UNIT 4: Electrical Motor Starting Methodologies
4.1 starting methods for D.C. motors and its characteristics:
At the instant of staring as the machine is not rotating, there is no back e.m.f. therefore, the need for
starter to is inevitable. The current is thus limited by armature resistance alone, unless an
arrangement is made to add further/extra resistance in armature circuit. Thus for all ‘fractional output
power’ motors, appreciable resistance, a resistor is inserted into the armature circuit and then
removed in steps, as the motor accelerate up to its correct running speed. The arrangement is
incorporated in a unit, called a ‘motor starter’ or more simply a ‘starter’
4.1.1 Starting rheostat or Voltage Control
This is achieved in various ways for different kinds of D.C. motor but the key requirement is to reduce
the voltage applied to the machine armature. Thus a large variable rheostat is connected in series with
the armature or the latter supplied from a variable voltage supply. The method is used to lower and
control is in a downward direction only.
4.1.2 Automatic starter or Field Control.
This is the most common control type. When a motor is loaded, its speed varies with the load. It may
be desired to adjust the speed for any load condition, i.e. keep it constant over the working range or
to raise it above normal running speed. Field control is used because its addition to the field circuit is
easily achieved, control is smooth and little energy wasted as heat.
It must be remember that this type of control gives speed variation in an upward direction only. It is
used for raising speed above normal and as flux is weakened, for the same driving torque, armature
current rises.
4.2 Starting methods for A.C. motors and its characteristics:
Most induction motors are Direct-on-Line (DOL) switch-started because such starters are inexpensive
and simple to operate and maintain. The high starting current surge will not cause serious heating
damage to the motor unless the motor is repeatedly started and stopped in a short time period.
When very large motors are started DOL they cause a significant disturbance of voltage (voltage dip)
on the supply lines due to the large starting current surge.
This voltage disturbance may result in the malfunction of other electrical equipment connected to the
supply e.g. lighting dip and flickering effects.
To limit the starting current some large induction motors are started at reduced voltage and then have
the full supply voltage reconnected when they have accelerated close to their rated speeds.
Reduced voltage starting is used for large motors driving loads like cargo pumps and bow thrusters.
Two methods of reduced voltage starting by switching are called star-delta starting and
autotransformer starting but an electronic "soft" starting option is also used.
4.2.1 Direct On Line Starting
In the example circuit shown in Figure 16, the induction motor is directly switched onto the three-
phase a.c. power supply lines. This is a very simple starting arrangement which is used for the
majority of induction motor drives.
Figure 16 - DOL Starter circuit.
Further circuit additions can be made for remote control (e.g. by liquid level switch) and motor
reversing (with an extra contactor).
DOL switching demands a short duration (a few seconds) but large starting current, typically 5 x FLC
fixed by the motor impedance. This is generally acceptable to the supply generator as long as the
corresponding voltage dip is not greater than 10-15% within the run-up period. For large motor drives
this starting surge will cause an unacceptable voltage dip at the supply bus-bars with likely
malfunctions of other consumers e.g. lighting flicker and possible drop-out of supply contactors.
4.2.2 Star-delta starting
If a motor is direct-on-line started with the stator winding star connected, it will only take one-third of
the starting current that it would take if the windings were delta connected. The starting current of a
motor which is designed to run delta connected can be reduced in this way.
Star-delta starters for small motors may be operated by a manual changeover switch. For large power
motors, the phase windings are automatically switched using contactors controlled by a timing relay
as shown in Figure 17. A choice of time delay relays are available whose action is governed by
thermal, pneumatic, mechanical or electronic control devices.
Figure 17 - Start-delta stating circuit.
4.2.3 Compensator starting or Autotransformer starting
Starting a large motor with a long run-up period will demand a very high current surge from the
supply generator for a few seconds. This causes a severe voltage dip which affects every load on the
system. Reduced voltage starting will limit the starting surge current. One way to reduce the initial
voltage supplied to the motor is to step it down using a transformer. Then, when the motor has
accelerated up to almost full speed, the reduced voltage is replaced by the full mains voltage. The
transformer used in this starter is not the usual type with separate primary and secondary windings. It
is an autotransformer which uses only one winding for both input and output. This arrangement is
cheaper, smaller and lighter than an equivalent double-wound transformer and it is only in operation
during the short starting period. For induction motor starting, the autotransformer is a 3-phase unit,
and, because of expense, this method is only used with large motor drives, e.g. electric cargo pumps.
Figure 16a and 16b shows the supply voltage is connected across the complete winding and the motor
is connected to the reduced voltage tapping. A number of tappings are usually available on the
transformer winding, giving voltage outputs ranging from about 50% to 80% of the mains supply
voltage, e.g. a 60% tap on an autotransformer supplied at 440 V would provide a voltage output of
60% of 440 = 264 V.
The autotransformer usually has a few tapping points to give a set of reduced voltages (e.g. 40%,
50% and 65%) which help to match the motor current demand to the supply capability.
The autotransformer usually has a few tapping points to give a set of reduced voltages (e.g. 40%,
50% and 65%) which help to match the motor current demand to the supply capability.
As with the star-delta starter, the autotransformer may use what is called an open-transition switching
sequence or a closed-transition switching sequence between the start and run conditions. In the
former, the reduced voltage is supplied to the motor at start then disconnected and the full supply
voltage rapidly reconnected to the motor.
The problem with open-transition is that a very large surge current can flow after the transition from
reduced to full voltage. See Figure 18a and 18b.
Figure 18a Autotransformer connections.
Figure 18b - Autotransformer starter circuit.
4.3 Taken into consideration when selecting starting methods for A.C. motors
The DOL starter is simple and cheap but causes a large starting surge. Star- delta starting reduces
the surge but is somewhat more complex, requiring three contactors and a timer. The autotransformer
method can be arranged to match the motor surge current and run-up period to meet the supply
limitations by a suitable choice of voltage tapping. This starter is considerably more expensive than
the other two starter types.
4.4 Basic reason for the provision of motor protection
Protecting an electric motor basically involves preventing the motor from getting too hot. Remember,
every 10°C above the maximum recommended temperature of the insulation can reduce its working
life by half. Obviously, the best way to protect a motor against overheating is to directly monitor the
temperature of the motor windings. If the temperature exceeds the maximum set value for the motor
insulation its contactor is tripped to stop the motor and allow it to cool down.
4.5 Principles of the most common over current relays
The system is designed so that if the motor takes too much current because it is mechanically
overloaded, the OCR will trip out the contactor coil, after a pre-set time delay, before severe
overheating can occur.
4.6 Difference between the largest possible overload current and a fault current
The largest overcurrent possible is the current taken when the motor has stalled. This, of course, is
the starting current of the motor which will be about five times the full load current. The contactor is
capable of tripping this stalled current quickly and safely.
If a short-circuit occurs in the motor, the starter, or the supply cable, then a huge fault current will
flow.
4.7 Function of the over current trip, time delays and fuses with both overload and fault
currents
Most motors are protected by monitoring the temperature indirectly by measuring the current flowing
in the supply lines. This method uses electronic, thermal or electromagnetic time-delayed overcurrent
relays (OCRs) in the motor starter. The system is designed so that if the motor takes too much
current because it is mechanically overloaded, the OCR will trip out the contactor coil, after a pre-set
time delay, before severe overheating can occur.
The largest overcurrent possible is the current taken when the motor has stalled. This, of course, is
the starting current of the motor which will be about five times the full load current. The contactor is
capable of tripping this stalled current quickly and safely.
If a short-circuit occurs in the motor, the starter, or the supply cable, then a huge fault current will
flow. If the contactor tries to open under short-circuit conditions, serious arcing will occur at its
contacts such that it may fail to interrupt the fault current. The prolonged short-circuit current will
cause serious damage to the motor, starter and cable with the attendant risk of an electrical fire. To
prevent this, a set of fuses or a circuit breaker is fitted upstream of the contactor which will trip out
almost instantaneously thereby protecting the contactor during a short-circuit fault.
4.8 Basis upon which fuses are chosen
A typical fuse designation for motor circuits could be "32M63" which indicates a continuous rating of
32 A but a rating of 63 A for the starting period.
4.9 Principle of a thermal relay, including the means of its adjustment
Most LV motors are protected by less expensive thermal OCRs. Inverse-time thermal OCRs usually
work with bi-metal strips as shown in Figure 19. The strips are heated by the motor current and bend
depending on the temperature. If the motor takes an overload current, the strips operate a normally-
closed (NC) contact which trips out the line contactor to stop the motor.
Figure 19a - Thermal overload relay action (single-phase is shown).
Figure 19b - Bi-Thermal overload relay action.
The minimum tripping current of such a device can be adjusted over a small range. This adjustment
alters the distance the strips have to bend before operating the trip contact.
4.10 Meant by single phasing and its effect on a motor:
The term single-phasing, means one of the phases is open or one of the three supply lines becomes
disconnected.
To operate correctly, induction motors must be connected to a three phase a.c. supply. Once started
they may continue to run even if one of the three supply lines becomes disconnected. This is called
single-phasing. Hence, the remaining circuits carry excess current the remaining circuits carry excess
current and can result in motor burn-out.
Single-phasing, as shown in Figure 20, is usually caused when one of the three back-up fuses blows or
if one of the contactor contacts is open-circuited. The effect of single-phasing is to increase the
current in the two remaining lines and cause the motor to become very noisy due to the uneven
torque produced in the rotor.
Figure 20 - Single-phasing fault.
4.10.1 when running
If single-phasing occurs when in operation on light load, the motor keeps on running unless the
protection trips the contactor.
4.10.2 when starting
If the motor is stopped, it will not restart.
4.10.3 If continued attempts to start are made
When the contactor is closed, the motor will take a large starting current but develop no rotating
torque.
4.11 Principle on the protection against running with a phase open circuited
Motors can he protected against this condition by using a differential type relay which trips out with
unbalanced currents. In fact, most modern thermal OCRs for motors have this protection against
single-phasing incorporated as a normal feature. A differential action is shown in Figure 21a and 21b.
Figure 21 - ( a) Single phasing protection (differential action) - arrangement
(b) OCR internal components (top cover removed)
4.12 Why under voltage trips are necessary
Undervoltage protection is necessary in a distribution system that supplies motors. If there is a total
voltage loss or black-out, all the motors must be disconnected from the supply. This is to prevent all
the motors restarting together which would result in a huge current surge, tripping out the generator
again. Motors must be restarted in a controlled sequence after a supply failure.
4.13 applications where the following speeds are suitable:
Two main forms of speed change/control are available:
• Pole-changing for induction motors to give two or more fixed speeds, e.g. 2-speed forced-
draught fans and 3-speed winches
• Continuously variable speed control, e.g. smooth control of deck cranes, winches and electric
ship propulsion using variable frequency
4.13.1 single fixed speed
Fixed set speeds can be obtained from a cage-rotor induction motor by using a dual wound stator
winding, each winding being designed to create a different number of magnetic poles.
4.13.2 two or three fixed speeds
An alternative method giving two fixed speeds in a 2:1 ratio from a cage-rotor induction motor is to
use a single stator winding which has centre-tap connections available on each phase. This method
uses a starter with a set of contactors to switch the phase windings into either single-star (low speed)
or double-star (high speed). The supply lines to the stator windings are shown in Figure 22.
Note that two of the supply lines are interchanged in the double-star connection — this is to maintain
the same direction of rotation as in the low speed connection.
Figure 22 - Star-double star connections.
4.13.3 Infinitely variable speed
A continuously variable speed range of motor control involves more complication and expense than
that required to obtain a couple of set speeds. Various methods are available which include:
• Electro-hydraulic drive.
• Wound-rotor resistance control of induction motors.
• Ward-Leonard d.c. motor drive.
• Variable-frequency induction or synchronous motor control.
4.14 How stepped speeds can be provided
A stepper motor, also known as step motor or stepping motor. The stepping pulsation action of motor
can then be resumed at running state while reliably being synchronized with control. This method will
run the motor on only half the available windings, which will reduce the available low speed torque but
require less current.
Where continuously variable speed has to be combined with high torque, smooth acceleration,
including inching control and regenerative braking, it is necessary to consider the merits of a d.c.
motor drive. Speed and torque control of a d.c. motor is basically simple requiring the variation of
armature voltage and field current.
4.15 List the means of producing variable speed
Variable speed control is necessary for cranes, winches, windlass, capstans, forced-draught fans etc.
Ship's electric propulsion with electronic speed control may use d.c. motors or a.c. induction motors
for low/medium power applications. Large power electric propulsion, e.g. for a passenger cruise ship,
will use a.c. synchronous motors.
Two main forms of speed change/control are available:
• Pole-changing for induction motors to give two or more fixed speeds, e.g. 2-speed
forced-draught fans and 3-speed winches.
• Continuously variable speed control, e.g. smooth control of deck cranes, winches and electric
ship propulsion using variable frequency.
4.16 Principle of the Ward-Leonard drive
A traditional method for lifts, cranes and winches is found in the Ward-Leonard drive as shown in
Figure 23. Here a constant speed induction motor drives a d.c. generator which in turn supplies one or
more d.c. motors. The generator output voltage is controlled by adjusting its small excitation current
via the speed regulator. The d.c. motor speed is directly controlled by the generator voltage.
Figure 23 - Ward Leonard speed control method.
4.17 Principle of a variable-frequency motor
The only way to achieve a continuously variable speed output by electrical control is to vary the supply
frequency to the motor. A static electronic transistor or thyristor (high power) controller can be used
to generate such a variable frequency output to directly control the speed of the motor as in the
example diagram in Figure 24.
Figure 24 - Electronic VSD controller.
In an electronic variable speed drive (VSD), the fixed a.c. input is rectified and smoothed by a
capacitor to a steady d.c. link voltage (about 600 V d.c. from a 440 V rms a.c. supply). The d.c.
voltage is then chopped into variable-width, but constant level, voltage pulses in the computer
controlled inverter section using IGBTs (insulated gate bipolar transistors).
