces, sphere, ellipsoid
Synthetic surfaces
Eg. Bicubic surface, Bezier surface
Application
Modeling parts in CAD/CAM, representation
of data surfaces like isothermal planes, stress
surfaces/contours
It is just an extension of representation of curves.
We can represent a surface as a series of grid points
inside its bounding curves.
Surfaces can be in two-dimensional space (planar)
or in three-dimensional space (general surfaces).
Surface can be described using non-parametric or
parametric equations
Surfaces can be represented by equations to pass
through all the data points (fitting) or have patches
of them connected at the data points
(approximations)
The plane is the most basic feature to represent a surface
element. More complex shapes can be defined by
1.tabulated cylinders,
2. ruled surface
3. surface of revolution
4.sweep surface and
5. fillet-surfaces.
 S u r face Entities
 Analytic entities include :
• Plane surface,
• Ruled surface,
• Surface of revolution
• Tabulated cylinder.
• Fillet surface
• Offset surface
• curved surface(single and double curved)
 Synthetic entities include
• Hermite Cubic spline surface,
• B-spline surface,
• Bezier surface, and
• Coons patches.
2. Curved Surface
The two types of curved surfaces are the following:
(a)Single Curved Surface
It is a simple curved surface. For example, it can be
generated by a straight line revolved around an axis, such as
cylindrical surface. Some other examples are conical
surfaces, and surfaces of pyramids, prisms and conics. This
surface can be developed using geometric techniques.
(b) Double Curved Surface
It is a complex surface generated not by a straight line
but by a curved surface. This surface is not developable. Some
examples of these surfaces are spherical, torus, ellipsoid and
hyperboloid. These surfaces are used for airplane fuselages,
spherical fuel tanks, automobile bodies and ship hulls.
Ruled Surface
A ruled surface is a surface constructed by transitioning between two or more
curves by using linear blending between each section of the surface. An example
of a ruled surface is shown in Fig. 4.19. The selection of the starting point on the
curve for the surface determines the actual surface obtained. This is shown in Fig
4.20 where the two different surfaces were obtained from the same data points
based on the sequence in which the points were selected. A planar surface can be
obtained by forming a ruled surface
Ruled (lofted) surface. This is a linear surface. It interpolates
linearly between two boundary curves that define the surface.
Coons Surface
A Coons surface or patch is obtained by blending four
boundary curves. The single patch can be extended in both
the directions by adding further patches. The blending of
these patches can be done either by means of linear or
cubic blending functions, thereby giving rise to a smooth
surface linking all the patches.
COONS SURFACE
Bezier surface. This is a surface that approximates given input
data. It is different from the previous surfaces in that it is a synthetic
surface. Similarly to the Bezier curve, it does not pass through all
given data points. It is a general surface that permits, twists, and
kinks . The Bezier surface allows only global control of the surface.
B-spline surface. This is a surface that can approximate or
interpolate given input data. It is a synthetic surface. It is a general
surface like the Bezier surface but with the advantage of permitting
local control of the surface.
Surface of revolution. This is an axisymmetric surface that can
model axisymmetric objects. It is generated by rotating a planar
wireframe entity in space about the axis of symmetry a certain
angle.
Fig. 4.12 Component produced by the
rotational sweep technique

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Tabulated cylinder. This is a surface generated by translating a
planar curve a certain distance along a specified direction (axis of
the cylinder).
OFFSET SURFACE
FILLET SURFACE
Fig. 4.6 Generation of 3D geometry using
planar surfaces
S5

S3

S6
S5
S6 S8 S8
S4

S3

S1 S4

S7 S2

S1 S2
S7

(b) SURFACE MODEL

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Surface m o d el i n g - Ad va ntages
 Eliminates ambiguity and non-uniqueness present in wireframe
models by hiding lines not seen.
 Render s the model for better visualization and presentation,
objects appear more realistic.
 Provides the surface geometry for CNC machining.
 Provides the geometry needed for mold and die design.
 Can be used to design and analyze complex free-
formed surfaces (car bodies)
 S ur face properties such as roughness, color and reflectivity can
be assigned and demonstrated.
Surface m o d el i n g - Disadvantages

 Surface models provide no information about the inside of

an object.

 Cannot be used to calculate dynamic properties.

 4.3 Geometric Construction
Methods

• The three-dimensional geometric

construction methods which extend
from the 2D that is normally used are:
– Linear extrusion or translational sweep,
and
– Rotational sweep.

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Fig. 4.8 Component model produced using
translational (linear) sweep (extrusion)

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Fig. 4.10 Component model produced using linear

sweep with the sweep direction along a 3D curve

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 Fig. 4.11 Component model produced using

translational (linear) sweep with an overhanging edge

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 Solid Modeling
 I n the solid modeling, the solid definitions include vertices
(nodes), edges, surfaces, weight, and volume. The model
is a complete and unambiguous representation of a
precisely enclosed and filled volume
Meth o d s of C r e a t i n g S o lid Models

 Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG), CAD packages;

Unigraphics, AutoCAD – 3D modeler.
 Boundary Representation (B-rep), mostly used in
finite element programs.
 Parametric Modeling, CAD packages: SolidWorks,

Pro/Engineer
 Primitive solids

Primitive creation functions:

 These functions
retrieve asolid of a simple
shape from among the
primitive solids stored in
the program in advance
and create a solid of the
same shape but of the size
specified by the user
 C o n s t r u c t i v e S o l i d G e o m e t r y , CSG
 C S G defines a model in terms of combining basic and
generated (using extrusion and sweeping operation) solid
shapes.
 Objects are represented as a combination of simpler solid
objects (primitives).
 C S G uses Boolean operations to construct a model.
 Ther e are three basic Boolean operations:
Union (Unite, join) - the operation combines two
volumes included in the different solids into a single solid.
Subtract (cut) - the operation subtracts the volume of
one solid from the other solid object.
Intersection - the operation keeps only the volume
common to both solids
Boolean Operations

Subtract

Intersection
Union
S o l i d M o d e l i n g E x a m p l e U s i n g CSG Union

Plan your modeling strategy

before you start creating the
solid model
Cut

Cut
Fig. 4.13 Various solid modelling primitives

87
Fig. 4.14 The Boolean operators and their
effect on model construction

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Fig. 4.15 The Boolean operators and their
effect on model construction

89
 (CSG)- d a t a s t r u c t u r e
 D a t a structure does not define model shape explicitly bu
t rather
implies the geometric shape through a procedural description
 E . g: object is not defined as a set of edges & faces but b
y
the instruction : union primitive1 with primitive 2
 T hi s procedural data is stored in a data structure referred to as a

CSG tree
 T h e data structure is simple and stores compact data  easy o
t
manage
 CSG T r e e
 C S G tree  stores the history of
applying boolean operations on the
primitives.
 Stores in a binary tree format
 T h e outer leaf nodesof tree
represent the primitives
 T h e interior nodes representthe
+
boolean operations performed.
-
CSG – N o n u n i q u e n e s s o f s o l i d m o d e l

 M o r e than one procedure (and hence database) can be used to

arrive at the same geometry.

-
 CSG - A d v a n t a g e
 C S G is powerful with high level command.
 E a sy to construct a solid model – minimum step.
 C S G modeling techniques lead to a concise database les
storage.
 Complete history of model is retained and can be altered
at any point.
 Can be converted to the corresponding boundary
representation.
 CSG - D i s a d v a n t a g e

 O nl y boolean operations are allowed in the modeling process

with boolean operation alone, the range of shapes to be
modeled is severely restricted  not possible to construct
unusual shape.
 Requires a great deal of computation to derive the information

on the boundary, faces and edges which is important for the

interactive display/ manipulation of solid.
 Bo u n d a r y Representation (B-rep)

 Solid model is defined by their enclosing surfaces or

boundaries. This technique consists of the geometric
information about the faces, edges and vertices of an object
with the topological data on how these are connected.
 B-r ep model is created using Euler operation
 D a t a st ru c t u re :
 B-Rep graph store face, edge and vertices as nodes, with
pointers, or branches between the nodes to indicate
connectivity.
 B-Rep d a t a stru ctu re
v5
f3 f2 E3
E4
E1 v4 E7
f4 f5 E2E6 v3 solid
E8 f1
v1 E5 v2
face1 face2 face3 face4 face5
Combinatorial
edge1 edge2 edge3 edge4 edge5 edge6 edge7 edge8 structure /
topology

vertex1 vertex2 vertex3 vertex4 vertex5

Metric information
(x, y, z) geometry
B-Rep d a t a stru ctu re
 B o u n d a r y representat i o n -
va li d i ty
 System must validate topology of created solid.
 F o r topology consistency, certain rules have to be followed
 Faces should be bound by a simple loop of edges a
d
n
should be not intersected by itself.
 E a c h edge should exactly adjoin two faces and each e
dg
should have a vertex at each ends.
 A t least three edges should meet at each vertex.
 Bo u n d a r y representation-
validity
 Validity also checked through mathematical evaluation
 Evaluation is based upon Euler’s Law (valid for
simple solid – no hole)
V –E+F= 2 V- number of vertices
E- number of edges
F- number of faces

v5 V = 5, E = 8, F = 5
f3 f2 E3 5–8+5=2
E4
E1 v4 E7
f4 f5 E2E6 v3
E8 f1
v1 E5 v2
 B o u n d a r y representati o n -
validity
 Expanded Euler’s law for complex polyhedrons (with holes)
 Euler-Poincare Law:
 V-E+F-H+2P=2B
 H – number of holes in face, P- number of passages or through
holes, B- number of separate bodies.

V = 24, E=36, F=15, H=3, P=1,B=1

 Operation performed
( E x t r u d e F e a t u r e , R e v o l v e F e a t u r e , S we e p , L o f t , Fi l l e t ,

Chamfer)

 “ Feature” --- (shape & operation)

 Operation --- (Sweep, extrude, Revolve, Boolean)
 S k e t c h e d Fe a t u re
 Create a 2D sketch.

 Create a feature from the sketch by extruding, revolving,

sweeping, lofting and blending.

Revolved Extruded (Protruded)

feature feature
 Sweeping
 Linear
 Extrusion
 N o n –linear
1. Sweep a cross section along a guide curve
2. “BLEND” two cross section linearly.(linear sweep between
two section)
3. Sweep two cross section along a guide curve.
4. “LOFT” – to blend two cross section. (like 2 & 3))
 Operation performed
 Sweeping: Sweeping is a modeling
function in which a planar closed
domain is translated or revolved to form
a solid. When the planar domain is
translated, the modeling activity is called
translational sweeping; when the planar
region is revolved, it is called swinging,
or rotational sweeping.
 Applied Feature
• Applied feature does not require a sketch.
• They are applied directly to the model.
• Fillets and chamfers are very common applied features.
Chamfer

Fillet
 Bo u n d a r y representation-
advantages
 Capability to construct unusual shapes that would not be
possible with the available C S G  aircraft

 L es s computational time to reconstruct the image

 Bo u n d a r y representation-
disadvantages
• Requires more storage
• More prone to validity failure than CSG
• Model display limited to planar faces and linear
edges
- complex curve and surfaces only approximated
 Solid mo d elin g - Ad vantages
 H a s all the advantages of surface models (uniqueness, n
o-n
ambiguous, realistic, surface profile) plus volumetric
information.
 Allows the designer to create multiple options for a design.
 2 D standard drawings, assembly drawing and exploded views
are generated form the 3D model.
 C a n easily be exported to different Finite Element M
eth
ods programs
for analysis.
 M a s s and volumetric properties of an object can be easily
obtained; total mass, mass center, area and mass moment of
inertia, volume, radius of gyration
 Solid mo d elin g - Disadvantages

 More intensive computation than wireframe and surface

modeling.
 Requires more powerful computers (faster with more memory

and good graphics)

 C r e a t i n g So l i d M o d e l s
Parametric Modeling Concept
 Parametric is a term used to describe a dimension’s ability o
t
change the shape of model geometry if the dimension value is
modified.
 Feature-based is a term used to describe the various

components of a model. For example, a part can consists of

various types of features such as holes, grooves, fillets, and
chamfers.
 Parametric modeler are featured-based, parametric, solid

modeling design program: SolidWorks, Pro-Engineer,

Unigraphics (CSG and parametric), …..
 D e si g n I n t e n t

 I n parametric modeling, dimensions control the

model.
 Design intent is how your model will react when
dimension values are changed.
Example:

The drawing shows the intent of the

designer that the inclined plane
2.50
(chamfer) should have a flat area
measuring 2.5 inches and that it should 2.50
start at a point 1.25 inches from the 1.25
base of the drawing. These parameters
4.00
are what the designer deemed
significant for this model.

Remember that the placement of dimensions is very important because

they are being used to drive the shape of the geometry. If the 2.5 in.
vertical dimension increases, the 2.5 in. flat across the chamfer will be
maintained, but its angle will change.
In this drawing, what is important to 2.125

the designer is the vertical location and

horizontal dimension of the chamfer,
2.50
rather than the flat of the chamfer.
1.2
5
4.00

1.75
In the last drawing, the designer calls
for a specific angle for the chamfer. 30.0 O

2.50
In this case the angle of the chamfer
should be dimensioned.
4.00
 Design Notes

 K e e p in mind that dimensioning scheme can be changed at

any time. You are not locked into a specific design. You
can also design without dimensioning, rough out a sketch,
and then later go back and fully define it.
The ability to go back on some earlier stage in the design
process and make changes by editing a sketch or changing
some dimensions is extremely important to a designer. This is
the main advantage of a parametric (SolidWorks, Unigraphics,
Inventor, Pro-Engineer) over a non-parametric modeler
(AutoCAD 3D modeler – Boolean operation)
Example:

Let’s assume that it is desired to design a part consisting

of a ring with a certain thickness and a series of counter
bore holes along the perimeter.
Boolean operation

Make the base part by creating two

cylinders and subtract the small one
from the large one

Create the solid geometry that will become the

counterbore holes and generate the pattern.
Position the pattern about the perimeter of the base part.
Locating the holes is critical to creating an accurate solid
model.

Subtract the pattern from the base part to create the actual
holes.

What would happen if you had to come back to this part to change the
thickness of the ring or size of the counterbore holes?
Since Boolean operation was used to create the part, changing the thickness would not
increase the height of the holes. There is no association between the thickness and the
hole pattern location.
Parametric modeling (SolidWorks, ProE, UG, …)
Create the initial base, the ring, by extruding the
profile (circles) in a particular direction (Pro/E or
SolidWorks) or use primitive solids and Boolean
operation (UG).

Create the counterbore as a feature. Select the

top surface of the ring and either sketch the two
holes and extrude at different depth or use the
hole feature option.
The next step would be to pattern the hole. The
pattern would actually be considered a feature in
itself, and would have its set of parametric
variables, such as the number of copies and the
angle between copies.

The model created would be identical to the one created using Boolean
operation, but with intelligence built into the model.
 The true power of parametric modeling shines through when design changes need to
be made. The design modification is made by simply changing a dimension.

Since the counterbore is associated with the top surface of the ring, any changes in the
thickness of the ring would automatically be reflected on the counterbore depth.

Ken Youssefi Mechanical Engineering Dept. 57

 Sketching andFeatures
When discussing the mind-set needed for working with parametric modelers,
there are two topics that need to be expanded: Sketching and Features

Sketching
 Ta k e the word sketch literally. A sketch should be just that, a
sketch.
 W he n sketching, it is not necessary to create geometry
with accuracy. Lines, arcs, and additional geometry need
not be created with exact dimensions in mind.
 W he n the dimensions are added, the sketch will change
size and shape. This is the essence of Parametric
Modeling.
In short, the sketch need only be the approximate size and shape of the part being
designed. When dimensions and constraints are added, they will drive the size and the
shape of the geometry.
 S u m m a r y – Solid Modeling
Methods
 Primitive creation modeling
A solid model is created by retrieving primitive solids
and performing Boolean operations
 Sweeping function
Creates a solid by translating, revolving or sweeping a
predefined 2D shape (Sketching).
If geometric and dimensional constraints are imposed,
it is called Parametric Modeling.
 Feature-based Modeling
Models a solid by using familiar shapes; holes, slots,
grooves, pockets, chamfers, fillets…..