Urban Settlements

Urban Processes

Settlement

Settlement is any form of human habitation, from a single house to the largest city.

Classification by function

• Rural settlement
• Primary activities (for example agriculture) are dominant.
• A rural settlement has a small population size and a low population density.

Urban settlement

• Secondary activities (for example manufacturing) and tertiary activities (for example trade)
are dominant.
• An urban settlement has a large population size and a high population density.

Classification by size Settlements can also be classified by size as hamlet, village, town, city,
conurbation and megalopolis.

Patterns of settlement

• In a dispersed settlement, the dwellings are scattered, for example farmhouses.

• In a linear settlement, the dwellings form an elongated settlement, for example along a
road.
• In a nucleated settlement, the dwellings form a cluster, for example a walled village, at a
road junction.

Characteristics of an urban settlement

-An urban settlement is mainly a built-up area.

• There are many tall buildings with little open space.

• The natural landscape is almost totally modified into a cultural landscape.

-Urban land use is intensive.

• There is keen land use competition.

• The land rent is the high.

-An urban settlement has a large population size and a high population density.

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 -Urban dwellers have a higher living standard.

-Secondary and tertiary activities are dominant.

-An urban settlement performs many functions, for example commercial, industrial,
administrative functions.

-An urban settlement has a hinterland which it serves and is served.

• The hinterland provides food and raw materials to the urban settlement.
• The hinterland provides a big market for the urban settlement.

Processes of urbanisation

Urban growth is an increase in number of urban population in a country.

Urbanisation is an increase in percentage of urban population in a country.

Natural increase

There is urban growth when there is natural increase in the urban population.

There is urbanisation when the natural increase in the urban population is greater than in the
rural population.

Rural-urban migration

Pull factors attract people to the cities.

• There are better job opportunities.

• There are higher income and higher living standard.
• There are better educational and medical facilities.

Push factors drive people to leave rural areas.

• a. There is unemployment due to farm mechanisation.

• There are lower income and lower living standard.
• There are inadequate educational and medical facilities.
• There are inadequate farmland, crop failure and famine.
• There are poverty, debt and hard farm life.

Expansion of city space

Vertical expansion of city space

• There is great demand for land at the city centre, but the supply is limited.
• Taller buildings accommodate the growing population.
• There is prestige of tall buildings.
• There is technological advances.

Horizontal expansion of city space (see 6-1 Urban sprawl)

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Urban planning

• New town development alleviate congestion in the city centre.

• Improved transport network enables the city area to expand outwards.

Urbanisation as a phenomenon

Urbanisation operates in different ways in different places and time

Urbanisation in developed countries

Urbanisation started in the late 18th century during the Industrial Revolution.

The main causes are the pull factors, for example industrial development provides
employment opportunities.

The level of urbanisation is high, for example over 70% .

However, the rate of urbanisation now slows down or even declines because suburbanisation
occurs.

Urbanisation in developing countries

Urbanisation started in the 20th [Link] main causes are the push factors, for example
debt, crop failure, civil war. The level of urbanisation is low, for example below 30%.

However, the rate of urbanisation in developing countries is [Link] problems are more
serious, esp. large primate cities.

• The urban growth is too fast and the governments cannot build enough houses, schools, etc.
• The lack of housing results in the growth of slum and squatter area.
• The lack of medical services, water and power supply results in poor sanitation.
• The lack of roads and public transport results in serious traffic congestion.
• The lack of industries and jobs results in unemployment and poverty.

The distribution of major urban centres in the world

Most big cities are found on lowland with good accessibility, for example road, railway or
water [Link] big cities are found in coastal locations, at route focus, river confluence
or mountain [Link] big cities are well-linked with its [Link] big cities are found
in mid-latitudes (between 60oN and 40oS) with mild [Link] big cities are found in the
Northern Hemisphere. There are few large cities in Africa and [Link] the past, there
are more big cities are in developed [Link] recent decades, the largest cities are
increasingly found in developing countries.

The distribution of major belts of urban centres in the world

Formation of conurbation

Urban sprawl is the (haphazard, unplanned) outward expansion of the urban area.

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a The city centre is congested and the land rent is high.

• There is rapid urban growth and increase in economic activities.

• New sites for development are no longer easily available.

b The rural area has a better environment, for example fresh air, quiet life.

• The high-income group moves to the suburb for bigger houses.

• Industries move outwards to the suburbs for large site and cheaper land rent.
• Improved transport network and increased private car ownership lead to higher mobility of
urban dwellers.

c Suburbanisation is the creation of built-up area at the edge of the city in the suburb (the suburban
area).

• Suburbanisation often takes place radially along transport routes for better accessibility.
• The area between the major roads are gradually filled in by settlement and feeder roads.
• [Urban encroachment is the take-over of the rural area by suburbanisation.]

A conurbation is an extensive continuous urban area formed by the coalescence of several

urban areas.

Major conurbations in the world

North-eastern Seaboard of the USA

• The North-eastern Seaboard stretches from Boston through New York to Washington, DC.
• Therefore this conurbation is also known as Bosnywash.
• Megalopolis

[Link] word megalopolis was originally used to describe the continuous belt of urban centres
in the NE Seaboard.
ii. Now the word is used to describe any continuous built-up area formed by the coalescence
of conurbations.
Southeast Honshu of Japan

• The conurbation Greater Tokyo includes Tokyo , Kawasaki and Yokohama .

• There is extensive alluvial lowland on Kanto Plain and reclaimed land around Tokyo Bay .

Conurbation in Northwest Europe

• The conurbation in Northwest Europe includes Paris (France), Amsterdam (the Netherlands),
etc.
• The conurbation is located on the largest lowland in western Europe.

These conurbations have many common locational advantages.

• They have coastal lowland for agriculture and for building houses and factories.
• They have good transport networks (for example railway) and good harbours for imports
and exports.

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 • There are good linkages with their hinterlands.
• There is a mild climate for agriculture and settlement.
• They have prosperous international trade and commerce.
• They are industrial belts.
• They have long history of development.

Urban Land Uses and Factors Affecting Their Distribution

Urban land use zones

Central Business District (CBD)

Location and accessibility

• The CBD has the highest accessibility.

• The CBD has a central location.
• The CBD is the focal point of transport networks.

Activities

• Buildings are very tall and are closely packed together to make the most intensive use of the
site.
• Land rents are high due to keen land use competition by different urban land uses.

i. There are high order retail shops selling luxury commodities (for example jewellery and
fashion).
ii. There are high order service businesses and offices (for example banks, stockbrokers and
legal firms).

• These high order functions need a central location with high accessibility.

i. There is a large number of potential customers.

ii. They have a high economic return and can afford to pay the high land rent.

Pedestrian and traffic density

• The CBD is crowded with traffic and pedestrians in the daytime.

• The CBD has a low residential population density and is quiet at night.

Horizontal zonation of land use

• Zones of different types of commercial businesses can be identified.

• for example zone of government offices, zone of banks, zone of high order retail shops and
office buildings.

Vertical zonation of land use

• There is also vertical zoning in the tall buildings.

• On the lower floors, there are banks, restaurants and shops selling high-order luxury goods.

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 • On the upper floors, there are airlines, trading firms, accounting firms, legal firms and
consulates.

The CBD of Hong Kong is Central District and Tsim Sha Tsui.

Central District

• Central District had an early development from the early commercial area in Sheung Wan.

It is built on reclaimed land at a water-front location in the middle of Victoria Harbour.

• It is the focal point of transport networks, for example ferry, MTR, bus, tram and Peak Tram.
• It expands mainly to the E on the coastal lowland towards Wan Chai.

i. Expansion to the N is restricted by Victoria Harbour, although land is available from sea
reclamation.
ii. Expansion to the S is restricted by the hilly relief. iii. Expansion to the W is restricted
because Sheung Wan is an old area and redevelopment is very expensive.

Mixed commercial and residential zones

These zones are found in the inner city near the CBD, for example Wan Chai, Western
District, Yau Ma Tei.

• Commercial functions serve the need of the neighbourhood.

i. Bigger shops selling higher order goods (for example banks, restaurants) occupy the lower
floors of the main roads.
ii. Smaller shops selling lower order goods (for example food, daily necessities) occupy the
lower floors of side streets.

• Offices and residential flats occupy the upper floors.

2. Secondary commercial districts occur at the intersections of major roads, for example
Causeway Bay and Mong Kok.

These areas suffer from urban decay and needs urban renewal.

• It is also called the zone in transition undergoing changes to the functions associated with
the CBD.
• It is also called the twilight zone because it is a slum area with old buildings and poor
facilities.

Land rents are lower than the CBD.

Residential land uses

1. High-class residential zones, for example the Mid- Levels, Kowloon Tong.
2. Middle-class residential zones, for example Tai Koo Shing, Ho Man Tin.
3. Low-class residential zones, for example public housing in Kowloon and new towns.

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Industrial land uses

Industrial land uses are often mixed with residential land uses.

a. Light industries operate in flatted factory buildings in

i. mixed residential and industrial zone, for example San Po Kong, Kwun Tong, Chai Wan,
Wong Chuk Hang, and

ii. new towns, for example Tsuen Wan, Tuen Mun and Sha Tin.

b. There are industrial estates in Tai Po, Yuen Long and Tseung Kwan O.

Land rents are lower.

Other minor land uses

1. Recreational land uses, for example parks, swimming pools, cinemas.

2. Institutional land uses, for example government offices, schools, hospitals.
3. Transport land uses, for example roads, airports, railway stations, ferry piers, car parks.

Factors affecting the distribution of urban land use zones

Competition for location and space

1. All land uses compete for the sites at the city centre where

a. the accessibility is the best, and b. sites are in limited supply.

2. There is keen land use competition among different land uses.

a. The city centre has the highest land rent (land value).
b. Land rent declines with increasing distance from the city centre.

3. Commercial land use can bid a very high rent for a central location because

a. it has high economic return,

b. it requires less space.

4. Industrial and residential land uses can bid a lower rent because a. they have low economic
returns,

b. they require more space.

5. Each land use has its own bid rent curve which shows the land rents it affords to pay.

a. Commercial land use has a steep bid rent curve.

b. Industrial and residential land uses have gentle bid rent curves.

6. The land use which affords to pay the highest land rent will outbid other land uses.

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 a. Commercial land use has the highest rent- paying ability and occupies the city centre.
b. Industrial and residential land uses have lower rent-paying abilities and are located
further away.

7. A concentric pattern of land use is formed. However, in reality

a. Places along or at the intersections of major roads have better accessibility.

b. Such places form minor peaks and ridges in the land-value surface.

Facts

Historical factors

1. A certain type of land use is located in a particular area because it has a long history of
development.
2. Many mixed land use zones exist because there was no urban planning in the past.
3. Geographical inertia is the tendency of activities to remain in an existing location after the
locational factors no longer exist.

Institutional factors

1. The government influences urban land use through urban planning.

2. Urban renewal and new town development are planned by the government.
3. Land use zoning reduces conflicts among different land uses.

Social values and perception

1. Differences in race, religion and socio- economic status lead to social segregation.
2. These create high-class and low-class residential zones.

Urban land use models - Generalisation of urban land uses

The concentric model (Burgess, 1923)

1. Cities grow radially outward away from a single centre.

2. Different land uses are distributed like concentric rings around the city centre.
3. They are: CBD, zone in transition, low-class residential zone, middle-class residential zone,
high-class residential zone.

The sector model (Hoyt, 1939)

1. All land uses except the CBD form sectors around the city centre.
2. The land use zones are influenced by radial transport routes.
3. High-rental and low-rental areas repel one another.

The multiple-nuclei model (Harris and Ullman, 1945)

1. Apart from the CBD, there are several separated, secondary centres.
2. Certain functions require specialised facilities or sites, for example a port district needs a
suitable waterfront.
3. Similar functions may group together for agglomeration economies.

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The major urban land use patterns in Hong Kong

1. The sectoral pattern is confined to the inner urban areas, for example

a. the radial transport from Tsim Sha Tsui on Kowloon Peninsula, and
b. the east-west coastal development and the transport network on Hong Kong Island, which
is affected by the hills.

2. The concentric pattern is predominant in the public housing estates in the peripheral areas,
for example New Kowloon.

a. The age of the population and household size vary concentrically with distance from the
city centre.
b. A younger population with smaller families dominates the outer areas.

3. The multiple-nuclei pattern reflects the location of higher-income group, due to social
segregation.

a. Living in a well-defined prestige area gives the affluent residents of the a higher status.
b. They would not distribute in a ring because of difficulty of interaction with people of their
own class.

Urban Settlements- Function of Urban Centres

Central Place Theory

1. A central place is an urban settlement providing goods and services.

2. The threshold population of a function is the minimum market size necessary for the
function to be profitable.
3. The range of goods is the maximum distance that the consumers will travel to buy those
goods or services.
4. Suppliers selling different goods will locate together in central places for the convenience of
customers.
5. The lower the threshold, the greater the number of central places that will sell the good.

a. Goods with high thresholds are called high order goods (for example furs and expensive
jewellery).
b. Goods with low thresholds are called low order goods (for example bread and
newspaper).

6. A high order central place (large urban centre) usually provides

a. more functions and b. a larger range of functions (both high order and low order goods).

7. A low order central place (small urban centre) usually provides

a. fewer functions and

b. a smaller range of functions (low order goods only).

Canberra as an example of a city with a dominant function: administration

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Background

Canberra is the capital of Australia.

• The Commonwealth of Australia is formed in 1901.

• national capital was needed as the centre of government and administration.
• There was rivalry between the two largest cities in Australia - Sydney and Melbourne.
• It was decided to build a capital at Canberra, a small inland settlement between Sydney and
Melbourne.

In 1911, an area of 2360 km2 was bought from New South Wales, forming the Australian
Capital Territory (ACT).

An international competition was held to design the new city.

• It was won by an American architect Burley Griffin.

• Canberra did not completely develop until late 1957 because it lacked finance and because
of the two World Wars.

The site of Canberra

1. Canberra is built on an undulating plain which was easy to develop.

2. Canberra is located on the Eastern Highlands, over 550 m above sea level.
3. River Molonglo divides Canberra into two halves.

The situation of Canberra

1. Canberra has a warm temperate climate with sunny weather.

2. Canberra is located near the densely populated SE Australia.
3. Canberra is not centrally located in Australia but is the centre of population concentration
and economic development.

a. Canberra lies midway between Sydney and Melbourne. The rivalry between Sydney and
Melbourne was solved.
b. Canberra lies midway between the agricultural hinterland of Murray-Darling Basin and the
industrial SE coast.

Canberra as a planned city

Canberra is divided into distinctive functional zones.

• Different zones are separated by the main avenues.

• Administrative land use is around Capital Hill.
• A large amount of land is used for educational purposes.
• Industrial land use is limited and is located far away from the city centre to avoid pollution.

Canberra is a garden city.

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 • There is ample open space, for example parks and gardens, which provide a good living
environment.
• An artificial lake (Lake Burley Griffin) is formed by building a dam across River Molonglo.

There is a regular road pattern, both radial and concentric, to make transport convenient.

Self-contained new towns are developed to prevent urban sprawl.

The functions of Canberr

Canberra is the Federal Capital of Australia.

a. Administrative functions, for example Parliament House, High Court.

b. Educational functions, for example the Australian National University.
c. Cultural functions, for example the National Library.
d. Tourist functions, for example hotels.

Administrative function is the most dominant function.

Commercial and industrial functions are limited.

Employment structure of Canberra in 1985

a. Administrative work 33 %
b. Commercial activities 13 %
c. Manufacturing activities 8 %

Shanghai as an example of a city with multi- functions

Background

1. Shanghai is the largest city in China.

2. Shanghai has a long history of development.
3. Before 1949
o Shanghai was a treaty port opened up to foreign trade under the Treaty of Nanjing
in 1842.
o Textile industries started to develop in the early 20th century.
o Shanghai was a world trading and financial centre in the 1930s.
4. After 1949
o Foreign trade decreased after 1949.
o Heavy industry has intensified although light industry is still predominant.

[Link] recent years.

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 o The open door policy attracts many foreign companies and banks.
o There is a revival of its role as a financial centre

The site of Shanghai

Shanghai was built on extensive flatland on a flat deltaic plain.

Physical problem for the development of Shanghai

• Shanghai's port development is hindered by the silting problem of Huangpu Jiang .

• Huangpu Jiang carries a large amount of load which is deposited on the river bed.
• The river channel is too shallow for large ocean-going vessels.
• Constant dredging is needed to prevent silting.

The situation of Shanghai

• Shanghai is at the mid-point on the coastline of eastern China.

a. Shanghai is located on the major shipping routes.

b. Shanghai has cheap and easy sea transport.

• Shanghai is situated on Huangpu Jiang at the mouth of Chang Jiang.

a. Shanghai controls the entrance to Chang Jiang Basin.

b. Shanghai is a communication focus with cheap and easy sea, river and railways transport.

• Shanghai is at the centre of the densely- populated eastern coast with abundant labour
supply.
• Shanghai obtains raw materials and power from its hinterland, for example

• Oil from Lanzhou, Daqing and offshore oil- fields along the continental shelf of Huang Hai .
• Iron ore from Daye, Ma'anshan, Australia and Brazil.
• Coal from Taiyuan and Huainan.
• Cotton and silk from Sichuan, central and lower Chang Jiang Basin.

The functions of Shanghai

1. Industrial functions
o Shanghai is the largest industrial centre in China.
o Light industries include textile, garment, electronics, printing.
o Heavy industries include iron and steel industry, ship-building, motor-car.
2. Transport functions

a. Shanghai is situated at the mouth of Chang Jiang and controls the entrance to Chang Jiang
Basin.
b. The Grand Canal runs from Hangzhou in the S to Beijing in the N.
c. There is railway from N (for example Tianjin), S (for example Guangzhou) and W (for
example Wuhan).

3. Port functions

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 a. Shanghai is the largest port in China.
b. Shanghai lies on major international shipping and air transport routes.
c. Shanghai has a sheltered harbour and good port facilities.

4. Administrative functions

a. Shanghai is a municipality and is the largest city in China.

b. The administrative area covers the 6200 km2 of the municipality.

5. Commercial functions, for example banks, stock market, trade.

6. Tourist functions, for example hotels.
7. Education functions, for example universities.

Classification of urban centres by functions

1. Many urban centres have a large range of functions and are multi-function cities, for
example Shanghai.
2. Some urban centres are dominated by one particular function are called single-function
cities, for example Canberra.
3. These urban centres can be classified according to the major function, for example
o Capital city, for example Canberra (Australia).
o Industrial cities, for example Pittsburgh (USA).
o Holiday resorts, for example Pattaya (Thailand).

Urban Problems

Advantages of living in cities

1. A wider variety of goods and services, from higher order to lower order, is available.
2. There are more job opportunities and higher income jobs in the secondary and tertiary
sectors.
3. There are better social services and facilities, for example a. medical facilities, for example
hospitals, b. education opportunities, for example universities.
4. There are better infrastructure, for example water and power supplies.
5. There are better transport and communication, for example roads, railway.

Urban
• The inner city (or mixed zone or zone in transition) is the area adjacent to the city centre (the
CBD). a. The inner city is the oldest developed area. b. for example Sheung Wan, Wan Chai, Yau Ma
Tei.

• Urban decay is the deterioration of the inner city due to lack of maintenance.

Causes of urban decay

1. The residents in the inner city are low-income group (or new immigrants) for easy access to
work.
2. The owners or wealthier people had moved out.
3. The old pre-war buildings get worse because of poor maintenance.

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 a. The owners are unwilling to spend money on maintenance.
b. The tenants do not afford to spend money on maintenance.

4. The flats are further divided and subdivided into cubicles and bed spaces and let and re-let.
5. There was lack of urban planning in the past. Narrow streets cause traffic congestion.

Problems of urban decay

1. The old buildings are overcrowded and have poor living condition.
2. The old buildings run down and are deteriorating.
▪ The buildings have shabby appearance (for example peeling paint, rusty
window frame).
▪ There are illegal or unstable structures (for example squatter settlements on
roof-top).
▪ There are improper sanitation facilities (for example inadequate kitchen and
toilet facilities).
▪ There are poor ventilation and illumination.
3. Residential flats are mixed with industrial use, causing noise and air pollution, health
and fire hazards.
4. There are not enough open space and community facilities, for example parks,
schools.
5. Traffic congestion is common in narrow streets.
6. Social problems are common, for example crime, vandalism.

Urban renewal (or urban redevelopment)

7. Urban renewal is the solution to urban decay. (see 2 Urban decay)

8. However, there is little incentive for redevelopment.
▪ The land is fragmented, for example with multiple property ownership and
complex land leases.
▪ Residents are unwilling to move.
▪ The financial cost for land resumption or compensation for re-housing is
very high.
9. The Land Development Corporation was established in 1988.
▪ It negotiates the purchase of land and undertakes urban renewal.
▪ It undertakes comprehensive redevelopment projects, for example in
Sheung Wan, Mong Kok.
10. The Urban Renewal Authority was established in 2001 to replace the Land
Development Corporation.
▪ The Urban Renewal Authority has greater power in land resumption.
▪ The Urban Renewal Authority received a financial support package from the
Government.
▪ The Urban Renewal Authority will carry out
4. the urban redevelopment of dilapidated buildings,
5. the urban rehabilitation of old buildings and
6. the preservation of historical buildings.
11. The government set law to facilitate the private sector in land resumption.

a. An owner (or owners) of 90 per cent or more of the shares of a lot may an order
from the court to sell the whole lot.

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Housing problem

Causes of housing problems

1. The urban area has a high population density and is overcrowded.

o High land rent results in high cost of housing.
o The supply of housing is limited due to the lack of flat land.
o The demand for housing increases because

i. There has been rapid urban growth since 1949 due to

1. Immigration of refugees from China.
2. Natural increase.
3. Rural-urban migration.
ii. Young couples form nuclear families as a result of economic prosperity and social change.

2. There was lack of urban planning in the past, for example

a. There is congested living environment.

b. There is mixed land use in the inner city.

Slum

1. Slum is an area of poor housing found in the inner city occupied by the poor.
2. The inner city is the area affected by urban decay. (see 2 Urban decay)

Squatter settlements (or cottage area)

Squatters are people who move into illegal temporary structures (for example wooden huts).

• Squatters are the low-income group (or new immigrants) who do not pay, or pay very little,
for the housing.
• They cannot afford to rent a place in any form of permanent accommodation, even in the
slum.
• In Hong Kong, squatter settlements are found

i. on foothill fringing the urban area (for example Shau Kei Wan, Diamond Hill, Shau Mau
Ping),
ii. on roof-tops of buildings (for example in Mong Kok),
iii. on agricultural land (for example in Yuen Long) or iv. on boats in sheltered coastal area
(for example Western District).
Problems

• Squatting occupies valuable land and hinders urban development.

• Squatter huts are untidy and shabby, and give an ugly look in the city.
• The squatter huts are overcrowded and have poor living condition.
• Little infrastructure is provided. (Before the 1970s, there were no water supplies, electricity,
sewage facilities.)
• Improper sanitation facilities cause health hazards.
• There are risks of landslides in times of heavy rain or typhoons in summer.
• Fires frequently occur and spread quickly (because the huts are often made of wood and are
close to each other).

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 • Social problems are common, for example crime, vandalism.

Solutions

• The squatter area improvement scheme provides basic facilities.

• New squatting is now under control.
• Existing squatter areas will be cleared.

Decayed public housing

[Link]

1. Hong Kong's public housing programme started in 1953.

i. There was massive inflow of refugees from China in the early 1950s.
ii. Many people lived in squatter areas.
iii. On Christmas Day 1953, a squatter fire in Shek Kip Mei made 53 000 people homeless.

2. Public housing were built to house people affected by squatter clearance, fire and other
disasters.

i. In the 50s, seven-storey resettlement estates were built, for example Tai Hang Tung Estate.
ii. In 1964, the government introduced low-cost housing.
iii. The most immediate aim was to build as many houses as quickly and cheaply as possible.
Problem

• The quality was so poor that today these early public housing areas have decayed into a
slum condition.

• The public housing are overcrowded and have poor living condition.
• The facilities are unable to meet the rising living standard, for example shared toilets.
• Social problems are common, for example crime, vandalism.

Solutions Urban planning (see 10), for example public housing (see 5) and new town
development (see 9)

Solution to housing problems

Public rental housing

1. The Housing Society is a non-profit- making private organisation which provides housing for
poor people.
2. The Hong Kong Housing Authority was set up in 1973 after the Ten Year Housing Programme
was introduced in 1972.
o Now the living conditions in public housing estates are improved.
o Large housing estates are constructed in the new towns.
o There are more open space and recreational facilities.
o Better services and facilities are provided, for example schools, community centres.

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 o The flats are self-contained units, with toilets and water supply.
3. By 1991 all resettlement estates built in 50s and early 60s had been redeveloped.
4. By 2001 all non-self-contained public housing had been redeveloped.
5. In 2002, 2.1 million people (31% of the population) lived in rental public housing.

Interim Housing

1. Temporary Housing Areas (THAs) consist of single or two-storey structures.

o THAs are built to re-house new immigrants made homeless by clearance, fires or
natural hazards.
o These new immigrants are not yet eligible for permanent public housing.
2. Living conditions are poor with little facilities provided.
3. They are now replaced by high-rise blocks of Interim Housing with reasonable quality.

Subsidised home ownership

1. In 2003 the government stops the following schemes to subsidize home ownership.
o Home Ownership Scheme, introduced in 1978, offered flats for sale at low prices.
o Tenants Purchase Scheme offered rental public housing flats for sale at low prices.
o In the Mixed Development Scheme the private sector is required to hand over a
proportion of flats to the Government for sale.
2. The government continues to provide financial assistance to low and middle income families
to buy private housing flats.
o The Housing Authority operates the Home Purchase Loan Scheme
o The Housing Society operates the Home Starter Scheme.
o In 2002, the two schemes are replaced by the Home Assistance Loan Scheme

Transport problems

1. Transport is the action of carrying or conveying people or goods from one place to another.
2. Traffic is the movement of people or vehicles resulting from transport.

Causes of traffic congestion

1. As a city grows outwards, transport routes extend further.

2. There is increased numbers of commuters (people who travel to and from work everyday).
o Economic activities are more concentrated in the CBD with buildings getting taller.
o Residential areas spread out to the suburb by urban sprawl and suburbanisation.
3. Commuter traffic is concentrated during the morning and evening rush hours and in the
same direction.
4. The number of private cars increases with the rise of living standard.
o Private cars carry very few passengers but occupy much road space.
o Public transport is not comfortable and convenient and is overburdened in the rush
hours.
5. There was lack of planning in the past.
o Roads are narrow, winding or have many junctions, because they were initially
planned to carry a lighter load.
o There is a shortage of parking spaces. On- street parking prevents the smooth flow
of traffic.
6. Cross-border traffic (esp. goods vehicles) increases rapidly with the economic growth in
South China.

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Characteristics of transport problems

1. Traffic congestion causes a loss of time to passengers.

2. There is a shortage of parking spaces, esp. in the CBD.
o Economic activities are concentrated but space is limited.
o Multi-storey car parks cannot afford to pay a high land rent in the CBD to compete
with other urban land uses.
3. Urban transport takes up a large proportion of urban land use, for example roads, airports,
car parks, harbour and dock areas.
4. Air and noise pollution arise from the increased use of transport vehicles.

Solutions to transport problems

More efficient use of road system

1. The growth of private cars is contained by

o A high first registration tax of new private cars and a high annual licensing fee.
o * A vehicle quota system. (*proposed)
2. The number of cars in congested areas are reduced by
o Setting more bus lanes and one-way roads.
o Reducing on-street parking and banning en route stopping, for example restricted
parking and loading zones.
o Using a high passage tax to increase the tolls at the cross harbour tunnels.
o Electronic road-pricing systems are implemeneted in Singapore and London.
3. To encourage the use of public transport, the services must be more comfortable,
convenient and reliable, for example
o More buses are air-conditioned.
o More competition is introduced, for example First Bus.
4. Foot-bridges, subways and elevated walkways are constructed for pedestrians.
5. There is a computerised traffic control systems for better traffic management.

Mass transit systems

1. Mass Transit Railway (MTR)

o The MTR connects the urban areas of Hong Kong Island, Kowloon and Tsuen Wan.
o The MTR is mainly an underground railway which helps to relieve pressure on
overland transport.
o Penny's Bay Rail Link will link the Disneyland and the MTR Tung Chung Line
o The Tsueng Kwan O extension was opened in 2002.
2. The Airport Railway links the airport and Central District.
3. Kowloon-Canton Railway (KCR) East Rail
o The KCR connects Kowloon and the new towns of Sha Tin, Tai Po and Fanling /
Sheung Shui.
o The KCR was double-tracked and electrified in the early 1980s to increase the
frequency and to shorten travel times.
o The KCR is linked to the network of the MTR by the interchange at Kowloon Tong
station.
o * The Ma On Shan to Tai Wai Link and a new extension to Tsim Sha Tsui will be
completed in 2004. (* under construction)
o * The Sheung Shui to Lok Ma Chau spur line to improve cross-boundary traffic will be
completed in 2007. (*under construction)

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 o * The Shatin to Central Link (SCL) and Kowloon Southern Link (KSL) will be completed
in 2008 / 2009. (*under planning)
4. Kowloon-Canton Railway (KCR) West Rail links NW New Territories and Tsuen Wan was
completed in 2003.
5. Light Rail Transit (LRT) connects Tuen Mun, Yuen Long and Tin Shui Wai in the NW New
Territories.

Develop new route systems

1. Cross harbour tunnels, for example Cross Harbour Tunnel, Western Harbour Crossing,
Eastern Harbour Crossing.
2. Other tunnels, for example Shing Mun Tunnels, Tseung Kwan O Tunnel, Tate‘s Cairn Tunnel,
Aberdeen Tunnel, Airport Tunnel, Lion Rock Tunnel, Tai Lam Tunnel.
3. Expressways, for example Tolo Highway, Island Eastern Corridor.
4. Bridges, for example Lantau Link, Ting Kau Bridge.

Urban sprawl and rural change

Urban sprawl (see Urban settlements 4)

1. Causes of urban sprawl

o There is rapid urban growth and an increase in economic activities.
o The city centre is congested and the land rent is high.
o The rural area has a better environment, for example fresh air, quiet life.
o Improved transport network and increased private car ownership leads to higher
mobility of urban dwellers.
o This leads to an overspill of population re- housed to the edge of the city.
2. Urban sprawl is a haphazard, unplanned outward expansion of the urban area.
3. Suburbanisation is the creation of built-up area at the edge of the city in the suburban area
or suburb.
4. Urban encroachment is the take-over of the rural area by suburbanisation.
5. Problems of urban sprawl

1. There is a loss of farmland.

o Some farmlands are converted to urban uses.
o Some farmlands are abandoned because:
1. There is a shortage of labour due to rural- urban migration.
2. Land is held in speculation awaiting good prices for sales.
2. Factories and vehicles cause air, noise and land pollution.
3. Urban sprawl exerts pressure on the existing facilities and services in the rural area.

Rural decay (or rural change)

1. Rural depopulation

Young people leave the rural area and seek work in the urban area.

2. Selective rural-urban migration produces an unbalanced rural population structure.

i. The dependency ratio is high. (Mainly children and the aged remain in the rural area.) ii.
The sex ratio is low. There are more females than males.

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 3. Villages become derelict because of poor maintenance.

New town development

1. Objectives of new towns

o To redistribute the urban population and to reduce congestion of the urban areas.
o To house the overspill population affected by urban renewal, squatter clearance,
fire, landslide and typhoon.
o To disperse industry (by providing cheap land) and to provide jobs for the overspill
population.
o To develop self-contained and balanced communities with better living
environment.
o To avoid loss of farmland due to haphazard urban sprawl.
2. There are 9 new towns.

Tuen Mun, Yuen Long, Sha Tin, Tai Po, Fanling / Sheung Shui, Tsuen Wan, Tin Shui Wai,
Tseung Kwan, Tung Chung
Characteristics of new towns

1. Location
o Some new towns were developed from existing market towns, for example Sha Tin,
Tai Po.
o Some new towns were developed from small rural villages, for example Tseung
Kwan O, Tung Chung.
o Most new towns are developed in coastal locations (except Yuen Long and Fanling /
Sheung Shui).

i. Sea reclamation forms sites to provide flat land for development.

ii. Coastal location gives possible water transport.

2. New towns are developed away from the densely settled agricultural areas so that

i. The original life of the villages is not disturbed.

ii. The countryside is conserved.

3. New towns are self-contained, integrated communities.

o Public housing is provided for the low- and middle-income groups.
o Industry and commerce are developed to provide employment.
o Services and facilities are provided, for example shops, schools, hospitals.
4. The neighbourhood design provide a better living environment with landscaping.
o New towns have a spacious layout, with parks and open spaces. is introduced.
o A green belt is used to contain urban development for conservation and to provide a
pleasant environment.
o Traffic congestion is avoided (because the new towns are intended to provide jobs
for most residents).
o Industries are separated from residential areas to avoid pollution.
o Pollution is controlled by modern waste- disposal schemes.
5. New towns are well-linked with the main urban area by public transport, for example KCR.

Problems of new towns in Hong Kong

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 1. The new towns in Hong Kong fail to be self- contained and balanced.
o There is a lack of employment opportunities (esp. office employment).
o There is a lack of schools in some new towns.
2. As a result, many new town residents need to commute to and from the main urban areas
for work and study.
o The transport links between the new towns and the main urban areas are not
designed for so many commuters.
o There is serious traffic congestion, for example Tuen Mun Road, during rush hours.

Urban planning

1. Urban planning is the plan and design of urban development aiming at achieving a better
living environment.
2. In Hong Kong, the aim of urban planning is

To set a general direction for the long term economic development of Hong Kong.

3. To provide a good living and working environment for its present and future population.
4. To use the limited land resources more effectively.
5. To meet the demands for housing, commerce, industry, etc.
6. To provide the necessary infrastructure and facilities for the citizens, for example
transportation, parks.
7. To solve urban problems.

The role of government in urban planning in Hong Kong

1. Only the government can afford the huge money, manpower and time for very large scale
and long term projects.
2. The government needs to house a large population and to provide infrastructure, public
utilities and community services.
3. The government may disregard individual or business interests if they adversely affect the
environment.
4. The government may direct urban growth in the desired way by legislation, land-use zoning
and planning measures.

Population redistribution in Hong Kong

1. Hong Kong's old urban area, for example Hong Kong Island and Kowloon, is decreasing in
population.
2. In the 50s and 60s, the built-up areas were extended to New Kowloon, for example Kwun
Tong.
3. The new towns development since the 1960s is responsible for the population redistribution
to the New Territories.

Port and Airport Development Strategy (PADS) The Port and Airport Development Strategy
(PADS) is designed to meet the port and air traffic growth in Hong Kong with:

• New ports (Terminal 10 and 11) SE from Penny's Bay on NE Lantau.

• A new international airport at Chek Lap Kok.

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Airport Core Programme (ACP) The Airport Core Programme (ACP) consists of 10 core projects.

1. New Airport at Chek Lap Kok

2. Tung Chung New Town (Phase I)
3. Lantau Link
o Tsing Ma suspension bridge
o Kap Shui Mun bridge
4. North Lantau Expressway
5. Airport Railway
o the Airport Express
o the Lantau Line
6. West Kowloon Reclamation
7. Central Reclamation (Phase I)
8. Western Harbour Crossing
9. est Kowloon Expressway
10. Route 3 (part)

Metroplan

[Link] Metro area includes

• Hong Kong Island

• Kowloon and New Kowloon (including the site of the former airport)
• Tsuen Wan and Kwai Tsing

[Link] Metroplan provides a planning framework for developing and upgrading the Metro area.
[Link] Metroplan aims to implement redevelopment projects in the main urban areas due to the
relocation of the airport.
[Link] Metroplan formulates land-use patterns in order to create a better urban environment by:

• Planning housing, employment, transport and community facilities.

• Relocating activities which create severe environmental problems.
• Reducing population densities by urban redevelopment and new harbour reclamation.
• Providing facilities in the old urban areas at new town standards.

New Towns in UK

New towns were set-up due to the Town & Country Planning Act, 1947.

Features:

• Settlement supposed to be self-sufficient socially & economically.

• Generally have compact forms with post-industrial structures.
• Provide jobs & services in an attractive environment.

Reasons:

• Government wants to keep an area of greenbelt for farming/ recreation.

• Built as over-spill towns to accommodate new arrivals to cities & prevent urban sprawl. Also
used to accommodate people during the slum clearances of the 1960s.

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 • Designed to control urban growth & limit damage to rural areas.
• Take over-spills from existing cities.
• Attract new industry to areas of high unemployment.
• Create a better Quality of life.

There are 29 New Towns in the UK:

Welwyn Garden City – An old New Town near London Milton Keynes.

Skelmersdale, Lancashire

Planned in the 1960s as an over-spill town for 42000 people from Merseyside. It contains
“villages” or neighbourhood units that are self-contained and linked to others by elaborate
footpaths and roads. Land use is carefully planned to segregate industry & houses. There is
also lots of parkland & greenbelt for a better environment. The planners tried to give the town
a community spirit by recreating northern road patterns.

Problems:

• The footpaths are too long so people take shortcuts.

• The roads mean that people walk past windows as it is badly designed.
• There are lots of small alleyways so vandalism is out of control.
• Houses are poorly built with damp and leaking roofs.
• Many factories and shops have closed causing the loss of many jobs – no longer self-
contained.
• People are isolated so shop prices are high.

Preventing Urban Growth

Greenbelt

There is pressure for development on the rural-urban fringe with the risk of cities linking up
& causing massive urban sprawl. This would cause:

• Huge conurbations
• Loss of agricultural / recreational land.

Therefore the government developed the policy of greenbelts.

Function of the greenbelt:

• Check the spread of urban development.

• Keep neighbouring towns separate.
• Preserve the special character of towns – maintain identity.
• Assist urban regeneration – Towns have to manage the land they have and so it encourages
the use of brownfield sites.
• Preserve character of rural areas
• Provide recreation & leisure.
• Create a better environment around the edge of the city.
• Protect agricultural land & woodland from development.
• Safeguard agricultural practices.

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The first greenbelt was used in London and was set-up from 1954-1958. There are now 20
greenbelt regions taking up 15% of the land in the UK.

Other greenbelt schemes:

• Wedges– Penetrate to the heart of city for example Copenhagen

• Green corridor. – Run straight through city for example Geneva.
• Green Buffer – Separate cities for example Ruhr.
• Green heart – preserve open space at the centre of urban regions for example within the
ring of Amsterdam/ Rotterdam.

Greenbelt land may extend up to 10km beyond the city boundary. Urban growth is restricted
not prevented. Any proposals for land-use must go through government. The greenbelt
prevents the unification of 2 cities but it does not always work. for example the greenbelt in
Coventry has not been entirely successful as Coventry & Bedworth are merging. Urban
development may jump over the greenbelt.

Problems:
There have been some successes in preventing urban sprawl, however:

There is a great deal of pressure on the rural-urban fringe. Especially to use it for housing or
transport links.

Much of the land is brown-belt – damaged or degraded land.

There is pressure on rural settlements to build & expand, as people want to live in rural areas
- commuter belt.

Causes land prices to rise due to shortage of new houses being built.

The greenbelt is not really successful as a lot of greenbelt is now being lost by being nibbled
away to allow new developments for example NEC which has increased pressure on
greenbelt nearby.

Jobs are lost as a result of prohibited development for example London.

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