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THEORIES RELATED TO LEARNERS DEVELOPMENT different area of the body. As a person grows physically certain areas of
FREUD their body become important as sources of potential frustration
Freud's personality theory (1923) saw the psyche structured into three (erogenous zones), pleasure or both.
parts (i.e., tripartite), the id, ego and superego, all developing at different Freud believed that life was built round tension and pleasure. Freud also
stages in our lives. These are systems, not parts of the brain, or in any way believed that all tension was due to the build-up of libido (sexual energy)
physical. and that all pleasure came from its discharge.
PERSONALITY ORAL STAGE
ID Oral Stage (0-1 year) In the first stage of personality development, the
The id is the impulsive (and unconscious) part of our psyche which libido is centered in a baby's mouth. It gets much satisfaction from putting
responds directly and immediately to basic urges, needs, and desires. The all sorts of things in its mouth to satisfy the libido, and thus its id demands.
personality of the newborn child is all id and only later does it develop an Which at this stage in life are oral, or mouth orientated, such as sucking,
ego and super-ego. The id remains infantile in its function throughout a biting, and breastfeeding.
person’s life and does not change with time or experience, as it is not in Freud said oral stimulation could lead to an oral fixation in later life. We
touch with the external world. The id is not affected by reality, logic or the see oral personalities all around us such as smokers, nail-biters, finger-
everyday world, as it operates within the unconscious part of the mind. chewers, and thumb suckers. Oral personalities engage in such oral
EGO behaviors, particularly when under stress.
The ego develops to mediate between the unrealistic id and the external ANAL STAGE
real world. It is the decision-making component of personality. Ideally, the Anal Stage (1-3 years) The libido now becomes focused on the anus, and
ego works by reason, whereas the id is chaotic and unreasonable. The the child derives great pleasure from defecating. The child is now fully
ego operates according to the reality principle, working out realistic ways aware that they are a person in their own right and that their wishes can
of satisfying the id’s demands, often compromising or postponing bring them into conflict with the demands of the outside world (i.e., their
satisfaction to avoid negative consequences of society. The ego ego has developed).
considers social realities and norms, etiquette and rules in deciding how Freud believed that this type of conflict tends to come to a head in potty
to behave. training, in which adults impose restrictions on when and where the child
SUPEREGO can defecate. The nature of this first conflict with authority can
The superego's function is to control the id's impulses, especially those determine the child's future relationship with all forms of authority.
which society forbids, such as sex and aggression. It also has the function PHALLIC STAGE
of persuading the ego to turn to moralistic goals rather than simply Phallic Stage (3 to 5 or 6 years) Sensitivity now becomes concentrated in
realistic ones and to strive for perfection. The superego consists of two the genitals and masturbation (in both sexes) becomes a new source of
systems: The conscience and the ideal self. The conscience can punish pleasure. The child becomes aware of anatomical sex differences,
the ego through causing feelings of guilt. For example, if the ego gives in which sets in motion the conflict between erotic attraction, resentment,
to the id's demands, the superego may make the person feel bad rivalry, jealousy and fear which Freud called the Oedipus complex (in
through guilt. The ideal self (or ego-ideal) is an imaginary picture of how boys) and the Electra complex (in girls).
you ought to be, and represents career aspirations, how to treat other This is resolved through the process of identification, which involves the
people, and how to behave as a member of society. child adopting the characteristics of the same sex parent.
LATENCY STAGE
PSYCHOSEXUAL Latency Stage (5 or 6 to puberty) No further psychosexual development
Freud (1905) proposed that psychological development in childhood takes place during this stage (latent means hidden). The libido is dormant.
takes place in a series of fixed psychosexual stages: oral, anal, phallic, Freud thought that most sexual impulses are repressed during the latent
latency, and genital. stage, and sexual energy can be sublimated (re: defense mechanisms)
These are called psychosexual stages because each stage represents towards school work, hobbies, and friendships.
the fixation of libido (roughly translated as sexual drives or instincts) on a
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Much of the child's energy is channeled into developing new skills and Trust vs. Mistrust
acquiring new knowledge, and play becomes largely confined to other From birth to 12 months of age, infants must learn that adults can be
children of the same gender. trusted. This occurs when adults meet a child’s basic needs for survival.
GENITAL STAGE Infants are dependent upon their caregivers, so caregivers who are
Genital Stage (puberty to adult) This is the last stage of Freud's responsive and sensitive to their infant’s needs help their baby to develop
psychosexual theory of personality development and begins in puberty. a sense of trust; their baby will see the world as a safe, predictable place.
It is a time of adolescent sexual experimentation, the successful resolution Unresponsive caregivers who do not meet their baby’s needs can
of which is settling down in a loving one-to-one relationship with another engender feelings of anxiety, fear, and mistrust; their baby may see the
person in our 20's. world as unpredictable. If infants are treated cruelly or their needs are
Sexual instinct is directed to heterosexual pleasure, rather than self- not met appropriately, they will likely grow up with a sense of mistrust for
pleasure like during the phallic stage. people in the world.
For Freud, the proper outlet of the sexual instinct in adults was through
heterosexual intercourse. Fixation and conflict may prevent this with the
consequence that sexual perversions may develop. Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt
For example, fixation at the oral stage may result in a person gaining As toddlers (ages 1–3 years) begin to explore their world, they learn that
sexual pleasure primarily from kissing and oral sex, rather than sexual they can control their actions and act on their environment to get results.
intercourse. They begin to show clear preferences for certain elements of the
environment, such as food, toys, and clothing. A toddler’s main task is to
ERICK ERICKSON Stages Of Psychosocial Development resolve the issue of autonomy vs. shame and doubt by working to
Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development are based on (and expand establish independence. This is the “me do it” stage. For example, we
upon) Freud’s psychosexual theory. Erikson proposed that we are might observe a budding sense of autonomy in a 2-year-old child who
motivated by the need to achieve competence in certain areas of our wants to choose her clothes and dress herself. Although her outfits might
lives. According to psychosocial theory, we experience eight stages of not be appropriate for the situation, her input in such basic decisions has
development over our lifespan, from infancy through late adulthood. At an effect on her sense of independence
each stage there is a crisis or task that we need to resolve. Successful . If denied the opportunity to act on her environment, she may begin to
completion of each developmental task results in a sense of doubt her abilities, which could lead to low self-esteem and feelings of
competence and a healthy personality. Failure to master these tasks shame.
leads to feelings of inadequacy. Initiative vs. Guilt
Once children reach the preschool stage (ages 3–6 years), they are
Age Conflict Virtue capable of initiating activities and asserting control over their world
Infancy (birth to 18 months) Trust vs. Mistrust Hope through social interactions and play. According to Erikson, preschool
Early Childhood (2 to 3 years) Autonomy vs. Shame and Will children must resolve the task of initiative vs. guilt. By learning to plan and
Doubt achieve goals while interacting with others, preschool children can
Preschool (3 to 5 years) Initiative vs. Guilt Purpose
master this task. Initiative, a sense of ambition and responsibility, occurs
School Age (6 to 11 years) Industry vs. Inferiority Confidence
Adolescence (12 to 18 years) Identity vs. Role Confusion Fidelity
when parents allow a child to explore within limits and then support the
Young Adulthood (19 to 40 Intimacy vs. Isolation Love child’s choice. These children will develop self-confidence and feel a
years) sense of purpose. Those who are unsuccessful at this stage with their
Middle Adulthood (40 to 65 Generativity vs. Stagnation Care initiative misfiring or stifled by over-controlling parents may develop
years) feelings of guilt.
Maturity (65 to death) Ego Integrity vs. Despair Wisdom Industry vs. Inferiority
A brief summary of the eight stages
During the elementary school stage (ages 6–12), children face the task
of industry vs. inferiority. Children begin to compare themselves with their
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peers to see how they measure up. They either develop a sense of pride as though they are not leaving a mark on the world in a meaningful way;
and accomplishment in their schoolwork, sports, social activities, and they may have little connection with others and little interest in
family life, or they feel inferior and inadequate because they feel that productivity and self-improvement.
they don’t measure up. If children do not learn to get along with others Integrity vs. Despair
or have negative experiences at home or with peers, an inferiority From the mid-60s to the end of life, we are in the period of development
complex might develop into adolescence and adulthood. known as late adulthood. Erikson’s task at this stage is called integrity vs.
Identity vs. Role Confusion despair. He said that people in late adulthood reflect on their lives and
In adolescence (ages 12–18), children face the task of identity vs. role feel either a sense of satisfaction or a sense of failure. People who feel
confusion. According to Erikson, an adolescent’s main task is developing proud of their accomplishments feel a sense of integrity, and they can
a sense of self. Adolescents struggle with questions such as “Who am I?” look back on their lives with few regrets. However, people who are not
and “What do I want to do with my life?” Along the way, most successful at this stage may feel as if their life has been wasted. They
adolescents try on many different selves to see which ones fit; they focus on what “would have,” “should have,” and “could have” been.
explore various roles and ideas, set goals, and attempt to discover their They face the end of their lives with feelings of bitterness, depression, and
“adult” selves. Adolescents who are successful at this stage have a strong despair.
sense of identity and are able to remain true to their beliefs and values in
the face of problems and other people’s perspectives. When
adolescents are apathetic, do not make a conscious search for identity, JEAN PIAGET (1896-1980)
or are pressured to conform to their parents’ ideas for the future, they KEY CONCEPTS
may develop a weak sense of self and experience role confusion. They PIAGET COGNITIVE STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
will be unsure of their identity and confused about the future. Teenagers Swiss biologist and psychologist Jean Piaget (1896-1980) observed his
who struggle to adopt a positive role will likely struggle to “find” children (and their process of making sense of the world around them)
themselves as adults. and eventually developed a four-stage model of how the mind
Intimacy vs. Isolation processes new information encountered. He posited that children
People in early adulthood (20s through early 40s) are concerned progress through 4 stages and that they all do so in the same order. These
with intimacy vs. isolation. After we have developed a sense of self in four stages are:
adolescence, we are ready to share our life with others. However, if other SENSORIMOTOR STAGE (BIRTH TO 2 YEARS OLD)
stages have not been successfully resolved, young adults may have The infant builds an understanding of himself or herself and reality (and
trouble developing and maintaining successful relationships with others. how things work) through interactions with the environment. It is able to
Erikson said that we must have a strong sense of self before we can differentiate between itself and other objects. Learning takes place via
develop successful intimate relationships. Adults who do not develop a assimilation (the organization of information and absorbing it into existing
positive self-concept in adolescence may experience feelings of schema) and accommodation (when an object cannot be assimilated
loneliness and emotional isolation. and the schemata have to be modified to include the object.
Generativity vs. Stagnation PREOPERATIONAL STAGE (AGES 2 TO 4)
When people reach their 40s, they enter the time known as middle The child is not yet able to conceptualize abstractly and needs concrete
adulthood, which extends to the mid-60s. The social task of middle physical situations. Objects are classified in simple ways, especially by
adulthood is generativity vs. stagnation. Generativity involves finding important features.
your life’s work and contributing to the development of others through CONCRETE OPERATIONS (AGES 7 TO 11)
activities such as volunteering, mentoring, and raising children. During this As physical experience accumulates, accommodation is increased. The
stage, middle-aged adults begin contributing to the next generation, child begins to think abstractly and conceptualize, creating logical
often through childbirth and caring for others; they also engage in structures that explain his or her physical experiences
meaningful and productive work which contributes positively to society.
Those who do not master this task may experience stagnation and feel
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FORMAL OPERATIONS (BEGINNING AT AGES 11 TO 15) In stage 3, children want the approval of others and act in ways to avoid
Cognition reaches its final form. By this stage, the person no longer disapproval. Emphasis is placed on good behavior and people being
requires concrete objects to make rational judgements. He or she is “nice” to others.
capable of deductive and hypothetical reasoning. His or her ability for Stage 4: Law-and-Order Orientation
abstract thinking is very similar to an adult. In stage 4, the child blindly accepts rules and convention because of
their importance in maintaining a functioning society. Rules are seen as
KOHLBERG’S MORAL DEVELOPMENT being the same for everyone, and obeying rules by doing what one is
Kohlberg identified three levels of moral reasoning: pre-conventional, “supposed” to do is seen as valuable and important. Moral reasoning in
conventional, and post-conventional. Each level is associated with stage four is beyond the need for individual approval exhibited in stage
increasingly complex stages of moral development. three. If one person violates a law, perhaps everyone would—thus there
Level 1: Preconventional is an obligation and a duty to uphold laws and rules. Most active
Throughout the preconventional level, a child’s sense of morality is members of society remain at stage four, where morality is still
externally controlled. Children accept and believe the rules of authority predominantly dictated by an outside force.
figures, such as parents and teachers. A child with pre-conventional Level 3: Postconventional
morality has not yet adopted or internalized society’s conventions Throughout the postconventional level, a person’s sense of morality is
regarding what is right or wrong, but instead focuses largely on external defined in terms of more abstract principles and values. People now
consequences that certain actions may bring. believe that some laws are unjust and should be changed or eliminated.
Stage 1: Obedience-and-Punishment Orientation This level is marked by a growing realization that individuals are separate
Stage 1 focuses on the child’s desire to obey rules and avoid being entities from society and that individuals may disobey rules inconsistent
punished. For example, an action is perceived as morally wrong because with their own principles. Post-conventional moralists live by their own
the perpetrator is punished; the worse the punishment for the act is, the ethical principles—principles that typically include such basic human
more “bad” the act is perceived to be. rights as life, liberty, and justice—and view rules as useful but changeable
Stage 2: Instrumental Orientation mechanisms, rather than absolute dictates that must be obeyed without
Stage 2 expresses the “what’s in it for me?” position, in which right question. Because post-conventional individuals elevate their own moral
behavior is defined by whatever the individual believes to be in their best evaluation of a situation over social conventions, their behaviour,
interest. Stage two reasoning shows a limited interest in the needs of especially at stage six, can sometimes be confused with that of those at
others, only to the point where it might further the individual’s own the pre-conventional level. Some theorists have speculated that many
interests. As a result, concern for others is not based on loyalty or intrinsic people may never reach this level of abstract moral reasoning.
respect, but rather a “you scratch my back, and I’ll scratch yours” Stage 5: Social-Contract Orientation
mentality. An example would be when a child is asked by his parents to In stage 5, the world is viewed as holding different opinions, rights, and
do a chore. The child asks “what’s in it for me?” and the parents offer the values. Such perspectives should be mutually respected as unique to
child an incentive by giving him an allowance. each person or community. Laws are regarded as social contracts rather
Level 2: Conventional than rigid edicts. Those that do not promote the general welfare should
Throughout the conventional level, a child’s sense of morality is tied to be changed when necessary to meet the greatest good for the greatest
personal and societal relationships. Children continue to accept the rules number of people. This is achieved through majority decision and
of authority figures, but this is now due to their belief that this is necessary inevitable compromise. Democratic government is theoretically based
to ensure positive relationships and societal order. Adherence to rules on stage five reasoning.
and conventions is somewhat rigid during these stages, and a rule’s In stage 6, moral reasoning is based on abstract reasoning using universal
appropriateness or fairness is seldom questioned. ethical principles. Generally, the chosen principles are abstract rather
Stage 3: Good Boy, Nice Girl Orientation than concrete and focus on ideas such as equality, dignity, or respect.
Laws are valid only insofar as they are grounded in justice, and a
commitment to justice carries with it an obligation to disobey unjust laws.
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People choose the ethical principles they want to follow, and if they a. Microsystem — The prefix “micro” comes from the Greek for “small,”
violate those principles, they feel guilty. In this way, the individual acts and is the first and most immediate layer of the nested systems. It
because it is morally right to do so (and not because he or she wants to encompasses an individual’s human relationships, interpersonal
avoid punishment), it is in their best interest, it is expected, it is legal, or it interactions and immediate surroundings. An example of this system
is previously agreed upon. Although Kohlberg insisted that stage six exists, would be the relationship between an individual and his or her parents,
he found it difficult to identify individuals who consistently operated at siblings, or school environment.
that level. b. Mesosystem — The second layer from the individual, surrounding the
microsystem and encompassing the different interactions between the
characters of the microsystem. For example, the relationship between
Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Theory the individual’s family and their school teachers or administrators. In order
Bronfenbrenner’sbioecological model is a theory of educational for an interaction to be considered part of the mesosystem, it has to be
psychology that studies human development over time. a direct interaction between two aspects of the microsystem that
influences the development of the individual.
UrieBronfenbrenner was a Russian-American developmental c. Exosystem — Theexosystem is the third layer, and contains elements
psychologist whose bioecological model was integral to the formation of of the microsystem which do not affect the individual directly, but may
American Headstart pre-kindergarten programs. do so indirectly. For example, if a parent were to lose their job or have
their hours cut back, this would affect their child in an indirect way such
He was influenced by fellow developmental psychologist Lev Vygotsky. as financial strain or increased parental stress.
The model suggests the interactions between the individual and their d. Macrosystem — The prefix “macro” comes from the Greek for “large,”
environment, categorized into various systems, shape their development and is used because this system was thought to be all-encompassing. The
over time. fourth and outermost layer of the bioecological model, it encompasses
cultural and societal beliefs and programming that influence an
individual’s development. Examples of this would include gender norms
or religious influence.
e. Chronosystem — The Bronfenbrenner theory suggests that the
chronosystem adds the useful dimension of time, which demonstrates the
influence of both change and constancy in the children’s environments.
The chronosystem may include a change in family structure, address,
parents’ employment status, as well as immense society changes such as
economic cycles and wars.

By studying the various ecological systems, Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological

Systems Theory is able to demonstrate the diversity of interrelated
influences on children’s development. Awareness of the contexts that
children are in can sensitize us to variations in the way children may act
in different settings.

For example, a child who frequently bullies smaller children at school may
portray the role of a terrified victim at home. Due to these variations,
adults who are concerned with the care of a particular child should pay
close attention to his/her behavior in different settings, as well as to the
quality and type of connections that exist between these settings.
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Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory (manchester.ac.uk)

Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) was a Russian teacher who is considered a
pioneer in learning in social contexts. As a psychologist, he was also the
first to examine how our social interactions influence our cognitive
growth. He was convinced that learning occurred through interactions
with others in our communities: peers, adults, teachers, and other
mentors. Vygotsky sought to understand how people learn in a social
environment and created a unique theory on social learning. He
determined that teachers have the ability to control many factors in an
educational setting, including tasks, behaviors, and responses. As a result,
he encouraged more interactive activities to promote cognitive growth,
such as productive discussions, constructive feedback, and
collaboration with others. Vygotsky also stated that culture was a primary
determinant of knowledge acquisition. He argued that children learn
from the beliefs and attitudes modeled by their culture.

His theory in human learning describes learning as a social process and

the origination of human intelligence in society or culture. The major
theme of Vygotsky’s theoretical framework is that social interaction plays
a fundamental role in the development of cognition. Vygotsky believed
everything is learned on two levels.
First, through interaction with others, and then integrated into the
individual’s mental structure. Every function in the child’s cultural
development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the
individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then
inside the child (intrapsychological). This applies equally to voluntary
attention, to logical memory, and to the formation of concepts. All the REFERENCES:
higher functions originate as actual relationships between individuals. https://www.simplypsychology.org/Sigmund-Freud.html
(Vygotsky, 1978, p.57) https://www.verywellmind.com/erik-eriksons-stages-of-psychosocial-
development-2795740
A second aspect of Vygotsky’s theory is the idea that the potential for https://www.verywellmind.com/piagets-stages-of-cognitive-
cognitive development is limited to a "zone of proximal development" development-2795457
(ZPD). This "zone" is the area of exploration for which the student is https://courses.lumenlearning.com/teachereducationx92x1/chapter/ko
cognitively prepared, but requires help and social interaction to fully hlbergs-stages-of-moral-development/?fbclid=IwAR09Afu5pCrv5XCRA-
develop (Briner, 1999). A teacher or more experienced peer (MKO More GHAJQRJZ6sIF_QLGIbUfCCAJagZc881P2hebhXA1c
Knowledgeable Others)is able to provide the learner with "scaffolding" to
support the student’s evolving
understanding of knowledge domains or development of complex skills.
Collaborative learning, discourse, modelling, and scaffolding are
strategies for supporting the intellectual knowledge and skills of
learners and facilitating intentional learning.