Ashima Joshi

Biology

❏ Taught and mentored 3000+ Students

❏ Qualified CSIR-UGC NET with AIR 120
❏ Eligible for being Assistant Professor under
UGC norms

Consistency and Patience are the

key to qualify competitive exams.
EVOLUTION
 EVOLUTION

● The branch of life science for the study of 'origin of

life' and evolution of different forms of life on earth
was called bioevolution or evolutionary biology by
Mayer (1970).
● The word evolution means to unfold or unroll or to
reveal hidden potentialities. Evolution simply means
an orderly change from one condition to another.
● Evolution is a slow but continuous process which
never stops.
 ORIGIN OF LIFE

❖ Origin of life is the process by which living organisms

developed from inanimate matter (which is generally
thought to have occurred on Earth between 3800 -
4200 millions years ago).
❖ First life evolved about. 3800-4200 million years back.
❖ There are several theories about the origin of life, like
big bang theory, theory of special creation, theory of
eternity, cosmozoic theory etc.
BIG-BANG THEORY
 BIG-BANG THEORY

❖ According to this theory, the universe originated about 20 billion

years ago due to a thermonuclear explosion of a dense entity.
❖ This thermonuclear explosion is called Big-bang.
❖ About 4.5 billion years ago, the origin of the solar system took
place by the gaseous clouds formed due to this explosion.
❖ These gaseous clouds collapsed and converted into flat disc-like
structure made up of atoms and small particles due to their own
gravitational pull.
 BIG-BANG THEORY
❖ This flat-disc like structure is called Solar Nebula.
❖ The very hot central part of this solar nebula became still hotter and
converted into the sun.
❖ Now, due to condensation of atoms and dust particles moving
around the sun, the formation of the other planets took place Like,
Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune.
❖ The solid part of our planet earth was called lithosphere and the
gaseous part was known as atmosphere.
❖ When the earth's surface cooled down and its temperature
decreased to 100° C, water formed on it.
 THEORY OF SPECIAL CREATION

❖ The greatest supporter of this theory was father

Suarez.
❖ According to the Bible, life and everything was
created by God in 6 days.
❖ According to Hindu mythology, the world was
created by God Brahma. According to it, life has not
changed ever since its origin.
❖ Special creation theory lacks scientific evidence
so it is not accepted.
 COSMOZOIC THEORY

❖ This theory is proposed by Richter and

supported by Arrhenius.
❖ Protoplasm reached earth in the form of
spores or other simple particles from
some unknown part of the universe with
cosmic dust and they gave rise to
various forms of life.
 COSMIC PANSPERMIA THEORY

❖ This theory was proposed

by Arrhenius.
❖ According to this theory,
organisms existed
throughout the Universe
and their spores could
freely travel through
space from one star to the
other.
 THEORY OF SPONTANEOUS GENERATION (ABIOGENESIS)

❖ This hypothesis was supported by ancient Greek philosophers.

❖ According to this theory, life was originated from non-living
things spontaneously.
❖ They believed that the mud of the Nile river could give rise to
frogs, snakes, crocodiles.
❖ Abiogenesis was strongly supported by Von Helmont. He
claimed formation of mice in 21 days, if a sweat soaked dirty
shirt is kept in wheat barn.
THEORY OF SPONTANEOUS GENERATION (ABIOGENESIS)
 THEORY OF BIOGENESIS

❖ According to this theory, new organisms can originate on earth

only from preexisting life.
❖ This theory rejected the theory of spontaneous generation but
cannot explain origin of life.
❖ To prove biogenesis and to disprove abiogenesis, experiments were
performed by the following scientists–
➢ Francesco Redi's Experiment (Italian 1668)
➢ Lazzaro Spallanzani (Italian 1767)
➢ Louis Pasteur (French 1862)
 Louis Pasteur's Experiment
❖ Pasteur is popular for germ theory of diseases or Germ theory and he
disproved abiogenesis.
❖ He prepared sterilized syrup of sugar and yeast by boiling them in
flasks.
❖ He took two flasks, one of broken neck and another of curved neck
(swan neck flask).
❖ No life appeared in swan neck flask because germ laden dust
particles in the air were trapped by the curved neck which serves as
filter while in the broken neck flask colonies of micro-organism were
developed.
Louis Pasteur's Experiment
 OPARIN & HALDANE HYPOTHESIS

❖ The modern hypothesis of origin of life was formulated by Haeckel.

❖ This theory was proposed by Russian Scientist A.I. Oparin and
[Link] (England born Indian scientist).
❖ According to this theory, life originated by the composition of chemicals.
❖ Oparin's theory (also known as primary abiogenesis) is based on
artificial synthesis. So, also called as artificial synthetic theory.
❖ 1st life originated in the water of oceans. So, water is essential for the
origin of life.
❖ There is no life on the moon due to absence of water.
 OPARIN & HALDANE HYPOTHESIS

❖ Oparin of Russia and Haldane of England proposed that the first

form of life could have come from pre-existing non-living
organic molecules (e.g. RNA, protein, etc.) and that formation
of life was preceded by chemical evolution, i.e., formation of
diverse organic molecules from inorganic constituents.
❖ The conditions on earth were – high temperature, volcanic
storms, reducing atmosphere containing CH4 , NH3 , etc.
 Chemical evolution
1st organic molecule- CH4 Polymerisation of simple
was formed. Molecular aggregate
molecules into complex. clustered to form cell
like structures called
With further cooling
Simple biomolecules
Protobionts.
water vapours condensed
(rainfall). like amino acids,
sugars.

Primitive oceans with Unsaturated

molecules in it was Hydrocarbons.
formed.

Energy for reaction came from- Saturated

Lightning, UV rays, Cosmic rays. Hydrocarbons
UREY & MILLER EXPERIMENT
 UREY & MILLER EXPERIMENT
❖ An experiment to prove that organic compounds were the basis of
life was performed by Miller.
❖ Miller took a flask and filled it with methane, ammonia and hydrogen
in the proportion of [Link] respectively at 800°C.
❖ This proportion of gases probably existed in the environment at time of
origin of life.
❖ This flask was connected with a smaller flask, that was filled with water,
with the help of glass tubes.
❖ In the bigger flask, two electrodes of tungsten were fitted.
 UREY & MILLER EXPERIMENT

❖ Then a current of 60,000 volts was passed, through gases containing

bigger flask for seven days.
❖ At the end of seven days, when the vapours condensed, a red
substance was found in the U-tube.
❖ When this red substance was analyzed, it was found that it contains
amino acids, glycine and nitrogenous bases which are found in the
nucleus of a cell.
❖ The apparatus used by Miller is called spark discharge apparatus.
❖ The energy used in the Miller Urey experiment was electric spark.
UREY & MILLER EXPERIMENT
 Protobionts

❖ Macromolecules which were synthesized abiotically in primitive

ocean later came together and formed large colloidal drop like
structures called protobionts (later called coacervates by
Oparin, Fox called them microsphere and Deamer called them
vesicles).
❖ Each protobiont was a cluster of macromolecules.
❖ These contained proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, polysaccharides
etc.
❖ They grew by absorbing molecules from their environment.
 Protobionts
❖ They could divide by budding like bacteria,
many chemical reactions including the
decomposition of glucose took place inside the
protobionts.
❖ The sun provides energy for chemical reactions.
❖ According to Oparin, coacervates were the
first sole living molecules which gave rise to
cell.
❖ Evolution from coacervates to simple cell
structure is known as biological evolution.
PRACTICE
QUESTION

The Miller-Urey abiotic synthesis experiment (and other

subsequent, similar experiments) shows that:

A) simple organic molecules can form spontaneously

under conditions like those thought to prevail early in
the earth's history.
B) The earliest life forms introduced large amounts of
oxygen to the atmosphere.
C) Life can be created in a test tube.
D) Long chains of DNA can form under abiotic conditions.
PRACTICE
QUESTION

The Miller-Urey abiotic synthesis experiment (and other

subsequent, similar experiments) shows that:

A) simple organic molecules can form spontaneously

under conditions like those thought to prevail early in
the earth's history.
B) The earliest life forms introduced large amounts of
oxygen to the atmosphere.
C) Life can be created in a test tube.
D) Long chains of DNA can form under abiotic conditions.
PRACTICE
QUESTION

Miller synthesised simple amino acids from water

vapours and mixtures containing:

A) H2,O2,N2([Link])
B) H2,O2,N2(2: 1:2)
C) CH4,NH3,H2([Link])
D) CH4,NH3,H2([Link])
PRACTICE
QUESTION

Miller synthesised simple amino acids from water

vapours and mixtures containing:

A) H2,O2,N2([Link])
B) H2,O2,N2(2: 1:2)
C) CH4,NH3,H2([Link])
D) CH4,NH3,H2([Link])
PRACTICE
QUESTION

The most primitive cell-like chemical aggregates

capable of growth and division were:

A) Chemoautotrophs
B) Eobionts
C) Prokaryotes
D) Microspheres
PRACTICE
QUESTION

The most primitive cell-like chemical aggregates

capable of growth and division were:

A) Chemoautotrophs
B) Eobionts
C) Prokaryotes
D) Microspheres
PRACTICE
QUESTION

State two postulates of Oparin and Haldane’s theory with

reference to the origin of life.
PRACTICE
QUESTION

State two postulates of Oparin and Haldane’s theory with

reference to the origin of life.

The first form of life came from pre-existing non-

living organic molecules.
The conditions on earth favouring chemical
evolution were high temperature, volcanic storms
and reducing atmosphere.
 EVIDENCES OF EVOLUTION

❏ There are many types of evidence which support the

process of organic evolution
❏ Palaeontological
❏ Comparative anatomy and morphology
❏ Physiological & biochemistry
❏ Biogeographical distribution
❏ Embryological
 Palaeontological evidences

❏ The study of fossils is known as palaeontology.

❏ Birbal Sahni is famous for Indian palaeontology.
❏ Two branches of palaeontology are
❏ Palaeobotany : Study of plant fossils
❏ Palaeozoology : Study of animal fossils
❏ "Impression of past organism found in rocks is
called fossils."
 FOSSILS
❏ Charles Darwin was the first to show that fossils provide direct
evidence for organic evolution because it deals with the actual
organisms which lived in the past.
❏ Age of fossils is determined by dating the rocks in which fossil
occurs.
❏ The method of determining the age of rocks or of the fossils are
– carbon dating method or radioactive dating method.
 FOSSIL EVIDENCES

❏ By studying fossils, following facts about organic evolution are evident

❏ Fossils found in older rocks are of simple type and those found in
newer rocks are of complex types.
❏ In the beginning, unicellular protozoans were formed from
which multicellular animals evolved.
❏ Some fossils represents connecting links between the two groups.
❏ Angiosperms among plants and mammals among animals are
highly developed and modern organisms.
PRACTICE
QUESTION

State the significance of the study of fossils in evolution.

PRACTICE
QUESTION

State the significance of the study of fossils in evolution.

Fossils help us to know the morphological details of the

organisms that were present in the past and relate them to
the organisms of the present for better understanding the
process of evolution. We can also trace the time at which the
particular organism existed.
 ANATOMY AND MORPHOLOGY

❏ Different animals and plants show dissimilarities in their

structure but in some characters they show similarity.
❏ These similarities provide one of the most concluding evidence
of organic evolution.
❏ Similarities are of two types :
❏ Homology
❏ Analogy.
 Homologous organs

● Examples of Homologous organs are

○ Forelimbs of mammals

● In their forelimbs, similar bones are present

like - humerus, radius, ulna, carpals,
metacarpals and phalanges.
 Homologous organs

● Examples of Homologous organs are

○ Forelimbs of mammals
 Homologous organs

● Legs of invertebrates

● In both cockroach and honey bee, segmented legs are

present and segments are same like coxa, trochanter, femur,
tibia and 1-5 jointed tarsus.
 Homologous organs

● Mouth parts of insects

● In each of these insects, the mouth parts comprises labrum,

mandibles and maxillae.
 Homologous organs

● Mouth parts of insects

 EXAMPLES

❏ Thorn of Bougainvillea and tendril of Cucurbita (modification

of axillary bud)
❏ Wings of sparrow and pectoral fins of fish
❏ Hind limb of mammals
❏ Potato & ginger
❏ Radish & carrot
❏ Pectoral fins of fish and flipper of Seal.
❏ Flipper of Penguin (bird) and Dolphin (mammal).
EXAMPLES
 Homologous organs

Hence, in these animals, the same structure developed along

different directions due to adaptations to different needs. This
is divergent evolution and these structures are homologous.
 ANALOGY

❏ It is similarity in organs
based on similar function.
❏ Organs which have
different origin and
dissimilar fundamental
structure but have similar
functions are called
analogous organs.
 EXAMPLES OF ANALOGY

❏ Wings of bat & birds are analogous to wings of insects.

❏ Pelvic fins of fish, flipper of seal.
❏ Sting of bee and scorpion.
❏ Hands of man and trunk of elephants.
❏ Potato and sweet potato.
❏ Eyes of octopus and eyes of mammals (different in their retinal
position).
❏ Dog fish and whale.
 ANALOGY

Hence, analogous structures are a result of convergent

evolution - different structures evolving for the same
function and hence having similarity.
 EVIDENCES FROM EMBRYOLOGY
❏ Ernst Haeckel explained it in detail based
upon the observation of certain features
during embryonic stage common to all
vertebrates that are absent in adult.
❏ For example, the embryos of all
vertebrates including human develop a
row of vestigial gill slit just behind the
head but it is a functional organ only in
fish and not found in any other adult
vertebrates.
 EVIDENCES FROM EMBRYOLOGY
❏ Evidences for embryology are
based on the comparative study
of the embryos of various animals.
❏ According to Baer embryos never
pass through the adult stages of
other animals
❏ In embryo stage, general
characters appear first then
specialised characters appear.
PRACTICE
QUESTION
Why are analogous structures a result of convergent
evolution?
PRACTICE
QUESTION
Why are analogous structures a result of convergent
evolution?
When two species have structures that are similar in
function but differ in origin and anatomy, they are called
analogous structures.
These structures develop in different species which
move from different areas to a common habitat where
they adapt themselves accordingly, therefore it is called
convergent evolution.
PRACTICE
QUESTION

Identify the examples of convergent evolution from the

following
(i) Flippers of penguins and dolphins
(ii) Eyes of Octopus and mammals
(iii) Vertebrate brains
PRACTICE
QUESTION
Identify the examples of convergent evolution from the following
(i) Flippers of penguins and dolphins
(ii) Eyes of Octopus and mammals
(iii) Vertebrate brains

(i) and (ii) are the examples of analogous organs

representing convergent evolution.
Vertebrate brains are the example of divergent evolution.
PRACTICE
QUESTION

Which of the following are not examples of analogous

structures?

(a) Wings of bat and butterfly.

(b) Wings of bat and forelimb of cattle.
(c) Thorn and spine.
(d) Tendril of Lathyrus and tendril of Gloriosa
PRACTICE
QUESTION

Which of the following are not examples of analogous

structures?

(a) Wings of bat and butterfly.

(b) Wings of bat and forelimb of cattle.
(c) Thorn and spine.
(d) Tendril of Lathyrus and tendril of Gloriosa
PRACTICE
QUESTION

Which of the following is an example of an ancestral homology?

(a) Almost all modern reptiles, birds and mammals have forelimbs,
a trait they also share with contemporary amphibians
(b) The first birds and all their descendant species have feathers, a
trait that is unknown in any other group
(c) Humans and many insect species have eyes
(d) All of the above
PRACTICE
QUESTION

Which of the following is an example of an ancestral homology?

(a) Almost all modern reptiles, birds and mammals have forelimbs,
a trait they also share with contemporary amphibians
(b) The first birds and all their descendant species have feathers, a
trait that is unknown in any other group
(c) Humans and many insect species have eyes
(d) All of the above
 THEORIES OF ORGANIC EVOLUTION

❏ Four main theories to

explain theories of
evolution are-
❏ Lamarckism
❏ Darwinism
❏ Mutation theory
❏ Modern concept of
evolution (synthetic
theory)
 THEORIES OF ORGANIC EVOLUTION

Darwinian Theory of Mutation

Theory of Lamarck
Evolution Theory of de Vries

✓ Theory of ✓ Theory of Natural ✓ Theory of

inheritance of Selection Mutation
acquired
characters
 LAMARCKISM
❏ Theory of inheritance of
acquired characters is the first
theory of organic evolution
proposed by Jean Baptiste de
Lamarck (1744-1829).
❏ Lamarck coined the terms:
invertebrates, annelida.
❏ The term biology was given by
Lamarck & Treviranus.
 LAMARCKISM
❏ BASIC CONCEPTS OF LAMARCKISM:
❏ Internal vital forces : Due to the presence of
these internal forces, organisms have the
tendency to increase the size of their organs
or entire body.
❏ Effect of environment and new needs :
Environment influences all type of organisms.
Changing environment gives rise to new
needs. New needs or desires produce new
structures.
 LAMARCKISM

❏ Use and disuse of organs : If an organ is

constantly used, it would be better
developed whereas disuse of an organ
results in its degeneration.
❏ Inheritance of acquired character : During
the lifetime of an organism, new characters
develop due to internal vital forces, effect of
environment, new needs and use and disuse
of organs.
 EXAMPLES IN SUPPORT OF LAMARCKISM

❏ Long neck and high forelimb of Giraffe.

❏ Aquatic birds stretched their toes and
developed web.
❏ Snakes lost their legs
❏ Deers became good runners by the
development of strong limbs and
streamlined body.
❏ Retractile claws of carnivorous
animals.
EXAMPLES IN SUPPORT OF LAMARCKISM
 CRITICISM OF LAMARCKISM

❏ According to first concept, organisms tend

to increase their size but it is not universally
true. For example, among angiosperms, the
trees seem to be primitive and shrubs, herbs
and grasses have evolved from trees, where
the size was reduced during evolution.
❏ Second concept is false. Can we sprout
wings wishing to fly like birds?
 CRITICISM OF LAMARCKISM

❏ The third concept is somewhat true like the well

developed bicep muscles of blacksmith and less
developed wings in flightless birds. But this concept
also have many objections like the eyes of a
student/reader do not increase in size and power
with increasing age, the constantly beating heart
maintains a constant size through generations.
❏ Fourth concept is completely false because
acquired characters are not inherited.
 DARWINISM

❏ "Darwinism" or "The theory of Natural Selection"

was proposed jointly by Charles Darwin and A.R.
Wallace.
❏ This theory was explained by Darwin in his book
'On the origin of Species by means of Natural
Selection' (1859).
❏ It is possible that the work of Thomas Malthus on
populations influenced Darwin.
 DARWINISM

❏ During his journey Darwin went to Galapagos Islands. There he

observed an amazing diversity of creatures.
❏ Of particular interest, small black birds later called Darwin’s Finches
amazed him. He realised that there were many varieties of finches
in the same island.
❏ All the varieties, he conjectured, evolved on the island itself.
 ADAPTIVE RADIATION
❏ From the original seed-eating features, many other forms with
altered beaks arose, enabling them to become insectivorous and
vegetarian finches.
❏ This process of evolution of different species in a given geographical
area starting from a point and literally radiating to other areas of
geography (habitats) is called adaptive radiation.
❏ Darwin’s finches represent one of the best examples of this
phenomenon.
DARWIN’S FINCHES
MARSUPIAL RADIATION
PRACTICE
QUESTION

Explain adaptive radiation with the help of a suitable example.

PRACTICE
QUESTION

Explain adaptive radiation with the help of a suitable example.

The process of evolution of different species in a given

geographical area starting from a point and literally radiating
to other areas of geography (habitats) is called adaptive
radiation.
Darwin’s finches is one of the best examples of this
phenomenon.
 BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION

❏ The essence of Darwinian theory about evolution is natural selection. The rate
of appearance of new forms is linked to the life cycle or the life span.
❏ Microbes that divide fast have the ability to multiply and become millions of
individuals within hours.
❏ A colony of bacteria (say A) growing on a given medium has built-in variation
in terms of ability to utilise a feed component. A change in the medium
composition would bring out only that part of the population (say B) that can
survive under the new conditions.
❏ In due course of time this variant population outgrows the others and
appears as new species. This would happen within days.
 BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION

❏ For the same thing to happen in a fish or fowl would take million of years as
life spans of these animals are in years.
❏ Here we say that fitness of B is better than that of A under the new conditions.
Nature selects for fitness.
❏ There must be a genetic basis for getting selected and to evolve. Another way
of saying the same thing is that some organisms are better adapted to
survive in an otherwise hostile environment.
❏ Adaptive ability is inherited. It has a genetic basis.
❏ Fitness is the end result of the ability to adapt and get selected by nature
 MAIN FEATURES OF DARWINISM

❏ Natural selection is based on certain observations which are factual:

❏ natural resources are limited
❏ populations are stable in size except for seasonal fluctuation
❏ members of a population vary in characteristics (infact no two
individuals are alike) even though they look superficially similar
❏ most of variations are inherited etc.
❏ theoretically population size will grow exponentially if everybody
reproduced maximally and the fact that population sizes in reality
are limited, means that there had been competition for resources.
 MAIN FEATURES OF DARWINISM

❏ Only some survived and grew at the cost of others that could not
flourish. The novelty and brilliant insight of Darwin was that he
asserted that variations, which are heritable and which make
resource utilisation better for few (adapted to habitat better) will
enable only those to reproduce and leave more progeny.
❏ Hence for a period of time, over many generations, survivors will
leave more progeny and there would be a change in population
characteristic and hence new forms appear to arise.
 CRITICISM OF DARWINISM

❏ Darwin does not explain the development of vestigial organs.

❏ This theory has no satisfactory explanation for the cause, origin and
inheritance of variations.
❏ Darwin is unable to explain why in a population only a few individuals
develop useful variation and others have harmful variations.
❏ Darwin was unable to differentiate between somatic and germinal
variations.
❏ This theory was unable to explain over-specialization of some organs like
tusk of elephants, antlers of deer.
❏ The main drawback of Darwinism was lack of the knowledge of heredity.
 MUTATION THEORY

❏ The mutation theory was put forward in 1901 by

Hugo de Vries. He worked on a plant called
evening Primrose.
❏ He believed that it is mutation which causes
evolution and not the minor variations (heritable)
that Darwin talked about
❏ Mutations are discontinuous variations called
sports by Darwin and saltatory variation by
Bateson.
MUTATION THEORY
 SALTATION

❏ According to de Vries, saltation means

single step large mutations arising
suddenly in a population causing
evolution
❏ This mechanism works out to be a faster
alternative to the Darwinian concept of a Ancon Sheep is a short legged

gradual process of small random variations variety which appeared

suddenly due to single step
being acted on by natural selection.
large mutation.
 Features of mutation theory

❏ It forms the raw material for mutation.

❏ It appears suddenly and produces effect immediately.
❏ Mutations are markedly different from the parents and there
are no intermediate stages between the two.
❏ Mutations can appear in all directions (Random and
directionless)
❏ All mutations have a genetic basis and are therefore,
inheritable.
❏ A single mutation may produce a new species.
PYQ

What is ‘Saltation’ according to Hugo de Vries?

PYQ

What is ‘Saltation’ according to Hugo de Vries?

According to de Vries, saltation means single step

large mutations arising suddenly in a population
causing evolution
 SYNTHETIC THEORY

❏ According to synthetic theory, there are five

basic factors involved in the process of
organic evolution. These are :
❏ Gene mutations
❏ Changes in the chromosome structure
and number
❏ Genetic recombinations
❏ Natural selection
❏ Reproductive isolation.
 GENETIC VARIATION

❏ Genetic variations are heritable variations

and form the raw material of evolution.
❏ Causes of genetic variation are environmental
factors and genetic factors (migration, non-
random mating, genetic drift, mutation, gene
recombination and hybridization).
❏ The removal of alleles from one population or
addition of alleles into another population is
called gene flow or gene migration.
 Genetic drift

❏ The theory of genetic drift was developed by

Sewell Wright in 1930.
❏ It is the elimination or addition of the genes of
certain characters when some animals in a
population migrate or die or immigrate.
❏ It changes the gene frequency of the remaining
population.
❏ Genetic drift operates only in a small population.
❏ Changes in the frequency of genes in a gene pool
is called genetic drift.
 Founder effect

❏ Genetic drift in a new

colony is called founder
effect because only a few
founders carrying a small
fraction of genetic
variability of the parent
population begin the
colony.
 Natural Selection

❏ If differential reproduction (some

individuals produce more, some only a few
and still others none) is continuous for
many generations, genes of the individuals
which produce more offspring will become
predominant in the gene pool of the
population.
❏ Thus, natural selection occurs through
differential reproduction in successive
generations.
 Natural Selection

❏ Stabilising selection favours individuals possessing an

average value for a trait and are selected against individuals
with extreme values.
❏ Directional selection tends to favour phenotypes at one
extreme of the range of variation.
❏ Disruptive selection favours individuals at both extremes of
variation. Selection is against the middle of curve.
Natural Selection
PYQ

Describe the three different ways by which natural selection

can affect the frequency of a heritable trait in a population.
 Industrial Melanism

❏ This phenomenon was studied by Barnard Kettlewell.

❏ Before the industrial revolution, the dull grey form of (peppered moth)-
Biston betularia - was dominant; the Carbonaria form (Black) was rare
because it was susceptible to predation by birds. The reason was that it
was conspicuously visible while resting on tree trunks covered with lichen.
❏ The industrial revolution resulted in large scale smoke which got deposited
on tree trunks turning them black.
❏ Now grey varieties became susceptible-the black forms flourished.
❏ Replacement of coal by oil and electricity reduced production of black
moth so the frequency of grey moths increased again.
Industrial Melanism
 Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium

❏ Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium was proposed by G.H.

Hardy, an English mathematician, and Wilhelm
Weinberg, a German physician, in 1908.
❏ They established a simple mathematical relationship
to the study of gene frequencies.
❏ Mutations introduce new genes into a species resulting
in a change in gene frequencies.
 Conditions necessary for gene frequencies to remain constant

❏ Mating must be completely random.

❏ Mutations must not occur.
❏ Migrations of individual organisms into and out of the population
must not occur.
❏ The population must be very large.
❏ All genes must have an equal chance of being passed to the
next generation.
❏ According to Hardy-Weinberg concept, the gene frequencies
will remain constant if all the above five conditions are met.
 Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium

❏ The distribution of genotypes could be described by

the relationship
❏ A2 represents the frequency of the homozygous
dominant genotype
❏ 2Aa represents the frequency of the heterozygous
genotype
❏ a2 represents the frequency of the homozygous
recessive genotype.
PRACTICE QUESTIONS

The frequency of two alleles in a gene pool is 0.19 (A) and

0.81(a). Assume that the population is in
Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium.
(a) Calculate the percentage of heterozygous individuals in
the population.
(b) Calculate the percentage of homozygous recessives in the
population.
SOLUTION

(a) Calculate the percentage of heterozygous individuals in

the population.
★ According to the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium equation,
heterozygotes are represented by the 2pq term.
★ Therefore, the number of heterozygous individuals (Aa) is
equal to 2pq which equals 2 × 0.19 × 0.81 = 0.31 or 31%
SOLUTION

(b) Calculate the percentage of homozygous recessives in the

population.
★ The homozygous recessive individuals (aa) are represented
by the q2 term in the H-W equilibrium equation which equals
0.81 × 0.81 = 0.66 or 66%
PRACTICE QUESTIONS

An allele W, for white wool, is dominant over allele w, for black

wool. In a sample of 900 sheep, 891 are white and 9 are black.
Calculate the allelic frequencies within this population,
assuming that the population is in H-W equilibrium.
SOLUTION
 Human Evolution

❏ Evolution of man probably took place in Central Africa.

❏ Human evolution states that humans develop from primates or ape
like ancestors.
❏ Anthropology is the study of human evolution and culture. It deals
with the fossils of prehistoric and living man.
❏ Carolus linnaeus gave the scientific name Homo sapiens to man.
❏ The fossils of pre human and ancestral human forms are obtained
from widely diverse regions of Africa, Asia and Europe which
indicates that humans' centre of origin was probably in Asia and
Africa.
 DRYOPITHECUS

❏ Evolution ≈ 15-20 million years ago.

❏ Regarded as direct ancestor of modern day apes and man.
❏ They were forest dwellers, spending most of the time on the trees.
❏ Origin and evolution in Miocene epoch.
❏ Semi erect posture, quadrupedal locomotion, forelimbs longer
than hind limbs.
❏ Thick growth of hair
❏ U shaped jaws, teeth larger and sharper
❏ By nature, vegetarian, fruit eater
DRYOPITHECUS
 RAMAPITHECUS

❏ It has been established that in Late Miocene

epoch Dryopithecus gave rise to Ramapithecus
which was on the direct line of human evolution.
❏ Ramapithecus survived from late miocene to
pliocene. Thus, he appeared about 14-15 million
years ago.
❏ Fossils of Ramapithecus was discovered by
Edward Lewis from pliocene rocks of shivalik hills
of India.
 AUSTRALOPITHECUS (THE FIRST APE MAN)

❏ Prof. Raymond Dart discovered a fossil of skull of (5 - 6) year

old baby from the old pliocene rocks of Tuang region (S.
Africa).
❏ He named it Tuang baby, later on he renamed it or A. africanus.
❏ About 3-2 million years ago, it lived in East African grasslands.
❏ Evidences show that they hunted with stone. His cranial
capacity was 350-480 cc.
❏ It was an ape man because it had many characters of man
and apes, so it is also considered as the connecting link
between apes and man.
 HOMO HABILIS

❏ Homo habilis lived about 2–1.75 mya.

❏ His cranial capacity was about 735 cc.
❏ He was the first fossil man who used tools
of chipped stones extensively.
 HOMO ERECTUS (THE FORERUNNER OF MODERN HUMANS)

❏ In the middle Pleistocene period, Australopithecines were

succeeded by large brained form which were described under the
name Pithecanthropus or Java man.
❏ Its first fossils were obtained by Dubois (1891). These were named
Pithecanthropus erectus (erect ape-man).
❏ Similar fossils were found in a cave near Peking, China, and were
named Sinanthropus pekinensis.
❏ Homo erectus includes three fossils - Java ape man, peking man
and heidelberg man.
 HOMO ERECTUS

❏ (THE FORERUNNER OF MODERN HUMANS)

 NEANDERTHAL MAN

❏ Their fossils were found in the Neanderthal valley in Germany.

❏ Previously, it was named as H. sapiens neanderthalensis.
❏ These arose some 1,50,000 years ago and flourished in Europe, Asia and
North Africa.
❏ The skull bones were thick, forehead was low and slanting and the
eyebrow ridges were heavy. The jaw was deep with no chin.
❏ The cranial capacity was about 1450 c.c.
❏ They were quite intelligent as they, to used and constructed tools.
NEANDERTHAL MAN
 MODERN MAN (HOMO SAPIENS SAPIENS)

❏ First appeared about 10000 years ago

in Asia near Caspian sea.
❏ They have cranial capacity of about
1300-1600 cc.
❏ They have developed sound into
words.
[Link] Lineage Time Fossils found Adaptations and Cranial
from Behaviour capacity

Dryopithecus 15 million Europe, Quadrupedal, ------

(Tree Apes) years ago Asia, Arboreal,
Africa Frugivorous

2. Ramapithecus 15 million Asia Quadrupedal, ------

years ago (Shivalik hills in Massive jaws with
himalayas) large teeth,
more human like

3. Australopithecus
(Southern Ape) Africa Bipedal,
- A. africanus / 4-2 million (South, east, bent posture, 450-600 cc
Taung baby year ago central Africa) Knuckle walking,
- A. boisei / vegetarian,
Paranthropus used stone tools
- A. afarensis /
Lucy
[Link] Lineage Time Fossils found from Adaptations and Behaviour Cranial
capacity

2-1.5 Bipedal, well developed

4. Homo- habilis million Old Uwai George opposable thumb,
(Handyman) years in Tanzania cultural tool maker, 650 - 800
ago (Africa) did not eat meat cc

5. Homo erectus 1.5-0.5 Africa, Bipedal,

(Pithecanthropus) million Asia , fashioned tools, 900 cc
- Migratory man years Europe ate meat, vegetarian also
E.g. Java man, Peking ago discovered use of fire.
man, Heidelberg man, “Out of Africa”
theory

6. Neanderthal man Sloping forehead,

Homosapiens 100000- prognathous face, no
neanderthalensis 40,00 Europe, chin, heavy brow ridges, 1400 cc
- Extinct year ago Asia stout body, moved with
lumbering gait, had burial
customs, omnivorous,
building huts
[Link] Lineage Time Fossils found Adaptations and Cranial
from Behaviour capacity

Cro- Magnon Man 75,000- Orthognathus face,

7. Homo sapiens fossilis 10,000 France chin present,
years tall, thin lean physique, 1650 cc
ago used bow and arrows,
articulated language,
domesticated dogs,
omnivorous
Cave paintings

8. Homo sapiens
sapiens 1350 cc
Modern Man
QUESTION

Q) Which of the following had the smallest brain capacity?

(2015)

A. Homo habilis
B. Homo neanderthalensis
C. Homo sapiens
D. Homo erectus
ANSWER

Q) Which of the following had the smallest brain capacity?

(2015)

A. Homo habilis
B. Homo neanderthalensis
C. Homo sapiens
D. Homo erectus
QUESTION

Q) Choose the correct series of human evolution.(2010)

A. Dryopithecus → Homo erectus → Australopithecus → Cro-Magnon

man
B. Australopithecus → Homo erectus → Neanderthal man → Homo
sapiens
C. Australopithecus → Ramapithecus → Dryopithecus → Homo sapiens
D. Homo erectus → Australopithecus → Cro-Magnon man →
Neanderthal man
ANSWER

Q) Choose the correct series of human evolution.(2010)

A. Dryopithecus → Homo erectus → Australopithecus → Cro-Magnon

man
B. Australopithecus → Homo erectus → Neanderthal man → Homo
sapiens
C. Australopithecus → Ramapithecus → Dryopithecus → Homo sapiens
D. Homo erectus → Australopithecus → Cro-Magnon man →
Neanderthal man
QUESTION

Which one of the following ancestors of man first time showed

bipedal movement?

(a) Australopithecus
(b) Cro-magnon
(c) Java apeman
(d) Peking man
ANSWER

Which one of the following ancestors of man first time showed

bipedal movement?

(a) Australopithecus
(b) Cro-magnon
(c) Java apeman
(d) Peking man
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