Bosnia & Herzegovina

ROAD DIRECTORATE Public Company

FEDERATION OF B&H “REPUBLIC OF SRPSKA ROADS”
Sarajevo Banja Luka

GUIDELINES FOR ROAD DESIGN,

CONSTRUCTION, MAINTENANCE AND
SUPERVISION

Volume I: DESIGNING

Section 2: DESIGNING BRIDGES

Sarajevo/Banja Luka
2005

University of Ljubljana
Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geodesy
Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

CONTENTS

1.2.1 GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR DESIGNING OF ROAD BRIDGES

1.2.2 EDGE BEAMS, KERBS AND WALKWAYS
1.2.3 RAILINGS AND BARRIERS ON BRIDGES
1.2.4 WATERPROOFING OF BRIDGES
1.2.5 DRAINAGE AND PIPING OF BRIDGES
1.2.6 BEARINGS FOR BRIDGES
1.2.7 EXPANSION JOINTS ON BRIDGES
1.2.8 TRANSITION FROM THE ROAD TO THE BRIDGE
1.2.9 JOINTS IN CONCRETE BRIDGES AND STRUCTURES
1.2.10 FORMWORK, FINISHING AND FACING OF CONCRETE SURFACES
1.2.11 BRIDGE MAINTENANCE EQUIPMENT AND MAINTENANCE PLAN
1.2.12 BRIDGE INSTALLATION

RS-FB&H/3CS – DDC 433/94 Volume 1 - Section 2

 GUIDELINES FOR ROAD DESIGN,
CONSTRUCTION, MAINTENANCE AND
SUPERVISION

Volume I: DESIGNING

Section 2: DESIGNING BRIDGES

DESIGN GUIDELINES (DG 1.2.1)

Part 1: GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR DESIGNING OF ROAD
BRIDGES
Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision General guidelines for bridges

INTRODUCTION

Numerous structures such as bridges, viaducts, overpasses, underpasses, culverts, tunnels,

galleries, retaining walls and other civil engineering structures represent a constituent part of up-to-
date motorways, highways, main roads and regional roads. These structures essentially influence
construction costs and time. Traffic safety and operation costs depend to a great extent on bridge
reliability, durability and safety.

The present design guidelines DG 1.2.1 allows for and unites the theoretical knowledge and the
present practice of designers, contractors and maintainers of road bridges at simultaneous
consideration of the legislation, rulebooks, and codes. The content of the guidelines is living,
topical, and approved in both domestic and international practice. It is divided in several chapters
that can be, as circumstances require, supplemented and modified in accordance with the latest
civil engineering knowledge and legislation changes.

The design guideline DG 1.2.1 is mainly intended for construction of new bridges on motorways,
main roads and regional roads. However, it is sufficiently universal to be partially applied in
reconstruction of existing bridges.

All the road bridges are designed and constructed to be reliably safe and durable during
construction as well as throughout the service life of several decades. Road bridges shall be
conceived, executed, protected and maintained to achieve their durability of 80 to 120 years.

In the introduction to the General guidelines for road bridges, attention of the relevant authorities,
investors, designers and contractors is attracted to take care of protection, maintenance and
reconstruction of old bridges, particularly of ancient stone bridges of an invaluable monumental
value.

The General guidelines for designing of road bridges DG 1.2.1 as well as all the remaining 12
design guidelines (DG 1.2.2 to DG 1.3.1) have been prepared on the basis and in accordance with
the Eurocodes and European structural standards, representing their continuation and extension in
order to enable and facilitate the uniformity as well as a correct bridge design and construction in
accordance with the development of both theory and practice.

In case that any better or more suitable solutions are proven by documents upon application of
these standards, they may be adopted on condition that they are approved by the responsible
institutions or relevant authorities.

Periodically, i. e. every 5 – 10 years, the guidelines shall be renewed and supplemented in

accordance with the modifications of existing and with the new Eurocodes and European structural
standards, as well as with the national legislation.

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General guidelines for bridges Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

CONTENTS

1. SUBJECT OF DESIGN GUIDELINES.......................................................................................... 6

2. REFERENCE REGULATIONS ..................................................................................................... 6
3. EXPLANATION OF TERMS ......................................................................................................... 8
4. BASES FOR DESIGN OF ROAD STRUCTURES ..................................................................... 11
4.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................ 11
4.2 Spatial and town planning bases ...................................................................................... 11
4.3 Traffic bases...................................................................................................................... 11
4.4 Surveying bases................................................................................................................ 11
4.5 Road bases ....................................................................................................................... 11
4.6 Geological/geo-mechanical bases .................................................................................... 12
4.7 Hydrological/hydro-technical (water economy) bases ...................................................... 12
4.8 Meteorological-climatic bases ........................................................................................... 12
4.9 Seismic data...................................................................................................................... 12
4.10 Design specification .......................................................................................................... 13
5. ROAD GEOMETRY ON BRIDGES ............................................................................................ 14
6. TRAFFIC PROFILE, CLEARANCE GAUGE AND WIDTH OF ROAD BRIDGES...................... 15
6.1 Clear profile and clearance gauge .................................................................................... 15
6.2 Regular cross section (with) on motorways and highways bridges .................................. 20
6.3 Regular cross section (with) on main regional and local bridges...................................... 24
6.4 Standard cross-sections (widths) of bridges for mixed road-railway traffic....................... 27
7. CLEAR WIDTH AND CLEAR (SAFETY) HEIGHT BELOW ROAD BRIDGES .......................... 28
7.1 General.............................................................................................................................. 28
7.2 Safety height below bridges .............................................................................................. 28
7.3 Clear width and clear height of underpasses.................................................................... 29
7.4 Clear width (opening) and clear height of overpasses across motorways and highways 29
8. RELIABILITY AND SERVICE LIFE OF BRIDGES ..................................................................... 32
9. AESTHETICAL ASPECTS OF BRIDGE DESIGN...................................................................... 34
10. LOAD BEARING SYSTEMS OF BRIDGES ............................................................................... 35
10.1 Beam bridges .................................................................................................................... 35
10.2 Frame bridges ................................................................................................................... 36
10.3 Arch bridges ...................................................................................................................... 36
10.4 Suspension bridges........................................................................................................... 37
10.5 Cable-stayed bridges ........................................................................................................ 37
11. CONSTRUCTIVE CONDITIONS OF BRIDGE DESIGN ............................................................ 38
11.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................ 38
11.2 Selection of load bearing system, span and total length of a bridge ................................ 40
11.3 Achieving of optimum supporting ...................................................................................... 42
11.4 Integral bridges.................................................................................................................. 43
11.5 Selection of materials for bridge load bearing structures.................................................. 45
11.6 Analysis and selection of construction method ................................................................. 47
11.7 Bridge cross section design .............................................................................................. 47
11.7.1 General .......................................................................................................................... 47
11.7.2 Cross section reinforced concrete and pre-stressed reinforced concrete bridges ........ 48
11.7.3 Cross section of composite and steel bridges ............................................................... 50
11.8 Constructive conditions for supports of beam and frame bridges..................................... 52
11.9 Minimum dimensions of elements and protective covers for reinforced concrete bridges53
11.10 Constructive conditions for reinforcing of bridges ............................................................. 54
11.11 Constructive conditions for pre-stressing of reinforced concrete bridges ......................... 55
11.12 Material, workshop fabrication, erection, and corrosion protection of composite and steel
bridges............................................................................................................................... 56
11.12.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 56
11.12.2 Basic steel material and binding material ...................................................................... 57
11.12.3 Workshop production and control of steel structures for bridges .................................. 58
11.12.4 Erection of steel bridges ................................................................................................ 59
11.12.5 Corrosion protection of steel bridges ............................................................................. 61
11.13 Constructive conditions for equipment of road bridges..................................................... 62
11.14 Indices of costs of basic materials per square metre of bridge surface............................ 62

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision General guidelines for bridges

12. DESIGN CALCULATION OF BRIDGES (STATIC AND DYNAMIC ANALYSIS) ....................... 63

12.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 63
12.2 Dynamic analysis of bridges for seismic actions .............................................................. 65
12.3 Calculation, dimensioning and verifications...................................................................... 65
12.3.1 Principles ....................................................................................................................... 65
12.3.2 Load bearing capacity.................................................................................................... 65
12.3.3 Serviceability.................................................................................................................. 66
12.3.4 Deformations.................................................................................................................. 66
12.3.5 Vibrations ....................................................................................................................... 67
12.3.6 Safety verification for fatigue ......................................................................................... 67
13. UP-TO-DATE BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION METHODS.............................................................. 68
13.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 68
13.2 Construction of bridge superstructures on a fixed false work ........................................... 70
13.3 Construction of bridge superstructures on a mobile false work span-by-span ................. 70
13.4 Construction of bridge superstructures by cast-in-situ free cantilever method................. 71
13.5 Concreting and incremental launching of bridge superstructures .................................... 72
13.6 Bridge superstructure of pre-cast T-beams and monolithic reinforced concrete slab ...... 73
13.7 Construction of bridge superstructures of pre-cast reinforced concrete segments .......... 73
13.8 Up-to-date methods of bridge pier construction................................................................ 74
13.9 Up-to-date methods of concrete arch construction........................................................... 75
14. STAGES AND CONTENTS OF BRIDGE DESIGN DOCUMENTS............................................ 76
15. CRITERIA FOR EVALUATION OF ALTERNATIVE (COMPETITIVE) SOLUTIONS................. 78
15.1 Criteria related to the particularities of the location and to the bases having served for
elaboration of alternative (competitive) solutions.............................................................. 78
15.2 Constructive-technological criteria .................................................................................... 78
15.3 Criteria related to bridge aesthetics and preservation of natural environment ................. 78
15.4 Economical criteria............................................................................................................ 78
15.5 Criteria related to bridge operation ................................................................................... 78
16. TEST LOADING OF BRIDGES .................................................................................................. 79
17. KEEPING OF DESIGN AND TECHNICAL DOCUMENTS......................................................... 79
17.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 79
17.2 Advantages of a microfilm data card (MDC) ..................................................................... 79
17.3 Common denominator of MDC ......................................................................................... 80
17.4 Preparing of design and technical documents for keeping ............................................... 80

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General guidelines for bridges Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

1. SUBJECT OF DESIGN design, construction, exploitation, and

GUIDELINES maintenance of roads at the level of former
Yugoslavia and of Bosnia and Herzegovina
The present design guidelines is intended for have been introduced as a whole, they are in
all the participants in the processes of use and already being innovated and
planning, designing, constructing, adopted.
maintaining, and rehabilitating of bridges.
For loads on road bridges the following
The scope of this guideline is to introduce, to regulations apply:
treat and to analyse general theoretical,
constructive, design and technological - Rulebook of technical norms for
cognition that can essentially influence the assessment of magnitude of loads on
investment process, conception, structural bridges dated January 04, 1991.
design, construction, maintenance, and
rehabilitation of bridges. - Rulebooks and standards dealing with
materials, calculation, and structural design
The topic of this guideline ensures uniting of from former SFR Yugoslavia, which are still
profound theoretical and practical knowledge, in use:
information from literature including practical - Rulebook of technical norms for
experience in this particular field of activity as foundation of structures, Official
well as technical regulations and standards. Gazette of SFR Yugoslavia No.
15.295/90;
The guideline is mainly meant for - Rulebook of technical norms for
construction of new bridges. However, it is concrete and reinforced concrete
sufficiently universal to be applied in renewal, made of natural and artificial light-
reconstruction and repair of existing bridges weight aggregate filler, Official
as well. Gazette of SFR Yugoslavia No. 15-
296/90;
- Rulebook of technical norms for
2. REFERENCE REGULATIONS design, production, and execution of
structures of precast members made
Bridge design, construction, rehabilitation, of non-reinforced and reinforced
and maintenance are conceived on concrete, Official Gazette of SFR
numerous regulations, standards, and Yugoslavia No. 14-146/89;
guidelines. Some of them are mandatory, - Rulebook of Yugoslav standards for
whereas the others are recommended only. timber structures, Official Gazette of
SFR Yugoslavia No. 48-497/84;
In Bosnia and Herzegovina as a young - Rulebook of technical norms for steel
country, some own regulations, as well as wires and strands for prestressing of
standards from the former SFR Yugoslavia, structures, Official Gazette of SFR
international ISO regulations, and European Yugoslavia No. 41-530/5 and No. 21-
Community codes are in use. 276/88;
- Rulebook of Yugoslav standards for
For bridge design, construction, and bases of design of structures, Official
management the following four basic groups Gazette of SFR Yugoslavia No. 49-
of regulations apply: 667/88;
- Rulebook of technical provisions and
- Regulations in the field of construction conditions for erection of steel
and structures on the whole; structures, Official Gazette of SFR
- Regulations dealing with design, Yugoslavia No. 29-351/70;
construction, exploitation, and - Rulebook of technical norms for load
maintenance of roads; bearing steel structures, Official
- Regulations dealing with loads on road Gazette of SFR Yugoslavia No. 61-
bridges; 899/86;
- Regulations for materials, calculation, - Rulebook of technical norms for
and structural design of reinforced concrete and reinforced concrete in
concrete, prestressed, steel, composite, structures exposed to aggressive
and timber structures. environment, Official Gazette of SFR
Yugoslavia No. 18/92;
The first two of the abovementioned groups - JUS U.M1.046, 1984: Load testing of
related to construction on the whole, and to bridges;

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision General guidelines for bridges

- Rulebook of technical provisions and Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures

conditions for corrosion protection of
steel structures (Official Gazette of - EN 1993-1-1 Part 1-1 General rules and
SFR Yugoslavia No. 32/70; rules for buildings
- Current JUS standards for steel - EN 1993-1-1/A1¸:1996 Part 1-1/A1
structures. General rules and rules for buildings
- EN 1993-1-1/A2:2001 Part 1-1/A2
EN 1990:2002 Eurocode: Bases of structural General rules and rules for buildings
design: - EN 1993-1-2 Part 1-2 General rules –
Structural fire design
EN 206-1:2000 Concrete-part 1: - EN 1993-1-3 Part 1-3 General rules –
Specification, performance, production and supplementary rules for cold formed
confirmity thin gauge members and sheeting
- EN 1993-1-4 Part 1-4 General rules –
Eurocode 1: Actions on structures supplementary rules for stainless steels
- EN 1993-1-5 Part 1-5 General rules –
- EN 1991-1-1 Part 2-1 Actions on supplementary rules for planar plated
structures – densities, selfweight and structures without transverse loading
imposed loads - EN 1993-1-6 Part 1-6 General rules
- EN 1991-2-2 Part 2-2 Actions on supplementary rules for the shell
structures – fire loads structures
- EN 1991-2-3 Part 2-3 Actions on - EN 1993-1-7 Part 1-7 General rules –
structures – snow loads supplementary rules for planar plated
- EN 1991-2-4 Part 2-4 Actions on structural elements with out of plane
structures – wind loads loading
- EN 1991-2-5 Part 2-5 Actions on - EN 1993-2 Part 2 Steel bridges
structures – thermal actions - EN 1993-5 Part 5 Piling
- EN 1991-2-6 Part 2-6 Action on
structures – Actions during execution Eurocode 4: Design of composite steel
- EN 1991-2-7 Part 2-7 Action on and concrete structures
structures – Accidental actions due to
impact and explosions - EN 1994-1-1 Part 1-1 General rules and
- EN 1991-3 Part 3 Traffic loads on rules for buildings
bridges - EN 1994-1-2 Part 1-2 General rules –
Structural fire design
Eurocode 2: Design of concrete - EN 1994-2 Part 2 Composite bridges
structures
Eurocode 5: Design of timber structures
- EN 1992-1-1 Part 1-1 General rules and
rules for building - EN 1995-1-1 Part 1-1 General rules and
- EN 1992-1-2 Part 1-2 General rules – rules for buildings
Structural fire design - EN 1995-1-1 Part 1-1/AC General rules
- EN 1992-1-3 Part 1-3 General rules – and rules for buildings; Amendment
Precast concrete elements and - EN 1995-1-2 Part 1-2 General rules –
structures Structural fire design
- EN 1992-1-4 Part 1-4 General rules – - EN 1995-2 Part 2 Bridges
Linghweight aggregate concrete with
closed structure Eurocode 7: Geotechnical design
- EN 1992-1-5 Part 1-5 General rules –
Structures with unbounded and external - EN 1997-1 Part 1: General rules
prestressing tendons - EN 1997-2 Part 2: Design assisted by
- EN 1992-1-6 Part 1-6 General rules – laboratory testing
concrete strictures - EN 1997-3 Part 3: Design assisted by
- EN 1992 – Part 2 Concrete bridges field testing
- EN 1992 – Part 3 Concrete foundations
- EN 1992 – Part 4 Liquid retaining and Eurocode 8: Design provisions for
containment structures earthquake resistance of structures

- EN 1998-1-1 Part 1-1 General rules –

seismic action and general requirements
for structures

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General guidelines for bridges Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

- EN 1998-1-2 Part 1-2 General rules – Underpasses for vehicles are structures
General rules for buildings enabling leading of other roads below the
- EN 1998-1-2/01 Part 1-2/01 General considered road.
rules – General rules for buildings
- EN 1998-1-3 Part 1-3 General rules – Underpasses for pedestrians and cyclists
Specific rules for various materials and are structures similar to underpasses for
elements vehicles, only that their clear height is
- EN 1998-1-4 Part 1-4 General rules – smaller.
Strengthening and repair of buildings
- EN 1998-1-4 Part 1-4/01 General rules Culverts are small bridges of an opening of
strengthening and repair of buildings 1-5 m.
- EN 1998-2 Part 2 Bridges
- EN 1998-2/AC Part 2 Bridges: Galleries are structures serving for a closed
Amendment AC or partially closed passing of a road on a
- EN 1998-3 Part 3 Towers, masts and verge of an unstable slope, or for passing of
chimneys a road through populated and protected
- EN 1998-4 Part 4 Silos, tanks and regions.
pipelines
- EN 1998-5 Part 5 Foundations, retaining Tunnels are confined structures serving for
structures and geotechnical aspects passing of a road through a rock.
- EN 1998-5 Part 5 / Foundations,
retaining structures and geotechnical Retaining walls are structures ensuring
aspects stability of the road body below the road
vertical alignment, or of the slopes of cuts or
cuts and fills above the road vertical
3. EXPLANATION OF TERMS alignment.

Road structures are bridges, viaducts, Noise barriers are structures protecting
overpasses, underpasses, culverts, galleries, populated environment from an excessive
tunnels, retaining walls, noise barriers, etc. noise coming up from the motorway direction.

By function the road structures can be A bridge is divided into three fundamental
divided into bridges, viaducts, overpasses for constituent parts:
vehicles, overpasses for pedestrians and - substructure (supporting system)

cyclists, underpasses for vehicles, - superstructure

underpasses for pedestrians and cyclists, - equipment

culverts, galleries and tunnels, retaining

structures as well as noise barriers. Bridge substructure consists of the
following elements:
Bridges in a broader meaning are all the - abutments with wing walls

civil engineering structures such as bridges, - piers.

viaducts, overpasses and underpasses,

serving a safe crossing of natural and Bridge superstructure directly takes the
artificial obstacles. traffic loading and transmits both static and
dynamic actions to the substructure. Bridge
Bridges in a stricter meaning are civil superstructures can be executed of different
engineering structures of an opening of ≥ 5 m materials, different static systems as well as
serving a safe crossing of water obstacles different number and largeness of spans
such as brooks, rivers, channels, lakes, bays, between supports.
etc.
Bridge equipment consists of the following
Viaducts are structures enabling roads to components:
cross the valleys. A distinction can be drawn - bearings and hinges

between valley viaducts crossing valleys, and - expansion joints

slope viaducts running parallel with the slope - transition slabs

of a valley. - railings and barriers

- waterproofing of carriageway slab and

Overpasses for vehicles are structures walkway

enabling leading of other roads across the - asphalt carriageway

considered road.

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision General guidelines for bridges

- drainage of carriageway including piping for Dewatering and piping is a common term
evacuation of precipitation water for a collecting system and a controlled
- edge beams, kerbs and walkways evacuation of precipitation water or any other
- installations liquid from the bridge carriageway to the
- equipment for maintenance of both collector or road drainage.
superstructure and substructure
- traffic signs and information boards. Gullies are elements for collecting and
evacuating of water from the bridge
Bridge abutments support the carriageway.
superstructure at both bridge ends, and
enable the transition from the bridge to the Edge beams are reinforced concrete,
road body. subsequently constructed lateral elements
located on bridge superstructure edges.
Bridge piers support the superstructure
between the abutments when a bridge Kerbs are elements made of eruptive stone
consists of at least two spans. as a rule, serving for a separation in height of
the carriageway surfaces meant for vehicle
Wing walls are integral constituent elements traffic from those intended for pedestrians
of abutments and form a lateral confinement and cyclists.
of the road body at the transition of the road
carriageway to the bridge. Installation space on a bridge is
represented by the built-in installation ducts
Bridge foundation can be either or by a reserved space equipped with
- shallow, i.e. directly on foundation slabs, or suspensions for placing the installation ducts
- deep, i.e. indirectly on bored or driven running along the bridge axis.
piles, or on wells or caissons.
Inspection shaft to control installations on
Bearings and hinges of bridges are the pedestrian walkway surface is a steel
structural elements transmitting both vertical element equipped with a watertight cover.
and horizontal forces from the superstructure
to the substructure. Communal chambers at the rear of
abutments are confined reinforced concrete
Expansion joint is a common term for a structures intended for a controlled
device enabling unimpeded displacements arrangement of all types of installations to be
and rotations at abutments and, led from the road body into the bridge.
exceptionally, at piers.
Public lighting on bridges consists of
Transition slabs are structural elements of electric installations, candelabra, and lamps.
abutments intended for a continuous
transition from the bridge to the road. Bridge equipment above the
superstructure upper level consists of
Railings and safety barriers serve for waterproofing, asphalt carriageway, edge
protection of pedestrians, cyclists and beams, kerbs, and walkways.
vehicles both on bridges and below them. By
purpose, structure and material, several Total length of a bridge is the distance
types of railing and safety barriers can be between both bridge ends (between
distinguished. expansion joint axes or, in case of frame
structures, between outer abutment edges).
Waterproofing of road bridges is a
common term for waterproofing (protection) Total width of a bridge is the distance
of structural load bearing elements from between the outer edges of edge beams.
harmful effects of moisture and precipitation
water. Static spans of a bridge are the lengths
between axes of adjoining supports.
Asphalt carriageway on bridges is a term
indicating layers of poured asphalt and/or Clear width below the bridge is the sum of
asphalt-concrete on the bridge carriageway the clear widths between individual supports.
surface.
Bridge vertical alignment is identical with
the road vertical alignment on the bridge.

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General guidelines for bridges Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

Bridge axis is identical with the road axis on Bridge rehabilitation is a common term for
the bridge. However, the latter is not adaptation, repair, reconstruction, and
necessarily identical with the bridge strengthening of bridge structure and
superstructure axis. equipment.

Bridge height is the vertical distance Bridge renewal is a term for reconstruction
between the comparative ground plane and or replacement of the bridge load bearing
the bridge vertical alignment. structure required due to action of physical
agents (earthquake, flood) or war.
Total height of the abutment is the vertical
distance between the bottom of foundation Small bridges are bridges of a total length of
(shallow or deep) and the bridge vertical 5 – 30 m.
alignment.
Medium bridges are bridges of a total length
Total height of the pier is the vertical of 30 – 100 m.
distance between the bottom of foundation
(shallow or deep) and the superstructure Larger bridges are bridges of a total length
lower edge. of 100 – 200 m.

Clear height is a clear vertical distance Large bridges are bridges of a total length of
between the ground level (mean water level, 200 – 500 m.
vertical alignment of the lower road) and the
superstructure lower edge. Extremely large bridges are bridges of a
total length greater than 500 m.
Construction depth is the superstructure
thickness that can be variable or constant. Low bridges are bridges which vertical
alignment is up to 10 m above the ground.
Bridge total area is the product of the bridge
total length and the bridge total width, and Medium high bridges are bridges which
serves as an indicator of the bridge size. vertical alignment is 10 – 30 m above the
ground.
Protective height below the bridge is the
difference in height between the lowest point High bridges are bridges which vertical
of the superstructure lower surface and the alignment is 30 – 60 m above the ground.
relevant high water level.
Extremely high bridges are bridges which
Bridge adaptation includes replacement or vertical alignment is more than 60 m above
repair of bridge equipment or other bridge the ground.
elements not being bearing elements.
Beam bridges are bridges which
Bridge repair includes repair of locally superstructure (slab, girders, box) is
damaged structural load bearing elements. separated from the supports by means of
bearings.
Bridge reconstruction includes a more
comprehensive reconstruction and Frame bridges are bridges which
replacement of structural elements to superstructure is connected with the supports
preserve the design load bearing capacity of rigidly or by means of a hinge.
the bridge.
Arched bridges are bridges which basic
Bridge strengthening includes more load-bearing element is a vaulted girder (an
extensive reconstruction works, arch) of a variable cross section.
strengthening and replacement of load
bearing elements due to a modified purpose Suspension bridges are bridges which
and conditions of use, as well as due to an basic load-bearing elements are parabolic
increased live load. cables supporting the deck via pylons and
suspending steel ropes; the load is taken
Replacement of a bridge means a removal directly by the suspended deck.
of the entire bridge or superstructure and
construction of a new bridge or Cable-stayed bridges are bridges where the
superstructure. decks of variable cross section and material

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision General guidelines for bridges

is suspended (elastically supported) to pylons For road structures within the framework of
by means of stay cables. new routes or reconstruction of existing road
special traffic bases are not necessarily
Design model is an interpretation of the required since the road structure shall comply
actual structure in a form that best fits the with the conditions being valid for the road as
natural behaviour of taking the loading. well. Bridge railings and safety barriers must
not diminish the capacity of traffic lanes.
Internal forces and moments are the
moments, shearing forces and normal forces 4.4 Surveying bases
acting within a particular design cross
section. The principal surveying bases are the
following:
− a key plan of 1:5000

4. BASES FOR DESIGN OF ROAD − a detailed actual tacheometric layout plan

STRUCTURES at a scale of 1:100 for structures of a length

up to 100 m and 1:200 (1:250, 1:500) for
4.1 Introduction longer structures respectively
− a longitudinal section of the ground along

The road structure design is based on the the designed bridge axis (at the same scale
spatial and town planning, traffic, surveying, for both heights and lengths).
geological/geo-mechanical,
hydrological/hydro-technical (water Both the tacheometric layout and the
economy), climatic (meteorological), and longitudinal profile include heights above sea
seismic bases as well as on the requirements level and coordinates of the polygon position
given in the design specification. and location of geological boreholes.
For bridges located on slopes and in case of
Quality, functionality, stability and economy a severe morphology longitudinal profiles
depend to a great extent on the accuracy and along the external edges of the bridge are
the correct application of the required as well, which particularly applies to
abovementioned bases. The latter shall be the areas of piers and abutments. In these
prepared by specialists in the individual areas accurate cross profiles of the ground
fields, in cooperation with authorized are urgently required too.
investor’s experts and structural designers.
The structural designer can cooperate in For larger and geometrically complicated
elaboration of the design bases and in their bridges it is essential to elaborate a special
critical assessment on equal terms only on programme or detailed report for checking
condition that he has on his disposal a the structural geometry during construction.
sufficient interdisciplinary knowledge in the The surveying expert’s detailed report can
field of all the specialized activities. also include the elements of geometrical
monitoring during the bridge operation and
4.2 Spatial and town planning bases maintenance.

When new motorways and other categorized 4.5 Road bases

roads are being designed, the spatial and
town planning bases for the road structures For the design of road structures layout
are prepared within the road design. Only for drawings, longitudinal and cross profiles of
larger bridges, viaducts, galleries and tunnels the road in the area of the structure as well
or when bridges and viaducts are as the characteristic cross section of the road
independent structures in towns and on the bridge are required. These documents
settlements, special spatial and town shall be elaborated at a design stage being
planning conditions or bases are elaborated. by one stage higher than the structural
design stage. Good road bases cab only be
4.3 Traffic bases prepared in an interdisciplinary collaboration
of all the participants, meaning that the road
For larger, individual and particularly urban designer shall cooperate with the structural
bridges traffic volume and type during bridge designer and, if required, with the soil-
construction and operation are determined in mechanics expert when conceiving the road
the traffic bases. The traffic data represent a route and the vertical alignment in the area of
base to specify the number and the widths of road structures. The final solution should be
traffic lanes, pedestrian walkways, cycle always based on a consensus of all the
tracks, etc. interested parties.

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4.6 Geological/geo-mechanical bases For bridges and culverts on motorways, main

roads and regional roads the centenary water
For the needs of the design of road is relevant. The effect of stemming the
structures, suitable geological/geo- stream due to bridge supports shall be
mechanical bases are prepared in two allowed for. For local roads fifty-years of
stages. twenty-years high water is relevant.

The first stage of these bases intended for The safety height below the road bridge
elaboration of preliminary designs is carried superstructure varies within the limits of 40-
through within the road route, whereas for 100 cm, depending on the size and character
larger structures it is prepared independently of the river as well as on the degree of
by means of a limited number of test reliability of the hydrological data. The
boreholes or other geo-mechanical hydrological/hydro-technical conditions are
investigation works. The first stage of the given in the water economy conditions issued
geological/geo-mechanical bases shall define by the relevant water economy authority or
the type and location of strata, their institution.
compressibility, and approximate bearing
capacity, as well as to provide the foundation The foundation depth of the river piers shall
proposal. Structural engineers will use the be specified to protect the bottom of
data on the composition and the type of soil foundation from eroding (at least 1.5 – 2 m
when selecting the static system, the number below the riverbed bottom).
and length of spans, the total length of the To a safe construction of bridges across wide
bridge, the location of supports, and the type rivers the data on the time oscillation of the
of foundation. water level are extremely important as well.

The second stage of the geological/geo- For a correct selection of the material for
mechanical investigations is definitive. It construction of river piers the data on the
provides all the essential data required to water velocity and on the aggressiveness of
elaborate the road construction permit the water stream are essential too. When the
design. The load bearing capacity of the concrete of river piers can be jeopardized by
ground is specified on the basis of boreholes abrasion, or when the water is chemically
executed on the locations of supports, on the aggressive, structural concrete of an
basis of the actual depth of the bottom of adequate resistance or lining of the piers with
foundations, and on the basis of the resistant stone or with a corrosion protected
dimensions of the foundation surface steel plate shall be foreseen.
including the mandatory calculation of
settlements. For deep foundations bearing 4.8 Meteorological-climatic bases
capacities of piles shall be indicated for
individual profiles. When designing and constructing road
structures, the data on temperature
The depth of trial boreholes shall extend at variations, air humidity, velocity and direction
least by 5 to 6 m below the lower edge of the of winds, cleanliness or pollution of air, and
foundation slab or pile footing. The data on duration of freezing shall be allowed for. For
factors of both vertical and horizontal the design of the bridge drainage and piping,
compressibility of the ground as well as on the data on shower intensities shall be taken
the condition and eventual changes of the into consideration. The data on snow
ground water level are essential for the conditions are useful as well.
design as well.
4.9 Seismic data
4.7 Hydrological/hydro-technical (water
economy) bases For the design of road structures seismic
data from the general macro-charts and
For bridges and culverts the required clear regulations shall be considered.
profile for a safe discharge of high waters is
For larger and more important structures the
determined taking into consideration an actual micro-seismic activity and measures
adequate protective height difference for taking the seismic loading by means of
between the high-water level and the bridge dampers shall be determined.
superstructure lower edge.

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4.10 Design specification • Conditions for aesthetic appearance of

bridge
The design specification shall be made by
the investor or by his authorized engineer. It • Safety verification
is a constituent part of the design or
construction contract for the road structure. • Stages and contents of design
documents
The design specification shall include at least
the following information, requirements and • Criteria for selection of the most
conditions: appropriate solution

• General information • Procedure of revision and approval of

- Investor design documents
- Structure
- Designation of the road
- Designation of the obstacle to be bridged

• Bases for bridge design

- Spatial-town planning bases
- Surveying bases
- Road bases
- Geological/geo-mechanical bases
- Hydrological/hydro-technical bases
- Meteorological/climatic bases
- Seismic data

• Laws, technical regulations, technical

specifications, rulebooks, norms and
standards

• General technical data on bridge

- Purpose of the bridge
- Micro-location of the bridge
- Motorway or road elements on the bridge
- Motorway or road characteristic profile on
the bridge
- Total length of the bridge
- Bridge foundation
- Basic materials for the bridge
superstructure

• Special conditions for bridge design

• Bridge equipment
- Drainage and piping
- Waterproofing
- Bearings
- Expansion joints
- Installations on the bridge
- Lighting of the bridge
- Protection from wind, noise, etc.

• Service life of bridge

- Service life of the bridge
- Maintenance design and equipment

• Conditions for bridge construction

- Working plateaus
- Access roads
- Construction time
- Effect of existing traffic

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5. ROAD GEOMETRY ON BRIDGES A widening of bridges in the area of

horizontal curvatures should be carried
The carriageway geometry (vertical through to a full value along the entire bridge
alignment, axis, twisting, cross-falls, angles length, in contrast to the road where the
of crossing natural or artificial obstacles) transition is generally executed gradually
crucially influences the selection and design from zero to the full value.
of the bridge, its appearance and cost as well For urban bridges and at crossroads
as the required construction time. inclinations smaller than 0.5% are allowed.
Solutions of the vertical alignment and axis However, a more efficient dewatering shall
for a bridge being an integral part of a road be ensured in such cases.
can differ from those for an independent The road axis can cross the obstacle axis at
bridge. an angle of 90° or less. The smaller the
crossing angle, the longer the bridge. The
Both the vertical alignment and the axis of an structure becomes more and more
independent bridge are designed taking into complicated and expensive.
consideration less rigorous boundary
conditions and can be easier adapted to Crossing angles smaller than 45° represent
natural obstacles and structural exceptional cases and shall be avoided.
requirements. Crossing angles of at least 60° are
The geometry of bridges on new roads is a recommended.
constituent part of the road geometry. In case of smaller road structures such as
Therefore, a cooperation of both road and underpasses for vehicles or pedestrians,
bridge designer is urgently required. bridges of a length up to 20 m or similar, it is
Sometimes even minor corrections of the recommended to lower the upper edge of the
vertical alignment and the axis essentially superstructure by 40-60 cm (i.e. by the
facilitate the construction technology and thickness of the carriageway pavement
subsequent bridge maintenance. structure) under the vertical alignment. In this
way effects of an unfavourable geometry on
The vertical alignment of a bridge, viaduct or the bridge structure can be avoided since all
overpass shall ensure sufficient space for a the geometry modifications can be solved by
reasonable selection of both the constructive a variable thickness of the carriageway
depth and the safety height. A vertical pavement structure.
alignment of one-sided longitudinal fall within
a range of 0.5 – 3% is wished for. With regard to the general visibility and
Longitudinal falls smaller than 0.5% makes different fields of sight, a road bridge shall be
maintenance difficult and more expensive of the same standard as prescribed for the
particularly for longer bridges. On the particular road.
contrary, when longitudinal falls exceed 3%,
aesthetical appearance of longer bridges is The responsibility of the road designer for the
adversely affected. geometrical solutions on the bridges is
proportional to the length and the cost of a
Concave curvatures of the vertical alignment bridge. Optimum solutions are enabled by a
are not desirable on longer bridges. The balanced interdisciplinary collaboration.
same applies to the combination of Smaller road bridges can be accommodated
curvatures of the vertical alignment and to the road route elements, whereas for
horizontal curvatures of the carriageway axis. larger bridges specificities of the structure
and its construction method shall be allowed
For larger bridges symmetrical convex for when determining the road route.
curvatures of the vertical alignment with
inclination of both tangents of 1.5 – 2% are
wished for.

A change of cross-falls (twisting of the

carriageway) on bridges and viaducts
renders design and construction difficult and
more expensive, and creates an
unfavourable visual impression.
A combination of substantial longitudinal and
cross-fall of the carriageway can lead to
troublesome skidding of vehicles on a wet,
snowed up or ice-covered carriageway.

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6. TRAFFIC PROFILE, CLEARANCE The safety width wsaf within a clearance

GAUGE AND WIDTH OF ROAD gauge depends on the design speed vdes and
BRIDGES amounts to the following values:

6.1 Clear profile and clearance gauge vdes (km/h) 50 70 >70

A traffic profile of a road (bridge) is the 4.0 m wsaf (m) 0.50 1.00 1.25
high space above the carriageway. It consists
of the following: The safety height above the traffic profile
- cross-section of the relevant vehicle amounts to h = 0.50 m. For overpasses over
- space allowing a vehicle to move in motorways the safety height shall be h = 0.70
both a straight line and a curve m.
- safety width between vehicles. The safety height above the pedestrian
walkway and cycle track amounts to h =
The abovementioned components are also 0.25m.
valid for the traffic profile of cyclists as well as Exceptionally a lower clearance gauge (>4.5
of both cyclists and pedestrians where its m) can be foreseen for individual relevant
height amounts to 2.25 m. vehicles, however not for new bridges but
only for reconstructions.
A traffic profile consists of traffic and Is the clearance gauge lower than usually, it
overtaking lanes, marginal strips, central shall be marked by suitable both horizontal
reserves as well as widths for both and vertical traffic road signs.
pedestrians and cyclists in settlements.

A clearance gauge of the road on a bridge is

the space above and at the traffic profile, i.e.
the traffic profile enlarged by both the safety
width and safety height. No permanent
physical hindrances shall interfere with the
clearance gauge to ensure the designed
speed of vehicles and an undisturbed
movement of other road users.

Figure 6.1: Traffic profile and clearance gauge on a bridge

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Figure 6.2: Traffic profile and clearance gauge of pedestrian walkway

Figure 6.3: Traffic profile and clearance gauge of cycle track

Figure 6.4: Example of combined traffic profile and clearance gauge for both pedestrians and
cyclists (The minimum combined width for both pedestrians and cyclists amounts to
w = 0.20 + 0.80 + 0.25 + 1.00 + 0.25 = 2.50 m)

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In figure 6.5 a clearance gauge of bridges on track upper edge perpendicular to the track.
both motorways and highways consisting of The clearance gauge axis is the same as the
two separated carriageways is presented. track axis and is perpendicular to the line
The emergency lane width depends on the connecting the upper edges of both rails. No
width of the normal cross-profile on a railway installations, structures, signs etc.
motorway or highway. A service walkway shall interfere with the clearance gauge area
shall be foreseen for bridges longer than 50 (figure 6.9).
m. In figure 6.5a) a clearance gauge without
an emergency lane is shown whereas in A clear profile is a part of the vertical plane
figure 6.5b) the clearance gauge comprises above the track upper edge, perpendicular to
an emergency lane as well. the track and limited by the inner contour of
the bridge cross-section, or by the
In figure 6.6 a clearance gauge of bridges on superstructure lower contour (intrados) and
main, regional and local roads out of by inner edges of supports in case of
settlements (v > 50 km/h) is presented. overpasses. It is determined on the basis of
Figure 6.6a) includes a pedestrian walkway the prescribed clearance gauge, position and
whereas figure 6.6b) shows both a number of tracks, camber of tracks in a
pedestrian walkway and a cycle track. curve, installations on the bridge, walkway
In figure 6.7 a clearance gauge of bridges on design, etc. The clear profile, taking into
main, regional and local roads in settlements account structural deformations and
(v < 50 km/h) is shown. Figure 6.7a) includes foundation settlement, can touch the
a pedestrian walkway whereas figure 6.7b) clearance gauge in certain points or lines;
shows both a pedestrian walkway and a however it shall not interfere with it.
cycle track.
When designing new bridges or
In figure 6.8 a clearance gauge of bridges on reconstruction of existing ones on non-
open (public) roads is presented. A smaller electrified railway lines where no future
clearance gauge height (4.20 m) is feasible electrification is foreseen, a clearance gauge
as well. A pedestrian walkway shall be UIC – GC up to the level of 4,300 m above
foreseen for open roads in settlements only. the track upper edge shall be taken into
consideration as shown in figure 6.9.
Both the shape and dimensions of clearance
gauges for urban bridges shall be determined For electrified railway lines (existing and
individually for each bridge in accordance future), beside the clearance gauge up to the
with the town planning documents and the level of 4,900 mm above the track upper
traffic regime. They depend on the traffic type edge, an additional portion above that level
and volume as well as on the needs of shall be considered to enable passing of
pedestrian walkways and cycle tracks. In pantograph and installing of the overhead
certain cases it might be reasonable to electric and supporting cables.
foresee cycle tracks on the carriageway level.
The carriageway widths of road bridges are
equal to or greater than the carriageway
widths of normal cross-profiles of the same
category.

When determining bridge widths one shall

bear in mind the fact that it is more difficult to
widen a bridge than a road. Therefore it is
more economical to foresee a greater bridge
width from the early beginning, in particular
for roads where an urbanization progress can
be expected.

When widening a horizontally curved bridge

the prescribed carriageway widening is
relevant too.

A clearance gauge on railway bridges and

roads above them (e.g. overpasses) is a
limited area of the vertical plane above the

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Figure 6.5: Clearance gauge of bridges on motorways and highways

a) Clearance gauge with pedestrian walkway

b) Clearance gauge with cycle track and pedestrian walkway

Figure 6.6: Clearance gauge of bridges on main, regional and local roads out of settlements (v > 50
km/h)

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a) Clearance gauge with pedestrian walkway

b) Clearance gauge with cycle track and pedestrian walkway

Figure 6.7: Clearance gauge of bridges on main, regional and local roads in settlements (v < 50
km/h)

Figure 6.8: Clearance gauge of bridges on open (public) roads

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1) Gauge widening at R < 250 m

Curvature radius R At the curve inner side At the curve outer side
m mm mm
250 0 0
225 25 30
200 50 65
180 80 100
150 135 170
2) Space for platforms and loading ramps at stations
3) Space for installations if required for railway traffic
4) Applies to overpass supports

Figure 6.9: Clearance gauge UIC-GC of railway bridges at R ≥ 250 m

6.2 Regular cross section (with) on wtl = 3.75 m wms = 0.50 m

motorways and highways bridges wtl = 3.50 m wms = 0.30 m
wtl = 3.25 m wms = 0.30 m
Cross-profiles of bridges on motorways and wtl = 2.75 m wms = 0.20 m
highways are similar to those at both
accesses to a bridge. The emergency lane widths wel amount to the
Cross-profiles consist of traffic and following values:
overtaking lanes, marginal strips, emergency On motorways: wel = 2.50–1.75 m
lanes, central reserve and shoulders. On highways: wel = 1.75 m
The widths w of both traffic and overtaking The emergency lane is a widened marginal
lanes are given as a function of the design strip thus not requiring an additional marginal
speed vdes : strip.
vdes = 120 km/h w = 3.75 m For motorways where the emergency lane
vdes = 100, 90 km/h w = 3.50 m width amounts to 1.75 m, and for highways,
vdes = 80 km/h w = 3.25 m broadening of the emergency lanes by 0.75
vdes = 70, 60 km/h w = 3.00 m m shall be carried out at certain distances.
vdes = 50 km/h w = 2.75 m The emergency niches achieved in this way
vdes = 40 km/h w = 2.50 m are 2.50 m wide.
The shoulder width ws depends on the design
speed vdes and amounts to the following
The marginal strip widths wms are given as a values:
function of the traffic lane widths wtl: vdes ≥ 100 km/h ws = 1.50 m

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vdes ≥ 90 km/h ws = 1.30 m The selected concrete safety barrier on a

vdes ≥ 70 km/h ws = 1.30 m bridge shall be of the same type as the
vdes ≥ 50 km/h ws = 1.00 m barrier on the approaching motorway, which
The central reserve widths wcr amount to the is particularly important to the central
following values: reserve.
On motorways: wcr = 3.20 – 4.00 m In bridges on such motorway sections where
On highways: wcr = 1.25 – 2.50 m the normal central reserve is widened due to
On multiple-lane roads a nearby tunnel or similar, each structure
in settlements: wcr = 1.60 – 4.50 m represents the integrity apart.
In figure 6.10A an example of a normal Due to the clearance gauges and widths of
cross-profile of a motorway consisting of 3.75 road bridges the superstructures of bridges
m wide traffic and overtaking lanes, a 2.50 m and viaducts shall be separated, i.e. double.
wide emergency lane, 1.50 m wide shoulders This principle applies to all the materials,
and a 4.00 m wide central reserve is static systems and deck construction
indicated for a speed of vdes = 120 km/h. The methods.
total width of a motorway running in a cut Deviations from the a.m. principle are
amounts to 28.00 m (a normal cross-profile of allowed only for culverts and underpasses
28.00 m). located in the motorway bodies, especially
In figure 6.10b cross-sections of bridges when an overlay above the upper slab is
consisting of two superstructures separated present, so that both traffic-dynamical and
by 10-20 cm in the central reserve axis are visual changes are avoided. The same
shown. The design of bridge safety barriers applies to shorter bridges where no
shall be harmonized with the solutions on the settlement of foundations is expected.
motorway approaching the bridge ends. Deviations from the a.m. principle are also
In figure 6.10c an adequate cross-section on permitted for extremely tall (mean pier height
a common bridge without an expansion joint of 60 to 80 m) and extremely long viaducts
in the central reserve is presented. Such a (total length greater than 800 m) of spans
solution can be introduced to shorter bridges longer than 100 to 120 m.
such as culverts or underpasses where no When comparing the alternatives of single
differential settlement of foundations is and double superstructures the following
expected. aspects shall be considered:
In figure 6.10d cross-sections on bridges - Function of the bridge in the motorway

consisting of two structures pushed apart are network

shown. Such a solution is foreseen where the - Possibility of a by-pass in case of closure

central reserve width is greater than 4.00 m, of the motorway on the bridge
where the carriageways are separated due to - Superstructure material (concrete or steel)

a nearby tunnel, etc. At the outer sides of the - Operation/exploitation conditions of the
cross-profiles service walkways for bridge (regular maintenance, rehabilitation)
maintenance staff are foreseen. In case of - Preservation of natural environment and

separated superstructures concrete safety incorporation of the bridge into it

barriers shall be designed. - Economic aspects in view of the initial and

In figure 6.11A an example of a normal total investment over the entire design
cross-profile of a highway consisting of 3.50 service
m traffic and overtaking lanes (without - life of the bridge.

emergency lanes), 1.50 m wide shoulders Experiences from the motorway exploitation
and a 2.00 m wide central reserve is have shown that damages of motorway
indicated for a speed of vdes = 100 (90) km/h. bridges are a normal feature requiring a
In figure 6.11B cross-profiles on bridges permanent maintenance as well as
consisting of two separated superstructures rehabilitations within the periods of 25 to 30
are indicated. In figure 6.11C cross-profiles years. In rehabilitation of bridges consisting
on bridges of a common superstructure of a single superstructure the traffic diversion
whereas in figure 6.11 cross-profiles on represents a major problem. Therefore
bridges consisting of two superstructures investors usually decide on double
pushed apart are shown. These superstructures.
considerations apply to both motorway and Taking into account the influence of both
highway bridges. traffic and vibrations on the maintenance and
When elaborating preliminary bridge rehabilitation of steel superstructures, which
schemes, bridge designers conceive normal is less disturbing to a double superstructure,
cross-profiles for each individual bridge in the abovementioned considerations are
collaboration with road designers. confirmed.

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Figure 6.10: Cross-sections of bridges on motorways for a normal cross-profile of 28.00 m

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Figure 6.11: Cross-sections of bridges on highways for a normal cross-profile of 20.20 m

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6.3 Regular cross section (with) on main cyclists or both of them. The kerb height
regional and local bridges amounts to 18 cm. On each edge a
pedestrian railing of height of 1.10 m shall be
In figures 6.12 and 6.13 widths and shapes of foreseen.
bridge cross-sections on main, regional and In figures 6.14 and 6.15 the widths of bridge
local roads are shown. The fundamental cross-sections on open (public) roads are
difference in the bridge cross-section design shown. One can distinguish between two-
is due to vehicle speed or to position of the lane and single-lane open roads.
bridge out of settlements or within them.
In the figure 6.14 the width of bridge cross-
In figure 6.12 widths and shapes of bridge sections on a two-lane open road is
cross-sections on main/regional and local indicated.
roads out of settlements for speeds > 50
km/h are indicated. The kerb height amounts Under a) the width of a two-lane open road is
to 7 cm. A steel safety barrier placed at a shown, where the total width of the traffic
distance ≥ 50 cm from the marginal strip is lane and marginal strips amounts to B ≥ 5.0
obligatory. m.

Under a) the width of main, regional and local Under b) the width of bridges on two-lane
roads is presented. B is the width of the open roads is indicated. The kerb height
traffic lanes plus the marginal strip width and amounts to 18 cm. On each edge a
shall amount to ≥ 5.9 m depending on the pedestrian railing of height of 1.10 m shall be
road category and other factors. foreseen.

Under b) the width of bridges on main, In figure 6.15 the widths of bridge cross-
regional and local roads is given, when a sections on one-lane open roads are
bridge is shorter than 20 m and lower than 3 presented.
m.
Under a) the width of a one-lane open road is
Under c) the width of bridges on main, shown, where the total width of the traffic
regional and local roads is shown, when a lane and marginal strips amounts to B ≥ 3.5
bridge is shorter than 50 m irrespective of its m.
height.
Under b) the width of bridges on one-lane
Under d) the width of bridges on main, open roads is indicated. The kerb height
regional and local roads is indicated, when a amounts to 18 cm. On each edge a
bridge is longer than 50 m irrespective of its pedestrian railing of height of 1.10 m shall be
height. foreseen.

Under e) the width of bridges on main, The minimum width of a pedestrian bridge
regional and local roads out of settlements is amounts to 3.0 m.
shown, with pedestrian walkways or cycle
tracks or both of them, irrespective of the Bridge cross-sections (edge beams, kerbs
bridge length and length. The steel safety and walkways) are discussed in detail in the
barrier shall be equipped with a handrail. design guidelines DG 1.2.2.

In figure 6.13 the widths and shapes of Both clearance gauges and widths of
bridge cross-sections on main, regional and combined bridges depend on the decision
local roads in settlements for speeds < 50 whether for all the traffic types a common
km/h are presented. bridge is foreseen, or for different traffic types
a separate bridge is designed. When
Under a) the width of main, regional and local determining both the clearance gauge and
roads is indicated. B is the width of the traffic the width of a bridge intended for a combined
lanes plus the marginal strip width and traffic, particularities of each individual traffic
depends on the road category and other type shall be taken into account.
factors.
Depending on the actual conditions for
Under b) the width of bridges on main, bridges foreseen for a combined traffic, a
regional and local roads in settlements is bridge can be executed in two levels.
indicated. The walkway width depends on the
fact whether it is intended for pedestrians,

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Figure 6.12: Cross-section widths of bridges on main, regional and local roads out of settlements (v
> 50 km/h)

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Figure 6.13: Cross-section widths of bridges on main, regional and local roads in settlements
(v < 50 km/h)

Figure 6.14: Cross-section widths of bridges on two-lane open (public) roads

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Figure 6.15: Cross-section widths of bridges on one-lane open (public) roads

6.4 Standard cross-sections (widths) of A solution of standard cross-sections (widths)

bridges for mixed road-railway traffic on the same carriageway is sufficient for
regional and local roads of less significant
On main, regional, and local roads bridges traffic volume, as well as for factory railway
for a mixed, i.e. road-railway traffic can occur. tracks (Fig. 6.16)

There are two possible solutions for standard

cross-sections (widths) of such bridges:

Figure 6.16: Cross-sectional widths of bridges for mixed road-railway traffic on the same
carriageway

A solution of standard cross-section (widths) ballast, so that the tracks are placed at the
on the same, i.e. common bridge on road carriageway level.
separated carriageways is feasible on all
national roads except on motorways and
expressways. For public railways it is
mandatory to keep a carriageway with gravel
ballast on bridges as well (Fig. 6.17). For
local railways of lower speed as well as for
factory tracks it is possible to avoid the gravel

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* for railway track running in a straight line or in a curvature of R > 250 m.

Figure. 6.17: Cross-sectional widths of bridges for mixed road-railway traffic on separated
carriageways

7. CLEAR WIDTH AND CLEAR

(SAFETY) HEIGHT BELOW ROAD 7.2 Safety height below bridges
BRIDGES
The safety height is a clear vertical distance
between the H1/100 (centenary water level)
7.1 General increased by the height difference as a
consequence of the increased water level
For bridges across natural or artificial
due to hindering piers, and the lower edge of
streams the opening determined by hydraulic
the bridge superstructure.
calculation shall be sufficient to enable a safe
flow of centenary water with a damming
The safety height amounts to 0.50 m for
effect in front of the obstacle, and to ensure a
channels and regulated streams, minimum
safety height above that level.
1.0 m for non-regulated streams and 1.0 –
1.5 m for minor torrents. Other values of
When determining the clearance gauge of
safety heights are feasible as well, if explicitly
streams and roads, eventual reserves in
requested by the water economy guidelines.
width for local roads, paths and other
The upper surface of the bearing block on the
purposes shall be considered, since any
bridge abutment shall extend by minimum
subsequent widening of the clearance gauge
0.20 m above the H1/100.
are difficult for execution and economically
unfavourable. For navigable rivers the safety height shall
amount to:
The profile width is harmonized with the width - 2.5 – 3.0 m for rafts and boats
of the road and appurtenant paths. A reserve - 3.0 – 4.5 m for major boats and sailing
in width shall always be taken into account, in boats.
particular at passage of a path below a
bridge, since nearby lateral obstacles can For ships and tugboats the relevant port
reduce both the traffic safety and the footpath authorities must direct the navigation gauges.
capacity.

When a bridge is being constructed over a

road or railway under traffic, the formwork
gauge shall be taken into consideration or
other suitable construction methods shall be
foreseen such as pre-cast pre-stressed
concrete composite structures, incremental
launching etc., which not require any
increasing of the clearance gauge.

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Figure 7.1: Clear profile below road bridges

7.3 Clear width and clear height of

underpasses

Underpasses are structures enabling leading

of other roads below the considered road.

The underpass clear width is equal to the

road width (traffic lanes, marginal strips,
shoulders or footpaths and cycle tracks) at
both ends of the underpass.

In the figures 7.2 and 7.3, minimum clear

widths for single-lane and two-lane public
paths are indicated.

Clear heights of road underpasses amount to Figure 7.4: Clear height of underpasses
4.70 m for motorways as well as main,
regional and local roads, whereas for public 7.4 Clear width (opening) and clear height
paths the clear height shall not be less than of overpasses across motorways and
4.20 m. For pedestrians and cyclists the clear highways
height shall be 2.5 m. When practicable and
in case of longer structures, the clear height Overpasses are structures enabling leading
shall be increased to 3.0 m. of other roads across the considered road. In
practice, predominantly main/regional/local
roads are led over motorways or highways.

The overpass width is equal to the width of

the road entering/exiting the overpass. It is
specified in the paragraph 6 of this design
standard.

Figure 7.2: Minimum clear width of The clear height below overpasses amounts
underpasses for single-lane public to 4.70 m. It is defined as the vertical
paths distance between the lower edge of the
superstructure (taking into account the
drainage pipe or other installations) and the
highest point of the carriageway.

When exceptional transports are foreseen on

a particular road direction, a clear height of
6.50 m below the overpasses shall be
Figure 7.3: Minimum clear width of ensured or suitable alternative solutions
underpasses for two-lane public established.
paths

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The clear width (opening) depends on paid to the selection of the pier cross section,
numerous factors. The minimum clear width to its protection from the vehicle impact, to
is a width required by the clearance gauge of the traffic safety (a solution involving safety
a motorway, highway or any other road. The barriers in the central reserve), to the
number and length of overpass spans drainage of the central reserve below the
depends on the clear width. overpass, and to the depth of the foundation
block.
The arrangement scheme of overpasses is
mainly influenced by the following: In the figure 7.5 possible solutions of the
- whether a motorway/highway being overpass structures are shown schematically,
crossed by the overpass is located on a flat where a motorway or any other road runs on
ground or in a cut; a nearly flat ground. In the figure 7.6
- the total width of the motorway/highway solutions are indicated when a road crossed
road body; by an overpass is located in a cut.
- the width of the central reserve and the
motorway/highway geometry; Single-span overpasses are suitable to
- possibility of widening of a motorways running in a partial cut, in
motorway/highway or increasing of the particular when the width of the central
number of traffic lanes; reserve is less than 2.0 m. In such cases the
- economical aspects; height of the fill of the main/regional/local
- spatial/town-planning and aesthetic design road is not greater than 4-5 m and the
aspects. overpass opening varies within the limits of
25-40 m. Both a constant or variable depth of
From the constructive-static point of view, the frame superstructure is feasible (figure
frame (integral) structures without bearings 7.5 A).
and expansion joints are preferential for
overpass lengths of less than 60-70 m. Double-span overpasses are suitable to
motorways running on a flat ground or in a
Road designers should tend towards shallow cut, where the width of the central
solutions where a road on the overpass reserve exceeds 2.0 m. In such cases the
crosses the motorway/highway at an angle of height of the fill is not greater than 6.0 m, and
90°. If such a solution is not practicable, the the spans of the overpass frame structure
angle of crossing should differ from 90° as vary within the limits of 15-25 m. The span
less as possible. Rectangular overpasses are length shall be selected adequately to enable
shorter, cheaper as well as geometrically and execution of continuous lateral ditches and to
visually more favourable. ensure a berm of a minimum width of 1.0
before the cone (figure 7.5 B).
The vertical alignment of the road on the
overpass can be considered as favourable Overpasses consisting of three or more
when it runs in a symmetrical vertical spans are an adequate solution for
curvature or in a one-sided fall of less than motorways on a flat ground where no pier is
3%. A change of the cross fall on the foreseen in the central reserve. The length of
overpass is not desirable due to an the central span of the frame structure varies
unpleasant visual effect as well as a more from 25 to 30 m, whereas for side spans it
difficult construction and dewatering. amounts to 14-20 m. A constant construction
depth of the overpass superstructure is
Full attention shall be paid to the structural desired (figure 7.5 C).
design of overpasses, particularly of their
piers, since an overpass is not only a Overpasses consisting of four or more spans
functional structure but also a significant are a good solution for motorways on a flat
spatial element. ground where the width of the central reserve
is significant and when a possibility of a
It is not obligatory to design uniform motorway widening by additional traffic lanes
overpasses on a motorway. Most overpasses exists. Such multi-span overpasses are
have their own specificities, which the suitable to motorway sections next to big
designers shall bear in mind. Motorway users cities where high fills are not welcome. The
probably prefer logical variations and span lengths above the motorway amount to
pleasant visual surprises. 20-30 m, whereas the side spans follow the
static conditions and the characteristics of the
When an overpass is designed with a pier in obstacle (figure 7.5 D).
the central reserve, special attention shall be

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision General guidelines for bridges

For overpasses crossing motorways or other For ever pass superstructures it is

roads located in a deep rock cut, single-span economically to design reinforced concrete
arch, quasi-arch or frame structures of spans for spans up to 15 m (18 m) and pre-stressed
20-50 m are appropriate (figure 7.6 A and 7.6 reinforced concrete for spans up to 30 m (40
B). cm). For overpasses of spans longer than 40
m, beside pre-stressed concrete, composite
For overpasses crossing motorways running steel – concrete structures are competitive as
in a wide cut, an up-to-date scheme of a well.
slender transparent cable-stayed single-span
superstructure of 40-100 m is also feasible
(figure 7.6 C).

Figure 7.5: Possible schemes of overpasses where a motorway runs on a flat ground

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General guidelines for bridges Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

Figure 7.6: Possible schemes of overpasses where a motorway runs in a cut

8. RELIABILITY AND SERVICE LIFE resistance is greater than the effects of

OF BRIDGES external actions multiplied by the overall
safety factor γ.
Reliability and service life of bridges are
extremely important features. In the present Structural serviceability is verified by limiting
design standard only basic items are the deformations, vibrations and cracks.
indicated. Fatigue is well defined and can be verified for
steel, composite concrete-steel, and partly for
The term reliability unites safety (load bearing reinforced concrete as well as pre-stressed
capacity, serviceability, fatigue resistance) reinforced concrete structures. It is absolutely
and durability. sure that the fatigue is increased by reducing
the dead weight with regard to the live load,
Structural safety is enabled by both the by increasing the deformations and
ultimate limit state and serviceability limit vibrations, as well as by occurrence and
state verification as well as by the fatigue growth of cracks.
verification.
Service life can be denoted as the time in
The ultimate limit state is based on the which a bridge, within certain limits, retains
equation R ≥ S ⋅ γ proving that the structural all the fundamental design properties:
bearing capacity, serviceability and purpose.

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision General guidelines for bridges

Bridge reliability (safety and durability) Serviceability is ensured by limiting

decreases during the bridge operation as a deformations, vibrations, cracks, as well as
consequence of expected and accidental by the quality of materials.
phenomena such as structural Fatigue: By the fatigue resistance verification
characteristics, quality of materials, it shall be shown that the fatigue has no
maintenance effects, traffic loading effects, adverse effects on the required bearing
and environmental impact. capacity.

Due to a more profound knowledge of − Durability

materials, in particular of the concrete,
different investigations are being carried Durability is defined as the time in which a
through for the present that essentially bridge retains all the designed properties.
influence the bridge durability. Several
phenomena are known causing material Structural properties:
decaying. The investigations shall indicate a
model applicable to calculate the service life Structural scheme
of a reinforced concrete structure. Such Structural details
calculation shall be a constituent part o the Selection of materials
bridge design. However, research works and Construction technology
models for the calculation of the service life Equipment and dewatering
of reinforced concrete structures cannot be Protection and maintenance
directly applied to bridges not only due to the
material, but also because of a significant Quality of materials (concrete)
and interactive function, fatigue, and effects Water/cement ratio
of the characteristics of the entire bridge Quantity and type of cement
structure. Quality and type of aggregate
For road bridges a service life of 80 to 120 Proper use of additives
years can be realistically requested, Protective concrete cover and treatment of
designed and realized, depending on the concrete
bridge type and the conditions of use. Porosity and permeability
All the materials affect the durability.
For bridges on non-categorized, local and Main reasons of concrete decaying:
regional roads a service life of 80 years is
realistic, since the period of expected use is Deficiencies in concrete composition
usually shorter. Corrosion of steel reinforcement
For bridges on motorway and main roads a Harmful chemical actions
service life of 100 years is expected as it also Damage due to freeze
applies to the road itself. Inner reactions in the concrete
Restraining of displacements
For larger bridges, particularly urban bridges Mechanical damage
and bridges on strategically important road Cracks
sections, a claim for a service life of 120
years is justified. Effects of maintenance:
A normative determining of the bridge service
life refers to the bridge superstructure and So far existing cognition to be taken into
partially to the piers, depending on the static consideration.
system and the structural scheme of a Means for maintenance and repair
bridge. Bridge information system
Regular inspection
For bridge equipment 20-25 years of service Investment maintenance
life can be expected. A timely replacement Due repairs and reconstructions
and reconstruction of the equipment affect
the service life of the superstructure as well. Effects of traffic loading:

• Safety and durability create reliability Limitation of axle loads

of bridges Ratio dead weight to traffic load
Exceptional loads
− Safety High speeds
Mechanical damage
Load bearing capacity: Categories specified Fatigue
in accordance with the limit state theory.

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General guidelines for bridges Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

Environmental impact: 9. AESTHETICAL ASPECTS OF

BRIDGE DESIGN
Atmospheric action
Chemical aggressiveness
A bridge is a composition of morphological-
Strewing of salt
geological particularities of the environment,
Freezing
civil engineering structures, purposes,
Temperature effects
materials, shaping, construction method,
safety, durability, economy, and incorporation
• Participants influencing the road into the surroundings and/or into the urban
bridge reliability space.
Investor: The aesthetic mission of a bridge,
constructed faultlessly with regard to the
Design specification composition, can only be successful in case
Preparation and revision of basic documents of mental and professional maturity of the
Selection of designer and contractor structural designer.
Revision of design
Realistic price and realistic construction time Endeavours to create beautiful bridges are
schedule permanently present in the bridge
construction history and are as old as the
Structural designer: bridges.
Proper use of basic documents The public viewpoint related to bridges has
Adequate scheme changed in the course of time. In the middle
Correct static analysis ages stone bridges represented a kind of
Selection of materials monumental structures being a symbol of
Detailing that time and of a longest duration possible.
Selection of equipment
Maintenance design More than 200 years ago, introducing the
steel as material and developing the
Contractor: structural theory, bridges commenced to be
considered as static structures of a clear load
Staff of sufficient technical experience transfer.
Up-to-date equipment, machinery and
technology At the beginning of the twentieth century
Preparation and organisation concrete became competitive. In the middle
Internal control of the century it was already considered as
Accurate and consistent elaboration of the the most important material for bridge
as-built design construction.
Supervising engineer: On up-to-date roads, particularly motorways,
a great number of bridges, viaducts,
Staff of sufficient technical experience overpasses and other structures to cross
Control of materials built in natural and artificial obstacles as well as to
Control of equipment and technology create out-of-level crossroads can be found.
Control of construction conditions
Control of dimensions A major concentration of bridges handicaps
Accurate and consistent supervision of the environment, therefore aesthetical design
elaboration of the as-built design aspects and a harmonized incorporation into
the rural and urban space are of extreme
Maintenance: importance.
Establishing of the bridge management When a bridge is being designed, the
system structural designer is the leading engineer,
1-2% of the bridge value to be foreseen meaning that not only a functional and
annually for regular maintenance and reliable (safe and durable) but also a
rehabilitation harmonized and aesthetical civil engineering
Due inspections structure is achieved, unaided or in
Regular maintenance and prevention of cooperation with an architect.
potential damage
Timely and quality repair and reconstruction

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision General guidelines for bridges

An arrangement scheme of a bridge (in 10.1 Beam bridges

particular a selection of the load bearing
system) results from the study of the bridge The basic characteristic of beam bridges is
function, morphology of the obstacle, the separation of the superstructure from the
geological properties of the ground, road substructure. Loads are transmitted from the
geometry, utilization of the ground in the superstructure to the substructure via
bridge area, material properties, available bearings.
construction methods and many other The superstructure cross-section depends on
important factors, arising from the bases for the span lengths, disposable construction
designs. depth and geometrical relations.

For the selected load bearing system (beam, With regard to the static model beam bridges
frame, arch, suspension, etc.) spans, total can be statically determinate or statically
length and pier arrangement are specified, indeterminate structures.
structural material selected, and possible Beam bridges can be constructed of any
construction methods indicated. The material (timber, reinforced concrete, pre-
fundamental dispositional elements enable stressed reinforced concrete, steel, or
an analysis and a design of alternatives of composite concrete – steel) except stone.
bridge superstructure cross-sections. When a
bridge superstructure is designed well and A beam resting on two supports is the most
correctly, it is usually logically and employable system for smaller bridges of any
harmonically shaped as well. material. By an increased application of pre-
stressed reinforced concrete and composite
Shaping of bridges is not an independent steel – concrete, the limits of economical use
objective neither it can be considered apart of a beam resting on two supports have
from the load bearing structure. The essentially changed. A deficiency of the
fundamental principles of the bridge system of one beam on two supports is the
aesthetics are the following: necessity of bearings and expansion joints,
- selection of a suitable form of the basic which increases the construction and
load bearing system of a bridge; maintenance costs thus favouring frame
- harmonized proportions of individual systems.
elements as well as of the bridge as a
whole; A beam with cantilevers with or without a
- simplicity of forms and functionality of both counter-load is a suitable system for urban
the individual elements and the bridge as a bridges as well as for bridges on both local
whole; and regional roads.
- statically fair structure;
- quality of executed works and colour of A system of simply supported beams with or
visible surfaces; without expansion joints above piers has
- harmonized incorporation of the bridge into been employed for pre-stressed reinforced
the natural or urban environment. concrete systems of a major number of
spans for a long time. Damages above piers
caused by water action have led to omission
10. LOAD BEARING SYSTEMS OF of expansion joints and to creation of
BRIDGES continuous superstructures to take live loads.

A system comprising hinges is known under

Bridges can be classified by different criteria:
the name “Gerber’s beam” and has been
purpose, material, location, position with
typical of the era of reinforced concrete and
regard to the obstacle etc. For the structural
steel bridges from the twenties to the fifties of
design, static analysis and operation, the th
the 20 century. In the up-to-date bridge
most important classification of bridges is
construction such systems are designed only
based on their load bearing systems.
exceptionally.
In view of structural scheme, shape, taking
and transmitting of forces to the bearing
Statically indeterminate systems such as
ground, five basic types of load bearing
beam bridges consisting of two, three or
systems can be distinguished:
more spans are most frequently designed
- beam systems
systems of all the materials available. The
- frame systems
span lengths as well as the span ratios
- arch systems
depend on the morphology, particularly on
- suspension systems
the obstacle height, on the foundation
- cable-stayed systems.

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General guidelines for bridges Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

conditions, and on the construction method. similar to the continuous beam systems. By
The most important advantage of continuous an adequate combination of a rigid
systems is based on the fact that expansion connection, hinges and bearings the designer
joints on very long bridge superstructures can can significantly influence the bridge
be avoided. The number of spans is economy.
unlimited.
10.3 Arch bridges
10.2 Frame bridges
Arches are bearing systems especially for
A frame load bearing structure is created bridges across rivers and viaducts over deep
when a superstructure is connected with valleys with steep hilly slopes. Forces can be
supports rigidly or via a hinge. taken from the arch base without any
Single-span frame bridges with or without settlement.
hinges are very economical for spans of 5-60
m in reinforced or pre-stressed reinforced The durability of ancient arch stone bridges is
concrete. A frame system is more convenient almost unlimited.
as a single-span beam system, since the An arch axis shaped according to the dead
entire frame system takes the ground weight pressure line is the most appropriate
pressures. Bearings and expansion joints are bearing system for stone and concrete, i.e.
not required. The maintenance of such materials of high compressive strength and
bridges is simpler and more economical. By low tensile strength.
rigid linkage of the superstructure and Up-to-date arch bridges are constructed of
abutments the superstructure moments and reinforced concrete, steel or composite steel-
thus the construction depth are reduced. concrete cross-section for spans of 40-100
Modifying the moments of inertia along the m.
span, the field moments can be additionally Due to the new arch construction methods,
diminished and a pleasant visual effect particularly cast-in-situ free cantilever
achieved. construction of long spans, arch bridges have
become competitive. The progress in the
A closed frame is a primary system of an research of plastic properties of concrete has
opening of 2-5 m, and for minor reinforced expanded the limit spans of reinforced
concrete bridges and underpasses of an concrete arch bridges.
opening of 5-8 m to be constructed on a soil
of poor bearing capacity. An advantage of In the modern arch bridges the
this system is a good and balanced superstructure above the arch is a beam
distribution of actions as well as an system, i.e. a cast-in-situ or incremental
adaptation to settlements. launched structure. Such methods reduce
costs and time of arch bridges of longer
Frame systems comprising braces and spans.
inclined supports enable longer spans as well
as a combination of a pre-cast and a Up-to-date computer software enables the
monolithic construction. They are suitable to analysis of a 3D-structural model to obtain a
overpasses and bridges made in reinforced realistic stress and strain condition upon
concrete or pre-stressed reinforced concrete, interaction of the arch and the superstructure.
in steel or composite steel-concrete material. Arch bridges of longer spans shall be
nd
Cantilevers with braces and inclined piers calculated in accordance with the 2 order
reduce field moments and consequently the theory.
construction depth of the superstructure
cross-section as well. A fixed arch has represented a basic system
for bridges made of stone, brick and
Frame structures consisting of two or more concrete, and has remained a basic system
spans and of vertical supports are very for the reinforced concrete as well.
frequent in the up-to-date bridge In stone or brick arches the front walls were
construction, particularly in reinforced webbed or contained relieving openings. In
concrete and pre-stressed reinforced reinforced concrete arches instead of
concrete. In case of multiple-span structures webbed front walls a beam or frame structure
the connection superstructure-substructure above the arch occurs which span was only
can be either rigid or via hinges or bearings 5-6 m at first. Later on the span of such pre-
depending on the bridge total length, span stressed reinforced concrete structure above
length, deviation of system symmetry axis the arch was increased up to 50 m.
etc., so that these systems are more or less

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An elastically fixed arch of a sickle shape Suspension bridges with an elastic deck can
where a harmonized form is enabled by a be interesting and competitive for
planned change of the moments of inertia footbridges, provisional bridges and bridges
along the span, is an up-to-date way of carrying pipelines of spans of 50-150 m.
application of arch reinforced concrete
systems of bridges of shorter and medium The load bearing cable of a suspension
spans, i.e. of 40-150 m. The arches is linked bridge is anchored into the ground and takes
with the superstructure to a uniform cross- the entire dead load and live load via deck.
section at approximately central third of the When the suspension cables are vertical, the
span. The superstructure above the arch force in the load bearing cable is constant.
includes no piers or only a minimum number Suspension bridge decks shall be calculated
nd
of piers. in accordance with the 2 order theory.
Since the deck is subject to vibrations, it shall
Systems of continuous reinforced concrete or be dynamically analysed for both wind
steel arches have become competitive to actions and moving load.
bridge broad rivers particularly in towns. To
structural designers introducing this system, 10.5 Cable-stayed bridges
several possibilities of variations in the
design of the span vs. camber of the arch as Cable-stayed bridges are systems where the
well as of the arch cross-section vs. piers and superstructure of variable cross-section and
abutments are offered. material is suspended to one or two pylons
by means of stays.
A double-hinged arch is the fundamental The modern use of cable-stayed bridges
system for steel arch bridges. began in 1955. So far this system has
Fixed or double-hinged arches with a partially become very frequent for bridges of spans of
lowered carriageway enable long spans and 100-1,000 m.
a favourable relation between the span and
the camber of the arch irrespective of the The development of the cable-stayed system
type and shape of the obstacle. Such has advanced towards shorter distances
systems are suitable to shallow obstacles between elastic supports and greater number
when the position of the vertical alignment is of stays. Such a trend has been a result of
determined. the request to construct beam structures not
only of steel and composite steel-concrete
A beam strengthened with a slender arch, or cross-section (as this was practised in the
a slender arch strengthened with a beam, are first decades of the modern application of this
known as “Langer’s beam”, which is an system), but also of pre-stressed reinforced
explicit representative of steel arch bridges of concrete.
longer spans and limited construction depth
crossing rivers and other obstacles. Due to A greater number of stays arranged in a
its slenderness the arch is loaded almost shape of a harp or a fan can cause that the
entirely with axial force whereas bending is system is considered as a cantilever one
taken by strengthening beam acting as a stay where the carriageway slab is the lower
as well. Modern versions of such a system compression flange, whereas the stays
can comprise one arch in the cross-section represent a cantilever tension flange.
centre.
Such a density of stays enables extremely
10.4 Suspension bridges small construction depths, without any risk of
flexure due to the traffic load. Moreover, the
Suspension bridges consisting of parabolic concrete as material is competitive for short-
load bearing cables, suspension cables, and span bridges as well.
a stiff deck are systems designed only for In the longitudinal scheme, cable-stayed
road steel bridges of longest spans of 400- systems with a single pylon and those with
2,000 m. two or more pylons are known. In both cases
the pylons shall be anchored backwards.
After the cable-stayed bridges of 500 m of
length or more had become competitive, the Pylons can be steel, composite steel-
suspension bridges moved towards the concrete or reinforced concrete individual
longest spans possible. columns or frame structures, depending on
the bridge span and width, the pylon height,
the number of planes as well as aesthetical
and other conditions.

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The bridge deck can be of different cross- 11. CONSTRUCTIVE CONDITIONS OF

sections. Since a high torsional rigidity is BRIDGE DESIGN
required, the cross-section of the deck is a
box in most cases. It is designed in steel for 11.1 Introduction
the longest, in steel-concrete for medium,
and in pre-stressed reinforced concrete for The constructive conditions of the bridge
medium and shorter spans. design shall be stated in a logical sequence
of structural planning and designing.
Stays consist of parallel wires or strands of Constructive conditions enable updating and
high-strength steel. Their special anchorages making uniform the bridge design criteria,
shall be designed and executed to resist the which has a favourable influence on
fatigue perfectly. construction, durability and maintenance.
Constructive conditions relate mainly to
Wires and strands are inserted into HDPE reinforced concrete and pre-stressed
sheathings. After tensioning the latter are reinforced concrete beam and frame bridges,
grouted with cement mortar or other since these materials and systems are
approved material. employed at the most.
A bridge shall not be conceived on the basis
It is not appropriate to offer more detailed of insufficient, incomplete or inaccurate
guidelines related to this system, since the documents.
latter is still being developed intensively. In the table 11.1, twelve steps of bridge
Designers can find adequate instructions and design are indicated.
information in the latest books and
professional dealing with the cable-stayed Bases for design and the design specification
bridges in detail. are presented in the chapter 4. Herein it is
only emphasized that designers have to
study the design specification and all the
bases for design in detail. They must
accentuate all the conditions that have an
essential influence on the bridge conception
and design. In case that the designer finds
out any inconsistencies or contradictions
when analysing or, later on, applying the
bases for design, he is obliged to inform the
investor of this fact in due time.

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision General guidelines for bridges

Table 11.1: Design procedure flow chart

BASES FOR DESIGN Defines purpose, location, load, gauges and

1
DG 1.2.1, chapters 4.1 – 4-9 durability of a bridge
Spatial – town planning, traffic, geometrical,
DESIGN SPECIFICATION
2 surveying, geological/geo-mechanical,
DG 1.2.1, chapter 4.10
hydrological/hydro-technical bases
Vertical alignment, cross falls, clearance gauges
STUDY OF BASIC LAYOUT ELEMENTS
3 below and above the bridge, relation bridge – road,
DG 1.2.1, chapters 5, 6, 7
relation bridge – obstacle
STUDY OF POSSIBLE SYSTEMS AND
DEFINITION OF WUITABLE LOAD BEARING Beam, frame, arch, suspension, cable-stayed static
4
SYSTEM OF A BRIDGE systems of bridge load bearing structure
DG 1.2.1, chapter 10
- ANALYSIS OF ALTERNATIVES OF
SELECTED SYSTEM In one or more selected static systems, spans, total
5
- SELECTION OF SPANS AND TOTAL LENGTH length and position of piers are combined
OF A BRIDGE
ANALYSIS AND DETERMINATION OF
BRIDGE LOAD BEARING STRUCTURE Reinforced concrete, pre-stressed concrete, steel,
6
MATERIAL composite cross sections
DG 1.2.1, chapter 11
ANALYSIS AND DETERMINATION OF
7 BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY In-situ construction, pre-cast – monolithic methods
DG 1.2.1, chapter 13
DESIGN OF BRIDGE CROSS SECTION AND Determined in connection with selected material
8 SUPERSTRUCTURE (6), construction technoloy (7), system and span of
DG 1.2.1, chapter 11.6 a bridge (4) and (5)
- DESIGN OF BRIDGE ABUTMENTS AND
For the position of abutments and piers specified in
PIERS
(5), the latter are designed depending on (6), (7),
9 - STUDY AND DETERMINATION OF
and (8); method and solution of foundation are
FOUNDATION DEPTH AND TYPE
selected: deep, shallow
DG 1.2.1, chapter 11.7
STATIC ANALYSIS OF BRIDGE LOAD Critical sections of superstructure, of piers and of
10 BEARING STRUCTURE their connection with foundation, or bearing
DG 1.2.1, chapter 12 capacity of piles, are analysed

- BRIDGE EQUIPMENT
Selection of bearings, expansion joints, walkways,
- SOLUTION OF CONNECTION BETWEEN
edge beams, waterproofing, dewatering.
11 BRIDGE AND ROAD
Connection bridge – road body.
- SPATIAL ARRANGEMENT AT BRIDGE
Spatial arrangement next to bridge.
DG 1.2.1 – DG 1.2.2

Quantities and costs of main materials for

- ANALYSIS OF QUANTITIES AND COSTS OF superstructure and piers are analysed 8concrete,
12 BRIDGE ALTERNATIVE SOLUTIONS reinforcement, tendons, steel, piles), without
- SELECTION OF ALTERNATIVE equipment and other works that are the same for
all alternatives

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11.2 Selection of load bearing system, recommendable static systems of beam and
span and total length of a bridge frame bridges are presented.

Five basic load-bearing systems of bridges, The total length of river bridges depends on
i.e. beam, frame, arch, suspension, and the bridge opening required for high-water
cable-stayed bridges, are discussed in flows.
chapter 10.
For all the bridges it is possible to specify the
The selection of the bridge load bearing terminal points of the structure, i.e. the bridge
system is influenced by the following: total length, by means of a cost comparison
- morphology of the obstacle, ratio length : of 1 m of bridge to 1 m of fill.
height below the bridge;
- geological/geo-mechanical ground The abutment height varies within the limits
properties and foundation conditions; of 5-10 m.
- type of the communication (motorway,
main road, regional road, local road, For roads and railways running through
footpath, railway, mixed traffic) and its settlements or on areas to be populated in
geometry (vertical alignment, route); the near future or on agricultural land,
- data indicated in the design specification solutions requiring longer bridges are
and in the bases for design (town- advantageous. The fill height should not
planning/spatial conditions, aesthetical exceed 5-7 m, since the fills represent earth
design aspects, hydrological/hydro- barriers being obstacles to a further
technical conditions, meteorological data, urbanisation of the space.
seismic data);
- information of equipment and capability of When riverbanks or hill slopes are steep,
potential contractors, of construction high abutments with cones shall be avoided,
period, of time schedule, etc. since these are expensive and less stable
- information of current prices (construction, structures having an adverse effect on
materials, equipment); appearance of the bridge as well.
- own experience and world literature about
similar bridges By shifting the abutments away from
riverbanks local paths can be executed along
For larger bridges and in case of special the river, and the construction of bridge
conditions it is obligatory to elaborate several foundations is facilitated.
alternatives of load bearing systems.
A cooperation of the bridge designer with the
For the load bearing system already road designer is required when the transition
selected, e.g. beam, frame, arch or cable- from the bridge to the road is designed. Only
stayed or a combination of those systems, in this way the clearance gauge, walls,
two or three alternatives of preliminary railings, dewatering, lighting, signalling and
schemes are usually elaborated. construction sequence can be adequately
designed.
For large and significant bridges and viaducts
it is mandatory to elaborate two or three
alternatives of preliminary design shall be
elaborated. It is also possible to obtain
suitable solutions by competition.

After the load bearing system is selected,

dimensions of individual elements, their
interrelations, and the total bridge length shall
be determined.

Both the length and the ratio of spans are

determined on the basis of internal forces
and moments, cross-section dimensions, and
material quantities. For beam and frame
superstructures the length and the number of
spans depend on the ratio of superstructure
cost: substructure cost. In the table 11.2

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General guidelines for bridges Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

11.3 Achieving of optimum supporting Three types of supporting of superstructures

are known:
When conceiving and designing reinforced - rigid connection
concrete or pre-stressed reinforced concrete - connection by means of hinges
bridges, particularly of beam and frame - tangential or ball-jointed bearings with a full
systems, a rigid connection between the or limited moving capacity.
superstructure and the pier shall be foreseen
for all or at least for a major part of the Rigid connection between superstructure
supports. A rigid connection is appropriate and substructure
when effects of deformations due to thermal
actions, shrinkage, creep and pre-stressing A rigid connection can be employed in both
are of the same order of magnitude as the abutments and piers. A decision which
effects occurring when the superstructure is supports should be connected rigidly
connected with piers via bearings. The depends on several conditions.
flexural length of piers shall be analysed as A rigid connection takes both flexural and
well; however it depends on the type of the torsional moments as well as both vertical
abovementioned connection. Up-to-date and horizontal forces, depending on the
computer programs enable a rapid and stiffness ratio, and transmits them via piers
complete static analysis of different into the foundation and ground respectively.
alternatives of the load bearing structure with
the aim of optimising the connection between Connection or supporting by means of
the superstructure and substructure. hinges

When hinges are indispensable for In view of function in the bridge structure the
connection with stiff piers, reinforced following can be distinguished:
concrete hinges shall be considered as the - tangential supporting by means of hinges
most advantageous. For the connection of - supporting via hinges in all directions
reinforced concrete piers with steel or - supporting by means of ball-jointed
composite steel-concrete superstructure by bearings.
means of hinges, the latter shall be made of
steel. By employing a hinge both flexural A tangential supporting by means of hinges
length of slender piers and actions on enables rotation of the superstructure in one
foundations are reduced. plane, and is usually employed to connect
abutments with single-span superstructures
Bearings, hinges or rigid connections at piers and stiff piers with the superstructure where
and abutments in beam, frame and other bearings are not recommendable.
systems of bridges shall be adequately
arranged to ensure stability, constant In beam bridges of longer spans the
position, deformability in all the planes as connection via hinges can be foreseen for tall
well as moving capacity in both longitudinal piers where, among others, the flexural
and transversal bridge direction, depending length should be reduced.
on the bridge length and width, on material, Supporting via hinges in all directions and
and on environmental climatic conditions. supporting by means of ball-jointed bearings
is used where rotation of the superstructure
The decision whether a rigid connection of in all the planes should be enabled. Ball-
the superstructure with the substructure or jointed bearings are usually made of steel.
connection via bearings should be foreseen,
depends on several factors such as: Tangential or ball-jointed bearings
- load bearing system of the bridge
- total length of the bridge, number and Bridge bearings as elements located
length of spans between the superstructure and he
- pier height substructure perform three fundamental
- foundation depth, quality of bearing ground, functions:
foundation method - to take vertical and horizontal reactions
- material of both superstructure and from the superstructure and transfer them
substructure. to piers and abutments;
- to enable deformations of the
superstructure;
- to enable superstructure expansion in
bridge axis.

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To fulfil the abovementioned requirements reserves in load distribution and static

bridge designers can foresee the following: actions.

When an integral bridge is conceived,

- fixed tangential bearing dimensional disproportions are not welcome
in order to avoid concentration of stresses
- tangential bearing free in one and cracks. For structural elements of
direction bridges that deteriorate faster, possibility of
replacement must be ensured.

- tangential bearing free in one Designing bridges in accordance with rules

plane and codes is not a sufficient guaranty for a
good and durable bridge. A correct
- fixed ball-jointed rocker conception is required taking into
bearing consideration experiences of modern practice
and return information from bridge
- ball-jointed bearing free in maintenance and management.
one direction
Integral frame bridges are not
recommendable for oblique structures when
- ball-jointed bearing free in all the angle of obliqueness amounts less then
directions 30°, as well as for longer structures
- elastic damper to amortize supported by low and rigid piers. The
impacts due to seismic interaction bridge – foundation soil is an
actions essential component of behaviour of an
integral structure with respect to deformation
Special design guidelines DG 1.2.6 Bearing and load bearing capacity. Therefore, a good
for bridges serving to select and design the cooperation of structural designer and soil
bearings has been issued. Moreover, the mechanics expert is required for
European standard EN 1337-3-10 Structural determination of realistic soil mechanical
bearings shall be taken into consideration as parameters.
well.
A great number of bridges and viaducts have
11.4 Integral bridges a transversal discontinuity above piers.
(Figure 11.1)
Integral bridge is an up-to-date term for
concrete bridge consisting of frame structure A relatively simple and rational technology of
without expansion joints and bearings. The production and erection of main girders of 15-
integral bridges are constructed 40 meters of length was uncritically used
monolithically, and the dimensions of from 1950 to 1990. Twenty to thirty years
structural load bearing elements are more after construction deficiencies of such
abundant. Damages of such bridges are less structures appeared. Due to that reason and
intensive due to elimination of the main because of damaged equipment, their
sources of damages, discontinuity areas, rehabilitation was required.
expansion joints and bearing zones. The
maintenance costs are lower while the traffic
is safer. Frame structures contain system

Figure 11.1: Scheme of discontinuity of pre-stressed reinforced concrete bridges

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General guidelines for bridges Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

In many European countries discontinuous - In case of three-span decks, shorter end

bridge systems are prohibited. Therefore only spans allow design of a larger central span,
continuous superstructures along their entire - Higher load bearing capacity reserves due
length up to 3 kilometres and more are to possible redistribution of internal forces
designed and constructed having expansion and moments at the ultimate limit state.
joints only above abutments and integral
bridges of a total length up to 80m. The magnitude of occurring constraints
depends to a great extent on the structural
Integral bridges without bearings and geometry, on the ratios of superstructure
expansion joints follow the modern trends in stiffness to pier stiffness, as well as on the
bridge construction with an aim to build more foundation soil stiffness. It is of an essential
durable bridges and to reduce the importance that modelling of stiffness of both
construction and maintenance costs. The structure and foundation soil is realistic, so
static systems of integral bridges consisting that actual internal forces and moments are
on one or more spasm are shown in table comprehended by means of the design
11.2 (static system 1, 2, 5, 8, 10, 12). model. If a too low value of foundation soil
In practice, the most used static systems are stiffness is assumed, the constraints, which
closed frame for culverts and minor are a consequence of both thermal action
structures of spans up to 8 meters, frames and pre-stressing, will be underestimated.
with one span of 5-40 meters, and frames Therefore, in case of integral bridges, it is
with two three and more spans of a total generally required to carry out two
length up to 70 meters. independent calculations of constrained
forced and moments, taking account upper
Integral bridges are advantageous for the and lower limiting values of soil
following reasons: characteristics.
- Lower construction costs,
- Lower maintenance and repair costs as Omission of a monolithic connection between
such bridges do not comprise elements, abutment and superstructure is reasonable
which require an intensive maintenance, where constraints due to the mobilized earth
- Simplified and more rapid construction as pressure and due to an extremely stiff
there are no bearings and expansion joints, foundation can be mastered with difficulty
which require extremely strict building-in only. When only piers are connected
tolerances and an exact sequence of monolithically with the superstructure, a
placing, semi-integral bridge is in question.
- Higher level of travel comfort,
- Permanent and maintenance independent Figure 11.2 shows a scheme of pre-stressed
prevention of direct access of de-icing salt reinforced concrete frame structure of an
to structural members below carriageway, overpass of spans of 30-50 meters across
- Reduced hazard of differential settlements motorway. A characteristic feature is the
and lateral deviations of piers, widening on the top of the piers to avoid
- Equalization of eventual superstructure collision of the frame reinforcement and the
lifting forces by abutment dead weight, anchoring zone of the deck tendons.

Figure 11.2

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In figure 11.3 a scheme of an integral arch

structure of an overpass with an arch span of
35-70 meters running over motorway is shown.

Figure 11.3

Figure 11.4 shows a scheme of pre-stressed foresee a joint of 1-2 centimetres to be filled
reinforced concrete integral frame overpass up with asphalt mixture in order to prevent
structures of four spans of a total length up to uncontrolled crack in the asphalt layer or
70 meters without bearings and expansion asphalt expansion joint.
joints. At the contact of the transition slab and
the overpass structure it is necessary to

Figure 11.4

11.5 Selection of materials for bridge designed especially for pedestrians and
load bearing structures cyclists. Instead of timber beams glued
laminated girders are employed, particularly
Bridge load bearing structures can be made for longer spans.
of timber, stone, concrete, steel or a
combination of those materials (composite Stone is no longer competitive for
cross-section), mainly steel-concrete. construction of new bridges. However, it was
Composite concrete-concrete structures, about a millennium the main material to build
where the quality and age of one concrete bridges, viaducts and aqueducts of short,
differs from those of another on, are also medium and longer spans up to 90 m.
possible.
Nowadays, stone is used to renew, repair
th
Up to the thirties of the 20 century timber and reconstruct the existing stone bridges, or
was also used in bridge construction. a material to line concrete surfaces. Prior to
However, it has been fully replaced by steel design a stone bridge, the designer shall be
and concrete, in particular for bridges on convinced to be familiar with all the
public roads. Nowadays, timber bridges are mechanical, petrographic and other

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properties as well as with the surface - constructive measures (crack limitation,

treatment and building methods, which is construction joints, expansion joints,
partly discussed in the design guidelines DG foreseen locations of cracks);
1.2.10 Formwork, finishing and facing of - adequate concrete-technological
concrete surfaces. measures;
- a thorough execution including a suitable
Steel has been used for bridge bearing and sufficiently long-lasting treatment of
structures for more than to centuries. new concrete.
Nowadays, beside concrete, steel is the
leading material in bridge construction. For When waterproof concrete is foreseen,
bridge superstructures structural steel of a cracks shall be limited from 0.25 m to 0.20
2
yield point of 220-360 N/mm is employed. mm and 0.10 mm in seawater and
Symbols and properties of the steel are aggressive environment respectively.
indicated in the EC 3.
For bridge piers freeze resistant concrete
The most employable material in the entire MB30(C25/30) to MB40(C35/40) shall be
field of construction is concrete. Nowadays, designed.
more than 80% of bridges are made of
concrete, because of inexhaustible resources For massive abutments, foundation footings
of raw materials for concrete production, of and foundation blocks concrete C 25/30 shall
advanced concrete production and casting be foreseen.
processes, of relatively low labour costs, as
well as of increasingly successful application The designer has an opportunity to choose
of both reinforced concrete and pre-stressed among reinforced concrete, pre-stressed
reinforced concrete. reinforced concrete, and composite steel-
concrete cross-section.
For bridge load bearing structure concrete
MB30(C25/30) to MB50(C40/50) in For spans up to 15 (20) m, reinforced
accordance with the EN 206-1 shall be concrete is the most appropriate material.
designed.
For spans from 15 (20) m to approx. 60 m
Steel for reinforced concrete according EN pre-stressed reinforced concrete is the most
10080 have three classes. S220 for plain competitive material.
bars and S400, S500 for high bond bars.
For spans longer than 60 m, depending on a
For bridge structures waterproof concrete series of other parameters, beside pre-
resistant to chemical and other actions in stressed reinforced concrete, a composite
accordance with the EN 206 are wished-for. steel-concrete cross-section can be
competitive as well.
For structures (culverts) or parts of
abutments and piers in contact with soil, in For spans longer than 120 (150) m, beside
ground water or in streaming water, pre-stressed reinforced concrete and
protection can be achieved either by composite steel-concrete cross-section, steel
application of waterproofing layers or by with an orthotropic carriageway slab
introducing a waterproof concrete. becomes competitive as well.

Structures located in the ground water can be When analysing possible materials for bridge
protected either by application of superstructures, in particular for long spans,
waterproofing layers or by introducing a the following parameters shall be considered
waterproof concrete. Since the elements too: construction time, bridge location,
made of a waterproof concrete have a conditions of bridge construction, as well as
sealing function as well, they are quite the durability and maintenance costs.
advantageous in view of construction
technology and time. For large and extremely significant bridges
and viaducts alternative solutions with regard
The essential measures to ensure to the selection of materials shall be
employability, i.e. impermeableness of the elaborated.
so-called white tubs are the following:

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11.6 Analysis and selection of Steel superstructures of bridges can be

construction method erected by incremental launching method
using a steel nose or a pylon with stays or by
The bridge superstructure construction a cast-in-situ free cantilever method where
method is determined by material, span the access is ensured either below the bridge
length, bridge length (area), road geometry or on the bridge portion already executed.
as well as morphology and largeness of the
obstacle. The selection of the pier construction method
depends on the height, the number and the
Reinforced concrete road bridges are usually cross-section of piers.
constructed by means of a fixed steel
falsework. The selection of arch bridge construction
method is indicated in the chapter 13.
Pre-stressed reinforced concrete bridges can
be constructed according to the methods The selection of the cable-stayed bridge
indicated in the chapter 13, which offers, construction is specific and requires a
together with the knowledge and experience detailed analysis in accordance with the
of structural designer, rough information in complete structural scheme and the selection
view of selection of the most suitable of material for the execution of the
construction technology. When making a superstructure cross-section.
decision on the method of constructing major
bridges or a group of bridges, equipment 11.7 Bridge cross section design
owned by potential contractors or being
available to them as well as the market 11.7.1 General
situation shall be taken into account.
For the selected load bearing system, span
Pre-stressed reinforced concrete bridges of lengths, material and construction technology
spans up to 30 m and of a total length up to the cross-section of the bridge
150 m, in particular if they are oblique and superstructure, which is the most important
geometrically complicated, can be element of the entire bridge load bearing
economically built by means of a fixed structure, is designed.
falsework in one or more stages.
By the bridge cross-section design the
For equal spans of 25-40 m, when a bridge is conditions of the road geometry (width,
straight or runs in a curve of major radius, the clearance gauges, cross-falls) are fulfilled,
method using pre-cast T-beams and a the load bearing capacity, serviceability and
monolithic composite reinforced concrete traffic safety ensured, and proper drainage of
slab is competitive. precipitation water enabled.

Pre-stressed reinforced concrete bridges of The shape and design of the cross-section
spans longer than 30 m and of a total length have an essential influence on the
of 150 to 800 m can be executed by different construction technology (that relation is valid
methods, depending on a series of factors vice versa as well) and on the conditions of
that cannot be explicitly presented. They are maintenance, reconstruction and durability of
partly indicated in the chapter 13. A correct a bridge.
choice of the construction technology is the
most essential element of competitiveness of The bridge cross-section design shall avoid
a bridge design. confined spaces being inaccessible for
normal maintenance, as well as cross-section
Steel structure of composite steel-concrete parts where precipitation water can be
bridges is always erected, in most cases after accumulated.
the incremental launching procedure is
completed. When the span lengths do not The bridge cross-section design shall be
exceed 50 m, the steel structure alone can carried through taking into account the
withstand stresses occurring during the drainage and piping of bridges and
erection. Are the spans longer than 50 m, a maintenance equipment.
steel nose or a pylon with stays shall be
introduced. The carriageway slab of
composite steel-concrete cross-section is
cast in situ on a fixed or a mobile false work.

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arrangement of reinforcement and tendons.
11.7.2 Cross section reinforced concrete The cantilevering elements should not be
and pre-stressed reinforced longer than 2.5 m. The pipes of the gullies
concrete bridges must not endanger the main girders. The
considered cross-section is rational for spans
In the table 11.3 five recommendable cross- between 30 and 45 metres for continuous
sections of bridge superstructures of and frame reinforced concrete and pre-
reinforced concrete and pre-stressed stressed bridges. Such a cross section is not
reinforced concrete beam and frame systems recommendable for curved structures of
are presented. These cross-sections are smaller radii.
substantially advantageous in view of A single-cell box rectangular or trapezoidal
construction, maintenance and durability. cross-section is the most favourable solution
For the solid slab cross-sections, the for straight and curved bridges and viaducts
thickness is limited to 100 (120) cm. In this of spans over 30 m. In the sketch, limitation
way the bridge dead weight is limited as well. for construction depth of minimum 200 cm is
The free edges can be designed in three presented, in order to enable passing the
ways depending on the thickness. The bridge superstructure during maintenance and
spans are limited to 20 metres and 30 m for reconstruction works. Moreover, limitations of
pre-stressed reinforced concrete bridges and cantilever span, slab thickness and vertical
frame systems respectively. webs are given. The transversal pre-
stressing is not desirable. Among all those
Simply supported reinforced concrete slabs cross-sections, the box section has the
can be executed up to a maximum span of smallest outer surface exposed to the
approximately 12 m, whereas the spans of atmospheric action, which is essential for the
the pre-stressed concrete slabs can amount maintenance costs. The box section is the
up to approximately 20 m. most convenient for the incremental
Wide slab trapezoidal girders of width “a” and launching, segmental, and cast-in-situ free
of spacing “2a” enable a reduction of the cantilever construction method for bridge
dead weight by 30 to 40 % in comparison superstructures.
with a solid slab. Therefore their spans can
be extended up to 25 m or 35 m for frame By reducing the width of the lower slab, a
and continuous systems. For simply reduction of the pier width thus a more
supported systems in reinforced concrete a aesthetical shaping of the piers is enabled.
span length of 15 m is economical, whereas The cross girders are located above the piers
it can amount to 25 m for pre-stressed and abutments only, therefore they are
reinforced concrete systems. The considered usually designed as web and lower slab
cross-section is favourable to oblique bridges strengthening, keeping the carriageway slab
because the elastic slabs between girders do thickness unchanged (figure 11.1).
not transfer transversal forces. In the span, cross girders are not necessary.
At abutments, the cross girders have to be
Openings in cross-sections can be used for placed onto the parts of the cross-section
placing cables, drainage pipes and other below the cantilevers as well (figure 11.2).
installations. The slab between the wide A cross-section of “n” pre-cast, pre-stressed
trapezoidal girders must be thicker than 25 concrete T-beams with wide upper flanges is
cm. Usually, it is without voutes, which reasonable for spans between 10 and 30 m.
simplifies the formwork. The slab girders At the same time, the upper flange serves as
must be arranged in such a way that the a formwork for the monolithic carriageway
dewatering pipes do not pass through the slab of thickness above 20 cm. The cross
girder. When the walkways are wide enough, girders are located above the piers and
the drainage pipe can be placed on the outer abutments only. By means of cross girders
side of the girder as well. and a monolithic carriageway slab, a
Cross-sections with two wider girders without composite continuous or frame system is
cross beams is an advanced section of usual established behaving as a a continuous or
beam reinforced concrete bridges. Omitting frame structure during the operation. The
cross beams the construction becomes much continuity is achieved with passive
easier. The wider main girders with inclined reinforcement or with tendons for continuity.
sides are connected with a thick slab of t >
25 cm, capable to take the load in one The web of an increased thickness is stable
direction. In this way, torsional forces due to and enables sufficient space to place the
unsymmetrical loading can be taken. A reinforcement and tendons. Such a cross-
greater thickness of girders at their bottom section can also be used for oblique bridges
(minimum 100 cm) enables a good up to an angle of 60°.

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* For continuous and frame structures I = distance between zero points

For continuous and frame bridges of variable cross-section depth other ratios span to construction
depth are possible as well, on condition that deformations and vibrations are verified.

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The cross section No. 3 consists of lowered

carriageway cross girders. It is suitable to
bridges where only a limited construction
depth is available.

The cross section No. 4 consists of two

composite steel truss beams with a slab on
the upper flange.

The cross section No. 5 comprises composite

carriageway beams.
Figure 11.5
Composite truss beams have still been
developed, in particular in France and
Germany, since eighties till nowadays. They
are used for railway and road bridges of long
spans where a great stiffness of the beam is
required which is particularly essential in
case of high-peed trains.

The steel cross sections No. 6 and No. 7 are

Figure 11.6 open, consisting either of two main girders
(No. 6) or of a box (No. 7), closed by an
11.7.3 Cross section of composite and orthotropic carriageway slab. They are
steel bridges economical for long and very long spans. The
dead weight of the superstructure is small
In the table 11.4, up-to-date characteristic and the construction quick. The cross section
cross sections of steel and composite beam elements are completed on site prior to
systems of bridges are presented. erection. They are erected by means of
incremental launching, cable cranes, Derrick
The cross section No. 1 is the most frequent cranes, floating cranes or mobile cranes.
cross section in Europe for composite
structures of one or more spans for bridges
of 8 to 14 m in width. The cross section is
economical and simple for fabrication and
erection. The height of main girders is
constant or variable in straight lines or curves
of greater diameters. The carriageway slab
being cross reinforced is cast in situ and via
dowels connected with a steel grid of main
and cross girders.

The cross section No. 2, which can be a

closed box rectangular, trapezoidal or trough
shaped cross section, is economical for
longer spans where more steel is required for
the lower flange. An adequate stiffness can
be achieved by means of webbed or truss
cross frames. This type of cross section is
also favourable to bridges running in
curvatures of smaller radii since it proves a
significant torsional rigidity. its height can be
either constant or variable. Prefabricated
segments of 5 to 10 m in length are erected
onto the already constructed part of the
structure by means of free cantilevering. The
erection method depends on accessibillity
(water, land) and available equipment.

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General guidelines for bridges Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

11.8 Constructive conditions for At abutments where expansion joints are

supports of beam and frame bridges foreseen, a chamber for dewatering and
expansion joint inspection shall be foreseen
The shape, structure and dimensions of for superstructures where the distance
bridge supports are determined on the basis between adjoining expansion joints amounts
of the following parameters and their to ≥ 100 m. The minimum dimension of the
interrelation: chamber shall be 80/150 cm.

- load bearing system of the bridge (beam, For urban bridges and road bridges where a
frame, arch, suspension, cable-stayed) greater number of different installations can
- morphology and type of the obstacle be expected, special larger chambers shall
(water, dry or urban obstacle) be designed behind abutments.
- total pier height and the height above the The abutment design shall avoid cantilever
ground wings longer than 6 m and shorter than 2 m.
- depth and properties of the foundation soil All other data on the wing wall design are
in which bridge piers are founded presented in the design guidelines DG 1.2.8
- method of supporting of the superstructure
or its connection with the substructure, Abutments shall be designed in such a way
types of bearings that bearings, expansion joints and
- number and length of bridge spans precipitation water drainage elements can be
- structural design and entire width of the easily replaced.
bridge superstructure cross-section
- selected position of piers in view of bridge The abutment inner walls shall be designed
general arrangement simple to enable normal conditions for
- angle of crossing of the bridge axis and the execution of fills, filters and transition slab.
obstacle axis
The end of the pre-stressed reinforced
- interrelations of vertical and horizontal
concrete superstructure of solid slab, T-beam
loads on the supports
or box cross-section shall extend by at least
- material and construction method for the
hk/3 or ≥ 0.6 m over the abutment axis. The
piers
opening required for the expansion joint
- material and construction method for the
installation (if required), shall be shifted by at
superstructure
least 15 cm from the tendon head (figure
- harmonic solution of piers in view of the
11.3).
entire bridge (aesthetical design aspects)
- skill, knowledge and experience of bridge
structural designers.

Abutment design differs from the pier design

basically due to their different functions. In
addition to taking loads from the
superstructure, abutments also close he fill
behind the bridge. Suitable designed
abutments simultaneously solve the question
of the wing walls. The piers take loading from
the superstructure thus their shape and
structure shall be symmetrical.

It is wished for that the total abutment height,

i.e. the vertical distance between the vertical
alignment and the foundation bottom, varies
from 5 to 10 m, only exceptionally to 15 m,
whereas its total length, i.e. the horizontal
distance between the abutment axis and the
end of fixed wing walls, should not exceed 10
m.

Within the dimensional limits indicated above

gravity or light abutments can be designed
depending on different local circumstances, Figure 11.7
load as well as skill and experience of the
structural designer.

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision General guidelines for bridges

By purpose, cross-section shape, When bored piles are foreseen in streaming

superstructure construction method and water or in underground streams, the critical
height, piers can be divided in three groups: pile length shall be protected with 4-6 mm
thick steel lining.
- piers of a circular or an angular
concentrated full cross-section 11.9 Minimum dimensions of elements
- piers of a circular or a concentrated full and protective covers for reinforced
cross-section with a cap concrete bridges
- tall piers containing weakened areas.
Cross-sections of any reinforced concrete
When and how the structural designer will element of the bridge load bearing structure
conceive the piers depends of a correct shall have a minimum thickness of 10 cm for
comprehension of the conditions mentioned a single reinforcement layer and 20 cm for a
above. double reinforcement layer respectively.

It should be emphasized that piers are the Cross-sections of any pre-stressed reinforced
most essential elements (beside the concrete element of the bridge load bearing
superstructure cross-section) of a bridge structure shall have a minimum thickness of
structure. By fulfilling the functional, stability 22 cm for a double reinforcement layer and
and construction conditions piers can be for tendon protective tube of maximum 80
designed both aesthetically and originally. mm.

The piers heads shall be adjusted to the The minimum thickness of bridge
superstructure cross-section shape as well carriageway slabs shall amount to 22 cm
as to the mode of supporting and connecting irrespective of the span length and the static
of the superstructure. Interaction of loads system.
shall be taken into consideration in designing
both the superstructure cross-section and the Irrespective of the cross-section type and the
pier heads. cantilever span, the ends of cantilevers shall
be at least 22 cm thick to enable a
The pier foots shall be adjusted to the connection with the edge beam
foundation method and depth. reinforcement.
Piers comprising openings in the cross-
section are economical and employed for a The minimum thickness of webs of bridge
height greater than 20 m. box cross-sections shall amount to 35 cm for
a web height ≤ 2 m and 50 cm for a web
For piers of a closed box cross-section, height greater than 4 m respectively.
openings enabling entrance and inspection Intermediate values shall be determined by a
as well as ventilation openings shall be linear interpolation.
foreseen.
The minimum thickness of solid slab cross-
Massive river piers are subjected to erosion section, walls and piers of road bridges shall
and chemical action due to polluted water. be 60 cm.
Therefore a 20 cm thick stone lining applied
to those piers might be reasonable. The minimum diameter of circular or
concentric cross-section of road bridge piers
The pier foundation depth and method shall amount to 80 cm.
depend on geological/geo-mechanical
conditions and, partially, on available The minimum thickness of all the elements of
equipment. The limit between a shallow and reinforced concrete bridge abutments shall
deep foundation is 6 m below the ground be 30 cm.
surface. Deep foundation on bored piles and
wells are presented in the design guidelines The wall thickness of box and sectional
1.3.1. cross-section of piers shall amount to
minimum 30 cm.
River piers shall be founded at least 2 m
below the riverbed bottom level and minimum The minimum thickness of foundation blocks
0.7 m in a solid ground. Other piers shall be at the connection with bridge piers shall
founded at least 1.5 m below the ground level amount to 100 cm.
or the riverbed bottom level and minimum 0.5
m in a solid ground.

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General guidelines for bridges Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

The minimum thicknesses of protective In principle, thinner profiles on shorter

concrete covers for road bridge load bearing distances are desired. In areas of tensile
structures are as follows: stresses, distances between adjacent profiles
4.5 cm for cross-section outer surfaces shall be smaller than 15 cm, whereas in
3.5 cm for cross-section inner surfaces areas of compressive stresses it shall be
5.0 cm for foundations and parts of smaller than 20 cm. For the main reinforced
abutments/piers located in soil or concrete girders reinforcement bars shall not
backfilled be thicker than 28 mm and thinner than 10
The specified minimum thickness of mm respectively. The loops of mesh
protective concrete covers relate to the reinforcement shall be ≤ 15 cm, whereas the
thickness of the concrete layer above the bar diameter shall amount to ≥ 6 mm.
reinforcement closest to the formwork.
To achieve a proper compaction of concrete,
Sharp edges shall be removed from all the which is essential for the durability, the
reinforced concrete and pre-stressed distance between reinforcing bars shall be
reinforced concrete bridges. The dimensions sufficient to enable placing of vibrators at
of chamfers shall amount to 2/2 cm. Are the required intervals.
dimensions of the chamfers greater, the
geometry of stirrups or transverse The stirrups of main girders shall be closed. If
reinforcement shall be modified. they are open, they shall be equipped with
hooks. Lengthening of stirrups by means of
Interruptions of casting the concrete, i.e. caps is not permitted.
construction joints being indispensable for
technological reasons and to diminish In equal structural elements maximum three
adverse consequences of concrete to four different types of profiles shall be
shrinkage, shall be specified in the bridge employed to facilitate the purchase, bending
design. and placing of reinforcement.

11.10 Constructive conditions for The shape of reinforcement shall be

reinforcing of bridges adequately selected to facilitate its bending,
transportation and placing.
To determine the reinforcement for reinforced
concrete and pre-stressed reinforced When detailing the reinforcement, the
concrete bridges the rules defined in the EC sequence of placing shall be taken into
2 shall be taken into account. In the present consideration as well.
design standard only some additional
conditions are indicated. Reinforcement cages shall be of harmonized
A reliable reinforced concrete or pre-stressed dimensions and weight to accelerate their
reinforced concrete bridge structure can only placing.
be achieved by, among others, a sufficient
and correct reinforcing. The same amount of In piers and other elements where
steel reinforcement built-in into a reinforced compressive stresses are primary, the
concrete structure can take basic and longitudinal reinforcement shall be
additional loading more reliably and enables surrounded by stirrups or transverse
a greater durability, if it is correctly and reinforcement placed on that side of the
professionally designed and built-in. cross-section that is closer to the formwork.

To elaborate reinforcement drawings, input In foundation slabs, carriageway slabs,

data from the final part of design calculation superstructure solid slabs as well as other
shall be adopted (sketches indicating the horizontal or inclined elements, the upper
position and sections of the reinforcement). reinforcement layers shall be equipped with
suitable supports. Both the diameter and the
Bridge structures are reinforced in all the number of those supports depend on the
planes and main directions of stresses. No weight of the upper reinforcement and the
cross-section area, irrespective of static depth of the cross-section.
actions, shall remain non-reinforced. Bridges
are dynamically loaded structures thus the By means of reinforcement bars being
direction of the time dependent effects adequately shaped with regard to the
(deformations) is variable and, therefore, all element cross-section and function, the
the layers of a cross-section are subjected to designed distance between adjoining
tension and cracks. reinforcement planes can be achieved. Both

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision General guidelines for bridges

the cross-section and the number of these Constituent parts of a pre-stressing system
bars depend on the reinforcement diameter are tendons, anchor heads (for anchoring
and weight (approximately 4 pieces per m2). and pre-stressing), couplers, hydraulic jacks,
grouting pumps, grouting compound and
The reinforcement shall not hinder the protective tubes.
tendons, but shall be adjusted to the tendon
lines. Tendons and forces greater than 1,000 kN
and 5,000 kN shall be employed to pre-stress
Curved bars shall not create forces that might the main girders of bridge superstructures.
jeopardize the protective concrete cover. A single girder shall contain at least three
The passive reinforcement affects the tendons to prevent a collapse in case of
formation, distribution and development of failure of one tendon.
cracks. Since the latter are branched out, it is
important to select smaller spacing and Pre-stressing (longitudinal or transversal) of
profiles of reinforcing bars. carriageway slabs is not desirable. However,
For box cross-sections an overlapping of when it cannot be avoided, the carriageway
closed stirrups at he connection between the thickness shall amount to minimum 28 cm,
lower slab and the web (the lower slab hangs and the tendon shall be placed in the cross-
on the web). The web horizontal section centre.
reinforcement is specified with regard to The minimum distance between the tendon
possible longitudinal stresses due to bending, outer surface and the outer surface of the
torsion and constraints (temperature, concrete of load bearing elements is 10 cm.
shrinkage, differential settlement). For web
stirrups it is recommendable to have a Lengthening of tendons by means of
thinner profile, i.e. between 12 and 18 mm, couplers shall be avoided. Instead of
and to be placed at intervals of 8 to 20 cm. couplers, overlapping or long tendons of one
piece shall be foreseen. In each cross-
For bored piles the minimum reinforcement section of any load bearing element at least a
amounts to 0.8%, whereas the maximum up half of the tendons shall be continuous.
to 3%. The minimum stirrup profile shall be
12 mm for piles of ∅ > 1,000 mm and 10 mm It is recommendable to employ un-bonded
for those of ∅ ≤ 1,000 mm. Stirrups shall be external tendons to take live loads,
placed at intervals of ≤ 20 cm, except in the particularly in box cross-sections.
overlapping and anchoring zones of the main In the up-to-date bridge construction,
reinforcement where the intervals shall not be especially for larger and important bridges,
greater than 10 cm. pre-stressing with un-bonded tendons is
preferable. Such a method enables a
11.11 Constructive conditions for pre- complete corrosion protection of tendons,
stressing of reinforced concrete possibility of their replacement, and has
bridges several additional advantages as well.
Reinforced concrete bridges pre-stressed
In the final design stage, the bridge designer with un-bonded tendons are more expensive
defines, on the basis of technical, by 5%, yet the maintenance costs are lower.
constructive, economical and other
conditions, a most suitable system of pre- The position of internal tendons in the load
stressing. The characteristics of the pre- bearing elements of pre-stressed reinforced
stressing systems are included in the design concrete bridges is determined by tendon
calculation, drawings and details of the supports that are independent of
particular bridge load bearing structure. reinforcement cages. The distance between
To enable market competition, the designer two adjoining supports shall be sufficient
shall indicate not only the selected system of (approx. 1 m) prevent a local deformation of
pre-stressing but also at least two additional a tendon. The diameter of reinforcement
ones, which helps the contractor to select the serving as a tendon support shall be chosen
most appropriate system. adequately (∅ 16 for a height of ≤ 1 m above
the formwork and ∅ 20 for a height of > 1 m
Both the designer and the client shall agree above the formwork respectively) to avoid
upon an eventual modification of the pre- flexures and deformations of tendons.
stressing system. Such a modification shall The distance between a tendon support and
be supported by an adequate design the formwork can be adjusted by means of
calculation, details and technical report. spacers, as it applies to the reinforcement as
well.

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General guidelines for bridges Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

The protective concrete cover is the same for In the carriageway slab no openings and
both the tendon supports and the niches are permitted, not even such that
reinforcement too. might be required for pre-stressing of
Each web shall contain one vibration spot. tendons.
More than three tendons must not be
installed without a vibration spot. Steel with a low relaxation shall be designed
for pre-stressing of reinforced concrete
It is not permitted to lead tendons from the bridges. The relaxation shall amount to 2.5%
girders into the upper plane of the of loss after 1,000 hours or 2.5% x 3 = 7.5%
carriageway slab. All the tendons shall end of loss after 500,000 hours. Irrespective of
on the girder front or within the cross-section. the manufacturers’ certificates the value
7.5% shall be considered in bridge design.
A girder end shall extend by at least h/3 or
0.6 m over the axis of supporting to allow The tendon stress shall not exceed 0.7 fpk
pre-stressing forces to influence the (characteristic value of tensile strength of
application of supporting forces to the pre-stressing steel) after pre-stressing or
structure. 0.75 fpk prior to wedging.
Both horizontal and vertical deflection forces
due to a deviation of the tendon line shall be For pre-stressing of reinforced concrete
taken with special stirrups. bridges steel of characteristic tensile strength
of fp0,2k/fpk = 1,670/1,860 MN/m2 can be
Due to application of the stressing force, employed too. However, in the design
special reinforcement for splitting forces in analysis the value 1,570/1,770 MN/m2 shall
both horizontal and vertical plane shall be be considered until the EN 10138 is adopted.
foreseen. For all the pre-stressing systems (BBR,
Partially pre-stressed concrete for main Dywidag, Ph. Holzmann, Freyssinet and
longitudinal girders of pre-stressed reinforced other certified systems) compatibility of all the
concrete bridges shall be avoided when a constituent elements shall be verified in the
bridge is fully loaded. The structure shall be spirit of an equivalent safety.
fully pre-stressed for the dead weight loading.
A partial pre-stressing is permitted in the Manufacturers of pre-stressing steel and
transversal direction only. elements are obliged to submit all the
certificates required by relevant regulations
All the elements of the pre-stressing valid in the manufacturer’s country. No
equipment and all the stages of the pre- product shall be installed in absence of these
stressing procedure shall be checked up. documents.

- High-performance steel and grouting 11.12 Material, workshop fabrication,

compound shall be controlled in erection, and corrosion protection
accordance with relevant regulations. of composite and steel bridges
- Anchor heads and stressing heads of
tendons shall be controlled in accordance 11.12.1 Introduction
with the certificate of the pre-stressing
system. As long as engineers, who might play the role
- Protective pipes shall be controlled on the of investors, designers, or contractors, define
basis of a certificate issued by the maker. and favour materials and not structures in
- Stressing jacks shall be controlled in advance, concrete as material being
accordance with an attest issued by the massively used will be preferential in bridge
manufacturer of the hydraulic jacks or by construction as well. An engineer must create
the holder of the pre-stressing system, the most appropriate structure, whereas the
which shall be carried out every six material is selected with regard to the type of
months. obstacle to be bridged, and to the market
conditions.
The execution design of a pre-stressed
reinforced concrete bridge shall include a Material for concrete structures has
detailed report on pre-stressing and grouting significant natural resources, and the work
in accordance with relevant regulations. cost is lower as well. Concrete is preferential
to small and medium bridges, particularly
where a group of bridges on new roads is
constructed.

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision General guidelines for bridges

For a composite cross-section, steel is Chapters 1 to 10, as well as 12, 14, 15, 16,
advantageous for individual bridges of and 17 (i.e. 15 chapters from their total
medium spans, as it allows rapid construction number of 17) of the Design Guideline 2.1.1
without major site equipment and work. refer to bridges, irrespective of the
For larger bridges only alternative superstructure load bearing materials.
competitive solutions have a right to favour Chapter 11, items 11.1 to 11.8, as well as
individual materials or systems. items 11.13 and 11.14 are common for all the
When certain sphere wants to keep a bridges as well. Items 11.9, 11.10, and 11.11
competitive position of an individual material, relate to reinforced concrete and pre-
it shall ensure both materials to have a stressed reinforced concrete bridges, whilst
chance of business continuity as well as the present item 11.12 to the specificities of
preserving professionals and references. material selection, workshop fabrication,
Due to advantages offered by composite erection, and corrosion protection of
structures it can be expected that their future composite and steel bridges.
development and employment is assured,
however in an increasing competition with Selection and structural design principles of
pre-stressed reinforced concrete bridges. cross-sections of composite and steel bridge
superstructures are indicated in chapter 11,
A promising and verified possibility of item 11.7.
economical improvement for bridges of
longer spans with double composite 11.12.2 Basic steel material and binding
construction makes composite structures material
more economical for long spans as well.
Load bearing steel structures of composite
Composite structures with a slab as a roof and steel bridges shall be fabricated from
over the steel structure are less prone to structural steel, which shall comply with the
structural damage provided that they are current standard JUS C.B0.500 (1989).
properly dewatered, waterproof, and
protected from corrosion. Selection of the steel grade group shall be in
accordance with the purpose of the bridge,
Steel composite structures can be repaired, type of loading, stress condition, bearing
restored, and replaced in a simpler way. structure cross-section type, service
Construction of a composite structure is less conditions, and the JUS U.E7.010 (Selection
disturbing to the natural and urban of basic steel material, 1988).
environment.
Professional questions of how to improve the Structural steel is defined in chapter 3 of
technology of casting carriageway slabs, pre- Eurocode 3 Design of steel structures, and in
stressing, and optimising both thickness and compliance with EN 10025.
shape of vertical steel webs still remain open.
As a rule, the material shall be ordered by the
Road bridges with steel-concrete composite company that fabricates the steel structure.
superstructures are (technically, For bridges, especially railway bridges, prone
economically, and in view of durability) to fatigue stressing, only material directly
competitive with reinforced concrete and pre- ordered at steelworks may be used.
stressed reinforced concrete bridges for
spans longer than 20 m, and for all the load Taking over of steel material at steelworks
bearing systems. shall be carried out not only by the
Road bridges with steel superstructures are purchaser, but also by the bridge designer
competitive for long spans only (above and client’s representative.
150 m).
Upon taking over, a certificate shall be
Structural design and construction of piers submitted. It shall include information on all
and abutments as well as of their foundations the required chemical and mechanical
for composite or steel bridge superstructures testing, as well as proven quality in
is basically similar to those for reinforced accordance with current standards and
concrete and pre-stressed reinforced provisions of both design and procurement
concrete bridges. The load from the contract.
superstructure to piers and abutments is
generally transferred via bearings; in specific The test results shall be assigned to
cases the load transfer is carried out by production batches at simultaneous presence
means of hinges and rigid connections. of all the interested parties.

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General guidelines for bridges Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

It is not admitted to use laminated steel purchasing item shall be transferred to

plates. Testing of lamination shall be carried individual items as well. From the erection
out at the steelworks upon taking over. Both diary to be kept by the contractor it shall be
extent and method of testing shall be evident which items have been cut out from
determined with regard to the steel plate the particular purchasing item.
thickness.
Binding material such as welding electrodes All records of the material, from purchase to
and wire, high-strength bolts, etc. shall be building-in, shall be properly kept and
tested by the producer himself. The client submitted upon handing over of the structure.
shall receive adequate certificates. Without such a document, the structure must
not be taken over.
Electrodes for electric arc welding shall
comply with the JUS C.H3.010 and JUS 11.12.3 Workshop production and control
C.H3.011. of steel structures for bridges
High-strength bolts shall be of the strength
class 10.9 according to JUS M.B1.023; nuts Steel structures for bridges can only be
shall be of the strength class 10 according to produced by specialized companies
JUS M.B1.028. registered for these works and being
sufficiently experienced. Under the term
Upon delivery, the product quality control “company registration” it is understood that
shall be performed according to the standard the company has the required equipment,
JUS M.B1.030. skilled manpower, and specialized
Upon delivery of high-strength bolts the professional staff at its disposal.
manufacturer shall submit an evidence of the
magnitude of the coefficient K. Material for manufacturing steel structures
shall be purchased on the basis of
Bolts, which thread remains within the specifications indicated in the workshop
package of structural elements, must not be drawings and producer’s catalogues. The
used. purchased material shall be accompanied by
For high-strength bolts the JUS U.E7.140 quality certificates referring to the rolling mill
shall be considered as the referent standard. batch. The material is cut out in accordance
with the workshop drawings. Prior to
Pre-stressed bolts shall be inserted into the assembling the cut out items shall obligatorily
joints, which surface of friction is Al Mg S and timely inspected. The production process
treated. For each bolt the condition Pbolt < of steel structures runs in compliance with
Fp where Pbolt is the attained pre-stressing how the workshop is equipped, and with the
force, and Fp is the calculated pre-stressing complexity grade of the steel structure.
force. For pre-stressing executed by applying
a torque, the ratio of the pre-stressing force Prior to commencement of bridge steel
to the torque shall be defined by the structure fabrication, detailed method
certificate issued by producer for each bolt statements on welding and mechanical works
diameter. Tools for pre-stressing of bolts shall be worked out, which are in accordance
shall be calibrated and accompanied by with the workshop drawings and provisions of
corresponding certificate. The contractor, the bridge execution design.
who performs the site works, shall have For workshop production of heavy steel
suitable instrument to test torque wrenches. structures, to which bridges belong, single-
Steel material purchased at steelworks shall nave halls of major spans equipped with
be marked with paint of adequate colour overhead cranes of capacity up to 500 kN are
indicating dimensions; both batch number appropriate. The cranes are indispensable to
and item number according to the purchase accomplish larger segments, to carry out trial
order shall be impressed. Interrelation assembly, and to execute loading on
between the ordered material and the transportation means.
certificate can only be established by such
marking. Factories of steel structures shall have their
own organized internal production control,
The contractor must not use any material with suitable equipment and laboratory to test
without adequate certificate. When cutting mechanical and chemical material properties,
individual items from purchased steel plates to perform welding control, as well as the
of major dimensions, for all the items forming control of complete assemblies. In case that
bearing structural members the impressed minor producers have no equipment at their
batch number and the number of the disposal, particularly for radiographic control,

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision General guidelines for bridges

they shall engage specialized companies to Welding (IIW). Testing results shall be
perform the steel structure quality control. summarized by special detailed report.

The quality of a steel structure produced at Holes for high-strength bolts shall be drilled
factory is assured by “Basic programme of and not punched.
control of workshop production of steel Threads of bolts shall not be within the
structures” consisting of the following package of structural elements. For each
constituent parts: joint, bolt lengths shall be ordered separately,
- preparation for control, taking account of the thickness of the
- execution of control, package of structural members. The
- working out a detailed report on the contractor shall prepare a specification of
performed control. bolts, nuts, washers, etc. for joints.

Preparation for control is composed of the Preparation of detailed report on the control
following items: carried out
- studying the contract and the design - general part: description of the structure,
documents, information on the design, producer, and
- checking whether the technical documents production technology, specification, list of
are conform to current regulation, norms, documents related to the control;
and standards, - quality verification: certificates, testing
- making a tour of inspection at production documents, forms, etc.
premises, and assessment of their
capability in view of equipment, manpower, Delivery of steel structure
welders’ certificates, machinery, and
company ability attestations, Prior to delivery of steel structure, the
- making acquaintance of the factory internal producer shall apply large marks to all the
quality control, assemblies, connections, and joints. The
- working out a quality control programme. marks shall fully comply with those indicated
- quality control of steel material and welding in the design documents. They are
electrodes/wire, as well as of their storing, indispensable to a correct field erection.
- control of each workshop production stage,
- final control of unpainted steel structure, Structures at site
- final control of finished steel structure.

In addition to the steel structure itself, the

Control of welded joints producer shall also supply joining material,
which is necessary for the erection. Joining
Fillet welds dimensions shall be in material shall be properly and firmly packed,
compliance with the design. The producer is and sorted by type and dimensions.
obliged to control filler welds by both quantity
(dimensions) and quality. Finished structures may be dispatched to
Quality control can be performed visually by construction sites only after a successful trial
means of magnifying glass, or using workshop assembly, and after the
penetrating paint. Testing results shall be supervising body is convinced that the
recorded. structure has been produced in accordance
with the design, current regulation, and
Quality control of butt welds shall be, on standards, as well as that adequate
principle, carried out by radiographic method. accompanying documents are available.
Welded joints assessed with 1 – 3 are
acceptable. If a welded joint is assessed with The supervising body shall issue permission
4, it shall be repaired. Welded joints, which for delivery of the structure in writing.
receive a mark 5, shall be rejected as
inappropriate. 11.12.4 Erection of steel bridges
Cut edges of plates shall be finished by
means of grinding. Steel bridges shall be erected in compliance
with the Rulebook of technical provisions and
After being welded, the elements shall be of conditions for erection of steel structures
the designed shape, and shall have even (Official Gazette of SFR Yugoslavia No. 29,
surfaces. 1970).
Welded joints shall be assessed in The abovementioned Rulebook comprises
accordance with the International Institute for the following chapters:

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General guidelines for bridges Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

I General rules steel bridge superstructures can be

II Design of erection of steel distinguished:
structures - erection by frontal launching,
III Preparation of site for erection - erection by means of mobile cranes,
works floating cranes, or special wagon-mounted
IV Control and taking over of steel cranes,
structures at workshop; transport - erection by means of a cable-way,
and storing - erection by free cantilevering,
V Preparatory works for erection of - erection by lateral launching,
steel structures - erection by means of combined and
VI Erection of steel structures specific methods.
VII Erection of different types of steel
structures Steel structures can only be erected by
VIII Corrosion protection of steel specialized companies having sufficient
structure upon erection number of professional staff, of
IX Technical inspection and testing of mechanization, and tools at their disposal.
steel structures Prior to application for erection of a steel
X Taking over of steel structures structure, prospective contractors shall prove
after completion of erection their capability.
XI Final account of works carried out. The steel structure manufacturer shall make
Prior to commencement of erection works, good at his expense and as soon as
and particularly before working out the design practicable all production deficiencies and
of erection of a steel structure, the eventual nonconformities found out during
aforementioned Rulebook shall be studied in erection works.
detail. The erection contractor shall take account of
all current regulation, rulebooks, and
The erection design shall be performed by standards. Prior to commencement of the
both structural engineer and mechanical erection works, the contractor shall make a
engineer. An engineer specialized in safety at detailed acquaintance with structural
work shall be consulted. The erection design particularities. Then, he shall work out an
shall be accepted and certified by the bridge adequate erection design, which shall be
designer. approved by both client’s supervising
During conceiving a bridge, and working out engineer and bridge designer.
both preliminary and main design of the
bridge, the designer shall also consider An erection design shall comprise the
possible and appropriate erection methods following constituent parts:
thus ensuring feasibility and economy of - Sequence of erecting sub-assemblies and
bridge execution. Bridge designs include assemblies (segments);
schemes, descriptions, and essential parts of - List of necessary tools and mechanization;
the stability analysis for the foreseen erection - List of required manpower;
method. If the bridge erection contractor is - Erection programme;
known in advance, he shall be consulted at Upon elaborating the erection design it shall
an early stage of the bridge design. be considered that the sequence of building-
in/erecting of individual assemblies has to
Steel bridge design and erection is a complex comply with the following principles:
and responsible job, which is often a life’s - The erected structural member/part shall
specialization of structural and mechanical always be stable;
engineer. - Installation of bridge equipment shall be
In the spirit of the aforementioned Rulebook enabled;
the erection design shall answer to all The erection contractor shall organize his
technical, constructive, static, organizational, own control to verify the following:
and disputable questions related to the - Correctness of steel structure erection;
erection process. - Implementation of provisions referring to
the safety at work.
In dependence on the dimension and The client’s supervising engineer performs
complexity of steel structure, on the superintendence over the erection of steel
morphology of the obstacle to be bridged, structures. The erection contractor shall
transportation conditions, delivery to both provide the supervising engineer with a site
river banks or valley sides, available office, as well as with sufficient number of
equipment, and contractor’s qualification and labour and tools for checking correctness
skill, the following main methods of erecting of the completed structure.

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11.12.5 Corrosion protection of steel Steel surface preparation shall be carried

bridges through in compliance with the
aforementioned Rulebook. As a rule, it shall
Corrosion protection of steel structures of be carried out by blast cleaning to the Sa 2 ½
bridges shall be carried out in accordance grade as specified by the Swedish Standard
with the Rulebook of technical provisions and SIS 05 5900. In dependence on the factory
conditions for corrosion protection of steel organization, surface preparation can either
structures (Official Gazette of SFR be executed before the steel material enters
Yugoslavia No. 32/70), which includes the the workshop, or after completion of
following constituent parts: production of certain assembly.
- general rules, Within 8 hours after cleaning and de-dusting,
- production of steel structures in view of steel surfaces shall be protected either with a
corrosion protection, shop primer or immediately with the first
- steel surface preparation for corrosion priming coat. This interval can also be
protection, shorter, depending on the environmental
- corrosion protection types, conditions.
- corrosion protection systems, During erection of a steel structure it must be
- control and taking over of corrosion considered that surfaces to be covered with
protection works, steel plates are preliminarily painted with the
- corrosion protection maintenance. second priming coat as well. In this way all
The following shall be specified by the steel the elements of the erected steel structure
structure design: receive the same degree of corrosion
- method of surface preparation for corrosion protection.
protection, The upper surface of an orthotropic plate of a
- number of coats, thickness of coats, quality box cross-section to be in contact with
of priming and finishing coating, asphalt shall be protected from corrosion
- type of paint and conditions to carry out adopting some special method as follows:
corrosion protection works. during workshop production this surface is
For steel structures of bridges, the surfaces protected with suitable shop primer, which
shall be prepared by blast cleaning to the does not affect the weld quality, and, at the
required grade as specified by the Swedish same time, protects the particular surface
Standard SIS 05 5900. Prior to application of during production, transportation, and
the priming coat, the blast-cleaned surface erection for a period of 6 months. After the
shall obligatorily be taken over. The thickness steel structure is erected, the upper surface
of priming and finishing coats shall be of the box cross-section shall be protected
specified in micrometers (μm) varying from corrosion in the following way:
between 30 and 200 μm depending on the - surface preparation by means of
paint type, environmental aggressiveness, sandblasting (e.g. with quartz sand) to the
and the structural type. Designers of steel 2 ½ grade according to SIS 05 5900
bridges shall follow the development of (1967);
protective coating technology, and shall - removal of dust either by vacuum cleaning

introduce it into bridge corrosion protection. or blowing with compressed air;

To achieve an adequate corrosion protection - application of priming coat, and finishing

of larger and important steel bridges, coat of a two-component coal tar epoxy
investors shall obtain detailed expert’s paint in a total dry film thickness of 250 μm.
reports worked out by specialized institutes. The priming coat shall be applied within
An effective corrosion protection can be two hours after completion of blast
achieved with zinc-epoxy or zinc-silicate cleaning, at temperature between + 10°C
primers, and chlorinated rubber, epoxy, or and +30°C, and during dry weather.
polyurethane finishing coats (topcoats). In Physical and mechanical properties of paint
case of confined internal surfaces where high material, as well as its characteristics in view
humidity is present permanently, coal tar of resistance to high temperatures, shall
epoxy or high-built epoxy coating shall be comply with the JUS H.C8.050, ASTM D.968-
applied. 51, and DIN 53154. Prior to commencement
Corrosion protection of a steel structure of the corrosion protection works the selected
begins at the factory and consists of the paint material shall be tested at laboratory.
following works: Adequate certificates shall be acquired from
- surface preparation, professional institutes competent for this
- application of priming coat. domain.
Onto the applied and cured coal tar epoxy
top coat, a layer of hard-aggregate poured

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General guidelines for bridges Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

asphalt in a thickness of 30 mm shall be Bridges on non-categorized, local or regional

applied. It must not damage the roads can be designed without certain
waterproofing layer or the corrosion elements belonging to bridge equipment such
protection of the upper surface of the as transition slabs, bearings, expansion
orthotropic plate. joints, drainage, depending on the purpose,
size, location and other conditions.
11.13 Constructive conditions for
equipment of road bridges 11.14 Indices of costs of basic materials
per square metre of bridge surface
Bridge equipment includes bearings and
hinges, superstructure expansion joints, The bridge area is a product of the total
transition slabs, railings and barriers, length and the total width explained in
drainage and piping, edge beams, kerbs and chapter 3 of this design standard.
walkways, as well as installations and
maintenance equipment. The indices of material costs shall be
To bridge equipment also belong elements indicated at the end of the technical report as
required to arrange the space at the contact a constituent part of the bridge execution
road body – bridge (ends, berms, backfill design. These multipurpose are intended for
wedges, paving of slopes, stairs, channels, the cost control of the particular bridge, for
etc.). comparison with similar projects, and for
Bridge equipment includes all the elements assessment of material costs of bridges to be
that are indispensable to transform a raw built in future.
structure into a real bridge. Table 11.5 contains data for concrete of all
The content and solution of bridge equipment the grades, formwork, reinforcing steel of all
depend on the purpose, size, location, class, the profiles and grades, as well as pre-
material and other circumstances. stressing tendons made of high-performance
The bridge equipment is designed and steel.
applied in accordance with guidelines and A comparison of the material consumption
2
details indicated in the design standards DG per 1 m of a bridge as well as a comparison
1.2.2 to DG 1.2.8 and DG 1.2.10. of costs per 1 m2 is only possible and realistic
To achieve a design service life of 80 to 120 for similar categories of bridges.
years it is indispensable to specify the Comparison can be carried through among
service life, maintenance, and method of - culverts, underpasses, overpasses
replacement of all the elements of bridge of usual spans amounting to 15-30 m
equipment as well. - bridges
Bridge designer shall calculate in specify all of shorter spans (10-20 m)
the conditions and information required for of medium spans (20-40 m)
purchasing or manufacturing, taking into of longer spans (40-80 m)
consideration the abovementioned design of very long spans (above 80 m)
standards and eventually other regulation as - viaducts
well in case that those design standards are of spans up to 30 m, of heights up to
insufficient. 30 m
When designing motorway bridges and of spans of 30-50 m, of heights up to
selecting their equipment, such solutions 50 m
shall be chosen that do not foresee any of spans of 50-80 m, of heights up to
major traffic restrictions and enable a simple 80 m
and quick replacement. of spans above 80 m, of heights above
80 m.
2
Table 11.5: Material consumption per m of bridge area

Reinforcement Tendons
Concrete Steel 2 2
Structural element 3 2 2 kg/m of bridge kg/m of bridge
m /m kg/m
kg/m3 of concrete
Piers and abutments
kg/m2 -
including foundations m3/m2 -
kg/m3
2 2
Superstructure kg/m kg/m
m3/m2 kg/m2
kg/m3
2
Bridge in total 3 2 kg/m
m /m - kg/m2

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision General guidelines for bridges

12. DESIGN CALCULATION OF arrangement of steel reinforcement, tendons,

BRIDGES (STATIC AND DYNAMIC or steel.
ANALYSIS)
To enable a controlled application of great
12.1 Introduction number of software of different origin, age,
theoretical bases, compliance or non-
The term design calculation (or even static compliance with relevant regulations, an
calculation) is old-fashioned. It is preserved elaboration of special guidelines and a
only because of continuity and custom. An suitable official adoption of that software by a
equivalent term would be static and dynamic professional scientific institution are
analysis of bridge load bearing structures. An mandatory.
up-to-date expression could be bridge safety
(load bearing capacity, serviceability, fatigue) The introduction to the design calculation
verification. A future term will probably be includes a report, sketches of the load
reliability (safety and durability) verification. bearing structure, static models, and
presentation of software employed in
The design calculation is an independent unit accordance with relevant guidelines to verify
included in both the preliminary design and bridge safety.
the construction-permit design. The level and
extent of the design calculation depends on A design calculation shall be carried out in
the level of the bridge design. two versions that differ one from another only
in the volume of enclosed material. The more
Design calculations shall be, among others, comprehensive version includes all the
conceived on suitable geological/soil- required constituent parts and computer out
mechanical bases offering all the data prints, and shall be prepared in two copies:
required to determine the foundation depth one for the archives of the design company
and method, to dimension the foundations, to and one for the client’s records. All other
define the slope stability in the pier and copies are less comprehensive since they do
abutment areas, and, consequently, to not contain any computer out prints. Namely
ensure a safe transfer of moments and forces those out prints are more or less worthless
from the bridge structure into the foundation after “n” years since both software and
ground. Are the differential settlements hardware are out of fashion, and the
greater than 1.0 cm, they shall be analysed extensive out prints would only represent an
as a special load case in statically unnecessary waste of paper.
indeterminate systems.
The analysis of loads and actions on bridges
Design calculations can be performed is complex, different for each project, and
manually, by computer software or combined depends on a series of factors such as type
(manually and by computer). and category of the road, location of bridge,
material, construction method, constructive
The extent of a design calculation shall be and static scheme, etc.
sufficient to verify safety of the entire bridge
load bearing structure and of all the individual In table 12.1 loads and actions stated in view
elements during construction and during of their origin.
operation in t = t0 and t = tn where t0 is the
operation time of the bridge immediately after In accordance with the relevant regulations
handing over to traffic and tn is the bridge for actions on bridges, a designer can
service life after “n” years of operation. logically combine the individual loads,
indicated in table 12.1, for each particular
Each design calculation includes an bridge.
introduction, a load analysis, a calculation of
internal forces and moments, a verification of
stresses, load bearing capacity,
deformations, displacements, cracks and
fatigue as well as verifications of the ultimate
limit state and the serviceability limit state.
Finally, a design calculation contains
sketches of the structure and structural
elements with analysed cross-sections, as
well as a definition of cross-sections and

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision General guidelines for bridges

Table 12.1: Loads and actions on bridges

1 FORCES OF GRAVITY
Dead weight of bridge load bearing structure
Values of volume masses
Other permanent loads on a bridge
2 LIVE LOADS
It is given in terms of replaceable normative
Load due to vehicles and pedestrians
model and includes a dynamic factor
Vehicle braking forces To be considered as a static force
Centrifugal force To be neglected in usual conditions
Beside the dead weight deflecting force,
Load due to installations effects of installation expansion, etc. to be
considered
Does not include accidental impacts of
Action on railing
vehicles on bridge railing
It is given in terms of replaceable normative
Load due to train and pedestrians (employees)
model and includes a dynamic factor
The effect of this force is taken into account
Train accelerating and braking forces on the upper edge of the railway track
structure
Centrifugal force Important for railway bridges
To be introduced as horizontal force for new
Nosing forces
railway bridges
Loading due to installations
Actions on railing Does not include accidental phenomena
3 NATURAL FORCES
Effect of environmental temperature change (includes
uniform temperature changes and temperature
gradient over cross-section depth. For railway bridges
it includes the effect of continuously welded track) The data on effects of natural forces for a
3.1 Wind action certain location can be obtained by
Snow action statistical or geophysical studies.
Action of streaming water
Action of ice (includes impact of ice)
Seismic actions
Earth pressure The effect of this group of natural actions
Eventual settlement of supports has mainly a permanent character. These
3.2 Pressure and mass of still water forces can be foreseen or calculated.
Usually they occur as reaction of natural
Buoyancy media to construction.
4 FORCES ARISING DUE TO INTERVENTIONS IN BRIDGE STRUCTURES TO ACHIEVE
CONTROLLED (DESIGNED) CHANGES OF STRESS CONDITIONS
Forces resulting from pre-stressing by means of internal or external tendons as well as from undesired
differences in height levels of pier heads. All the losses of force resulting from the application of force as well
as the structural response to the application of force shall be taken into account.
Forces arising from achieving of different levels of composite effects (usually steel and concrete)
5 LOADS DUE TO SHRINKAGE, CREEP AND YIELDING OF MATERIALS
Shrinkage and creep of concrete
Relaxation and yielding of high-strength pre-stressing steel
6 ACTIONS DUE TO STRUCTURAL DESIGN CONCEPTION
Resistance (friction) in structural bearings
7 ACTIONS DUE TO DESIGNED CONSTRUCTION METHOD
Actions persisting in the structure permanently
Transient actions not contributing to the definite stress condition
8 ACCIDENTAL ACTIONS
Impact on safety barriers of road bridges
Derailing of trains on railway bridges
Broken overhead electric installation for railway bridges
These actions are accidental ones not
Impact of road vehicles on bridge piers resulting from natural forces
Impact of boats on bridge piers

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision General guidelines for bridges

Both design calculation and drawings of considered case. At first sight it seems that
provisional structures needed to construct the structure becomes more expensive when
and erect bridge load bearing structures such devices are foreseen. However, the
(scaffolding, falsework, structures enabling total financial balance is generally positive.
transportation and erection, etc.) are
independent wholes. Are these calculations 12.3 Calculation, dimensioning and
and drawings elaborated by others, the verifications
bridge designer is obliged to check and
approve them. 12.3.1 Principles

12.2 Dynamic analysis of bridges for On principle two verifications shall be carried
seismic actions through:

Seismic protection of bridges results from the - verification of sufficient load bearing
fact that bridges are critical points of roads capacity
and railways, therefore they have to - verification of serviceability
withstand earthquake actions.
These verifications shall correspond to the
Both the design and the dynamic analysis of designed safety and foreseen serviceability
structures in seismic regions are performed of a bridge.
in accordance with the Eurocode 8 and NAD
(National application document). In case that one of these verifications is not
crucial, it can be omitted.
There are several methods to achieve a
suitable seismic protection. Among others, For structures jeopardized by a frequently
the designer shall take account of the repeated stressing, resistance to fatigue shall
following when selecting the most be verified within the sufficient load bearing
appropriate method: capacity verification.

- type of considered structure Dynamic actions due to wind or impact are

- nature and seismic activity of the location represented by means of equivalent static
- lowest costs possible of ensuring the forces. Dynamic effects of road and railway
required degree of seismic protection. actions are taken into account by dynamic
factors.
Recently in structures located in seismic
regions a so-called “positive seismic All the stressing shall be clearly defined. As a
protection” is frequently employed in rule, they shall be entered in the safety and
contrast to the “passive seismic serviceability plan. For each action the
protection”. The latter means designing of stressing shall be indicated separately.
structures that are not sensitive to
earthquake. In most cases structures with a If it is not explicitly defined, stressing due to
passive protection resist design earth characteristic actions shall be taken into
quakes, however they are more or less consideration to verify the load bearing
affected by the seismic actions, particularly capacity, whereas stressing due to long-term
when plasticizing of certain structural or short-term values shall be taken into
elements in the sense of energy dissipation is account for the serviceability verification.
foreseen. In case of significant and
destroying earthquakes, extremely expensive 12.3.2 Load bearing capacity
repairing is required notwithstanding that the
structure has remained not destructed. The safety plan defines, among others, for
which types of hazard the load bearing
A positive seismic protection of major bridges capacity must be verified by calculation.
in critical zones is achieved by conceiving
structures equipped with specific anti-seismic For calculation and dimensioning the main
devices that do not affect the structure during hazard is represented by the decisive action,
its normal service but are activated upon i.e. so-called primary (dominant) action.
earthquake action. The number of structures Hazards occurring simultaneously with the
designed in this way is increasing. The types main hazard are called secondary
and functional modes of those devices are (accompanying) actions.
different and the selection of the most
appropriate ones depends on each individual

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General guidelines for bridges Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

The load bearing capacity of a structure is The limit values specific to individual
verified when the following condition is materials are defined in the relevant
implemented: structural standards. In the present design
R standard some informative values of
Sd ≤ deformations and vibrations are indicated.
γR
Sd : design value of stressing The following provisions related to
R : ultimate load bearing capacity serviceability are mandatory without special
agreements. However, for economy and
γR : ultimate load bearing capacity factor
quality reasons, the structural behaviour
requirements may be discussed and
The ultimate load bearing capacity is
harmonized by the client and responsible
determined in accordance with relevant
experts, which shall be entered in the bridge
structural standards defining the ultimate load
exploitation plan.
bearing capacity factors as well.
Stressing to be considered in the
The ultimate load bearing capacity factor
serviceability verification depend on the
allows for the following actions:
verification type, e.g. verification of cracks,
verification of deformations, etc.
- deviations of the actual structural system
from the design system
Stressing is determined on the basis of
- simplifications and inaccuracies of the
actions occurring simultaneously in the
model
examined serviceability state.
- inaccuracies of the cross-section.
Two types of values of actions are
The design value of stressing can be
considered for the serviceability verification:
expressed in a general form by the following
equation:
S D = S (G D Q D ΣQa )
- long-term value: Qser,l
- short-term value: Qser,k
GD : design value of permanent actions
The long-term values are valid for permanent
QD : design value of primary (dominant)
action actions or include portions of variable actions
persisting for some length of time.
ΣQa: sum of secondary (accompanying)
actions
The short-term values describe variable
actions occurring in a short time. They also
The design value of stressing allows for the
include a portion of the long-term actions.
following:
Stressing due to restrained deformations or
- statistical scatter of magnitudes of actions
constraints, e.g. due to thermal actions,
- a simplified presentation of actions
bearing displacements, pre-stressing as well
- simplifications of the model due to
as shrinkage and creep of concrete, shall be
neglecting the simultaneously occurring
taken into account in accordance with the
actions interacting insignificantly.
structural standards.
12.3.3 Serviceability
12.3.4 Deformations
Requirements in view of serviceability are
Limit values of deformations shall be
defined in the bridge exploitation plan.
determined for each individual case and
entered in the bridge exploitation plan.
The required structural behaviour shall be
ensured by means of suitable construction
Deformations shall be calculated in
materials, adequate dimensioning, by careful
accordance with the provisions of structural
detailing, planned and thorough execution as
standards. In particular long-term
well as appropriate maintenance. The
deformations, e.g. due to shrinkage and
structural behaviour shall be within the
creep, shall be taken into consideration.
prescribed or agreed limits referring to the
following:
Flexure (bending) is shown schematically in
- cracks
the figure 12.1. They are defined as follows
- deformations
- vibrations
- quality of construction materials.

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Figure 12.1: Definition of flexure (bending)

w1: A camber, e.g. a designed workshop surfacing, railings and other non-bearing
shape of a steel structure, or an excess structural elements, as well as the variation
height of the falsework in concrete of the dynamic module of elasticity and, for
structures. concrete bridges, the transition from a non-
w2: Flexure due to structural dead load and cracked to a cracked state shall be taken into
permanent actions adopting account.
corresponding long-term deformations. In bridges intended for pedestrians and
w3: Flexure under long-term value of variable cyclists, natural frequencies between 1.6 and
action adopting corresponding long-term 2.4 Hz as well as between 3.5 and 4.5 Hz
deformations. shall be avoided. However, runners can
w4: Flexure under short-term value of provoke natural frequencies for bridges of
variable action. natural frequencies of 2.4 to 3.5 Hz as well.
The limit values of bending depend on
serviceability requirements: 12.3.6 Safety verification for fatigue
- road bridges l/700
- railway bridges 1/600 - l/1,000 The safety verification for fatigue shall show
- footbridges l/500 that the fatigue effect of service loads does
These approximate values shall be not affect adversely the structural bearing
considered as limit values when no different capacity in the bridge service life.
values have been agreed in the bridge As a rule, the safety verification for fatigue
exploitation plan. shall be carried through for bridges stressed
For railway bridges on rapid lines where train by road or railway loads, thus exposed to
speed can exceed 160 km/h, special vibrations.
instructions shall be acquired from the client. The fatigue safety can be considered as
Bending due to structural dead loads and verified when the following condition is
permanent actions including the implemented:
corresponding long-term deformation shall be R fat
equalized with the camber. S fat ≤
γ fat
12.3.5 Vibrations
Sfat : stress that causes fatigue
Vibration can occur due to the following Rfat : fatigue strength
variable actions: γfat : ultimate load bearing capacity factor for
- rhythmic motion of humans such as fatigue resistance verification
walking and running
- road and railway traffic, etc.
For the safety verification for fatigue, the
Vibrations than can jeopardize the structure service loads to be expected in the bridge
(such as resonance or loss of load bearing service life can be presented in a simplified
capacity due to fatigue) shall be included in form by traffic models.
the load bearing capacity verification. For steel load bearing elements as well as for
The following measures can influence the steel reinforcement and pre-stressed
vibrational behaviour of bridges: systems of concrete bridges, the stress that
- change of dynamic action
causes fatigue corresponds to the difference
in stress due to fatigue load.
( )
- change of structural stiffness or swinging
mass S fat = α ⋅ Δσ Q fat
- increase of damping.
The vibrational behaviour can be assessed α: service load factor
by means of comparing the frequency of an Δσ: difference in stress
action with the bridge natural frequencies. Qfat: fatigue load
Natural frequencies shall be assessed in The service load factor compares the fatigue
terms of their upper and lower values. effect of traffic models with the effect of
Eventual effects due to carriageway fatigue load. It depends on the material

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General guidelines for bridges Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

fatigue strength and shall be adopted from every new significant bridge of such kind
structural standards. brings something new and original. In a
In case that no data is available, the value of simplified way it can be ascertained that the
1.0 shall be taken for the service load factor. decks of cable-stayed bridges can be
Stressing of concrete that causes fatigue constructed by means of a formwork, free
corresponds to the stress due to structural cantilever method (cast-in-situ or segmental),
dead loads, to permanent actions, and to incremental launching procedure (using
fatigue load: provisional supports or not), or other specific
(
S fat = σ G m , ΣQr , Q fat ) technologies.
Reinforced concrete and pre-stressed
σ: stress reinforced concrete beam and frame bridges
Gm: mean value of structural dead loads of all the span lengths and total lengths are
ΣQr: sum of permanent actions constructed in accordance with the three
Qfat: fatigue load basic groups of construction technology
(table 13.1):
A monolithic construction of bridge
13. UP-TO-DATE BRIDGE superstructures where the entire cross-
section is cast in situ, within the bridge profile
CONSTRUCTION METHODS
or next to it.
Composite pre-cast – monolithic construction
13.1 Introduction
of bridge superstructures.
Construction of bridge superstructures by
The aim of bridge construction development
means of pre-cast elements.
has been to reduce the construction costs, to
The construction technology is determined by
shorten the construction time as well as to
the method of execution superstructures of
make the construction as independent as
beam and frame bridges.
possible of the ground morphology, ground
Construction methods of abutments and piers
occupation and climatic conditions. The final
will be discussed separately.
objective of that development is to employ as
The construction procedures of reinforced
many elements of industrial production as
concrete and pre-stressed reinforced
possible.
concrete bridges have been modified,
The up-to–date bridge construction methods
supplemented and innovated in the last fifty
described in the present design standard
years. Some new procedures have been
offer designers and other participants in the
invented in order to harmonize the ideas of
construction process the most important
bridge designers, the equipment of
information only.
contractors as well as the construction
To design bridges constructed in accordance
schedules and costs. A progress could only
with an already known technology, the
follow when contractors have anticipated
designer shall be necessarily acquainted in
their long-term profit based on the ideas of
detail with all the technical, constructional,
structural engineers.
performing and other properties of equipment
The application of pre-stressed reinforced
as well as of procedures made feasible by
concrete pre-cast beams of different cross-
that equipment.
sections has proven unsuitable to road
Up-to-date bridge construction technologies
bridges of non-continuous systems of spans
are related to the bridge load bearing
n x (25-45 m) with expansion or elastic joints
systems and have been developing in
above supports as well as with pre-cast or
accordance with the development of those
semi-pre-cast carriageway slabs.
bearing systems.
Transverse expansion joints or connections
Since reinforced concrete or pre-stressed
by means of hinges above supports, as well
reinforced concrete beam or frame bridges
a great number of construction joints in the
prevail, it is fully understandable that the
carriageway slab, represent weak points
greatest number of construction methods has
causing, among others, corrosion or
been developed and employed for these
reinforcement and damage of concrete, and
materials and systems.
reducing bridge durability.
A majority of beam and frame bridge
Due to the abovementioned and other
construction technologies can be adopted to
reasons, pre-stressed reinforced concrete
build structures above arches and decks of
pre-cast girders must not be used for
cable-stayed bridges. The procedures of
construction of non-continuous bridges
construction of concrete arches will be
(having discontinuities above the supports)
described separately.
with pre-cast or semi-pre-cast carriageway
The construction methods of cable-stayed
slabs.
bridges are being developed, and almost

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General guidelines for bridges Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

13.2 Construction of bridge A programme of concreting is considered as

superstructures on a fixed false adequate when the number of construction
work joints is small, in particular in the carriageway
slab plane.
Concreting of bridge superstructures “in situ”
on a fixed steel false work is economical for If all the works comprising erection of false
spans of 5 – 30 (40) metres and for bridge work, placing the reinforcement and tendons,
lengths of 5 – 200m. concreting, pre-stressing and grouting of
tendons as well as of concrete treatment are
Bridges of three or more spans can be cast in carried out in accordance with rules and up-
stages by transferring the false work from to-date comprehensions of the construction
one stage to the other. Both the number of technology, a bridge superstructure will be
stages and the bridge length cast in one durable and without any deficiencies.
stage depend on several factors and shall be
thoroughly analysed for each particular The construction on a fixed false work does
project. not condition the cross-section shape and
dimensions as well as the superstructure
A false work consists of the following load geometry, which is by all means an
bearing elements: steel latticed girders of 5 – advantage of that procedure. A complicated
30 m of span made of 3 – 5 (10) m long geometry, in particular obliqueness and
elements of 20 – 60 kN/m of load bearing twisting, increase the false work costs.
capacity, depending on the span and the
girder type. Serial standard elements shall 13.3 Construction of bridge
have adequate documents. superstructures on a mobile false
work span-by-span
False work supports are made of pipes of a
greater diameter and unified lengths, as well In situ concreting of bridge superstructures
as of pipes of a smaller diameter and of on a movable false work is used for pre-
elements serving for height adjustment. It is stressed reinforced concrete beam systems
reasonable to use bridge abutments and of 30 – 50 metres of span and of a total
piers as false work supports, on condition length above 400 metres.
that their stability is not jeopardized and that
no lasting damage is caused. A step or a stage is called construction of one
length of which approx. 0.80 L is placed in
False work foundation shall be conceived on one span and the remaining approx. 0.20 L
the basis of the geological/geo-mechanical as cantilever in the next one. Therefore, this
data including information on the ground technology is named “span by span”.
bearing capacity and settlements.
The load bearing element of a mobile false
Cross-girders and the formworks are made of work consists of two 3D webbed or lattice
impregnated and protected timber. They shall girders of double span length or at least 1.5
be unified in view of dimensions and shapes. times the span length, including an anchoring
system. The movable girders are connected
The false work design shall be prepared by by hinges with formwork steel elements,
the contractor and reviewed by both the which are opened at moving of the false work
designer the client’s engineer. Stability of the and closed prior to placing the reinforcement
false work during casting and hardening of and tendons as well as to concreting.
concrete shall be ensured. Appropriate data
on cambers to ensure the designed bridge The supports of the movable false work are
geometry shall be included in the design as steel elements supported as cantilevers and
well. connected with piers.

Prior to commencement of placing the There are several systems of mobile false
reinforcement and tendons, the erected false work available on the market, with different
work shall be inspected and approved. characteristics and requirements – conditions
in view of shape and size of the piers and of
Concreting is allowed only after acceptance the superstructure cross-section.
of both the reinforcement and the tendons, as
well as upon approved design of concrete, A mobile false work has its own technical
programme of concreting, and presentation documentation and certificates to be verified
of material certificates. upon each employment. The equipments

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shall also be checked and certified prior to its The load bearing lattice 3D elements of
use to prevent adverse effects of eventual mobile scaffolding – form travellers of a total
damage on the bridge stability during length of approx. 10 m – enable concreting of
construction. segments of 5.0 m of length. The remaining
length serves for anchoring onto already
Bridge designers need all data on the mobile constructed cantilevered part of the
false work since the design shall be in superstructure.
accordance with possibilities, dimensions and
conditions enabling the use of a false work. A great number of different form traveller
Piers of a constant rectangular cross-section, types are available, yet they are all similar in
and superstructures longitudinally inclined by view of the structural principle and
maximum 4%, consisting of one box section technology of casting of segments. Bridge
or two relatively wider beams without a cross designers shall have on their disposal all the
beam, are preferred. data on the structure of form travellers, which
might influence the scheme and details of a
Opening on piers and superstructure required bridge.
for a proper function of the mobile false work
shall be indicated in the bridge execution The superstructure is of a rectangular or
design. trapezoidal cross-section of a constant or
variable depth between 2 and 15 m (the latter
Due to a relatively heavy false work as well applies to the depth above piers at the
as to the transportation, erection and later on longest spans). The cross-section width
disassembling activities, such technology is amounts 10 – 20 m, mainly from 12 to 15 m.
not economical for shorter bridges.
It is preferable when the superstructure either
Concreting on a movable false work “span by straight or in a curvature of a great radius
span” enables a relatively fast construction (R > 700 m) depending on the span length.
progress, since approx. 100 m per month or The fall of the vertical alignment should not
approx. one span per week can be achieved, exceed 4%. Symmetrical convex vertical
on condition that reinforcement cages are alignments where the summit of the vertical
made in advance. curve is located in the bridge centre are the
most appropriate ones.
One of the comparative advantages of that
procedure of casting is a minimum number of Symmetrical parts of the bridge should be
construction joints, i.e. one joint in the area of cast simultaneously to balance the
neutral (zero) points where continuation of deformations due to creep and shrinkage of
tendons is carried out. the concrete thus realizing the designed
geometry.
13.4 Construction of bridge
superstructures by cast-in-situ free Concerning pre-stressing, there is usually a
cantilever method combination of shorter and longer tendons
(internal and partly external ones). The
The idea of free cantilever construction of external tendons cover the traffic load and
bridge superstructures is about 65 years old can be installed and tensioned afterwards
whereas the first such bridges were (after the continuity is established).
constructed 50 years ago.
Concreting of segments is also possible
This technology is suitable to beam bridges during unfavourable weather conditions,
of long and very long spans (70 – 250 m) since the form traveller can be closed and
running across high water hindrances or heated periodically.
hardly accessible dry ones.
For the considered procedure it is essential
The construction progress is moderate, to solve the problem of connection between
approx. one segment of 5 m of length per the deck and the piers. The base part of the
week. Four travellers enable a progress of 80 superstructure of 5 – 10 m in length (one to
m per month for longer bridges. The two segments) can be executed in union with
procedure is most economical for bridges of the piers as a rigid connection, or by means
a total length between 150 and 800 m. of introducing bearings with temporary
anchoring which enables stability during
construction.

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By casting the final segment the launching equipment. The entire abutment
superstructure continuity is established. In shall be verified in view of actions occurring
some bridges constructed at the beginning of during the erection and, if necessary, it has to
application of this system, a reinforced be strengthened. After launching of the deck
concrete hinge or a bearing has been carried and dismantling of the hydraulic presses, the
out in the mid-span. On the contrary, in the abutment takes its basic function, i.e. the end
up-to-date bridge construction no hinges are support of a bridge.
allowed in the superstructure that must be The steel nose of 20 – 35 m of length is a 3D
continuous over its entire length. lattice or webbed structure of variable height,
consisting of two parallel girders in the plane
Technical and certification documents of the of the superstructure webs, and of the wind
steel form travellers shall be available and bracing. On its higher part, the launching
verified prior to each use. The same applies nose is connected with the concrete deck by
to the entire structure and equipment means of high-strength bolts or anchors. On
required to execute the construction works. the lower part of the nose, a “sledge” or
hydraulic jacks are placed. Their function is
13.5 Concreting and incremental to adjust mounting of the nose onto piers.
launching of bridge superstructures
Both the weight and the price of the
The procedure of incremental launching of launching equipment depend in particular on
pre-stressed reinforced concrete bridge the superstructure section to be cast in one
super-structures has arisen from the piece, and on the span. For spans longer
incremental launching and erection of steel than 40 m introduction of provisional supports
girder bridges. in mid-spans might be more economical than
an increased amount of pre-stressing
This procedure has been applied, developed, tendons.
innovated and modified for more than 35
years. For the first time it had been For the incremental launching procedure it is
introduced in Germany by Prof. F. Leonhardt. desirable that the superstructure is straight or
Later on the procedure was adopted in all in a curvature of a constant radius, without
developed European countries. twisting and changing the cross-section
width. The vertical alignments can run in a
For the considered technology, economical constant slope of up to 4 % or, if required, in
bridge spans amount to 25 – 50 m, whereas a vertical curvature.
reasonable total lengths are 200 – 800 m.
The superstructure cross-section of bridges
The construction progress depends on the and viaducts is trapezoidal or rectangular box
length of the elements to be cast in one of 10 – 20 m of width. Constant thicknesses
single piece on site, and amounts to 80 – 120 of webs, of upper slab and of lower slab are
m per month. desirable. Cross girders are located only
above the supports, which makes the work
The equipment for incremental launching easier and reduces the construction time.
procedure consists of a site-workshop for
concreting of sections or entire spans, of The pre-stressing tendons can run through
equipment for launching for complete the webs and slabs, externally or combined,
sections, and of launching steel nose. depending on the span length and designer’s
decision. It is recommendable to lead
The site-workshop of a length of 15 to 40 m tendons through the slabs.
is made of steel and supported by strong
concrete foundations. It shall be non- The tendons are extended on such locations
deformable and adjusted to a variable where the moments are minimum. In one
geometry of box cross-sections of single section maximum one half of the
superstructures. The site-workshop is tendons may be extended. Coupling of
erected behind the bridge abutment on that tendons in the carriageway slab is not
bridge side, which is higher and has better permitted.
traffic connections.
The launching equipment shall be re-checked
The launching equipment is placed on top of prior to the next use. In addition, design
the abutment behind which the workshop is documents and certificates shall be verified,
located. The abutment top is designed to be particularly for the elements where the
adapted to dimensions and function of the validity of the certificates is limited.

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13.6 Bridge superstructure of pre-cast T- Pre-cast beams weigh 5 – 40 tons. They are
beams and monolithic reinforced transported by means of trailers and erected
concrete slab with mobile cranes or a launching structure.
Such beams are economical for bridges up to
In the recent fifty years of application of pre- 200 m of length as well as for shorter single-
cast pre-stressed reinforced concrete beams span bridges where a rigid connection
for bridge superstructures a great number of without any bearings and expansion joints
different beam cross-sections as well as of can be established via an integral pier.
superstructure cross-sections composed of
those beams has appeared. Cross-sections of superstructures shall be
calculated as composite beams taking into
The cross-section shape has been influenced account different ages and qualities of the
by the production, transport and erection concrete of prefabricated beams,
costs, by the similarity of superstructure carriageway slab and cross beams.
cross-section systems, and by the durability
considerations. All types of beam cross- The minimum thickness of the carriageway
sections designed in such a way that a later slab above the pre-cast beams amounts to
access to certain places is not possible are 20 cm, whereas the minimum width of a
not desired although they are lighter. Beam cross beam above the pier is 80 cm.
cross-sections where the carriageway slab is
executed in the plane of the upper flange are A composite connection of pre-cast beams
less durable and therefore unwanted as well. and carriageway slab is enabled by dowels
placed over the both entire length and width
Beams of a T-cross-section and the upper of the beams designed to withstand shear
flange of 2.0 m (2.5 m) width are simple to stresses. The dowels are made of reinforcing
fabrication and erection as well as accessible steel being a constituent part of the beam
to maintenance. T-beams enable casting of reinforcement.
the carriageway slab and cross beams
without a scaffold. Since both the 13.7 Construction of bridge
prefabricated and monolithic portion of the superstructures of pre-cast
cross-section are made composite a uniform reinforced concrete segments
cross-section is achieved to take both the
traffic load and additional dead load. Construction of bridges using prefabricated
reinforced concrete elements commenced in
Beams of a length of 5 – 20 m are cast and France in 1962.
pre-stressed on a production line. Longer
beams (> 20 m) are post-tensioned using Cross-sections of bridges made of pre-cast
appropriate tendons. elements are predominantly trapezoidal and
rectangular boxes of 10 – 20 m of width, of 2
A simple cross-section of a pre-cast beam – 3 m of length, and of 2 – 6 m of height. If
facilitates adaptation to different widths and necessary, the height can be variable too.
geometries of superstructures. They can also For the considered procedure simpler cross
be used for oblique bridges (angle of sections are feasible as well, e.g. cross-
crossing up to 60°) as well as for curved section composed of two wide trapezoidal
ones. beams.

By an in situ casting of both the carriageway For bridge construction of prefabricated

slab and cross beams, and by placing of the segments, the most economical spans are
required longitudinal reinforcement or by between 30 and 120 m. The length of a
continuation of the tendons, a continuity bridge or of a group of bridges should be at
required for taking the traffic load is achieved. least 500 m.

The superstructure can be connected with Straight bridges where the vertical alignment
the substructure by means of bearings, is inclined by up to 4% are desirable. Of
reinforced concrete hinges, or rigidly to form course, segments can be used to construct
a frame structure, which depends on the curved bridges as well; however,
bride length, pier height and other prefabrication is more complicated in such
circumstances. case.

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Segments can be fabricated either at already The procedure with a wide wet joint is less
existing workshops or at a new workshop complicated in view of dimensional accuracy,
located close to the bridge or group of and enables overlapping of the longitudinal
bridges, on condition that such a solution is reinforcement. However, a segment shall be
economically justified. held up until the joint has hardened, which is
disadvantageous and the reason of
Formwork for production of segments is abandoning this method.
made of steel. It shall be non-deformable and
equipped with a mechanism enabling a rapid Nowadays, tight joints with toothed contact
opening and closing. The formwork shall be surfaces and epoxy adhesive compounds are
capable to adapt itself to the variable used.
geometry of the cross-section. For one bridge
or a group of bridges two or three formworks In a simplified form it can be established that
are required to enable simultaneous the crucial factor of a successful segmental
concreting of adjacent joints. A system of construction, i.e. of quality and durability of
vibrators is connected with the formworks. segmental bridges, is the achieved
performance of the joints between segments.
Reinforcement cages shall be prefabricated. The development as well as a wider and
Pre-casting is carried out in a closed warm wider use of pre-stressing of superstructures
space. The concrete can be heated with with external tendons is advantageous for
steam or not, depending of the design of easier and more reliable use of the
concrete, method, and production progress. segmental construction technology.
The production of segments is independent
of the weather, which is a major advantage of Segmental construction requires a higher
this technology. Only the application of epoxy technical level and experienced designers,
compounds used for the joints between contractors, supervisors and maintenance
segments is weather dependent. staffs.

Loading on trailers, transportation and 13.8 Up-to-date methods of bridge pier

erection of segments are very different, construction
depending on the volume and weight of a
segment, remoteness of the workshop, Bridge abutments are always cast in situ
access roads, and available equipment. using a formwork of an adequate stiffness
and with suitable supporting elements.
Segments can be erected by the free
cantilevering method, i.e. symmetrically with The formworks shall be shaped in
regard to the piers, as described in 13.4. accordance with the abutment geometry and
Steel cantilever elements, which take the the arrangement of construction joints. By an
segments, are anchored to the appropriate design of both formwork and
superstructure portion already erected. After supporting elements non-deformability and
the treatment of the joints, a segment is stability shall be ensured until the concrete
connected by means of tendons to the deck hardens.
portion already executed.
Bridge pier construction depends on the
For an individual erection of segments steel cross-section shape, the height and number
latticed “launching” structure can be of piers belonging to one bridge or to a group
employed. of bridges being constructed simultaneously.

Segments can also be erected in a group by For bridges and viaducts on motorways and
the “span by span” method on a movable other roads, piers shall be cast in situ.
false work (refer to 13.3), or on a fixed false
work (refer to 13.2). However, such Casting in situ of piers can be carried through
technologies are employed to a minor extent. in three different ways depending on the
cross-section shape as well as the height and
Two types of segments have been number of piers.
developed: segments with a wide wet joint
(70-100 cm) and segments with a tight Piers of a variable cross-section and small
contact joint. height shall be concreted by means of a fixed
formwork of suitable stiffness and with
supporting elements.

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Piers of a constant full or hollow box cross- The construction is carried through
section and of a height greater than 15 m simultaneously from both sides.
shall be executed by means of a unified
movable (climbing) or sliding formwork in The superstructure above the arch can be
segments of 3.0 – 4.0 m in length. cast either simultaneously with the arch or
subsequently when the arch is already
A movable (climbing) formwork is connected.
mechanically, i.e. without any help of
hydraulics, transferred upwards to be ready Arches executed by rotation of already
for casting of the next segment. constructed vertically concreted arch halves
are only suitable to medium spans, i.e. of 70
A sliding formwork is moved simultaneously to 100 m. During the concreting procedure,
with the system of hydraulic jacks in the arch represents a curved girder with a
accordance with the progress of casting and steel hinge at the bottom. By relieving of sty
hardening of concrete. cables both arch halves are joined and a
complete arch is formed.
13.9 Up-to-date methods of concrete
arch construction A mixed method of arch construction is a
combination of both a procedure with a false
Concrete arch bridges have been work for lateral arch portions and a free
constructed for more than 100 years. Up to cantilevering procedure for the central,
the fifties arches were concreted on scaffolds inaccessible arch part. It is also possible to
similarly as stone arch bridges had been execute the lateral arch portions by free
constructed before. Innovations in view of cantilevering and the central portion by
concrete arch construction related mainly to means of a false work supported by the ends
the scaffolds. Instead of false work closing of the portions already accomplished.
the entire profile of an obstacle, false works
with timber or steel arches are employed for A design of arch bridges as well as of bridges
longer spans and in case of deep valleys or of other load bearing systems is only
rivers. Such false works embrace the entire successful when the construction procedure
profile or a part of the profile of an obstacle. is comprehended and solved at the same
time.
In principle four basic methods of arch bridge
construction exist: A deficient knowledge of arch bridge
construction technologies as well as the
- arches executed by means of a false work almost abandoned execution of these
- arches executed by free cantilevering beautiful bearing systems should not be a
- arches executed by rotation of already reason for their decreased application. A
constructed arch portions rational solution of the construction method
- arches executed by a combined method. can make this system competitive with regard
to beam and frame systems.
Nowadays, a false work is used to construct
for shorter spans of 40 to 100 m crossing
lower and accessible obstacles. For longer
spans and arch heights a steel arch girder
consisting of two or three sections and
without any supports can be foreseen, which
depends on the contractors’ capability and
equipment.

A free cantilever construction of long-

spanned arches (of 100 to 400 m)
commenced three decades ago. As a
consequence, arch concrete bridges have
become competitive for long spans as well.
Arch segments of 3 to 5 m of length are
concrete on a form traveller. Arch sections
already executed are anchored by means of
stay cables to the portion of the structure
already built or to special anchor blocks.

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14. STAGES AND CONTENTS OF Maintenance and operation design is a

BRIDGE DESIGN DOCUMENTS systematically arranged composition of
illustrations, drawings and texts in a form of
The design documents for construction of warranties, certificates, lists, catalogues,
road bridges include the following: schemes, instructions and similar documents
specifying operation and maintenance rules
- preliminary scheme for the particular constructed or reconstructed
- preliminary design bridge as well as of the equipment and
- construction permit design installations in/on the bridge. The
- tender design maintenance and operation design enables
- execution design owners to maintain their bridges in a suitable
way.
Preliminary scheme includes a sketch and
description of essential characteristics of the In the table 14.1 stages of both design and
planned construction. technical documents for bridges are
indicated, as well as their interdependence
Preliminary design is a systematically with the equivalent design and technical
arranged composition of drawings enabling documents for roads. In addition,
the investor to select the most adequate fundamental purpose of individual design
alternative of the planned construction. stages is presented.

Construction permit design is a Mandatory contents of the technical report

systematically arranged composition of being a constituent part of both preliminary
drawings enabling the relevant authority to design and construction permit design is as
estimate all the circumstances essential to follows:
issue the construction permit.
- general data on the bridge
Tender design is a systematically arranged - bases for bridge design
composition of drawings enabling the - bridge scheme and dispositional element
investor to select a contractor. - geological/geo-mechanical data and
foundation recommendation
Execution design is actually a construction - bridge structure
permit design supplemented by detailed - bridge equipment
drawings enabling execution of construction - basic materials
in accordance with the conditions indicated in - construction method
the construction permit. - operation and maintenance conditions.

The technical documents for bridges include

the following:
- as-built design
- maintenance and operation design

As-built design is actually an execution

design supplemented by presentation of all
the works executed as well as of eventual
modifications of any constituent part of the
execution design that might have occurred
during the construction. On the basis of the
as-built design, the participants of the
technical inspection can establish whether
the constructed or reconstructed bridge is in
accordance with the construction permit.

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Table 14.1:
STAGES OF ROAD STAGES OF BRIDGE
PURPOSE
DESIGN DESIGN

PRELIMINARY Cooperation of bridge designer in Optimum bridge scheme in particular with

SCHEME elaboration of design specification for regard to the bridge geometry.
(studies and the bridge design.
analyses)

PRELIMINARY Bridge preliminary scheme • Definition of bridge load bearing system,

DESIGN length and width
This is a mandatory constituent part • Determination of basic materials and
of the road preliminary design. construction method
• Base for cost estimation
• Assessment of geometry correctness
• Foundation proposal.

CONSTRUCTION Preliminary design • It is constituent part of the road

PERMIT DESIGN • Preliminary design is conceived on construction permit design
final bases. • It supplements the road construction
• Among others preliminary design permit design, specifies both value and
includes fundamental arrangement function of the bridge.
drawings (layout, plan, longitudinal
section, cross-section as well as
cross-sections through all the
supports).
• Design calculation to an extent
ensuring bridge safety and
suitability of selected dimensions
and quantities.
• It is an abstract from construction permit
TENDER DESIGN Tender design design or preliminary design defining
geometry, safety, function and material
quantity.
• It enables the investor to carry through an
invitation for tenders.

• It ensures stability, load bearing capacity

EXECUTION DESIGN Bridge construction permit design and function of the bridge
• Definition of bridge geometry
• Implementation of location and aesthetic
requirements
• It takes into account requirements by
relevant authorities as well as
requirements indicated in relevant
guidelines
• Selection of construction method.

It enables bridge execution and includes the

EXECUTION DESIGN Bridge execution design following:
• Formwork, reinforcement and tendon
drawings
• Workshop drawings and details
• Bridge equipment drawings
• Construction method
• Influence of construction on stability.
• It is elaborated simultaneously with the
ROAD AS-BUILT Bridge as-built design construction
DESIGN • It contains all modifications and
supplements of the execution design
• It shall be preserved and will serve for
inspections, maintenance and
reconstructions.
ROAD Bridge maintenance design • It gives instructions for bridge
MAINTENANCE management.
DESIGN

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General guidelines for bridges Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

15. CRITERIA FOR EVALUATION OF particularities and with the static-

ALTERNATIVE (COMPETITIVE) constructive bridge scheme
SOLUTIONS - superstructure construction method
- pier and abutment construction method
For large and significant bridges two or three - foundation construction method
alternatives of the preliminary design shall be - reliability (safety, durability) and service life
elaborated. Another option is to acquire of the bridge
several solutions by means of a competition. - required space to organize the construction
site, accesses to the site
The jury that evaluates alternative or - use of adequate materials.
competitive solutions shall master all the
essential criteria to estimate the value of 15.3 Criteria related to bridge aesthetics
submitted proposals. and preservation of natural
environment
The criteria for evaluation of alternative
solutions can be divided in five basic groups: - shaping of individual elements of bridge
structure and equipment
15.1 Criteria related to the particularities - mutual harmony of structural elements as
of the location and to the bases well as conformity of bridge structure with
having served for elaboration of bridge equipment
alternative (competitive) solutions - incorporation of the bridge into the natural
environment
- morphology of the obstacle - a harmonized connection of the bridge and
- geological/geo-mechanical conditions the road at both bridge ends
- meteorological-climatic conditions - ecological criteria (water and air protection,
- seismic conditions protection from noise, preservation of
- conformity with the road bases biotops)
- putting in order the area below and next to
15.2 Constructive-technological criteria the bridge after completed construction.

- modernity and originality of the bridge 15.4 Economical criteria

scheme
- bridge load bearing system - bridge construction costs
- elements of originality of the selected load - bridge operation and maintenance costs
bearing system
- elements of originality of the structural 15.5 Criteria related to bridge operation
scheme
- materials for the bridge load bearing - traffic comfort and safety on the bridge
structure - structural vibrations and deformations
- conformity of the static-constructive bridge - criteria and conditions for regular
scheme with all the specific conditions of maintenance and for inspections of bridge
the bridge location structure and equipment
- span lengths, span ratios on the entire - possibility of bridge rehabilitation (repair,
bridge length in view of the internal forces reconstruction, strengthening)
and moments, material consumption and - possibility of exceptional transports of size
construction method and load greater than the standard values
- layout of piers with regard to the - position, accessibility and maintenance of
morphological properties of the ground, to bridge installations.
the pier height and to the geological/geo-
mechanical conditions
- scheme and constructive solution of the
bridge superstructure cross-section
- scheme and constructive solution of the
piers
- scheme and constructive solution of
abutments including the connection with
the road body
- pier and abutment foundation
- bridge equipment
- up-to-date construction technologies and
their conformity with the location

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16. TEST LOADING OF BRIDGES A copy of complete documents related to the

test loading shall be submitted to the bridge
Test loading is a condition for the technical designer. In this way, the latter will be able to
inspection and issuing of operation permit for establish a correctness of the selected
road bridges of spans > 15 m and railway design model as well as of both static and
bridges of spans > 10 m (there are no EC dynamic analysis of the bridge.
standards for test loading bridges).

Test loading shall be carried out in 17. KEEPING OF DESIGN AND

accordance with the standard JUS U.M1.046 TECHNICAL DOCUMENTS
specifying the types of test loads, test
method, evaluation of test results and report 17.1 Introduction
of the test loading.
Recently the extent of information related to
Both bridge designer and the engineer different domains that has to be processed
responsible for the execution of the test shall and preserved is increasing constantly.
prepare a programme of the test loading. The Engineers need a complete and simple
programme shall include the following: review of existing design and technical
documents. In addition, other divisions such
- magnitude and arrangement of the load by as marketing, purchasing, construction,
stages control and maintenance department use
- calculation of expected deflections and those documents as well.
deformations
- arrangement of measuring spots In the field of design and technical
- organization chart of the test. documents the following three stages are
considered:
Both the position and the magnitude of the
load for the test loading are determined by - designing
the structural design. Both static and dynamic - using
loading usually corresponds to the loading in - preserving
bridge operation.
Design and technical documents shall be:
Prior to working out the programme of the
test loading the following shall be studied: - passive and active
- available in a graphical-analogous form
- bridge design documents (construction distributed among different services,
permit design, execution design, as-built departments and other users
design) - available in a simple way and clear, and
- documents indicating the quality of their reproduction shall be of a high quality
construction materials - resistant to different external impacts
- a macroscopic inspection of the bridge. - suitable for a simple distributing and
dispatching
The basic objective of the test loading is to - on such a medium that ensures a simple
verify the bridge behaviour in view of the supplementing, rectifying and processing
design assumptions and it capability of taking - durably, safely and clearly saved on a
the design traffic loading. reliable medium being credible and legally
Are the results of the test loading of a bridge recognized in case of eventual disputes.
negative, the load bearing structure shall be
improved and the test loading shall be 17.2 Advantages of a microfilm data card
repeated. (MDC)

A report of the load testing of a bridge can be Microfilm as an information medium has
either: existed for 100 years. Experiments have
shown that the durability of an up-to-date
- a provisional report including fundamental microfilm amounts to more than 1,600 years.
data and conclusions, or
- a final report including all the data on the The capacity of saving information on a MDC
2
bridge, a comparative design calculation, (measured in bit/mm ) is incomparably
an analysis of calculation and test results greater than on disks.
as well as a conclusion whether the bridge
is capable to take the design loading.

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General guidelines for bridges Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

A MDC with a silver-halogen film is stable 17.4 Preparing of design and technical
more than 150 years, which has been found documents for keeping
out by means of a simulation. It resists
humidity and temperature up to 150°C, and Clients (investors) shall define the way of
does not lose colour at light. As such, MDC coding the works and the basic data to be
represents a medium internationally legally written on the drawings, which is a base for
recognized. each designing company to enter the data
uniformly in the medium kept for records.
Employing MDC a quick and simple
distribution and use of drawings and other Design and technical documents to be
documents is ensured. MDCs are rational in preserved shall be submitted in an original or
view of their form and volume thus being very transparent form, or on a plain paper to
suitable to despatching and preserving. ensure a quality copying. It shall not be on a
paper that loses colour since it is unsuitable
A MDC is equipped with the OCR writing and to be copied onto a MDC.
a barcode enabling a faster searching for and
sorting out of data by different criteria. A user Keeping of documents on CD-ROMS is
can add the time and type of eventual reasonable up to their final preserving that is
changes by manual writing. He can keep the carried through on a MDC serving for final
basic MDC for comparison or deposit it in the archives of long duration.
central archives. A MDC does not include
only a drawing, but also other data that After completion of construction works, the
facilitate the work on the particular drawing (it eventual changes having been entered in the
can serve as a card-file). drawings manually shall be handed over to
the designer who draws them either
17.3 Common denominator of MDC electronically or classically. Such documents
is prepared for a final keeping in records
When a MDC is brought to a common either
denominator of both classical and computer-
aided design and technical documents, it - digitally via laser printer/plotter onto a MDC
shall be emphasized that the MDC enables a or a CD-ROM, or
connection in all the directions: - from the paper via camera onto a MDC.

- data transfer from classical drawings onto a

MDC by means of cameras (photo-method)
- data transfer from computer media onto a
MDC by means of a CADMIC device (laser
method), and from the MDC onto the
computer media by means of a SCANNER
that can scan up to 350 drawings onto an
electronic medium. By means of a scanner
the missing link between the analogous
and digital system is ensured. A scanned
drawing can be corrected on the computer
and directly plotted on paper via laser
plotters.

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 GUIDELINES FOR ROAD DESIGN,
CONSTRUCTION, MAINTENANCE AND
SUPERVISION

Volume I: DESIGNING

Section 2: DESIGNING BRIDGES

DESIGN GUIDELINES (DG 1.2.2)

Part 2: EDGE BEAMS, KERBS AND WALKWAYS
Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Edge beams, Kerbs and Walkways

INTRODUCTION

Edge beams are lateral ends of bridges ensuring traffic safety. They are designed to withstand
aggressive environment acting on exposed outer edges of the bridge superstructure.

Adequate materials for edge beams shall be selected to ensure the bridge durability as well as to
enable maintenance and reconstruction of individual elements.
All the elements for designing kerbs and walkways on bridges on motorways as well as on main,
regional, and local roads are indicated in this design guideline.

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Edge beams, Kerbs and Walkways Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

CONTENTS

1. SUBJECT OF DESIGN GUIDELINES .......................................................................................... 5

2. REFERENCE REGULATIONS ..................................................................................................... 5
3. EXPLANATION OF TERMS ......................................................................................................... 5
4. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS......................................................................................................... 5
5. DRAWINGS .................................................................................................................................. 8
5.1 Edge beam with auxiliary walkway along outer edge on bridges on motorways and
highways................................................................................................................................ 8
5.2: Edge beam with auxiliary walkway along outer edge with auxiliary walkway and
concrete safety barrier on bridges on motorways and highways .......................................... 9
5.3: Edge beam without auxiliary walkway along outer edge on bridges on motorways,
highways, main roads, regional roads, and local roads ...................................................... 10
5.4: Edge beam without auxiliary walkway along outer edge on bridges on motorways,
highways, main roads, regional roads, and local roads out of settlements ........................ 11
5.5: Edge beam without walkway and concrete safety barrier along outer edge on bridges
on motorways and highways ............................................................................................... 12
5.6: Edge beam with steel safety barrier along central reserve on bridges on motorways........ 13
5.7: Edge beam with concrete safety barrier along the central reserve on bridges on
motorways ........................................................................................................................... 14
5.8: Edge beam along central reserve on bridges on motorways – alternative for
longitudinally non-separated bridges .................................................................................. 15
5.9: Edge beam along central reserve of 2.00 m width on bridges on motorways and
highways.............................................................................................................................. 16
5.10:Edge beam along central reserve of 2.00 m width on bridges on motorways and
highways– alternative for longitudinally non-separated bridges ......................................... 17
5.11:Edge beam along outer edge on bridges on two-lane (one-lane) public roads.................. 18
5.12:Edge beam along outer edge on bridges on main roads, regional roads, and local
roads in settlements (v ≤ 50 km/h) ...................................................................................... 19
5.13 Edge beam on bridges below fills ....................................................................................... 20
5.14:Edge beam on bridges with pavement structure of approx. 40 cm .................................... 21
5.15:Edge beam with communal installations below cantilever on bridges of up to 3.00 m
height................................................................................................................................... 22
5.16:Edge beam with communal installations below cantilever on bridges on main roads,
regional roads, and local road ............................................................................................. 23
5.17:Edge beam with walkway along outer edge on bridges on main roads, regional roads,
and local roads (out of settlements with footpaths and cycle tracks irrespective of
bridge height and length)..................................................................................................... 24
5.18:Detail of kerb....................................................................................................................... 25

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Edge beams, Kerbs and Walkways

1. SUBJECT OF DESIGN 4. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS

GUIDELINES
In the road bridge cross section an edge
The intention of this DG 1.2.2 is to define and beam represents an edge end ensuring
work out the methods of designing edge mechanical safety of the traffic. A wheel
beams, kerbs and walkways for all possible missing the carriageway is caught and
bridge cross sections indicated in DG 1.2.1 directed back to the carriageway. For this
Typified solutions of edge beams, kerbs and purpose, basic geometrical characteristics of
walkways are shown in the characteristic the cross section are determined: the edge
sketches for all feasible combinations for beam terracing at the carriageway amounts
bridges on motorways, highways, main to 7 cm and the cross fall of the surface is
roads, regional roads, and local roads. uniform amounting to minimum 4%. Onto the
edge beam a steel safety barrier is fastened.
Instead of the latter, a concrete safety barrier
2. REFERENCE REGULATIONS can be foreseen as well. The surface of the
load bearing structure below the edge beam,
For the present design guidelines the which represents a base for the
following regulations have been adopted: waterproofing layer, shall be in any case
inclined by minimum 2.5% towards the
- Slovenian standard TSC 07.102 Edge carriageway.
beams, kerbs and walkways on bridges,
2001 4.1 The fundamental shape of the edge
- RAS-L Guidelines for road equipment, beam for a particular normal profile can
1995 (Richtlinien für die Anlagen von be found in the DG 1.2.1.
Straßen)
4.2 On regional and urban roads, edge
- RAS-Q 96 Guidelines for road equipment,
beams with a walkway without a safety
1996 (Richtlinien für die Anlagen von
barrier are generally carried through,
Straßen)
as major surfaces for footpaths and
- Directive drawings for bridges and other
cycle tracks are required on bridges. A
civil engineering structures issued by the
sufficient mechanical safety of the
Federal Ministry for Traffic, Road
traffic is achieved by granite kerb
Construction Department, 1994 and 1995
raised by 18 cm. Since the vehicle
(Richtzeichnungen für Brücken und andere
speeds in the urban traffic are
Ingenieurbauwerke).
commonly much lower than on roads
out of settlements, a jump of a vehicle
over the kerb is practically impossible.
3. EXPLANATION OF TERMS
4.3 Ducts for communal installations are
Edge beam is a safety and architectural built-in into the edge beams of
element placed on the outer longitudinal motorway bridges only exceptionally.
edges of bridge superstructures. When the edge beams and walkways
are thicker, such ducts can be
Edge beam with walkway is an element of installed, however on condition that a
width 50 cm or more serving for pedestrians protective concrete layer of minimum
or cyclists. 4.5 cm is ensured.
In case that the ducts for communal
Kerb is the edge beam end at the installations suspended below the
carriageway. bridge cantilever have to be put out of
sight, the height of the vertical end of
Notch on the edge beam is a measure edge beam can be increased up to 1.0
foreseen to prevent soaking of the concrete m.
surface.
4.4 A detail of fastening of railing is shown
Brushed concrete is a concrete which is at in the DG 1.2.3.
the beginning of its setting superficially
treated with a brush in its fall direction. 4.5 The detail of fastening of the edge
beam in the central reserve shall
always be designed in such a way that
a cross fall of minimum 2.5% of the
waterproofing below the edge beam
towards the carriageway is ensured.

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Edge beams, Kerbs and Walkways Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

4.6 An edge beam hides deficiencies in the

bridge cantilevers due to the formwork
inaccuracies, settling of the false-work
supports, and overlapping of the
transverse pre-stressing tendon anchor
head. Irrespective of the geometrical
imperfections of the structure, the edge
beam shall retain the designed levels
of the outer contour.

4.7 By the mechanical securing of the

traffic, a safe passage of vehicles over
bridges should be ensured. In
particular the following shall be
prevented:
- falling of vehicles from bridges,
- jumping-over of vehicles to the
opposite traffic lane (securing of the
central reserve).

Securing of vehicles is carried through

by means of a steel safety barrier with
a spacer, or a concrete safety barrier.
The steel safety barrier transfers the
loading via prop and reinforcement to
the superstructure cantilever, and from
here to the main girder via suitable a – distance from the point of
reinforcement. application of force to the top
of asphalt
Design calculation of elements of the c – asphalt thickness
steel safety barrier is not required as
the latter takes the energy of the For dimensioning the load case of
vehicle impact by a plastic deformation, bending with axial tension and safety
thus calculation of the substitutive factor γ = 1.0 is relevant.
static load becomes unreasonable. The
vehicle impact at the point of the In extreme load cases caused by
dynamical loading imposed by a sliding vehicle impact on the steel safety
vehicle shall be taken into barrier it cannot be excluded that one
consideration by the substitutive static wheel of the vehicle will drive over the
load acting 5 cm above the kerb upper safety barrier line. Such static loading
edge. Load distribution at an angle of arising from the dynamic impact
45° shall be taken into account in the represents a load imposed by one
design calculation. wheel in the space between the railing
and the steel safety barrier. Therefore,
Impact moment: a wheel load of 50 kN acting on the
area of 0.20 m x 0.30 m shall be taken
Mi = H ⋅ h into consideration. Load distribution at
h = a + c + d/2 an angle of 45° shall be considered in
this case as well. The superstructure
Influence width: cantilever shall be verified for the
following load cases:
b0 = 20 cm
- dead load + traffic,
bI = b0 + 2 ⋅ b1 + 2 ⋅ b2
- dead load + individual wheel,
mH = Mu / bI
- dead load + traffic + impact on kerb
b H = H / bI
(γ = 1.0).

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Edge beams, Kerbs and Walkways

4.8 Concrete 4.12 An edge beam with auxiliary walkway

is generally foreseen for motorway
Edge beams are exclusively made of bridges longer than 50 m.
monolithic concrete of minimum grade
MB 30. The concrete shall be resistant 4.13 The distance between edge beams
to freezing and of de-icing salts. The in the central reserve of higher
concrete upper surface shall be bridges is determined on the basis of
brushed. transversal displacements due to the
seismic action.
4.9 Reinforcement

As the edge beams are considerably

loaded due to shrinkage, they shall be
reinforced with steel reinforcement
amounting to minimum 0.9% of
concrete cross section in the
longitudinal direction. The steel
reinforcement grade shall be RA
400/500-2. The longitudinal
reinforcement is generally φ 10 mm. It
is placed at spacing of 6.5 cm above
and 11.5 cm below. The transverse
reinforcement is φ 10 mm at spacing of
20 cm. The edge beam end is adjusted
to the superstructure cantilever having
a minimum thickness of 22 cm at its
end and closed anchors of φ 12 mm at
spacing of ≤ 40 cm. The loading of
edge beams in longitudinal direction
can be reduced by transverse joints
placed at intervals of up to 12 m on the
locations of gullies if feasible. In case
of smaller thicknesses of concrete the
closed stirrups can be overturned thus
achieving the prescribed protective
concrete cover over the steel
reinforcement.

4.10 Kerbs

Kerbs are made of natural stone such

as granite or similar. The standard kerb
length amounts to 1.0 m. The kerb
cross section for motorway bridges
amounts to 13 cm x 20 cm, whereas it
is 20 cm x 23 cm for bridges on other
roads. In the longitudinal direction the
joint is sealed with durable elastic
putty. The surface of pedestrian
walkways shall be rough and the
exposed edge shall be cut slantwise of
minimum 5.0 mm.

4.11 The detail of anchoring of edge beams

does not allow for the wind action on
protective panels above railway track
or motorway, as well as on noise
barriers in settlements. For those loads
the forces shall be calculated and
taken with adequate anchors.

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Edge beams, Kerbs and Walkways Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

5. DRAWINGS

Figure 5.1 Edge beam with auxiliary walkway along outer edge on bridges on motorways and
highways

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Edge beams, Kerbs and Walkways

Figure 5.2: Edge beam with auxiliary walkway along outer edge with auxiliary walkway and
concrete safety barrier on bridges on motorways and highways

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Edge beams, Kerbs and Walkways Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

Figure: 5.3: Edge beam without auxiliary walkway along outer edge on bridges on motorways,
highways, main roads, regional roads, and local roads
(The detail is relevant for bridge lengths up to 40 m and heights < 7.00 m)

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Edge beams, Kerbs and Walkways

Figure 5.4: Edge beam without auxiliary walkway along outer edge on bridges on motorways,
highways, main roads, regional roads, and local roads out of settlements
(The detail is relevant for bridge lengths up to 20 m and heights < 3.00 m)

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Edge beams, Kerbs and Walkways Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

Figure 5.5: Edge beam without walkway and concrete safety barrier along outer edge on bridges
on motorways and highways

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Edge beams, Kerbs and Walkways

Figure 5.6: Edge beam with steel safety barrier along central reserve on bridges on motorways

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Edge beams, Kerbs and Walkways Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

Figure 5.7: Edge beam with concrete safety barrier along the central reserve on bridges on
motorways

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Edge beams, Kerbs and Walkways

Figure 5.8: Edge beam along central reserve on bridges on motorways – alternative for
longitudinally non-separated bridges

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Edge beams, Kerbs and Walkways Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

Figure 5.9: Edge beam along central reserve of 2.00 m width on bridges on motorways and
highways

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Edge beams, Kerbs and Walkways

Figure 5.10: Edge beam along central reserve of 2.00 m width on bridges on motorways and
highways– alternative for longitudinally non-separated bridges

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Edge beams, Kerbs and Walkways Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

Figure 5.11: Edge beam along outer edge on bridges on two-lane (one-lane) public roads

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Edge beams, Kerbs and Walkways

Figure 5.12: Edge beam along outer edge on bridges on main roads, regional roads, and local
roads in settlements (v ≤ 50 km/h)

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Edge beams, Kerbs and Walkways Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

Figure 5.13: Edge beam on bridges below fills

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Edge beams, Kerbs and Walkways

Figure 5.14: Edge beam on bridges with pavement structure of approx. 40 cm

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Edge beams, Kerbs and Walkways Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

Figure 5.15: Edge beam with communal installations below cantilever on bridges of up to 3.00 m
height

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Edge beams, Kerbs and Walkways

Figure 5.16: Edge beam with communal installations below cantilever on bridges on main roads,
regional roads, and local road

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Edge beams, Kerbs and Walkways Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

Figure 5.17: Edge beam with walkway along outer edge on bridges on main roads, regional roads,
and local roads (out of settlements with footpaths and cycle tracks irrespective of
bridge height and length)

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Edge beams, Kerbs and Walkways

Figure 5.18: Detail of kerb

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 GUIDELINES FOR ROAD DESIGN,
CONSTRUCTION, MAINTENANCE AND
SUPERVISION

Volume I: DESIGNING

Section 2: DESIGNING BRIDGES

DESIGN GUIDELINES (DG 1.2.3)

Part 3: RAILINGS AND BARRIERS ON BRIDGES
Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Railings and barriers

INTRODUCTION

Railings and barriers are an essential constitutive part of bridge equipment to protect pedestrians,
cyclists and vehicles crossing the bridge as well as to protect the space below the bridge.

Moreover, railings and barriers are significant architectural elements influencing the aesthetic
appearance of bridges.

Railings and fences shall be designed in such a way that uniformity is achieved before as well as
on the bridge regarding the purpose, structure, material and appearance, what essentially
influences the traffic safety.

The best solution of a railing and/or a barrier is achieved when a driver does not perceive the
moment he commences to drive across the bridge. This is particularly significant for shorter
bridges.

Uniform solutions of railings and barriers shall be worked out for certain road routes.

Together with the design guidelines DG 1.2.1 and DG 1.2.2, the present design guidelines DG
1.2.3 represents a structural integrity with regard to the design of railings and barriers.

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Railings and barriers Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

CONTENTS

1. SUBJECT OF DESIGN GUIDELINES .......................................................................................... 5

2. REFERENCE REGULATIONS ..................................................................................................... 5
3. EXPLANATION OF TERMS ......................................................................................................... 5
4. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS......................................................................................................... 5
5. METAL RAILINGS FOR PEDESTRIANS ..................................................................................... 7
5.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................................... 7
5.2 Tubular railing with vertical filling elements......................................................................... 9
5.3 Railing with rectangular vertical and horizontal elements ................................................. 10
5.4 Tubular railing on bridges below fills ................................................................................. 11
5.5 Detail of banister anchoring .............................................................................................. 12
5.6 Expansion joint detail and connections of railing elements .............................................. 13
5.7 Detail of public lighting post anchoring ............................................................................. 14
6. STEEL SAFETY BARRIERS ...................................................................................................... 15
6.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................ 15
6.2 Single steel safety barrier for vehicles .............................................................................. 17
6.3 Single steel safety barrier with pedestrian handrail and protective steel plate for cyclists18
6.4 Two-sided steel safety barrier in central reserve of 2.0 m width....................................... 19
6.5 Spacing of steel safety barrier pillars ................................................................................ 20
6.6 Anchoring of steel safety barrier pillars ............................................................................. 21
7. CONCRETE SAFETY BARRIERS ............................................................................................. 22
7.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................ 22
7.2 Outer semi-prefabricated concrete safety barrier ............................................................. 24
7.3 Outer monolithic concrete safety barrier ........................................................................... 25
7.4 Inner prefabricated concrete safety barrier ....................................................................... 26
7.5 Concrete safety barrier raised by steel tube ..................................................................... 27
7.6 Arrangement of concrete safety barrier elements on bridges........................................... 28
7.7 Detail of connection concrete safety barrier – steel safety barrier.................................... 29
7.8 Detail of fixed connection of two concrete safety barriers ................................................ 30
8. PROTECTIVE BARRIERS.......................................................................................................... 31
8.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................ 31
8.2 Protective mesh 2.0 x 2.0 m fixed to steel safety barrier .................................................. 32
8.3 Noise barrier – anchoring on bridges ................................................................................ 33

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Railings and barriers

1. SUBJECT OF DESIGN Pillar is a steel safety barrier element that

GUIDELINES takes the vehicle impact force and transfers it
to the bridge structure.
The intention of the present design guideline
is to define in a systematic and an up-to-date Railing expansion joint is a part of the
manner the solutions of railings and barriers railing structure that enables temperature
on bridges by their sense, clearance, expansion of the railing elements.
dimensions, and material.
Handrail is an element of steel railings or
The design guideline gives integral steel safety barriers that retains pedestrians
information to designers, contractors and on the bridge.
clients, and prevents eventual unsuitable
solutions of railings and barriers Railing filling element is a vertical element
located between the handrail and the lower
tube of the railing.
2. REFERENCE REGULATIONS
Anchoring of railing or safety barrier
- Steel safety barriers JUS U.S4.104 and enables taking and transferring of horizontal
JUS U.S4.110 force from the handrail or buffer via banister
- Slovenian standard TSC 07.102 Edge or pillar to the bridge structure.
beams, kerbs and walkways on bridges,
2001 Anchor plate is a constructive element of
- RAS-L Guidelines for road equipment, anchoring the pillars of steel safety barriers
1995 (Richtlinien für die Anlagen von into the concrete.
Straßen)
- RAS-Q 96 Guidelines for road equipment, Anchors are constructive elements of
1996 (Richtlinien für die Anlagen von anchoring the pillars of steel safety barriers
Straßen). into the concrete.

3. EXPLANATION OF TERMS 4. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS

Metal railing for pedestrians is a bridge 4.1 The design of railings and barriers
equipment element that protects pedestrians depends on their purpose, position in
against falling from the bridge. the bridge cross-section, and material.

Steel safety barrier is a bridge equipment 4.2 With respect to their purpose the
element that protects vehicles against falling following types of railings and barriers
from the bridge. can be distinguished:
− Railings for pedestrians;
− Barriers for vehicles and pedestrians;
Concrete safety barrier is a bridge
− Barriers for vehicles and
equipment element that protects vehicles
against falling from the bridge. maintenance crew;
− Barriers for vehicles;
− Noise and wind barriers.
Noise barrier protects the area along the
bridge from noise caused by vehicles on the
bridge. 4.3 With regard to their position on the
bridge load bearing structure the
Protective barrier is a bridge element that following types of railings and barriers
protects the motorway/highway below the can be distinguished:
− Railings and barriers on bridge edge
bridge.
beams for protection of pedestrians
Protective mesh is a filling element of the or of both pedestrians and vehicles;
− Railings and barriers on walkways at
protective barrier.
traffic lanes for protection of vehicles
Buffer is a formed elastic steel plate being as well as for protection of
the basic element of steel safety barriers. pedestrians from vehicles;
− Railings and barriers in the motorway

Spacer is a steel safety barrier element that central reserve for protection of
absorbs a portion of the vehicle impact force vehicles and maintenance labour;
at the transition from the buffer to the pillar.

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Railings and barriers Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

− Railings at edges of maintenance to the clear profiles and widths of road

stairways. bridges.

4.4 With respect to the material the 4.9 The structure of railing or barrier shall
following types of railings and barriers be simple for fabrication, installation,
can be distinguished: maintenance, and replacement.
− Metal railings and barriers (steel,
stainless steel, aluminium); 4.10 The length of a railing/barrier is
− Reinforced concrete railings and generally equal to the bridge length
barriers; including the length of parallel wing
− Wooden railings and barriers; walls. Are on a bridge oblique or
− Stone railings and barriers. rectangular wings, the length of the
railing/barrier is greater than that of the
4.5 On motorway bridges as well as new bridge. It is determined with regard to
bridges on main and regional roads, the height of the fill at bridge, to the
exclusively metal and reinforced length of the access ramps, and to the
concrete railings and barriers are used. solutions of the railing/barrier on the
Stone or wooden railings and barriers road next to the bridge.
are recommended for urban bridges,
for older bridges to be repaired, and in 4.11 The solution of the barrier ends
special landscaping conditions. essentially influences the traffic safety
and depends on the purpose and
4.6 The design and application of stone position of the barrier as well as on the
and wooden railings and barriers solution of the barrier on roads next to
conditioned by the bridge structure and the bridge. Both the barrier on the
the landscape architecture have plenty bridge and on the road shall be
of particularities thus not being subject harmonized in plan and height. For the
of the present design standard. In our motorways it is desirably that also the
opinion, any uniformity of railings and barrier type is harmonized in view of its
barriers would restrict the creativity and purpose, material and design solution
possibility of designing of each (steel safety barrier or concrete safety
individual case. An essential condition barrier continue on the bridge as well).
for stone and wooden railings and
barriers is, among others, to ensure 4.12 The method of anchoring or the
safety and protection of both connection of the railing/barrier with the
pedestrians and vehicles. bridge load bearing capacity is
essential for the safety of vehicles and
4.7 For railings and barriers for all pedestrians on the bridge as well as
purposes and of all materials the below it.
following shall be specified in the
design: 4.13 The height of all types of railings and
- Purpose and position of the barriers shall not be below the
railing/barrier with regard to effective specified value. In special conditions
areas in the bridge cross-section; greater heights are possible (urban
- Length of the railing/barrier on the bridges, high viaducts, a total
bridge; protection of the environment from
- Solution of the railing/barrier ends overturning of vehicles such as tank
and of connection of the lorries, multi-story bridges, out-of-level
railing/barrier on the bridge with that crossings).
on the road respectively;
- Railing/barrier height; 4.14 The proposed and worked-out
- Method of railing/barrier anchoring. structures of metal railings for
pedestrians, steel safety barriers,
4.8 The purpose and position of the railing concrete safety barriers and protective
or barrier are defined in the barriers are up-to-date, modified and
characteristic cross-section of a bridge approved in the practice. The solutions
and indicated in the DG 1.2.2 which are adapted to available materials,
comprises solutions of edge beams, fabrication, installation, protection,
kerbs and walkways with types and maintenance, and replacement.
positions of railings and barriers in Designers and contractors are free to
accordance with the DG 1.2.1 referring offer different solutions, however only

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within the requirements and 5. METAL RAILINGS FOR

dimensional restraints given in the PEDESTRIANS
present design guideline DG 1.2.3.
5.1 Introduction
4.15 In case of illuminated bridges it is
mandatory to harmonize the solution of 5.1.1 In the figures 5.2 – 5.4 design
the railing with the solution of the public solutions, dimensions and details of
lighting posts. The latter can be placed some common standardized metal
and anchored in the plane of the outer railings for pedestrians are presented.
railing for pedestrians or in the plane of
the inner protective barriers. It is also 5.1.2 In the upper part of the figures, a
possible to place and anchor the posts portion of the bridge cross-section is
on the widened parts of the edge presented indicating the position of the
beams out of the plane of the railings for pedestrians, which depends
pedestrian railing. The selection of the on the solution of the edge beams in
most appropriate solution depends on accordance with the DG 1.2.2.
the length and purpose of the particular
bridge, on he height and arrangement 5.1.3 All pedestrian railings are 1.10 m high
of the posts, on the required and consist of tubular or rectangular
illumination, on the solution of the metal profiles and vertical or vertical
lighting on the road next to the bridge and horizontal filling elements.
as well as on the regional and town
planning conditions. 5.1.4 The railing for maintenance crew
shown in the figure 5.4 is 1.0 m high
4.16 Noise or wind barriers can be installed and made of horizontal filling elements.
on road bridges. Their necessity, It is intended for a safe approach of the
height and position shall be specified in labour onto the bridge as well as to the
the road design. bridge surrounding.

4.17 The materials for standard railings and 5.1.5 In the figure 5.5 three details of railing
barriers (steel, concrete, steel anchoring are presented. The details A
reinforcement, protective coating, etc.) and B have an equal conical opening
shall fulfil the requirements of valid of Φ 17 cm on top and of 22 cm depth.
regulations and codes. The opening is reinforced with a spiral.
In the edge beam concrete openings
4.18 No reduction of dimensions of standard are made. After completion of the
railings and barriers as well as of their railing anchoring, those openings are
elements, which might affect the safety filled up with concrete, whereas the
and bearing capacity, is permitted. upper layer of approx. 2 cm with epoxy
mortar.
4.19 All non-standard types of railings and
barriers shall be verified by appropriate 5.1.6 To enable dewatering of the hole for
design calculations. anchoring the railing banisters in
accordance with the detail A, a pipe of
4.20 The drawings of railings and barriers Φ 18 mm is foreseen. Such a detail is
shall, among others, comprise the plan applied in case that the railing is not
and the longitudinal section of the carried through in the same
particular bridge, including the construction season than the edge
railings/barriers and the arrangement beams.
of expansion joints. The latter depend
on the position of the bridge expansion 5.1.7 The detail D does not comprise any
joints, on the railing expansion length, dewatering pipe. In the part of the
on the railing type, and on the length of banister above the edge beam, an
the railing prefabricated elements.
opening of Φ 20 mm is left serving for
draining the condensed water from the
tubular handrail. It is also possible to fill
up the banisters with concrete,
whereas the openings for draining the
condensed water are left on top of the
banisters.

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Anchoring of banisters of the metal the client can select any colour shade
railing according to the detail C of the final coat.
foresees that the anchor plate is
extremely accurately built-in during 5.1.12Corrosion protection system
concreting of the edge beams. After recommended for steel railings in
completion of railing building-in, a weld polluted or coastal atmosphere for a
of 4 mm thickness is executed on the period of minimum five years up to the
joint banister – anchor plate. first maintenance is the following:
- In the workshop: blast cleaning to
5.1.8 In the figure 5.6, details of a metal minimum degree of SA 2,5 in
railing made of tubes or rectangular accordance with the SIS 055900, 1 x
profiles are presented. The detail A epoxy priming coat in a minimum dry
shows a joint of two railings. The film thickness of 75 μm, 1 x epoxy
internal part of the tube of minimum intermediate coat with the MIOX-
length of 50 mm serves to carry pigment in a minimum dry film
through a quality butt weld. In the detail thickness of 125 μm;
B, the railing expansion joint is located - After installation on site: touching-up
next to the banister. The internal profile of all damaged and welded areas
of minimum length of 150 mm is with the same paint coats and in the
welded to one part of the railing only. same minimum thicknesses than in
the workshop; application of a
5.1.9 In the figure 5.7, a standardized detail polyurethane top coat of the
of anchoring the public lighting post is specified colour shade and in a
shown. The required space for minimum dry film thickness of 50 μm.
anchoring is obtained by widening the
edge beam by 35 cm at the length of
50 + 2 x 35 cm. The position of the
posts does not coincide with the railing
banisters, which is favourable. The
diameter (number) and the length of
anchors are particularly dependent on
the height of the posts and shall be
determined in the design calculation.

5.1.10In accordance with the British Standard

BS 5493, hot dip galvanizing should
ensure a quality corrosion protection in
polluted or coastal atmosphere for a
period of at least five years. The
following conditions shall be fulfilled:
- Thorough leaching and
neutralization;
- Hot dip galvanizing in a thickness of
85 μm;
- Access of melted zinc to all surfaces
shall be ensured;
- Extremely careful transportation and
installation;
- No welding after galvanizing is
allowed.

5.1.11Alternatively to the hot dip galvanizing

procedure, a quality corrosion
protection can be achieved by
application of protective paint coats.
This is particularly recommendable in
cases when field welding is foreseen
and when damages of the zinc coat
cannot be avoided during the
transportation and installation. Paint
coats are also advantageous because

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5.2 Tubular railing with vertical filling elements

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5.3 Railing with rectangular vertical and horizontal elements

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5.4 Tubular railing on bridges below fills

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5.5 Detail of banister anchoring

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5.6 Expansion joint detail and connections of railing elements

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5.7 Detail of public lighting post anchoring

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Railings and barriers

6. STEEL SAFETY BARRIERS

6.1.7 The spacing of adjacent pillars of a
6.1 Introduction steel safety barrier amounts to 4.0 m
(2.0 m) on roads, 2.0 m on
6.1.1 Steel safety barriers serve especially transitions from roads to bridges, and
for protection of vehicles on the edge 1.333 m (1.334 m) on bridges. The
parts of bridges or on the motorway spacing of steel safety barrier pillars
central reserves, all in accordance on bridges is shown in the figure 6.5.
with the solutions of edge beams,
kerbs and walkways presented in the 6.1.8 For a simultaneous protection of both
DG 1.2.2. vehicles and pedestrians on bridge
edges, a typified steel safety barrier
6.1.2 Before the steel safety barriers were is raised by an additional element
extensively introduced to roads and consisting of pillar extensions and a
road bridges, theoretical and handrail. In this way not only vehicles
practical investigations had been but also the maintenance crew and a
carried through serving to optimize minor number of pedestrians are
and adjust the solutions as well as to protected on shorter bridges.
confirm their effectiveness and
safety. 6.1.9 In the figure 6.2 a single steel safety
barrier on the walkway of the outer
6.1.3 In the upper part of the figures, a edge or on the motorway central
portion of the bridge cross-section is reserve is shown. The buffer top is
presented indicating the position of 650 mm above the anchoring level. A
the barriers/railings, all in accordance standardized spacer with a
with the solutions given in the DG supporting steel plate gives a barrier
1.2.2. width of 360 mm (335 mm) being
common for the Slovenian roads.
6.1.4 A steel safety barrier consists of a Spacers of an increased width of 500
buffer, pillars, a spacer with mm used e.g. in Germany are
supporting steel plate, an anchor possible as well. The consequence
plate, and anchor bolts with nuts. of such solution is an increased
bridge width therefore it is not
6.1.5 Steel safety barriers are generally applied in Slovenia. A steel safety
placed in such a way that the buffer barrier pillar is a cold-formed profile
upper edge is approx. 75 cm above of 120/50/25. The wall thickness of
the carriageway edge level. The those pillars shall not be smaller than
same height of the safety barrier on 4 mm to enable the execution of a
the carriageway edge is also kept on weld of 3 mm thickness at the
the bridge at tolerances of ± 3 cm. As contact with the anchor plate.
the carriageway is on the bridge with
a raised edge beam, the height 6.1.10 In the figure 6.3 a single steel safety
difference between the buffer upper barrier with extended pillars and a
edge and the edge beam surface handrail for pedestrians is shown.
amounts to 65 cm. The total height of such raised barrier
amounts to 110 cm, which is the
6.1.6 The length of buffer elements height of other pedestrian railings as
amounts to 4,200 mm. The joints are well. Different solutions of extended
located at spacing of 4,000 mm. The pillars and of handrails are possible.
overlapping length is 200 mm thus A standardized solution in figure 6.3
preventing an opening of the barrier. presents C-shaped pillars made of
The connection on these joints shall cold-formed steel plate of 4 mm
be strong enough to ensure the load thickness with clamps of 43 mm
transfer from the buffer to the radius on top. The handrail is a tube
neighbouring pillars in case of a of Φ 42 x 4 mm, which has to be
failure of the particular pillar. In this equipped with expansion joints. Each
case, the buffer transfers the vehicle pillar extension is fixed to the
impact force as a link chain to other appurtenant pillar by means of three
pillars. For connections bolts with bolts M16.
lens-shaped heads shall only be
used.

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6.1.11 In the figure 6.4 a two-sided steel - Placing of a plastic washer

safety barrier is presented located in followed by placing of the anchor
a 2.0 m wide central reserve of a plate with a pillar;
motorway. For this safety barrier - Adjusting of pillars;
type, two different lengths of buffers - After the mortar has hardened,
are foreseen: 500 mm towards the tightening of bolts and filling-up of
free edge beam and 360 mm the holes in the
towards the edge beam and kerb - anchor plate with epoxy
where the barrier is anchored. compound.
6.1.12 In the figure 6.6, a detail is shown 6.1.16 Other methods of the subsequent
where anchoring of steel safety anchoring of steel safety barrier
barrier pillars is carried through by pillars are feasible as well depending
means of steel back-up plates and on manufacturers’ typified
steel anchor plates of 300 x 300 x 10 procedures. However, the latter shall
mm as well as of four anchors M16. be approved by the designer and by
A levelling epoxy mortar of an area of the client’s engineer.
350 x 350 mm and of a variable
thickness of 10-50 mm serves, 6.1.17 After fabrication and prior to
among others, for ensuring the pillar transportation, all the steel safety
verticality. barrier elements shall be protected
from corrosion by hot dip galvanizing.
6.1.13 The anchoring of steel safety barrier
pillars is presented in two ways: 6.1.18 In accordance with the British
Standard BS 5493, hot dip
- An exact building-in of anchoring galvanizing should ensure a quality
elements during or before corrosion protection in polluted or
concreting of the edge coastal atmosphere for a period of at
- beams; least five years. The following
- A subsequent anchoring into conditions shall be fulfilled:
already completed edge beams.
- Thorough leaching and
6.1.14 An exact building-in of anchoring neutralization;
elements of the steel safety barrier - Hot dip galvanizing in a thickness
pillars during concreting of the edge of 85 μm;
beams is shown in the figures 6.2, - Access of melted zinc to all
6.3, and 6.4. During concreting an surfaces shall be ensured;
anchor plate of 300 x 300 x 10 mm is - Extremely careful transportation
fixed by means of six anchors of and installation;
Φ16. The pillar verticality is achieved - No welding after galvanizing is
by pouring of an epoxy mortar of allowed.
variable thickness of 1 – 4 cm.
6.1.19 All elements, connections and joints
6.1.15 A subsequent anchoring of steel of steel safety barriers shall have an
safety barrier pillars shall be carried approximately equivalent resistance
through according to the following to vehicle impacts (buffer, pillar,
procedure: connection of pillar with anchor plate,
connection of anchor plate with
- Drilling of holes in the concrete anchors, and anchors themselves).
perpendicularly to the edge beam
surface; 6.1.20 Steel safety barriers shall be installed
- Filling-up of holes with an injecting in such a way that a perfect
epoxy compound up to 1/3 of the geometrical accordance in two
height; planes as well as an adequate
- Inserting of bolts into the holes; aesthetical appearance is achieved.
coating of concrete surface below
the anchor plate 6.1.21 Some new steel safety barrier types
- with the epoxy compound pressed- developed and already introduced
out (the applied epoxy coating abroad will be applied in Slovenia not
serves as a until reliable positive experience
- priming coat to ensure adhesion); regarding their advantages, in
- Application of epoxy mortar by the particular their safety is gained.
help of a steel frame;

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6.2 Single steel safety barrier for vehicles

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6.3 Single steel safety barrier with pedestrian handrail and protective steel plate for cyclists

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6.4 Two-sided steel safety barrier in central reserve of 2.0 m width

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6.5 Spacing of steel safety barrier pillars

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6.6 Anchoring of steel safety barrier pillars

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7. CONCRETE SAFETY BARRIERS 7.1.6 By their position in the transverse

direction of road bridges the following
7.1 Introduction concrete safety barriers can be
distinguished:
7.1.1 Concrete safety barriers serve
especially for protection of vehicles - Concrete safety barriers placed
on the edge parts of bridges or on onto the road bridge outer edges
the motorway central reserves, all in (figures 7.2, 7.3);
accordance with the solutions of - Concrete safety barriers placed at
edge beams, kerbs and walkways a distance of 0.5 m from the edge
presented in the DG 1.2.2. of traffic lanes
- at maintenance walkways (figure
7.1.2 In the upper part of the figures, a 7.4).
portion of the bridge cross-section is
presented indicating the position of 7.1.7 By the fabrication method the
the barriers for vehicles and railings following concrete safety barriers can
for pedestrians, all in accordance be distinguished:
with the solutions given in the DG
1.2.2. - Semi-prefabricated concrete safety
barriers;
7.1.3 Good experience as well as both - Monolithic concrete safety barriers.
theoretical and practical
investigations contributed to a mass 7.1.8 In the concrete safety barrier design
application of concrete safety the following shall be defined:
barriers on motorways and road
bridges in the last 25 years. Concrete - Position of the concrete safety
safety barriers offer one of the most barrier in the bridge cross-section;
reliable protections from falling of - Method of concrete safety barrier
vehicles from bridges. Depending on fabrication;
the height and the anchoring method - Length of the concrete safety
a perfect protection of all vehicle barrier on the bridge;
types from falling from a bridge can - Solution of the barrier ends and of
be achieved. the connection between the bridge
barrier and the
7.1.4 Concrete safety barriers represent a - road barrier respectively;
continuation of tradition of massive - Safety barrier height;
stone or concrete parapets on the - Method of barrier anchoring.
bridge edges. Vehicles have been
protected from falling-off only by the 7.1.9 The design guidelines DG 1.2.1, DG
mass of those parapets. The 1.2.2, and DG 1.2.3 entirely define
fundamental advantage of a concrete the position and purpose of concrete
safety barrier is the shape of its safety barriers on bridges. The
surface being inclined at different distance between the barrier and the
angles to the carriageway. The first carriageway edge amounts to at
gentle inclination of approx. 54° least 0.5 m.
starts 8 cm above the asphalt part,
followed by the second steeper 7.1.10 The method of fabrication of the
inclination of approx. 85° ending on concrete safety barriers on bridges is
the top of the barrier. generally adapted to the method of
fabrication of the barriers on the road
7.1.5 In the present design standard only next to bridge. It is essential to
those concrete safety barriers are preserve the fundamental principle:
treated that refer to bridges. Some material, method of fabrication, type,
basic elements and conditions to be position and height of concrete safety
taken into consideration when barriers shall not be changed on
foreseeing concrete safety barriers shorter bridges, as this is the least
on road bridges are indicated. disturbing to drivers and
surroundings.

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7.1.11 The length of a concrete safety 7.1.19 The visible surfaces of concrete
barrier is generally equal to the safety barriers shall be even, smooth
bridge length including the length of and compact, without unevenness or
wing walls. It is adapted to the length damages that can reduce the freeze
of standardized pre-cast elements of and salt resistance. The latter can be
concrete safety barriers. ensured subsequently by application
of protective coating.
7.1.12 The solution of connection between
the bridge safety barrier and the road 7.1.20 In the figure 7.2 a detailed cross-
safety barrier as well as the barrier section of the outer semi-
ends (when it does not proceed on prefabricated concrete safety barrier
the road), are shown in the figure of 80 cm (110 cm) height is shown.
7.6. The barrier anchoring is carried
through by means of the anchor
7.1.13 Expansion joints in the barrier shall reinforcement 8 Φ 16 R built-in into
be foreseen on the same locations, the both carriageway slab cantilevers
as the bridge expansion joints are in a width of 2 x 30 cm.
built-in. Details of the barrier
expansion joints are indicated in the 7.1.21 In the figure 7.3 a cross-section of
design guidelines DG 1.2.7. the outer monolithic concrete safety
However, they shall be worked out barrier of 80 cm (110 cm) height is
for each particular bridge. Their presented. The connection of the
solution shall be harmonized with safety barrier with the carriageway
that of the bridge expansion joint. slab is ensured by means of two
reinforcement items: Φ 12 R/40 cm
7.1.14 The height of the concrete part of the from the slab front and Φ 12 R/20 cm
concrete safety barrier on bridges is from the slab upper edge comes out.
limited to 80 cm (82 cm). An increase The formwork for execution of
of the height up to 110 cm can be monolithic concrete safety barrier is
achieved by steel handrail in generally movable. The quality of the
accordance with the detail shown in joints is high, whereas the quality of
the figure 7.5. the visible concrete surfaces might
become unsatisfactory.
7.1.15 In the bridge longitudinal direction a
concrete safety barrier is placed in 7.1.22 In the figure 7.4 a cross-section of
such a way that the barrier upper the inner pre-cast concrete safety
edge is parallel to the bridge vertical barrier of 82 cm height is shown.
alignment. In the transverse direction Barrier prefabricated elements are
with respect to the bridge, safety laid down onto a 3 cm thick levelling
barriers are always placed vertically. layer of cement mortar applied to the
waterproofing. To enable flowing of
7.1.16 The way of concrete safety barrier eventual water from the inclined
anchoring shall be conformable to cantilever towards the seepage water
the barrier fabrication method. In the pipe located on the edge, 10 cm wide
figures 7.2 and 7.3 anchoring openings shall be left at spacing of
methods approved in practice are 1.0 m. Each barrier element of 6 m
presented. length has an opening of 40/8 cm
serving for the walkway dewatering.
7.1.17 To increase the resistance to the Anchoring is achieved by linking into
vehicle impact, individual barrier a longitudinal chain in accordance
elements including buffers are with the detail shown in the figure
interconnected into a chain. 7.8.

7.1.18 The concrete used for fabrication of 7.1.23 In the figure 7.5 a detail of a steel
concrete safety barriers shall fulfil the railing placed onto the outer concrete
following EN 206-1:2000. safety barrier is presented.

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7.2 Outer semi-prefabricated concrete safety barrier

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7.3 Outer monolithic concrete safety barrier

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7.4 Inner prefabricated concrete safety barrier

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7.5 Concrete safety barrier raised by steel tube

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7.6 Arrangement of concrete safety barrier elements on bridges

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7.7 Detail of connection concrete safety barrier – steel safety barrier

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7.8 Detail of fixed connection of two concrete safety barriers

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8. PROTECTIVE BARRIERS edge beams is presented. The

number and diameter of anchors
8.1 Introduction depends on the noise barrier height.
Wind barriers are anchored in the
8.1.1 Protective barriers are designed to similar way as well.
protect humans and traffic out of
bridges as well as the traffic on 8.1.10 Noise barrier and wind barrier pillars
bridges. and anchoring shall be statically
verified. In case that the barrier
8.1.2 With regard to their purpose the height exceeds 2.0 m, the wind
following protective barriers are action on the load bearing structure
distinguished: is changed as well.
- Noise barriers;
- Wind barriers; 8.1.11 For protective barriers on overpasses
- Protective barriers on overpasses different materials and solutions can
(above railway tracks or be introduced on condition that the
motorways) and underpasses. basic principles indicated in the
present design guideline DG 1.2.3
8.1.3 Noise barriers are placed on bridge are taken into consideration.
edges to protect settlements and
inhabitants at motorways from noise. 8.1.12 The minimum length of protective
The necessity, position and height of barriers on overpasses is equal to
noise barriers on bridges are the motorway width below the
specified in the motorway design. overpass increased by at least 1.0 m
on either side. The minimum length
8.1.4 Wind barriers are installed on bridge of protective barriers above railway
edges to protect the traffic and tracks equals to the width of the clear
pedestrians from harmful wind profile below the bridge increased by
impacts. The necessity, position and 1.0 m on either side.
height of wind barriers on bridges are
specified in the motorway design. 8.1.13 Steel protective barriers are
protected from corrosion by hot dip
8.1.5 Protective barriers on overpasses galvanizing. The zinc coating shall
above motorways are foreseen with not be damaged during
the intention of protecting the transportation and installation of the
motorway traffic from falling of snow barrier.
due to ploughing and from accidental
or intentional falling of objects from
the overpass onto the motorway.

8.1.6 Protective barriers on bridges above

railway tracks are designed to
prevent any contact with high-tension
overhead wires. Any approach to
those installations is deadly
dangerous.

8.1.7 Protective barriers on underpasses

protect the road traffic at the
underpass entrance or exit.

8.1.8 In the figure 8.2, a portion of the

protective barrier of 2.0 m height on
a bridge above railway tracks is
shown. Fixing of protective barrier to
steel safety barrier pillars is shown
as well.

8.1.9 In the figure 8.3, a detail of anchoring

of noise barrier pillars into bridge

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8.2 Protective mesh 2.0 x 2.0 m fixed to steel safety barrier

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8.3 Noise barrier – anchoring on bridges

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 GUIDELINES FOR ROAD DESIGN,
CONSTRUCTION, MAINTENANCE AND
SUPERVISION

Volume I: DESIGNING

Section 2: DESIGNING BRIDGES

DESIGN GUIDELINES (DG 1.2.4)

Part 4: WATERPROOFING OF BRIDGES
Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Waterproofing

INTRODUCTION

Both concrete and reinforcing steel suffer different damages during the service life of reinforced
concrete bridges. Numerous damages resulting from the water and salt water penetration as well
as from chemical and physical impact on reinforced concrete structures due to

- unsuitable quality of the cement concrete,

- insufficient thickness of the protective concrete cover above the reinforcing steel,
- penetration of water and salt water through cracks into the concrete,
- carbonatization of cement concrete,
- highly aggressive atmosphere containing sulphur, carbon, and nitrogen oxides, etc.,

Can be foreseen to a great extent in advance and such harmful actions can be taken into
consideration by selecting an adequate method of waterproofing. The significance of individual
impacts as well as of their entirety can be defined on the basis of approved professional
knowledge.

The serviceability and durability of cement concrete bridges are crucially affected by the application
method and the quality of the waterproofing. Different approved materials for the waterproofing are
capable to take specific loading without adverse consequences, however only up to a certain
extent. Therefore, the selection of an appropriate waterproofing material is as important as its
application.

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Waterproofing Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

CONTENTS

1. SUBJECT OF DESIGN GUIDELINES .......................................................................................... 5

2. REFERENCE REGULATIONS ..................................................................................................... 5
3. EXPLANATION OF TERMS ......................................................................................................... 5
4. TYPES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF WATERPROOFING METHODS .................................... 6
4.1 Priming coat ........................................................................................................................ 7
4.2 Waterproofing membrane ................................................................................................... 7
4.3 Protective layer.................................................................................................................... 7
5. BASIC MATERIALS...................................................................................................................... 7
5.1 Types of materials ............................................................................................................... 7
5.1.1 Materials with bituminous binder ..................................................................................... 7
5.1.2 Materials with synthetic organic compounds................................................................... 8
5.1.3 Other materials ................................................................................................................ 8
5.2 Quality of materials ............................................................................................................. 8
5.2.1 Materials with bituminous binder ..................................................................................... 8
5.2.2 Materials with synthetic organic compounds................................................................. 14
5.2.3 Sand for spreading ........................................................................................................ 14
6. EXECUTION ...............................................................................................................................15
6.1 General.............................................................................................................................. 15
6.2 Execution method.............................................................................................................. 15
6.2.1 Substrate preparation .................................................................................................... 15
6.2.2 Bonding layers ............................................................................................................... 17
6.2.3 Waterproof membranes................................................................................................. 18
6.2.4 Protective layers ............................................................................................................ 21
6.2.5 Wearing courses............................................................................................................ 23
6.2.6 Sealing of joints of boundary surfaces .......................................................................... 23
6.3 Quality of execution........................................................................................................... 24
6.3.1 General .......................................................................................................................... 24
6.3.2 Preliminary conformity tests .......................................................................................... 24
6.3.3 Internal quality tests....................................................................................................... 24
6.3.4 External quality tests ..................................................................................................... 25
6.3.5 Types and extent of tests .............................................................................................. 25
6.4 Quality assessment........................................................................................................... 26
7. MEASURING AND ACCEPTANCE OF WORKS ....................................................................... 26
7.1 Measuring of works ........................................................................................................... 26
7.2 Acceptance of works ......................................................................................................... 26

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1. SUBJECT OF DESIGN DIN 53505

GUIDELINES DIN 53854
DIN 53855
The intention of the present design guidelines DIN 53857
is to define a suitable quality of protecting DIN 54307
new bridges as well as of renewal of
protection of existing ones. For this purpose, Austrian codes (ÖN)
some characteristic approved up-to-date
methods and materials for waterproofing are ÖN C 9231
described. ÖN C 9232
ÖN 3800/1
The procedures indicated herein are
appropriate particularly for waterproofing of Technical regulations
bridges and retaining walls thus ensuring
their protection from physical and chemical ISO 2592
actions imposed by both surface and ground SIA 280-10
water. RVS 15.362
TL Min – Stb
ZTV BEL-B
2. REFERENCE REGULATIONS ZTV TL bitfug 82

The DG 1.2.4 is based on the following

regulations: 3. EXPLANATION OF TERMS

EN standards The explanation of the terms applied in the

present design standard is as follows:
EN 1107-1
EN 1109 Bituminous waterproofing coat is a
EN 1110 method of application of a hot or a cold liquid
EN 1426 bituminous binder to seal perfectly the
EN 1427 asphalt surfaces.
EN 1429
EN 1431 Bituminous waterproofing sheeting is a
EN 1849-1 sealing strip with a bearing inlay covered with
EN 12311-1 bituminous compound; it can be stuck or
EN 12593 welded on the substrate.

DIN codes Drainage epoxy concrete is a gap-graded

concrete with a high percentage of macro-
DIN 16726 cavities; an epoxy resin is used as a binder.
DIN 52123
DIN 52131 Roughness depth is a coefficient of the
DIN 1996-6 volume of deepening below the top of the
DIN 1996-10 grains on the layer surface to the appurtenant
DIN 1996-14 surface; it is also a criterion of the macro-
DIN 1996-15 texture determined by the sand-patch-
DIN 1996-16 method or by the Moor’s measurement of the
DIN 1996-17 water outflow.
DIN 1996-18
DIN 1996-19 Waterproofing means sealing of surfaces
DIN 51366 against water penetration.
DIN 51755
DIN 52004 Levelling layer is a layer to ensure an even
DIN 52005 substrate and its adequate height.
DIN 52016
DIN V 52021 Levelling with trowel is filling up of
DIN 52023 deepening due to substrate roughness using
DIN 52040 a suitable material applied with a trowel up to
DIN 53150 the top of the grains in the substrate.
DIN 53211
DIN 53215

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Adhesive is a substance based on Waterproof membrane is the base layer of

bituminous or synthetic materials intended for the bridge waterproofing. It is made of
sticking of the waterproof membrane to the materials containing bituminous binders or
prepared substrate. synthetic resins.

Sticking of waterproofing sheeting means Sealing is a combination of layers to seal the

to create a good adhesion with the substrate substrate. It consists of the priming coat, the
by pouring heated bituminous mixture below sealing coat or levelling with trowel, the
the waterproofing sheeting. waterproof membrane, and the protective
layer.
Poured asphalt is an asphalt mixture that is
dense liquid in a heated condition; therefore it Sealing strip is a material of a certain cross-
is not necessary to thicken it during section to fill up and seal the joints.
application.
Welding of bituminous waterproofing
Bridge deck surfacing consists of the sheeting is a procedure where both the
waterproof membrane and the wearing substrate and the sheeting surface are
course. heated uniformly and over the entire width by
means of suitable torches to create
Wearing course is a durable top layer of the conditions for an adequate softening of the
bridge deck surfacing ensuring traffic safety. bituminous mixture thus ensuring a sufficient
Its composition depends on the traffic and adhesion of the bituminous sheeting to the
climatic loading as well as on the basic substrate.
purpose of use.
Sealing coat means application of a
Priming coat is made of an epoxy resin or a continuous film of an adequate binder to a
solution of a bituminous binder; it penetrates porous substrate.
into the substrate thus improving adhesion of
the subsequent layer; all hollows are filled up Protective layer is a layer applied to protect
with the priming coat as well. the waterproof membrane from damage; it
can also improve the bridge waterproofing.
Substrate is the surface below the
waterproofing system to be applied. Joint sealing compound is a cold or a hot
liquid mixture without any fixed shape; it is
Water jet method is a hydro-mechanical intended to seal the joints by pouring, which
procedure of surface preparation, i.e. of ensures their expected performance.
cleaning and roughening.

Overlapping means that two adjoining 4. TYPES AND CHARACTERISTICS

waterproofing sheeting slightly overlap each OF WATERPROOFING METHODS
other.
The selection of the waterproofing method to
Joint is an opening (groove) between two be applied depends in particular on the
adjoining structural elements or in a certain following:
structural element to prevent uncontrolled
cracks or to equalize differences in length - the type and purpose of a bridge;
due to temperature changes. - specific local impacts: traffic, climate, road
design, bridge structural particularities, and
Bonding layer is an intermediate layer to bridge maintenance.
improve the sticking together and to ensure a
permanent layer connection. Bridges can be effectively protected from
harmful water actions either by
Header joint is a foreseen or a conditional
contact of two or more adjacent structural - stiff materials (so-called “white tub
elements without any interconnection or method”), or
where these elements are linked by the aid of - different combinations of predominantly
a mean of joining. flexible waterproofing layers (so-called
“black tub method”).

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Waterproofing

The basic sealing material in the “white tub 4.2 Waterproofing membrane
methods” is water-impermeable cement
concrete. However, the use of such concrete An appropriate waterproofing membrane
is limited particularly to the bridge elements shall be carried through with materials
not exposed to salt actions. Therefore, welded, stuck or sprayed onto the bonding
methods including sealing materials bonded layer.
to the substrate are more appropriate in any
case. For this purpose, a durable adhesion of The waterproofing membrane shall be
the waterproofing membrane to the prepared capable to follow all the bridge
substrate shall be ensured by means of a displacements.
suitable bonding layer.
4.3 Protective layer
This conditions to execute the following:
- application of the priming coat, and To protect the waterproofing membrane on
- application of the sealing coat or levelling slightly inclined or horizontal surfaces, a
with a trowel. protective layer shall be applied. A perfect
adhesion of the protective layer to the
The method of waterproofing of the entire waterproofing membrane shall be ensured by
bridge shall be specified in detail in the means of effective sticking together. For
bridge design. greater inclinations of the waterproofing
membrane, the latter shall be protected with
Any bridge waterproofing “black tub method” materials that ensure the required protection
using stuck layers generally consists of the only by a partial (spot) bond with the base.
bonding layer, the waterproofing membrane,
and the protective layer (figure 4.1).
5. BASIC MATERIALS
4.1 Priming coat
The applicability of all materials to be applied
For vertical or extremely inclined surfaces for the waterproofing of the entire bridge, i.e.
where the water cannot stagnate it is quality and compatibility shall be checked by
recommended to apply a priming coat based suitable preliminary tests and verified by the
on a solution of a bituminous binder. Such certificates.
priming coat additionally requires the
execution of a sealing coat or levelling with a Precise makers’ instructions for use shall be
trowel. ensured for all materials.

To horizontal or slightly inclined surfaces 5.1 Types of materials

priming coats based on epoxy resins with
suitable gritting shall be applied. Materials intended for bridge waterproofing
The priming coat shall ensure adequate bond shall be made of bituminous binders or
strength and the vapour barrier. synthetic organic compounds. For certain
layers within the waterproofing system, some
other materials can be used as well.

5.1.1 Materials with bituminous binder

Materials with a bituminous binder are

particularly suitable for the following
procedures:

o For bonding layers:

- for priming coat: solutions of bituminous
binders;
- for sealing coat or mixtures for levelling
with a trowel: bituminous binders
modified with polymers (eventually with
admixtures);
- for adhesive: bituminous binders with
adequate admixtures.
Fig. 4.1: Bridge surfacing system
(“black tub”)

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o For waterproofing membranes: The protective layer for waterproofing of

- bituminous sheeting for sticking; bridges
- bituminous sheeting for welding; built-in in fills can consist of the cement
- bituminous binders modified with concrete of suitable composition or of the
polymers. cement mortar as well.
o For protective layers and wearing courses:
- bituminous concrete; For sealing of vertical cement concrete
- crushed gravel with bituminous mastic; surfaces different materials such as wooden
- poured asphalt. plates, bricks, polystyrene, etc. can be used
o For coating to seal the layer surface: as a protective layer.
- solutions of bituminous binders;
- bituminous binders modified with 5.2 Quality of materials
polymers.
All specified values for the individual
When stuck or welded bituminous sheeting is characteristics of basic materials are limit
used for the bridge waterproofing, special values therefore they shall be ensured
bituminous strips shall be used to bandage unconditionally.
the butt joints of the sheeting. Those
bituminous strips shall be coated with a 5.2.1 Materials with bituminous binder
protective layer to prevent transition of
bituminous materials from or through these 5.2.1.1 Solution of bituminous binder
strips into the adjacent materials, i.e. upper
asphalt layers. As the priming coat a cold solution of
oxidized (blown) or road bitumen in organic
To seal the joints of bridge surfacing and solvents shall be used.
adjoining materials, the following shall be
applied: The technical conditions for the
characteristics of the bituminous binder
- bituminous joint sealing compound, or solutions are indicated in the table 5.1.
- bituminous sealing strip.
Instead of a bituminous binder solution an
In both cases mentioned above a suitable unstable bituminous emulsion can be used
solution of a bituminous binder shall be as the priming coat provided that this has
applied as a priming coating. been foreseen in the design and/or approved
by the client’s engineer. The unstable
5.1.2 Materials with synthetic organic bituminous emulsions shall comply with the
compounds requirements indicated in the table 5.2.

Materials with synthetic organic compounds 5.2.1.2 Bituminous binder modified with
can be used for the following bridge polymers
waterproofing methods:
For sealing modified bituminous binders are
o For bonding layers: applicable. They are prepared in suitable
- for priming coats: liquid polymers – plants as a homogenous physical mixture or
reaction (epoxy) resins; a product of the chemical reaction of bitumen
- for sealing coats or mixtures for levelling and temperature resistant polymer –
with a trowel: liquid polymers (reaction elastomer or plastomer.
(epoxy) resins) with appropriate
admixtures; The manufacturer shall indicate in detail the
characteristics of the bituminous binder
o For partly protective layers: modified with polymers as well as its
- polymer felts (fabrics); application.
- drainage reed-mats.
The bituminous binder modified with
5.1.3 Other materials polymers used as a sealing coat or for
levelling with a trowel within the
To reinforce the waterproofing membrane waterproofing system shall fulfil the
made of bitumen modified with polymers, requirements given in the table 5.3.
suitable plastic or steel wire meshes, or
appropriate fabrics made of glass or
polyester fibres shall be used.

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Table 5.1: Technical conditions for the characteristics of the bituminous binder solutions

Characteristics Unit Required Regulation for

of bituminous binder solution value testing
Percentage of bitumen % by 30 to 50 DIN 53215
R&B softening point of extracted bitumen: mass EN 1427
- oxidized bitumen 80 to 125
- road bitumen °C 54 to 72
Penetration of extracted bitumen °C 10 to 45 EN 1426
Breaking point of extracted bitumen by Fraass, mm/10 EN 12593
maximum: - 10
- oxidized bitumen °C -2
- road bitumen °C 21 DIN 51755
Flash point by Abel-Pensky, minimum: °C 15 to 80 DIN 53211
Flowing-out time by Ford s 3 DIN 53150
Drying time (dry to dust) h

Table 5.2: Technical conditions for the characteristics of the unstable bituminous emulsions

Characteristics Unit Required value Regulation for

of bituminous emulsion UBE 60 UBE 70 testing
Type of charge - anion, cation ÖN C 9232
Appearance - brown, liquid, ÖN C 9231
Percentage of water, maximum % by homogenous EN 1431
Stability: residuals after sieving (rejects) mass 42 32
- after 4 weeks, maximum
- after 1 week, maximum % by 0.5 -
Flowing-out time: mass - 0.5 DIN 52023
- 4 mm orifice at 20°C, maximum % by
- 4 mm orifice at 40°C, maximum mass 12 -
- 60
s
s
Type of used bitumen - to be indicated
Characteristics of extracted bitumen
- percentage of ashes, maximum % by 2.5 DIN 52005
- R&B softening point of bitumen, max. mass 49 EN 1427
- R&B softening point of bitumen, min. °C 37 EN 1427
Effect of water on the binder film °C crushed aggregate DIN 1996-10
- entirely coated

5.2.1.3 Bituminous adhesive

The characteristics of the bitumen used for

the bituminous adhesives for sticking of
waterproof
membranes (hot procedure) onto the
substrate shall comply with the requirements
indicated in the table 5.4.

5.2.1.4 Bituminous sheeting

The required characteristics of bituminous

sheeting used for welded or stuck both
horizontal and slightly inclined waterproof
membranes are indicated in the tables 5.5
and 5.6.

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Table 5.3: Technical conditions for the characteristics of bituminous binders modified with polymers

Characteristics Unit Required value Regulation for

of modified bituminous binder PmBIT 80 PmBIT 40 testing
Density at 25°C, minimum g/cm3 1.00 DIN 52004
Equiviscous temperature (EVT) °C to be indicated DIN 51366
Penetration (100g, 5s, 25°C), minimum mm/10 80 40 EN 1426
R&B softening point, maximum °C 49.5 EN 1427
R&B softening point, minimum °C 50 EN 1427
Breaking point by Fraass, maximum °C - 15 -10 EN 12593
Flash point by Cleveland, minimum °C 200 ISO 2592
Elastic strain (60 min, 7°C), minimum % 50 DIN V 52021
Stability against segregation at EVT
100°C or maximum 180°C; difference °C 2 “Tubentest”
between R&B softening points, maximum
Relative mass change after heat DIN 52016
treatment, maximum % by mass 2
Change of R&B softening point after heat
treatment: DIN 52016,
- increase, maximum °C 8 EN 1427
- decrease, maximum °C 2
Change of penetration after heat
treatment: DIN 52016,
- decrease, maximum % 40 EN 1426
- increase, maximum % 20
Elastic strain after heat treatment, DIN 52016
minimum % 50 DIN V 52021

Table 5.4: Technical conditions for the characteristics of bituminous adhesives

Characteristics Unit Required value Regulation for

of bituminous adhesive testing
Percentage of filler % by mass 0 DIN 1996-6
Percentage of ashes, maximum % by mass 1 DIN 52005
R&B softening point of bitumen, minimum °C 90 EN 1427
Breaking point of bitumen by Fraass, maximum °C - 10 EN 12593
Penetration of bitumen mm/10 23 to 30 EN 1426
Shear strength at 50°C, minimum N/mm2 0,8 RVS 15.362
Specific shear strain at 50°C % to be indicated

Table 5.5: Technical conditions for the characteristics of bituminous sheeting for slightly
inclined waterproof membranes

Required value
Procedure with sticking Procedure with welding
Method of execution Sheeting Bituminous Sheeting thickness Regulation for
thickness binder testing
content
mm g/m2 mm
With one sheeting, minimum 3.0 2000 4.5
With two sheeting, minimum 3.0 2000 3.6 DIN 52123
Bandaging, minimum 2.0 1600 2.0

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Table 5.6: Technical conditions for the characteristics of bituminous sheeting for horizontal
waterproof membranes

Characteristics of bituminous sheeting for horizontal Unit Required Regulation for

waterproofing value testing
Stability at –5°C (bending on thorn of r=30 mm) - stable EN 1109
Stability at 90°C, mean value of flow, maximum mm 0.5 EN 1110
Breaking force, longitudinally and transversally,
(5 cm), mean value minimum N 800 EN 12311-1
Elongation at breakage: *1 % 2 EN 12311-1
- of sheeting with glass fabric, mean value minimum % 2
- of sheeting with polyester felt, mean value minimum % 40
Shear strength at 50°C: RVS 15.362
- of sheeting, mean value minimum N/mm2 0.8
- of applied bituminous mixture, mean value minimum N/mm2 0.8
Applied bituminous mixture:
- softening point, minimum °C 150 EN 1427
- linear shrinkage, maximum % 2 EN 1107-1
- filler content, maximum % by mass 30 EN 1849-1
Mass of polyester felt, minimum g/m2 200 DIN 52123
Thickness of sheeting: EN 1849-1
- mean, minimum mm 5
- individual, minimum mm 4.7
Thickness of bituminous mixture layer: DIN 52123
- below bearing fabric, minimum mm 3
- above bearing fabric mm 0.5 – 1.3
Quantity of stone grains greater than 0.71 mm, max. % by mass 5 DIN 52123
Absorption of water, maximum % by mass 5 DIN 53495
Water-permeability (pressure 1 bar/24 hours) - watertight DIN 52123
*1
The bituminous mixture applied onto the sheeting shall not crack.

Table 5.7: Supplemental technical conditions for the characteristics of bituminous sheeting for
vertical waterproof membranes

Characteristics of bituminous sheeting for horizontal Unit Required Regulation for

waterproofing value testing
Stability at 0°C - stable EN 1110
Stability at 70°C EN 1110
Breaking force, longitudinally and transversally (5 cm): EN 12311-1
- bearing layer glass fibre fabric, minimum N 400/300
- bearing layer polyester felt, minimum N 800/800
Elongation at breakage: EN 12311-1
- bearing layer glass fibre fabric, minimum % 2
- bearing layer polyester felt, minimum % 40
Mass of bearing layer: EN 1849-1
- bearing layer glass fibre fabric, minimum g/m2 54
- bearing layer polyester felt, minimum g/m2 200
Thickness of sheeting: EN 1849-1
- mean minimum mm 4
- individual minimum mm 3.7
Content of mineral fillers, maximum % 25 EN 12311-1
Water-permeability (pressure 1 bar/24 hours) - watertight EN 12311-1

Supplementary requirements for the The bearing layer for the bituminous mixture
characteristics of bituminous sheeting for in the sheeting for horizontal waterproof
vertical and extremely inclined waterproof membrane shall be a glass fibre fabric or
membranes are given in the table 5.7. polyester felt. It shall have a suitable
breaking strength and heat resistance.

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The bituminous sheeting surface shall be The asphalt mixture of crushed stone with
uniform, dry, without extraneous inclusions bituminous mastic shall fully comply with the
and cracks, and suitably protected either with requirements for the layers of road pavement
a polyethylene foil or adequate stone grains. structures.

In general, the bituminous sheeting for the For the asphalt mixtures of poured asphalt
waterproof membranes shall be 1,000 mm used for the protective layer on bridges with
wide, whereas its edges shall be even. The higher traffic loading (medium and heavy
maximum allowed tolerance of the sheeting traffic), the depth of impression (seal of 5
width amounts to ± 10 mm. cm2, 40°C, 30 min, 525 N) shall amount to 1
– 2.5 mm after 30 minutes. After additional
Self-adhesive bituminous strips for 30 minutes, the depth of impression may be
bandaging of butt joints of bituminous increased by maximum 0.4 mm.
sheeting used for the waterproof membrane
shall be approximately 200 mm wide. 5.2.1.6 Bituminous joint sealing compound

When the sealing is carried through with The required characteristics of durable elastic
overlapping of bituminous sheeting, the latter bituminous joint sealing compounds at
shall have at least at one end a shape of a boundary surfaces of different materials in
wedge of 80-100 mm width. the bridge surfacing and the adjacent
elements are specified in detail in the table
Disuniting of bituminous sheeting in individual 5.8.
layers is not permitted, and the coil of the
sheeting shall not be deformed. 5.2.1.7 Bituminous joint sealing strip

5.2.1.5 Asphalt mixtures for protective layers The characteristics of durable elastic
and wearing courses bituminous strips to seal the boundary
surfaces, particularly the joints between
The required characteristics of asphalt protective layers/wearing courses and kerbs
mixtures for protective layers and wearing (within the framework of bridge walkways),
courses of the bridge surfacing are shall be similar to those of bituminous joint
predominantly similar to those for road sealing compound specified in the table 5.8,
pavement structure. They are defined in with the exception of the characteristics
detail in the relevant technical regulations indicated in the lines 1 and 2, which cannot
and specifications. be checked on the sealing strip.

For asphalt mixtures used for protective 5.2.1.8 Bituminous coating for sealing of
layers and wearing courses of bituminous wearing courses
concrete, crushed gravel with bituminous
mastic and poured asphalt, mixtures of stone To seal the asphalt wearing courses the
grains of 8 to 11 mm size and of appropriate following bituminous coating shall be applied:
modified bituminous binder are suitable.
- bituminous emulsions,
For protective layers, stone grains originating - bituminous binders modified with polymers,
from carbonate rock can be used. or
- bituminous adhesives.
The percentage of grains of size up to 0.09
mm shall amount to 7 – 10% by mass in the The characteristics of the materials
stone mixture for the asphalt mixture of mentioned above shall comply with the
bituminous concrete used for the protective requirements indicated in the tables 5.2, 5.3,
layer. The ratio of percentages of grains of and 5.4.
crushed and natural sand shall be from at
least 3:1 in the protective layer above the
two-layer waterproof membrane of
bituminous strips to 1:1 above the single-
layer waterproof membrane. The void content
in the test specimen by Marshall shall
amount to 2 – 3% by volume.

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Table 5.8: Technical conditions for the characteristics of bituminous joint sealing compounds

Characteristics of bituminous sheeting for horizontal Unit Required value Regulation for
waterproofing testing
Sealing capability at 180°C - good
Sealing temperature °C to indicate ZTV TL bitfug 82
Anhang 1
R&B softening point of compound, minimum °C 85 EN 1427
Cone penetration at 25°C, (150 g, 5 s) mm/10 40 to 90 ZTV-Anhang 3
Flow at 60°C, (5 hours, 75°), maximum mm 5 ZTV-Anhang 4
Flow after overheating, maximum mm 5 ZTV-Anhang 4
Change of R&B softening point after overheating EN 1427,
(absolute), maximum °C 10 ZTV-Anhang 5
Change of cone penetration after heat treatment at
70°C, maximum % 25 ZTV Anhang 3, 5
Heat resistance by Nüssel at 45°C (24 hours), max. - 6.5 DIN 1996-17
Frost resistance by Hermann (-20°C, 5 hours) - withstands 3 of 4 DIN 1996-18
Ductility by Raabe (-20°C, 15x30 mm), minimum mm 5 DIN 1996-19
Segregation resistance (150°C, 30 min), maximum % 5 DIN 1996-16

Table 5.9: Technical conditions for the characteristics of epoxy resins

Characteristics Unit Required value Regulation for

of epoxy resins testing
Viscosity at 23°C, maximum Pa s 1
Viscosity at 12°C, maximum Pa s 4
Viscosity at 8°C Pa s to be indicated
Density of individual component g/cm3 to be indicated
Residue after burning, maximum % by mass 1

ZTV-BEL-B/1995
Time of applicability, minimum min 10
Curing time:
- 46 hours, 8°C, 75% relative air humidity to be indicated
- in normal climate, maximum h 18
- at 40°C and 75% relative air humidity, minimum h 2
- at 12°C and 75% relative air humidity, maximum h 40
Content of non-volatile substances, minimum % by mass 98
Water absorption in cured condition, maximum % by mass 2.5
Heat resistance (silicon oil), minimum °C 250
Bond strength after heat test, minimum N/mm2 1.5 Part 3
Soundness at storage, minimum year 1

Table 5.10: Technical conditions for the characteristics of sand to be spread onto the priming
coats based on epoxy resins or bituminous binders

Characteristics Unit Required value Regulation for

of sand for spreading testing
Grain size distribution 0.2/0.7 mm
- particles eliminable by washing off (<0.063 mm),
maximum % by mass 0.5
- undersized grains, maximum % by mass 5
TL Min - Stb

- oversized grains up to 1 mm, maximum % by mass 10

Grain size distribution 0.5/1.2 mm

- particles eliminable by washing off (<0.063 mm),
maximum % by mass 0.3
- undersized grains, maximum % by mass 5
- oversized grains up to 2 mm, maximum % by mass 10

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Waterproofing Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

5.2.2 Materials with synthetic organic selection of the felt type depends on the
compounds application conditions.

5.2.2.1 Reaction (epoxy) resins The characteristics of the felt shall comply
with the values indicated in the table 5.11.
Solvent-less and filler-less heat resistant
reaction resins of low viscosity shall be used 5.2.2.3 Drainage reed-mats
as priming coats applied to the bridge cement
concrete. The characteristics of reed-mats for partly
protective or dividing layers shall be specified
The reaction resins (epoxy resins) shall fulfil in the design. As a rule, the basic data on the
the requirements given in the table 5.9. particular drainage reed-mat stated by its
manufacturer shall be taken into
The composition of epoxy resins shall be consideration.
determined by the IR-analysis. The
characteristics of the basic component, 5.2.3 Sand for spreading
hardener, extract, and reaction resin shall be
established by a preliminary test. The results The sand spread onto the epoxy priming coat
obtained serve as a basis for the subsequent shall have properties indicated in the table
conformity verifications. 5.10, unless specified otherwise in the
instructions issued by the epoxy resin maker.
5.2.2.2 Polymer felt
In certain cases such sand is suitable to be
Felts for partly protective or dividing layers of spread onto the bituminous priming coat as
the waterproofing systems shall be made of well.
polypropylene or polyester fibres. The

Table 5.11: Technical conditions for the characteristics of felt

Characteristics Unit Required value Regulation for

of sand for spreading 300 g 400 g 500 g testing
Unit mass (per m2) g/m2 300 400 500 DIN 53854
Permissible deviation from nominal
mass, maximum % 10 10 10 DIN 53854
Thickness a200 at nominal mass, min. mm 2 2.5 3 DIN 53855/1
Permissible deviation from nominal
thickness, maximum % 10 10 10 DIN 53855/1
Maximum tensile force (longitudinally
and transversally), minimum N/50 mm*1 150 200 250 DIN 53857/2
Elongation at maximum tensile force,
minimum % 60 60 60 DIN 53857/2
Resistance to perforation, minimum*2 N 1,500 1,500 1,500 DIN 54307
Resistance to burning*3 - B2 B2 B2 ÖN 3800/1
Resistance to decay*4 - resistant
Resistance to rock waters*4 - resistant
Water-permeability, minimum l/dm2/min 60 60 60 Darcy

Legend:
*1
for non-reinforced felts N/100 mm
*2
for felts for tunnels at least 800 N, when the substrate is shot cement concrete
*3
for tunnels
*4
polyolefin felts comply with the requirements

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Waterproofing

6. EXECUTION drainage of the substrate is ensured, and the

works shall be planned correspondingly.
6.1 General
Walking or driving on the waterproof
The fundamental objective of a quality membrane is allowed only as much as it is
waterproofing of a bridge is to ensure a rapid necessary to execute the following layer.
and harmless drainage of surface and Turning round of vehicles on the waterproof
seepage water from the structure. membrane is forbidden. Anyhow, the
protective layer shall be applied as soon as
In general, the bridge waterproofing works possible.
can be carried through only in favourable
weather conditions. The limit values of The traffic on the protective layer is also
temperature and humidity of both air and allowed only for the needs of application of
cement concrete shall not be exceeded. the wearing course, which shall be carried
These requirements confine the time suitable through as soon as possible.
for a normal execution of he waterproofing
works, and condition the working methods in If the traffic had to run on the protective layer
severe weather conditions. In such cases, for a longer period, the latter should be
special steps shall be taken to ensure an appropriately protected, e.g. with a
adequate protection of works and an provisional dividing layer and a wearing
appropriate performance of the course.
waterproofing.
Stop of vehicles and machinery on the
The contractor is obliged to prove in advance protective layer and the wearing course is
the adequacy of the waterproofing method. allowed only if suitable steps have been
He has to check the manufacturers’ taken for their protection.
instructions for the application of materials.
These instructions shall fully comply with the Transversal and longitudinal joints of the
requirements indicated in the present design protective layer shall be adequately shifted
standard. The manufacturers’ instructions with respect to those of the wearing course
shall be available on site at any time. and vice versa.

In general, the cement concrete of the new For the compaction of asphalt mixtures in
bridge shall be at least 21 days old prior to both protective layers and wearing courses
commencement of the waterproofing works. only oscillating and dead weight rollers may
In case of repair works to a minor extent, the be used.
concrete shall be at least 7 days old before
the beginning of the waterproofing works. A skilled person with certified knowledge
When the manufacturer’s directions allow the shall manage all the works related to
commencement the waterproofing works on waterproofing.
surfaces of a younger cement concrete
and/or such a procedure has been designed, 6.2 Execution method
this shall be preliminarily verified in
conditions that fully comply with those during 6.2.1 Substrate preparation
the work execution.
The efficiency of the bridge waterproofing
The individual procedures, i.e. from the depends on the substrate preparation, i.e. on
substrate (cement concrete) preparation up the cement concrete surface.
to the application of the protective layer shall
be carried through in conditions prescribed From the cement concrete surface dust and
by the material manufacturers. When major particles shall be removed by vacuum
directed by the design, the waterproofing cleaners. All loose aggregate grains in the
layers shall be stuck together as well as to cement concrete shall be removed as well.
the cement concrete on their entire surface. Oil and grease stains shall be removed,
Any subsequent waterproofing layer must not eventually by removing of soiled cement
be applied until it is evident that the previous concrete (cement glue and mortar) by means
layer has been properly executed. of mechanical hammers, sandblasting or
high-pressure water jet. These procedures
Immediately prior to application of each layer also ensure that the cement concrete surface
it shall be verified whether an adequate is sufficiently rough and without sharp edges.

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Waterproofing Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

The required roughness depth of the cement - at a length of 4 m: maximum 40 mm,

concrete surface determined by the san - at a length of 2 m: maximum 20 mm, and
method may amount to: - at a length of 1 m: maximum 10 mm.
- up to 1.5 mm for welded bituminous
sheeting, To improve the evenness of the bridge
- up to 2 mm for stuck bituminous sheeting, superstructure surface, a levelling layer can
- up to 4 mm on individual spots. be applied.

Eventual cracks as well as excessively All height deviations greater than 40 mm

porous or segregated spots on the cement shall be rectified directly on the cement
concrete surface shall be treated with an concrete, as a rule before commencement of
epoxy resin and spread with washed quartz the waterproofing works. The same applies to
sand of 0.5/1 mm grain size distribution. all embossments that prevent application of
Major irregularities shall be preliminarily the protective layer of a minimum required
made good by other suitable materials such thickness.
as epoxy resins.
Height deviations of the cement concrete
Prior to commencement of the waterproofing surface between 15 mm and 40 mm below
works, the cement concrete surface shall be the designed level shall be made good with a
dry. However, it can be partly damp in case suitable levelling layer of an epoxy mortar,
that such materials are applied, which ensure micro-reinforced repairing cement mortar, or
a good adhesion to a damp substrate as well. asphalt mixture. In case that the bridge
The moisture content of the cement concrete surface having such deviations is of a minor
surface shall be determined by means of extent thus allowing manual repairing work,
sounds bored to a depth of 2 cm and the levelling layer shall be applied directly to
measurements of the electric conductivity, or the waterproof membrane (figure 6.1). Is the
gravimetrically. The permissible moisture extent of an uneven surface greater, levelling
content shall not exceed 4 %. shall be carried through by means of a
mechanical application of an adequate
Only informatively and exceptionally, the levelling layer to the already applied
moisture content of the cement concrete protective layer of a uniform thickness. The
surface may be established by newsprint as supervising engineer shall direct the method
well: a sheet of newsprint manually pressed of execution of the required levelling of the
to the cement concrete surface must not cement concrete on the bridge superstructure
show any visible traces of water absorption. on the basis of assessment of the bridge
Eventual moisture content of the concrete surface condition.
surface can be indicated by means of local
heating with hot air: a heated dry surface is The mean value of bond strength to seal the
lighter. prepared cement concrete surface shall
amount to at least 1.5 N/mm2 (no individual
The cement concrete surface on a bridge measurement shall be less than 1 N/mm2)
shall be as even as possible. In exceptional thus ensuring a strong and durable adhesion
cases the following tolerances of the with the layer above.
evenness below a 4 m measuring lath are
permitted:

Fig. 6.1: Method of levelling to ensure limit values of protective layer thickness

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Waterproofing

6.2.2 Bonding layers In case of machine application of the

waterproof membrane, an additional layer of
6.2.2.1 Priming coat with reaction resins epoxy resin (approx. 400 g/m2) shall be
applied onto the sanded surface.
The priming coat to seal the bridge cement
concrete surface shall be generally carried The mean value of the bond strength for
through with reaction resins followed by sealing of the prepared cement concrete
spreading of sand. surface as well as for the surface coated with
the priming coat based on epoxy resin shall
Reaction resins cannot be applied without amount to 1.5 N/mm2 minimum. A
suitable protective measures required in the predominant failure shall occur in the cement
following external conditions: concrete substrate.

- during precipitations, dew or fog, The roughness depth of the surface coated
- relative air humidity above 85%, with the priming coat based on a reaction
- temperature of cement concrete substrate resin and spread with sand shall not exceed
below +8°C, 1.5 mm.
- temperature of substrate above +40°C, or
- rapid increasing and decreasing of 6.2.2.2. Priming coat with bituminous binders
temperature.
In certain conditions, it is also possible to
The temperature of the substrate shall be at apply a priming coat with a suitable
least 3K above the dew point. bituminous binder for the waterproofing of
concrete bridges. This is particularly
Multi-component reaction resins shall be recommended for surfaces of greater
mixed in accordance with the maker’s inclinations, whereas for surfaces of smaller
instructions. Changing of materials or their inclinations and especially for considerably
composition as well as of the mixing ratio is loaded surfaces the material mentioned
not permitted unless otherwise directed in the above is less appropriate.
instructions.
The roughness depth for the priming coat
The substrate roughness depth is generally with bituminous binders shall amount to 0.8
not specified for the priming coats based on mm minimum.
reaction resins.
The prepared cement concrete surface shall
Open pores on the prepared cement be uniformly coated with a cold solution of
concrete surface shall be filled up with one or bituminous binder (as a rule 200 to 400 g/m2)
more epoxy resin coats. The first coat shall using brushes or rollers. The quantity of the
be applied according to the manufacturer’s applied binder shall be the least possible, i.e.
instructions by brush, roller or scraper. The without surplus.
resin consumption amounts to 300 – 500
g/m2. The epoxy resin shall be sanded When a warm solution of bituminous binder is
uniformly to prevent accumulation of resin foreseen, it is usually applied by spraying.
slops. The still fresh surface of applied epoxy
resin shall be uniformly spread with suitable During the application of the solution of
quantity of dried quartz sand of 0.5/1.2 mm bituminous binder the substrate surface
(exceptionally 0.2/0.7 mm) of grain size temperature shall amount to at least +5°C.
distribution.
The spread sand not adhering to the epoxy Only in exceptional cases and when
resin surface shall be removed. preliminarily approved by the supervising
engineer, an unstable bituminous emulsion
When the bridge cement concrete is exposed may be applied as a priming coat.
to aggressive water on the inner side as well,
all concerned horizontal and vertical surfaces Application of the priming coat shall be
shall be adequately protected with a priming avoided in the early morning hours.
coat, i.e. epoxy resin spread with sand.
The roughness depth of the substrate to
Joints of priming coats and individual layers which a bituminous priming coat is applied
shall be carried through stepwise, in a followed by application of the sealing coat or
straight line and shifted by at least 10 cm one by levelling with trowel and by gritting, shall
to another. amount to 0.6 mm minimum.

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6.2.2.3 Sealing coat The procedure of levelling with a trowel can

be adopted as a base coat for sealing the
When application of an additional layer of asphalt wearing course surface at the
epoxy resin, i.e. of a sealing coat is required carriageway edge.
to ensure the bonding layer or a continuous
film of binder (in a thickness of 0.3 to 0.5 6.2.3 Waterproof membranes
mm), washed quartz sand of grain size
distribution of 0.5/1.2 mm shall be spread The following materials can be used to carry
onto the priming coat in surplus. The through the waterproof membranes:
unbound sand shall be removed as soon as
the priming coat has hardened sufficiently. - single bituminous sheeting,
As a rule, additional gritting of the sealing - double bituminous sheeting,
coat is not necessary. - bitumen modified with polymers.

6.2.2.4 Levelling with trowel For bound (stuck) waterproof membranes or

for connection of the waterproof membrane
For levelling with trowel an epoxy mortar is with the bonding layer an additional bonding
generally used. layer might be necessary at times. The
procedure of the execution of this layer is
Levelling shall be carried through on the generally described in detail in the
uncured priming coat based on epoxy resin. instructions of the maker of the waterproof
Only when approved by the engineer membrane material. An informative quantity
levelling may be executed on a cured priming of the binder for such an additional layer
coat. amounts to approximately 250 g/m2.

By means of a trowel drawn over the peaks For unbound (floating) vertical or inclined
of grains jutting out from the substrate, the waterproof membranes of bridges under
epoxy mortar shall be applied into the construction non-stuck smooth or profiled
hollows of the rough cement concrete polymer foils can be used.
surface. The characteristics of the surface of
such levelling shall be similar to those of the The particularities of the waterproofing
applied priming coat. Spreading with sand of method with unbound waterproof membrane
grain size distribution of 0.5/1 mm shall be and the protection of polymer foils are
carried through without surplus. generally described in detail in the
manufacturer’s instructions.
In case of waterproofing with bituminous
sheeting, for levelling with a trowel 6.2.3.1 Single bituminous sheeting
adequately heated bituminous materials can
be used as well. Bituminous adhesive is A waterproof membrane with a single both
particularly appropriate. By filling up the open welded or stuck bituminous sheeting can be
pores on the cement concrete surface with executed
the bituminous adhesive the subsequent
works related to waterproofing are much less - for the intermediate waterproofing of
dependent on weather conditions. The individual bridge elements: below
required amount of bituminous adhesive for walkways, edge beams and kerbs, or
levelling with an adequate trowel is 1.5 to 2 - for the upper waterproofing of bridges.
2
kg/m .
The bituminous sheeting for the intermediate
Mixtures used for the levelling with a trowel waterproofing is generally applied
must not be overlapped at the joints. longitudinally and stuck onto the bituminous
priming coat by means of a bituminous
An excessive roughness of the cement adhesive. The sheeting shall extend into the
concrete surface (above 4 mm, on certain carriageway area by at least 20 cm thus
spots even less) shall be generally levelled ensuring a quality connection with the upper
with an epoxy mortar. The mixing ratio epoxy waterproofing of the bridge. The sheeting
resin : sand (of a uniform grain size shall be temporarily protected from eventual
distribution) shall amount to 1 : 3 to 1 : 4 damage by means of non-sanded bituminous
unless otherwise directed by the paper. The latter shall be removed from the
manufacturer. As a rule, mixtures of materials carriageway area prior to execution of
already composed in the production plant waterproofing works.
shall be used.

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Waterproofing

The mechanical characteristics of the During a repeated slow unreeling the

bituminous sheeting for intermediate bituminous sheeting shall be uniformly
waterproofing may partly differ from the heated over the entire width by means of
required values indicated in the table 5.6, several torches placed on the bridge
when this is reasonably. superstructure or other source of heat. In the
same time, the bituminous compound below
For the upper waterproofing with a single the bearing fabric shall be melted. The
bituminous sheeting the latter is generally temperature of the heating means (distance
welded onto the substrate. from the bituminous sheeting and application
rate) shall be adjusted to outer conditions (air
The reaction resin in the applied bonding temperature, wind).
layer shall be at least 48 hours old and
sufficiently cured prior to commencement of When bituminous sheeting is welded onto the
the bituminous sheeting application. bonding layer made of a reaction resin, the
temperature of heating the substrate surface
When bituminous sheeting for the upper shall not be too high.
waterproofing of bridges is applied to the The manufacturer shall determine the basic
bituminous priming coat or to the bituminous conditions for heating of bituminous sheeting
adhesive compound levelled with a trowel, during welding. For heating of the bituminous
the latter shall be dry. compound on sheeting single torches may be
used when approved by the supervising
The air temperature during the application of engineer and in exceptional cases only.
waterproof membranes consisting of
bituminous sheeting shall amount to at least Under certain circumstances it is also
+5°C, and the substrate must not be frozen. allowed to stick suitable bituminous sealing
sheeting onto a bituminous priming coat. For
First, the bituminous sheeting shall be this purpose, a hot bituminous adhesive
unrolled and adjusted, as a rule in the mixture shall be used. The temperature of
longitudinal direction of the bridge this mixture during application shall be in
superstructure. Unless butt joints are accordance with the manufacturer’s
foreseen, the required overlapping width shall instructions. The bituminous adhesive
be allowed for as follows: compound shall be heated in a suitable boiler
- on longitudinal edges equipped with a stirring device. During
- thinned ones 8 cm minimum heating, the compound shall be mechanically
- uniform ones 10 cm minimum stirred and its temperature checked
- on transversal edges 10 cm minimum. continuously. The consumption of the
adhesive compound amounts to 1.5 – 2.0
2
In case of butt joints of bituminous sheeting, kg/m , depending on the texture of the
the spacing of sheeting shall not exceed 10 cement concrete surface.
mm.
During a repeated uncoiling (either during
Transversal joints of bituminous sheeting welding or sticking), a sufficient quantity of
shall be shifted by at least 50 cm. melted (plasticized) bituminous compound
shall always be available in front of the
Bituminous sheeting for which butt joints are bituminous sheeting on the reel, so that a
foreseen shall be applied from the higher crest can be formed.
side of the bridge proceeding towards the
lower one. On the contrary, application of Immediately after spreading out, the
bituminous sheeting joined by overlapping bituminous sheeting shall be uniformly
shall commence on the lower side of the pressed to the substrate. In this way, the
bridge. sheeting is properly stuck over the entire
width and the air is completely eliminated
When a plastic foil is used to prevent sticking from the joint.
together of bituminous sheeting during
storage, it shall be removed prior to The bituminous compound (melted or
application of the sheeting if its thickness is adhesive) that flows out on the edges of the
greater than 0.05 mm. sheeting or has been pressed out from below
the sheeting, shall be uniformly drawn out
Suitably adjusted bituminous sheeting shall along the joint by means of suitable
be coiled up onto reel of an appropriate smoothing tools. Excessive pressed out
mass. quantity of the bituminous compound shall be

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Waterproofing Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

adequately removed. On the contrary, when

on a certain portion of the joint the
bituminous mixture has not come out or an
insufficient sealing has been established,
such spots shall be additionally sealed.

A transition of the bituminous sealing

compound in the butt joint area into the upper
asphalt mixtures shall be prevented by
covering of that area with an approximately
20 cm wide adhesive strip. An eventually
required additional sticking of those strips to
the substrate shall be carried through by
means of a careful heating of the joint area.

The average bond strength of bituminous

sheeting shall amount to minimum 0.8
N/mm2. At least three tests shall be carried Legend:
out at 0°C. Any individual measured value 1– priming coat
must not be lower than 0.4 N/mm2. 2– joint sealing compound
3– sealing coat
A general scheme of bridge waterproofing 4– wearing course
with single bituminous sheeting is shown in 5– protective layer
6– priming coat, sealing coat, levelling with
the figure 6.2. In the figure 6.3, this scheme
trowel
is presented in greater detail, whereas 7– cement concrete slab
waterproofing at the kerb is shown in the 8– corner rounding off with bituminous
figure 6.4. compound or cement mortar
9– waterproof membrane – bituminous
sheeting

Fig. 6.4: Detail of waterproofing with

bituminous sheeting at kerb

A common scheme of waterproofing at bridge

gullies is shown in the figures 6.5 and 6.6,
whereas a more detailed scheme in the
figures 6.7 and 6.8. The longitudinal drainage
groove shall ensure a complete evacuation of
water that can sink to the waterproof
membrane in the kerb area or in the area of
Fig. 6.2: Bridge waterproofing at the the railing element.
carriageway edge

Fig. 6.5: Bridge waterproofing at gully

Fig. 6.3: Bridge waterproofing with single

bituminous sheeting

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Waterproofing

To waterproofing with double bituminous

sheeting the same conditions apply as to the
waterproofing with single sheeting (refer to
6.2.3.1). Additional conditions apply to
overlapping of the upper sheeting that shall
be shifted with regard to the lower one by:

- ½ of sheeting width in longitudinal

direction,
- at least 50 cm in transversal direction.

In case of waterproofing with double

bituminous sheeting both layers shall be
applied in the same direction (longitudinally
as a rule).

6.2.3.3 Bitumen modified with polymers

Particularly for waterproofing of inclined

Legend: cement concrete surfaces, sprayed
1– priming coat
waterproof membrane made of bituminous
2– joint sealing compound
3– sealing coat
binder modified with polymers is suitable.
4– wearing course
5– protective layer The consumption of the above mentioned
7– cement concrete slab material amounts to 2 – 3 kg/m2, depending
9– waterproof membrane – bituminous on the substrate roughness and the executed
sheeting bonding layer.
11 – protective felt
12 – drainage epoxy concrete As a rule, such binder applied by spraying in
several layers of approximately 1 kg/m2 to
Fig. 6.6: Detail of bridge waterproofing at the substrate coated with a bonding layer,
gully next to kerb shall be adequately reinforced. For this
purpose fabrics or meshes made of synthetic
6.2.3.2 Double bituminous sheeting fibres and metal are appropriate. Such
reinforcement of the sprayed bituminous
In case of waterproofing with double waterproof membrane shall be applied prior
bituminous sheeting (figure 6.7), the lower to spray application of the upper layer of the
sheeting is generally stuck on the bonding modified bituminous binder.
layer by means of bituminous adhesive
poured under the sheeting, whereas the The surface of the waterproof membrane
upper sheeting is welded to the lower one. made of modified bituminous binder shall be
protected by means of suitable material, such
as felt, profiled plastic foil, polystyrene,
wooden slabs or brick.

6.2.4 Protective layers

To protect horizontal or slightly inclined

waterproof membranes, asphalt mixtures of
bituminous concrete, crushed gravel with
bituminous mastic and poured asphalt are
suitable. Under certain circumstances
cement concrete can be used as a protective
layer (“white tub”).

To protect waterproof membranes of greater

inclinations, other suitable materials shall be
used. Different felts, polystyrene, a profiled
plastic foil, wooden slabs, brick etc. are
Fig. 6.7: Bridge waterproofing with double
recommended for this purpose.
bituminous sheeting

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Waterproofing Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

For shorter bridges (of length up to 30 m), it influence on the properties of the latter.
is advisable to apply a mixture of poured Moreover, no displacement must occur in the
asphalt as protective layer. waterproof membrane layers during
application of the protective layer.
To protect waterproof membranes applied to
vertical cement concrete surfaces of frame The protective layer shall be applied as soon
bridge structures, such material shall be used as possible after application of the waterproof
that prevents reliably any mechanical membrane. The temperature of the asphalt
damage of the waterproof membrane. mixture of bituminous concrete to be applied
to the bituminous waterproof sheeting shall
When delivering materials to be applied as not exceed 160°C, whereas the temperature
protective layers, vehicles must not damage of the poured asphalt shall not be greater
the waterproof membrane. than 250°C. It is recommendable to apply a
minor quantity of asphalt mixture in advance
The average bond strength of horizontal followed by an immediate application of the
protective layer shall amount to minimum 0.8 remaining planned quantity. In this way it can
N/mm2. Any individual measured value must be granted that the bituminous waterproof
not be lower than 0.4 N/mm2. sheeting are not heated above the tolerable
temperature.
6.2.4.1 Asphalt protective layers
A hot asphalt mixture can lie in front of
In general, asphalt protective layers may be distributing shaft on the paving machine 1 to
applied to a dry substrate only. Prior the 3 minutes, depending on the environment
application of the protective layer the temperature. The same applies for stopping
waterproof membrane must not be damaged of the paving machine as well. The rate of
to such an extent that a perfect waterproofing application of the protective layer must not be
would be jeopardized. smaller than 2 m/min.

The type of the asphalt mixture to be applied Joints shall be executed hot-to-hot. The
as a protective layer shall be specified in the longitudinal joints of the protective layer must
design. not be located in the area of ruts.

The thickness of the asphalt protective layer When the waterproof membrane is not soiled
shall nowhere be smaller than 2.5 cm and during application of the protective layer (e.g.
greater than 5 cm (figure 6.1). with grains of scattered asphalt mixture),
vehicles that deliver the asphalt mixture as
When a local deepening on the waterproof well as the paving machine are allowed to
membrane is greater than 5 cm it shall be drive on the waterproof membrane.
levelled with a suitable asphalt mixture
enabling application of 1.5 to 4 cm thick The void content in the applied protective
layers. As a rule, the mentioned levelling layer shall not exceed 4% by volume (the
shall be carried through before application of compaction degree shall amount to minimum
the asphalt protective layer. 98%). The same conditions apply to the
asphalt mixture used for the levelling layer as
Asphalt protective layers are generally well.
applied mechanically. For this purpose
paving machines on wheels with tyres shall The joint on the protective layer of poured
be employed. Exceptionally caterpillar paving asphalt shall be executed hot-to-hot. In other
machines may be used, however on cases the joints shall be carried through as
condition that the waterproof membrane is openings and then sealed.
adequately protected.
In case that a poured asphalt mixture is
The maximum allowable unevenness on the applied as a protective layer to which a
surface of the mechanically applied asphalt wearing course of bituminous concrete or
protective layer measured with a 4 m long crushed aggregate with bituminous mastic is
lath amounts to 6 mm. designed to be applied, approximately 1
kg/m2 of crushed aggregate of 2/4 or 4/8
During application of the protective layer, the grain size distribution and completely coated
bituminous compound must not pass from with binder shall be pressed onto the
the waterproof membrane into the protective protective layer surface.
layer since this might have an adverse

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Waterproofing

6.2.4.2 Other protective layers with a priming coat or a joint sealing mixture
shall extend by at least 2 cm above the
The methods of application of other materials wearing course level.
intended for protective layers shall be
adjusted to their characteristics. In particular When required the joint sealing bituminous
it must be ensured that the waterproof compound shall be heated to the working
membrane is adequately protected from temperature specified by the manufacturer.
damage during all working stages and in all This shall be carried through in suitable
conditions. boilers by means of indirect heating and
mechanical stirring. A repeated heating of
6.2.5 Wearing courses bituminous joint sealing compound is allowed
on condition that its characteristics
A wearing course on a bridge shall grant the established after application comply with the
same driving conditions as that on the nearby requirements stated in the table 5.8.
road. Therefore they are generally made of
similar materials.

When applying wearing courses on bridges,

restrictions concerning the compaction by
means of vibrating shall be taken into
consideration. Other conditions for execution
of wearing courses on bridges are similar to
those for the roads.

6.2.6 Sealing of joints of boundary

surfaces

As a rule, the waterproof membrane shall be

perfectly connected with the boundary
surfaces of materials built in into a bridge.
Therefore suitable joints of 15 – 20 mm width
shall be foreseen on boundary surfaces.
These joints shall be sealed with adequate Legend:
bituminous mixtures or other approved 1= priming coat
sealing materials. The joint width shall be 2= joint sealing compound
specified in the design whereas the depth of 4= wearing course
sealing is to be carried through in accordance 5= protective layer
with the manufacturer of the sealing material. 6= priming coat, sealing coat, levelling with
trowel
7= cement concrete slab
The joints between the boundary surfaces of 9= waterproof membrane – bituminous
both protective layer and wearing course, sheeting
and the adjacent materials on the 10 = waterproof membrane – bituminous
carriageway shall be executed apart. At sheeting
kerbs the joint at the protective layer shall be 13 = sealing inlay
sealed with an adequate bituminous sealing
compound over the entire height, whereas Fig. 6.8: Detail of sealing at kerb by means of
the joint at the wearing course shall be sealing inlay
sealed up to few millimetres above the
wearing course. In certain conditions it is In case that the bituminous joint sealing
possible to insert a suitable sealing inlay (e.g. compound shrinks up excessively upon
a strip of profiled rubber – figure 6.8) up to a cooling it shall be repeatedly applied to fill up
height of 2.5 cm below the wearing course the joint completely.
surface. However, this must not be
accomplished on the carriageway surfaces. When bituminous strips are used to seal the
boundary surfaces of both protective layer
Prior to application of the joint sealing and wearing course, these strips shall be
compound all surfaces in the joint shall be placed in accordance with the maker’s
perfectly dry and clean. As a rule, they shall instructions and prior to application of asphalt
be coated with an adequate primer, which protective layer or wearing course
must be in such a condition that subsequent (bituminous concrete, poured asphalt or
works are enabled. The protection of kerbs crushed aggregate with bituminous mastic).

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Waterproofing Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

Boundary horizontal surfaces on the wearing On the contractor’s request, an authorized

courses at joints sealed with a joint sealing institution shall prove the conformity of
compound shall be sealed with an materials and procedures by issuing an
appropriate coat in a width of approx. 25 cm adequate certificate. The contractor is
measured from the kerb (figure 6.2). As a obliged to submit such certificate to the client
basis for such sealing, levelling with a trowel in due time before starting the works. The
is suitable. It shall be applied to the priming certificate shall comprise all characteristics
coat consisting of bituminous emulsion or required in 5 and 6.2. The contractor must
bituminous adhesive. By an additional not commence any application works until he
spraying of modified bituminous binder (1 – has obtained an approval by the client for
1.5 kg/m2) and by spreading of crushed each material or method foreseen.
gravel of grain size distribution of 2/4 mm (up The costs of the preliminary conformity
to 2.5 kg/m2), a perfect waterproofing of the testing of materials and procedures shall be
surface is granted. entirely born by the manufacturer or
contractor.
6.3 Quality of execution
6.3.3 Internal quality tests
6.3.1 General
Testing within the framework of internal
Prior to commencement of application of all quality control during construction shall be
materials, machines and devices that might carried through by a qualified contractor or
affect the quality of bridge waterproofing, laboratory authorized by the contractor to find
their suitability to ensure the required out whether the quality of the materials and
characteristics shall be verified. the executed works comply with the
contractual conditions.
Beside general and special technical As a rule, the extent of the internal quality
conditions provided by the client, all testing shall be determined by programme
conditions and instructions by the being a constituent part of the contract
manufacturers of the waterproofing materials, documents.
machines and devices shall be taken into The contractor is obliged to report regularly
consideration. the results of the internal tests to the client. In
The following tests shall be carried through case that the established quality deviates
on the materials intended for waterproofing: from the required one, the contractor shall
- preliminary conformity (applicability) tests, immediately take adequate measures.
- internal control tests, and Depending on the waterproofing method, the
- external control tests. following shall be tested:
For materials:
For testing of asphalt mixtures used to - forms of delivery and labels on containers
execute protective layers and wearing (e.g. batch number),
courses all those provisions apply that are - condition and storage of packing and its
stated in the technical specifications for content in accordance with the working
materials and procedures for the carriageway instructions,
structures. - mixing in a prescribed ratio by means of
adequate stirring equipment until a perfect
When appropriate, a test comprises the homogeneity is attained,
following: - production date and allowable duration of
- taking, marking, preparation and storage,
transportation of samples to the testing - eventually required adding of other
institution; substances (e.g. solvents),
- storing; - mineral admixtures and mixture of grains
- execution of tests; for spreading with regard to composition,
- test report; grain size and humidity.
- preserving of proving samples. For execution:
- external conditions, i.e. air temperature,
6.3.2 Preliminary conformity tests substrate temperature, material
temperature, dew point, and relative air
Preliminary conformity tests are carried humidity at least twice a day until it can be
through to prove suitability of materials and proven that these conditions cannot affect
methods for the foreseen intention of use the quality of executed works,
specified in the description of works and the - moisture content of substrate (cement
bill of quantities. concrete slab),

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Waterproofing

- bond strength of the prepared substrate Taking of samples as well as site testing shall
surface, be carried through in the presence of both
- procedure of application of reaction resin or the bridge contractor and the client. In case
bituminous binder to the priming coat, that the contractor is not present despite of
- respecting of workability time, the fact that he has been apprised on time,
- appearance of surface of individual layers taking of samples and execution of testing
with regard to uniformity, coverage and may be performed during his absence as
deficiencies, well.
- respecting of time intervals between
consecutive operations, As a rule, the contractor is obliged to assist
- condition of applied priming coat, levelling the authorized institution during taking
with trowel and eventual bonding layer prior samples and/or carrying through of the
to continuation of contractual works, external control testing.
- material consumption for priming coat,
- appearance and quality of prepared When representatives of the client or the
surface, authorized institution are present during the
- roughness depth of prepared surface, internal control testing, the client may
- thickness of waterproof membrane during consider such testing as the external one.
application,
- void content in waterproof membrane, Special proving samples of all the materials
- bond strength of waterproof membrane, (in a separate package) shall be taken for
- condition of eventual bonding layer, eventually required subsequent verifying.
- adhesion strength of welded bituminous
sheeting, All the samples taken for the external control
- sticking together of waterproof membrane testing shall be adequately recorded and
and substrate as well as eventual blisters thoroughly preserved.
and open pores below waterproof
membrane and/or protective layer of After application of the waterproof membrane
poured asphalt, and the protective layer of poured asphalt it
- temperature during application of protective shall be verified by suitable testing whether
layer, any unstuck spots such as voids or blisters
- spreading with regard to the type and are present between the particular layer and
quantity of grain mixture and a correct the substrate.
choice of the time when spreading is
carried through. All the costs of the external control tests
within the framework of the contractual
As a rule, the contractor shall submit provisions shall be entirely born by the client.
adequate evidence for the quality of materials
and execution of waterproofing for all The costs of eventual additional testing
materials and procedures and for each required either by the client or the contractor
bridge. shall be born by the party placing the order.

All the costs of the internal quality control of 6.3.5 Types and extent of tests
materials and procedures within the
contractual provisions shall be entirely born Prior to commencement of the works the
by the contractor. contractor is obliged to submit conformity
certificates, issued by an authorized
6.3.4 External quality tests institution, for all the materials (as a rule
already stored) to be applied for bridge
In general, authorized institutions shall carry waterproofing.
through the external control testing. A minimum extent of external control tests of
materials to verify their conformity is
The external quality tests are intended to indicated in the table 6.1.
supervise the correctness of the internal In due time prior to commencement of works
control testing and to establish the quality of the contractor shall submit to the client for
materials and executed works in view of approval the compositions of asphalt
contractual provisions. The results of the mixtures intended to execute the protective
external quality tests represent a basis for layer and the wearing course, as well as the
taking over of the works carried out. results of the demonstrative application of
those asphalt mixtures.

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Waterproofing Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

During the works testing planned within the 7. MEASURING AND ACCEPTANCE
framework of the internal and external control OF WORKS
shall be carried through. A minimum extent of
such testing is specified in detail in the table 7.1 Measuring of works
7.1. On the basis of the results of those tests,
the supervising engineer is free to modify the The works carried through shall be measured
extent of testing. in accordance with the general technical
conditions and calculated in square metres.
Table 6.1: Minimum extent of external control
testing to verify the conformity of All the quantities shall be measured
waterproofing materials according to actually executed extent and
type of works specified in the bill of
Type of material Test per initial quantities.
quantity
- solution of bituminous from each batch 7.2 Acceptance of works
binder, bituminous
emulsion The applied waterproofing is taken over by
- modified bituminous from each batch the client’s engineer after receiving from the
binder contractor a written notice of completion of
- bituminous adhesive from each batch works.
- bituminous sheeting from each batch
- bituminous joint sealing from each batch The contractor is obliged to submit in due
compound time all data and reports of conformity issued
- bituminous joint sealing 1,000 m by the internal control division as well as a
strip final conformity assessment prepared by the
- epoxy resin from each batch external control testing institution.
- sand for spreading 20 t
- felt 10,000 m2 The client’s engineer takes over the applied
waterproofing in accordance with the
The contractor is obliged to keep a record of requirements of this design standard as well
the climatic conditions during the execution of as with eventual additional requirements
the waterproofing works. The same condition stated in the particular contract documents.
applies to taking of samples and material
consumption as well. In case that deficiencies and unattained
The contractor cannot proceed with the next minimum quality requirements are
working stage until the supervising engineer established during taking over, the contractor
has approved the previous stage. is obliged to make them good at his own
expense including all the costs of additional
6.4 Quality assessment measurements and testing to be carried
through after reconditioning.
After completion of individual working stages
and/or complete works, statistic analyses of For all the works not complying with the
the results of both internal and external quality requirements of this design standard
control testing shall be performed. This or the contractual specifications, and that
applies to the following: have not been reconditioned by the
- all input basic materials and asphalt contractor, the latter is not entitled to any
mixtures, payment. In such cases, the client is allowed
- applied waterproof membrane, and to prolong the guarantee period to at least 5
- asphalt mixture applied as wearing course. years for all the works depending on the
unsatisfying performance that had not been
The performers of both internal and external improved by the contractor.
control shall elaborate statistic analyses of
the control testing results. The comparisons
of results of the statistic analyses are the
basis to assess the quality conformity and to
introduce eventual corrective measures.
An institution authorized for the external
control shall elaborate an assessment of
conformity of control testing results with the
requirements.

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Waterproofing

Table 7.1: Minimum extent of internal and external control during waterproofing works

Type of testing Per initial quantity

Internal control External control
Substrate surface
- survey of condition 250 m2 1 x daily
- measurements of: evenness 250 m2 -
roughness depth 250 m2 1 x daily
bond strength 250 m2 -

Bonding layers
- climatic conditions all the time -
- characteristics of reaction resin coating 500 m2 2,000 m2
- characteristics of bituminous binder - per batch
- quantity of bituminous binder coating 250 m2 1 x daily

Waterproof membranes
Bituminous sheeting
- climatic conditions all the time -
- characteristics of bituminous sheeting 2,000 m2 per batch
- characteristics of bituminous adhesive 2,000 m2 per batch
- method of sheeting application all the time 1 x daily
- quantity of bituminous adhesive 2,000 m2 1 x per bridge
- measurements of bond strength 3 x per bridge

Bitumen modified with polymers

- climatic conditions all the time -
- characteristics of modified bitumen 2,000 m2 1 x per bridge
- thickness of layer 1,000 m2 2,000 m2

Protective layers and wearing courses of

asphalt mixtures of bituminous concrete
and crushed gravel with bituminous mastic
- climatic conditions daily -
- characteristics of asphalt mixture 1 x per bridge/1,000 m2 1 x per bridge/2,000 m2
- thickness of layer 1,000 m2 2,000 m2
- compaction of layer 1,000 m2 -

Protective layers and wearing courses of

poured asphalt mixtures
- characteristics of asphalt mixtures each boiler 1 x per bridge/2,000 m2
- thickness of layer 1,000 m2 2,000 m2

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 GUIDELINES FOR ROAD DESIGN,
CONSTRUCTION, MAINTENANCE AND
SUPERVISION

Volume I: DESIGNING

Section 2: DESIGNING BRIDGES

DESIGN GUIDELINES (DG 1.2.5)

Part 5: DRAINAGE AND PIPING OF BRIDGES
Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Drainage and piping

INTRODUCTION

Drainage and piping of bridges comprise all required constructive measures for a fast and effective
drainage of both, surface water and the water leaking up to the waterproofing surface, from the
bridge. By an adequate bridge dewatering, traffic safety is ensured. Moreover, the bridge structure
itself and the environment are protected in compliance with the water management requirements.

The bridge life period and maintenance costs are significantly affected by the drainage and piping
system efficiency.

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Drainage and piping Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

CONTENTS

1. SUBJECT OF DESIGN GUIDELINES .......................................................................................... 5

2. REFERENCE REGULATIONS ..................................................................................................... 5
3. EXPLANATION OF TERMS ......................................................................................................... 5
4. GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR DESIGN OF DRAINAGE AND PIPING SYSTEM OF ROAD
BRIDGES ...................................................................................................................................... 6
4.1 General................................................................................................................................ 6
4.2 Surface water drainage ....................................................................................................... 6
4.3 Seepage water drainage and relieving of vapour pressures .............................................. 6
4.4 Dewatering and ventilation of hollows................................................................................. 8
4.5 Dewatering of rear fill behind abutment .............................................................................. 8
4.6 Dewatering of bearing surfaces .......................................................................................... 9
4.7 Connecting bridge dewatering system to recipient (road drainage) ................................... 9
4.8 Dewatering of smaller bridges............................................................................................. 9
5. STRUCTURAL PARTICULARITIES OF INDIVIDUAL ELEMENTS OF DRAINAGE AND
PIPING SYSTEM OF ROAD BRIDGES ..................................................................................... 10
5.1 Gullies ...............................................................................................................................10
5.2 Drainage pipes .................................................................................................................. 12
5.3 Conditions for installation and fastening of drainage pipes to bridge structure ................ 13
5.4 Elements for seepage water drainage and relieving of vapour pressures........................ 14
6. HYDRAULIC CALCULATIONS................................................................................................... 17
6.1 Precipitation water quantity and outflow ........................................................................... 17
6.2 Determination of required number of gullies and spacing between adjacent gullies........ 17
6.3 Dimensioning of drainage pipes........................................................................................ 19
6.4 Practical example of calculation........................................................................................ 20
7. Maintenance of drainage and piping system of road bridges ..................................................... 20
7.1 Accessibility of drainage and piping system ..................................................................... 20
7.2 Cleansing and maintenance of drainage and piping system ............................................ 21
8. DESIGN OF DRAINAGE AND PIPING SYSTEM OF ROAD BRIDGES.................................... 22

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Drainage and piping

1. SUBJECT OF DESIGN 3. EXPLANATION OF TERMS

GUIDELINES
Drainage is leading away of both, the
The intention of these guidelines is to present surface water and the water leaking up to the
general guidelines for a correct design of waterproofed surfaces, from the bridge.
drainage and piping of road bridges.
Structural particularities and quality Piping is collecting and leading away of the
assurance requirements of individual water from the bridge by means of drainage
elements of the dewatering systems shall be pipes.
taken into consideration. Hydraulic
calculation input parameters are given to Surface water is the precipitation water
specify dimensions and number of individual falling onto the upper surface of a bridge.
elements. For maintenance purposes,
conditions of accessibility are given as well Seepage water is a portion of the surface
as procedures of cleaning of the drainage water passing through the individual parts of
and piping system presented. the carriageway (asphalt layers, walkways,
edge beams) up to the waterproofed
surfaces.
2. REFERENCE REGULATIONS
Recipient is, for instance, a road drainage,
The DG 1.2.5 is based on the following river, lake or similar to which the water is led
regulations: away from a bridge.

Technical regulations Gully is an element of the drainage system,

into which the precipitation water from the
- RVS 15.43 Brückenausrüstung; carriageway flows.
Brückenentwässerung (Equipment of
bridges; Drainage of bridges) – Austrian Drainage pipe is an element serving for
guidelines leading away the water from a bridge.

- ZTV-K, Zusätzliche technische Fastening devices for drainage pipes are

Vertragsbedingungen für Kunstbauten suspenders and supports serving for fixing
(Supplementary technical contractual the drainage pipes to the bridge structure.
conditions for engineering structures) –
German guidelines Seepage water drainage pipe is a pipe with
a specially shaped mouthpiece built-in into
- Richtlinien für konstruktive Einzelheiten von the superstructure below the protection of the
Brücken; 6 Entwässerung (Guidelines for waterproofing.
design detailing of bridges; 6 Dewatering) –
Swiss guidelines Unit intensity of rainfall is the quantity of
precipitations in a time unit per unit of area.
- Assainissement des ponts routes;
evacuation des eaux, drainage... Cleansing shaft is an opening on the
(Improvement of road bridges; water drainage pipe to which a cleansing nozzle is
evacuation, drainage...) – French placed for the needs of cleansing procedure.
guidelines.

Standards

- Gullies: DIN 1229, DIN EN 124

- Drainage pipes: ÖNORM B 2571, B 2570,

DIN 19522

- Seepage water drainage pipes: C. B5. 226

- Fastening devices: DIN 17440, DIN 367,

Part 11 – stainless steel

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Drainage and piping Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

4. GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR 4.2 Surface water drainage

DESIGN OF DRAINAGE AND
PIPING SYSTEM OF ROAD The water from the bridge upper surface is
BRIDGES led away via gullies and transverse drainage
pipes into a collecting duct, which runs up to
4.1 General the recipients.

The drainage and piping system of road All the surface water falling onto the bridge
bridges refers to the following: deck shall be collected by means of bridge
- Drainage of upper (visible) surfaces of gullies in such a way that the water does not
bridges; flow over expansion joints.
- Leading away the seepage water from the
waterproofed surfaces and relieving of If the superstructure is a box girder, the
vapour pressures; longitudinal drainage pipes are placed to the
- Dewatering and ventilation of hollows, box section interior for lengths ≥ 300 m,
dewatering of bearing surfaces; provided that the interior is accessible or that
- Dewatering of rear fills of abutments; it is enabled by a sufficient clear height of
- Connecting of bridge dewatering system to minimum 1.60 m (figure 4.3).
recipient (road drainage) and maintenance
of dewatering system. In general, longitudinal, transverse and
vertical ducts are not embedded in concrete.
The complete design of both, bridge cross
and longitudinal section, and in particular of Placing the vertical drainage pipes along or in
the bridge vertical alignment, shall follow the piers of significant height and of bad
principles of a correct dewatering of the accessibility shall be avoided.
bridge.
Connections of pipes to the longitudinal ducts
All drainage and piping elements shall be shall be designed hydraulically favourable.
designed to be easily replaced and Bends of 90° shall be avoided. It is
accessible for regular maintenance. recommended to introduce a double bend of
45° with an intermediate piece.
The drainage and piping elements must not
interfere with the load bearing structure, e.g. Deformations of the piping systems must be
in the area of pre-stressed tendons, of main taken into account.
load bearing reinforcement etc.
At each change of direction of drainage
A bridge must have its own separate pipes, a cleansing opening shall be foreseen.
drainage and piping system to be connected
via road drainage or directly with the 4.3 Seepage water drainage and relieving
precipitation water recipient. However, this of vapour pressures
does not apply for short bridges where the
bridge length is smaller than the required A portion of surface water, leaking through
spacing between adjacent road gullies. individual carriageway elements (asphalt
layers, walkways, edge beams) up to the
The dimensions and the number of structural waterproofed surfaces shall be led through
elements of the dewatering system shall be the bridge superstructure in a controlled
specified on the basis of an adequate manner. Eventual condensed water shall be
hydraulic calculation. As the input parameters evacuated as well. Vapour and air pressures
for the hydraulic calculations, the arising below and above the waterproofing
meteorological data on the design layer shall be relieved.
precipitation quantities on the location of the
planned structure are assumed. The seepage water is drained by means by
specially arranged gullies for surface water
In figure 4.1, a typical scheme of surface drainage and by small pipes with specially
water drainage and piping on a road bridge is shaped mouthpiece to be built-in into the
shown. Figures 4.2 and 4.3 present the superstructure below the protection of the
position of drainage and piping elements with waterproofing.
regard to the cross section.

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Drainage and piping

Fig.4 1: General scheme of bridge drainage and piping

Fig. 4.2: Methods of placing drainage elements with respect to bridge deck cross section

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Drainage and piping Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

Fig. 4.3: Methods of placing drainage elements outside and inside of box section

4.4 Dewatering and ventilation of hollows surface water, which could eventually
penetrate into that part, a 1.0 m thick filter
In case that the drainage system is placed in gravel layer along the entire height of the
the interior of the superstructure box cross abutment wall shall be foreseen. Instead of
section, evacuation of water shall be ensured gravel, any backfilling material can be used,
in the lowest point of each span using a provided that flowing of water from the fill top
corrosion resistant pipe of internal diameter up to the foundation upper edge is ensured
of ∅ 200 mm (figure 4.4). (figure 4.5).
To equalize the outer and inner temperature,
the superstructure box section shall be
equipped with openings of ∅ 200 mm. In this
way, formation of condensed water is
prevented. The spacing between adjacent
openings shall not exceed 20.0 m in
longitudinal direction.

Fig. 4.4: Pipes for dewatering and ventilation

of box cross section

4.5 Dewatering of rear fill behind

abutment
Fig. 4.5: Dewatering of rear fill behind
Surface water which could, due to road abutment
longitudinal fall, flow onto the bridge, shall be
captured before the beginning of the bridge At the drainage layer base, the seepage
and led away into a recipient (road drainage). water shall be led away through the rear fill
In order to avoid hydrostatic water pressures by means of a drainage pipe. The drainage
in the layers of the rear fill acting on the must be attached to an appropriate recipient.
abutment wall and wings, and to capture the

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Drainage and piping

4.6 Dewatering of bearing surfaces In special cases, due to ground water

protection, all the surface waters shall be
On bearing surfaces located below drained from the roads via oil traps designed
expansion joints, a controlled system of water to function at the same time as sand traps as
collecting and leading away shall be well.
foreseen. At a waterproof expansion joint, the
water penetrating on damaged places is For bridges of an area up to 2,000 m2, it is
evacuated by means of a collecting drainage usually sufficient to foresee a sand trap in a
gutter (figure 4.6) and a vertical pipe into a form of a shaft made of concrete pipes of ∅
recipient. 100 cm with a suitable cover. In case of
bridges of an area greater than 2,000 m2, a
The bearing surface must not be dewatered special sand trap design is required.
into the rear fill.
If there is no road drainage or public sewage
in the bridge surroundings, special drainage
system shall be foreseen conducting the
water into a drain hole, road gutter or water
stream.

For longer bridges, collecting or retarding

basins shall be designed in the framework of
the bridge, if this is foreseen by the road
drainage conception.

4.8 Dewatering of smaller bridges

From the point of view of the dewatering

design, a bridge is considered as a small one
when its total length, including the wings and
transition slabs respectively, is smaller than
the required distance between two adjacent
gullies. The latter amounts to 5 – 20 m
depending on the bridge area as well as on
both, the longitudinal and the cross fall of the
carriageway.

Smaller bridges do not require a separate

drainage and piping system. The bridge
dewatering is carried out within the
framework of the road drainage.
Fig. 4.6: Dewatering of bearing surfaces at
waterproof expansion joint Where controlled road drainage by means of
road sewage is designed (motorways,
4.7 Connecting bridge dewatering system highways), road gullies are placed behind the
to recipient (road drainage) transition slabs at both ends of the bridge
where they are attached to the road sewage
The bridge dewatering system shall be (figure 5.1a).
connected to a recipient in accordance with
water economy requirements referring to the If the road drainage is uncontrolled, i.e.
necessary measures for preventing and without road sewage (e.g. roads of a lower
reducing water and soil pollution due to range), the surface water is led away form
washing out of carriageways by the the carriageway by means of gutters placed
precipitation water. next to abutment wing walls at both ends of
the bridge (figure 5.1b).
Since bridges are constituent parts of roads,
the fundamental dewatering principles shall The road sewage running in the area of the
be already determined for the road as well as motorway central reserve shall be diverted
defined in the design specification for the before aside into the marginal strip area. This
bridge. diversion shall be executed before the bridge.

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Drainage and piping Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

5. STRUCTURAL PARTICULARITIES The shape and type of gullies shall be

OF INDIVIDUAL ELEMENTS OF adjusted to the bridge structure (figures 8 and
DRAINAGE AND PIPING SYSTEM 9).
OF ROAD BRIDGES
The gutters are placed on the carriageway
5.1 Gullies edge, one-sided or two-sided, depending on
the transverse fall. The distances between
Gullies are one of the most important gullies and their number are determined by
elements of drainage and piping system. As the hydraulic calculation (chapter 6).
a rule, they consist of three parts: a grate, a
frame and an inflow piece. The latter has an
inclined (lateral) or a vertical outflow pipe of
minimum internal diameter of 125 mm. It
must be equipped with distributing bars
welded onto the steel reinforcement.

Fig. 5.1: Principles of dewatering of smaller bridges

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Drainage and piping

Fig. 5.2: Gully with direct inlet arranged for simultaneous building-in

Fig. 5.3: Gully with lateral inlet below walkway

Gullies with a free outlet can be used for

bridges where dewatering by means of piping
is not prescribed.

The gully elements shall be made of a quality

grey cast iron and bituminized. The gully
grate is of such a shape that also a safe
cycling is ensured on the roads with a mixed
traffic. The outer edge of the frame shall be
at least 1 cm far from the kerb. This joint
must be filled with an elastic bituminous
compound.

For opening or lifting the grate, a stainless

steel bolt shall be foreseen.
Fig. 5.4: Gully with a free outlet

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Drainage and piping Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

The lower part of the gully is installed and For the selection of materials the following
concreted together with the reinforcement. Its factors are decisive: durability, energy loss in
subsequent concreting into an opening left in the pipeline, cleansing, climatic influences,
advance is allowed only in special cases. wearing of pipes due sand in the water
flowing away, and aggressive action of
The gully capacity depends in particular on chemicals in the pipe.
the grate (size, inflow area, shape of grating
bars), carriageway surface, falls, shape of In the abutment area the collecting pipe can
gutter at the kerb, and the quantity of the be led in the following ways:
water inflow into the gutter amounting to at - Through the fill behind the abutment, e.g. in
least 10 l/s. case of short bridges (figure 5.5);
- Vertically downwards in front of the
A gully can be accomplished in two ways: abutment (figure 5.6).
with a bottom inlet or with a lateral inlet. The
latter can be exceptionally used for town The diameter of the vertical collecting pipe
bridges or those with a mixed traffic. shall be harmonized with the diameter of the
longitudinal collecting pipe in such a way that
Only standardized gullies of proven capacity the water is adequately accelerated when
may be installed. passing from the longitudinal collecting pipe
to the vertical one. Therefore, for smaller
5.2 Drainage pipes heights of the vertical pipes and for minor
water quantities, the profile of the vertical
Drainage pipes are transverse pipes, pipe shall be the same as of the longitudinal
longitudinal collecting pipes and vertical one.
pipes (figure 4.1).
The method of leading of those pipes, i.e.
Through the transverse drainage pipe, the freely along the pier or in special grooves, is
water collected in a gully is led away into the shown in the figure 5.7.
longitudinal collecting pipe at an angle of 45°
in plan 60° from above. If vertical pipes are higher than 10 m, it is
reasonable to foresee ventilation at the upper
The internal diameter of the transverse end of the pipe, for example an open inlet
drainage pipe shall amount at least 150 mm funnel serving for connection between both,
or it has to be determined on the basis of the longitudinal and vertical pipe.
hydraulic calculation (refer to chapter 6). The
fall of that pipe shall be 5% minimum. Into the vertical pipes bends of ≤ 60° may be
only installed in order to prevent plugging of
Longitudinal pipes collect the water from the pipes.
transverse drainage pipes (carriageway with
a two-sided cross fall) or directly from the
gullies (carriageway with an one-sided cross
fall).

The internal diameter of the longitudinal

collecting pipes amounts to 200 mm
minimum. The minimum inclination of the
longitudinal collecting pipes is 1%.

Longitudinal collecting pipes must not be

embedded in the bridge superstructure.
When passing through cross girders or other
structural elements, those pipes have to be
separated from them.

All direction changes shall be carried out by

means of adequate fittings of a minimum
angle of 45°. A bend of 90° has to be
achieved by two fittings of 45° and one
intermediate straight pipe of 20 cm length.
Fig. 5.5: Leading of collecting pipe through
the fill behind abutment

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Drainage and piping

5.3 Conditions for installation and

fastening of drainage pipes to bridge
structure

For fastening the pipes, suspenders and

supports are used. They shall be
manufactured and fixed in such a way that a
sufficient support as well as both, contraction
and extension of the pipes is ensured.

The supports and suspenders shall enable

an adequate height regulation. The
suspenders are carried out as movable or
fixed (figures 5.8, 5.9, 5.10). A fixed fastening
of pipes is executed at joints where
transverse drainage pipes are connected to
the longitudinal collecting pipe.

Fig. 5.6: Leading of collecting pipe

downwards in front of abutment

Fig. 5.8: Methods of suspending drainage

pipes

Anchoring of suspenders and supports is

performed by means of a special profile and
bolts with T-heads. When carrying out a
subsequent drilling and inserting of steel
pieces attention shall be paid to pre-stressed
tendons and reinforcement.

The suspenders and supports for fastening

the pipes shall be protected from corrosion or
made of stainless steel.
The distances between supports or
Fig. 5.7: Leading of vertical drainage pipe in
suspenders depend on the pipe types and on
a groove in the pier structure
the permissible sag (vertical flexure) of those
pipes.

The length differences between the bridge

structure and the pipeline are determined on
the basis of material extensibility coefficients
and of temperature differences: 40K for pipes
inside and 60K for those outside of the box
cross section.

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Fig. 5.9: Fixed suspension of pipes

Fig. 5.10: Movable suspension of pipes

5.4 Elements for seepage water drainage bridge. An adequate method is shown in the
and relieving of vapour pressures figure 5.12.
Immediately before the lower expansion joint
Seepage water pipes shall be distributed on with regard to the bridge longitudinal fall,
the entire waterproofed surface in such a seepage water pipes shall be installed at
manner that they are placed in the distances of 3.0 m to 4.0 m (figure 5.13). The
carriageway lowest point, e.g. along the seepage water along the expansion joint
walkway (25 cm from the kerb), at spacing of must be evacuated by means of piping, if a
3.0 m to 10.0 m, depending on the free outflow of water might represent any
carriageway longitudinal fall (figure 5.11). disturbance below the bridge.
Each seepage water pipe shall cover about If a bridge has no inspection chamber,
15-25 m2 of the carriageway. seepage water is collected along the
In case of bridges that cross other roads, the expansion joint by the aid of a collecting
seepage water shall be led to the collecting channel built-in above the waterproofing and
drainage pipe. The latter is then attached to below the waterproofing protection layer. In
the collecting pipe serving for evacuation of the lowest point the water is brought away by
the surface water. means of a small pipe through the structure
If the roads are of a lower range, a free (cross girder) downwards to the bearing
outflow of the seepage water can be surface of the abutment. The mentioned
executed, however under condition that this bearing surface is inclined towards the rear
will not represent any trouble under the wall. From that place, the water is led off from
the bridge (figure 5.14).

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Drainage and piping

Fig. 5.11: Seepage water pipe

For relieving the water vapour pressure

below the waterproofing (where the
waterproofing is protected by a layer of
poured asphalt), additional pipes are installed
at certain locations of the carriageway slab.
These pipes are covered with waterproofing.
However, in the outlet area, the
waterproofing must not be stuck onto the
concrete surface.

Dewatering of shafts in the walkways where

service lines (e.g. electricity, ice announcing
wires, water supply pipes, etc.) are located,
as well as drainage of the holes for building-
in the railing pillars, are shown in the figure
5.16.
Fig. 5.12: Solution with free outflow of
seepage water

In case that a bridge has an inspection

walkway in the abutment, seepage water is
led into the chamber and from there away
from the bridge (figure 5.15).

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Drainage and piping

Fig. 5.13: Drainage and piping of seepage water before expansion joint

Fig. 5.14: Drainage of seepage water at expansion joint by means of piping in case of bridges
without inspection walkway

Fig. 5.15: Drainage of seepage water at Fig. 5.16: Dewatering of service shafts in
expansion joint in case of bridges walkways and of holes for railing
with inspection walkway pillars

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Drainage and piping

6. HYDRAULIC CALCULATIONS of those curves are determined. For a

particular precipitation frequency n, the
Dimensions of individual drainage and piping precipitation curves give a relation between
structural elements are determined on the the unit precipitation intensity q’ and the
basis of hydraulic calculation being a precipitation duration T:
constituent part of bridge dewatering design.
In the present chapter, definitions of input q’ = q’T(n)
parameters as well as formulae required for
the design of individual elements of drainage The precipitation frequency n indicates how
and piping. many times is a precipitation quantity
reached or exceeded at certain precipitation
6.1 Precipitation water quantity and (shower) duration.
outflow
Due to the traffic safety, a reliable bridge
Rainfall and showers are the most important dewatering shall be ensured for design unit
precipitations with regard to the drainage and precipitation intensities at T = 5 min and n =
piping system of a bridge. The intensity and 0.2.
frequency of the precipitations depend on the
season, geographic position and momentary A bridge drainage and piping system shall
meteorological conditions. Other be, from the hydraulic point of view, designed
precipitations such as snow or fog are not in such a way that the duration time of
essential for bridge drainage and piping. collecting the water up to its outflow is shorter
or equal to the duration time of the design
The quantity of precipitation water outflow on shower:
a contributory area amounts to:
T ≤ Td
Qout = ϕ ⋅ q’T(n) ⋅ F
T = L/v; duration time of collecting water up
Qout = quantity of precipitation water outflow to its outflow at length L and velocity v
[l/s]
ϕ = outflow coefficient, i.e. ratio rainfall 6.2 Determination of required number of
quantity falling on contributory gullies and spacing between adjacent
rea/water quantity flowing away into gullies
channel (for bridges ϕ = 1.0 is
assumed) The permissible contributory upper bridge
q’ = unit precipitation intensity (precipitation area per one gully (Fgul) depends on the
outflow at ϕ = 1.0); [l/ha⋅s] following:
F = contributory area to which the
precipitation outflow refers to [ha] - Longitudinal fall of the bridge edge
dewatering
The unit precipitation (outflow) intensity is - Cross fall to be assumed 2.5% minimum
equal to the precipitation quantity in time unit - Unit precipitation (outflow) intensity q’
per area unit. It is determined with the help of - Permissible width of the water flow on the
precipitation intensity data: bridge edge
- Gully capacity.
q’ = i ⋅ f = 166.6 ⋅ i [l/s⋅ha]
The width of the water flow on the bridge
edge (w) which must not be reached by
i = h/T
vehicles even in case of heavy showers, may
amount to:
i = precipitation intensity [mm/min]
- 1.50 m for bridges with a 2.5 m wide
emergency lane,
h = precipitation level [mm] - 1.00 m for all other bridges.
T = precipitation duration The contributory area to be drained per one
gully:
By processing of statistical data on
precipitation obtained on the basis of long
Fgul = egul ⋅ b
standing observations (10 – 20 years) by
means of recording instruments
egul = spacing between gullies
(ombrographs) placed on individual areas,
b = width of drained area per one gully
precipitation curves (ombrograms) or a series

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Drainage and piping Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

The spacing between gullies is determined The gully shall be designed for its capacity of
by the permissible inflow water quantity 10l/s, provided that it is correctly built-in into
Qgul,per (l/s) per one gully or capacity of one the carriageway of 3% cross fall and 3.5%
gully. longitudinal fall (carriageway edge). In case
of smaller cross and longitudinal falls, smaller
Qgul,per ≥ Qinf = ϕ ⋅ q’ ⋅ Fgut gully capacities shall be taken into
consideration when determining the area to
ϕ = outflow coefficient be drained by one gully. In this way, a width
of water flow along the carriageway edge
greater than 1.5 m or 1.0 m is prevented.

Fig. 6.1: Design scheme of contributory dewatered areas for determination of required number of
gullies, spacing between adjacent gullies, and dimensioning of drainage pipes

At each gully, a portion of inflowing water portion depends particularly on the gully grid
flows ahead over the grid. However, that structure. The latter shall be verified by a
portion is small in case of hydraulically suitable test.
favourable grids, longitudinal falls below 5%,
and water quantity not exceeding the gully Values Qgul,per are shown in table 6.1 with
capacity. regard to the carriageway cross fall,
carriageway edge longitudinal fall, gully
If longitudinal falls exceed 5%, a significant location (on the edge of traffic or emergency
portion of water flows ahead over the grid lane).
even in case that the inflowing water quantity
is smaller than the gully capacity. That water

Table 6.1: Permissible inflow water quantity per one gully Qgul,per [l/s]

Longitudinal fall in Cross fall of 2.5%. Cross fall of 3.0%. Gullies located on
% on the bridge Gullies located on Gullies located on the the edge of traffic
the edge of Gullies located
edge in the line of on the edge of edge of emergency lane
gullies emergency lane of lane of 2.5 m width
2.5 m width traffic lane

1.0 – 1.5 10 3.5 10 5.5

1.6 – 2.5 10 5.0 10 7.5
2.6 – 3.5 10 6.5 10 9.5
3.6 – 4.5 10 7.5 10 10
4.6 – 5.0 10 8.5 10 10
5.0 Gully capacity taking into consideration its reduction due to the effect of significant longitudinal fall

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Drainage and piping

For the last gully on the bridge with regard to The velocity of water in the pipe (v) is
the water flow direction, a half the calculated according to the De Chezy’s
permissible inflow water quantity shall be formula where the friction coefficient (formula
taken into consideration. In this way, outflow by Manning-Strickler) is inserted:
of the water from the bridge over the
expansion joint is prevented. v = (1/nG) ⋅ R2/3 ⋅ l1/2

Under favourable conditions, the maximum R = D/4 = hydraulic radius for circular
distance between adjacent gullies may cross section
amount to 25.0 m. However, in unfavourable I = pipe inclination (tan of angle)
circumstances, that distance is reduced to nG = roughness coefficient by Manning
5.0 m (e.g. on the summits of convex or depending on the pipe type and amounting
concave curvatures of the vertical alignment. to:
0.011 for new steel pipes
For assessment of an optimum spacing 0.013 for used steel pipes
between gullies, taking into account their 1/nG = k; according to tables and
capacity, the a. m. values can be generally manufacturers’ information it amounts to
limited to: 75-90.
Local losses in bends and joints are
- Minimum one gully per 400 m2, already taken into account.
- Maximum spacing of 25.0 m for falls ≥ 1%
and 10.0 m for cross-falls of 2.5% and The contributory water quantity per drainage
longitudinal falls of 0.5% respectively. pipe:

6.3 Dimensioning of drainage pipes Q = q’⋅Fdrain/10,000

The dimensioning of the longitudinal q’ = unit precipitation intensity

collecting duct is carried out in sections from
one gully to another. A full pipe cross-section Fdrain = contributory drained area per one pipe
shall be taken into consideration. The
following equations are used for For a practical calculation tables or diagrams
dimensioning of drainage pipes: from the literature can be adopted. The latter
- Flow-through quantity or conductibility of a have been elaborated for different materials
pipe: and pipe roughness respectively. For
Qc = v ⋅ S dimensioning of pipes, data from the pipe
certificate are used as a rule. In table 6.2,
Q = flow-through quantity [m3/s] values for full circular pipe cross sections for
S = internal cross section of the pipe [m2] mostly used diameters of 150, 200, 250 and
v = velocity of water in the pipe [m/s] 300 are given.

Table 6.2: Values of v and Q for circular pipes in accordance with the formula by De Chezy for
velocity with friction coefficient C by Strickler-Manning taking into consideration the
roughness coefficient m = 0.013

DN = pipe diameter; Q = outflow quantity (l/s), v = velocity (m/s), I = pipe inclination (%)
Inclination DN 150 DN 200 DN 250 DN 300
I v Q v Q v Q v Q
10 2.72 48.1 3.30 103.7 3.83 188.0 4.32 305.7
9 2.58 45.7 3.13 98.3 3.63 178.3 4.10 290.0
8 2.44 43.0 2.95 92.7 3.42 168.1 3.87 273.4
7 2.28 40.3 2.76 86.7 3.20 157.3 3.62 255.7
6 2.11 37.3 2.56 80.3 2.97 145.6 3.35 236.8
5 1.93 34.0 2.33 73.3 2.71 132.9 3.06 216.1
4 1.72 30.4 2.09 65.6 2.42 118.9 2.73 193.3
3 1.49 26.4 1.81 56.8 2.10 103.0 2.37 167.4
2 1.22 21.5 1.48 46.4 1.71 84.1 1.93 136.7
1 0.86 15.2 1.04 32.8 1.21 59.4 1.37 96.7
0.9 0.82 14.4 0.99 31.1 1.15 56.4 1.30 91.7
0.8 0.77 13.6 0.93 29.3 1.08 53.2 1.22 86.5
0.7 0.72 12.7 0.87 27.4 1.01 49.7 1.14 80.9
0.6 0.67 11.8 0.81 25.4 0.94 46.0 1.06 74.9
0.5 0.61 10.8 0.74 23.2 0.86 42.0 0.97 68.4

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Drainage and piping Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

6.4 Practical example of calculation Calculation of conductibility of cast iron pipes

of ∅ 150 mm:
Input data: Pipe diameter D = 150 mm
Cross section area S = 0.018 m2
- Design duration time of shower: Td = 5 min. Flow-through velocity v = 1.22 m/s (taken
- Frequency of showers: n = 0.2 from table 6.2)
- Unit outflow intensity: q’ = 528.6 l/(s⋅ha)
- Carriageway without emergency lane Pipe conductibility:
- Width of carriageway to be drained: w = 15.0m Qc = 21.5 l/s (taken from table 6.2)
- Length of carriageway to be draine d: = 52.0 m Calculation of conductibility of cast iron pipes
- Cross fall: 3.0% of ∅ 200 mm:
- Longitudinal fall: 1.0% Pipe diameter D = 200 mm
Cross section area S = 0.0314 m2
Taking into consideration that the gully is Flow-through velocity v = 1.48 m/s (taken
located on the edge of the traffic lane, and from table 6.2)
both longitudinal and cross fall, the
permissible outflow quantity of water per one Pipe conductibility:
gully can be read: Qc = 46.4 l/s (taken from table 6.2)

Qgul,per = 5.5 l/s A tabular calculation of contributory water

quantities Q in sections from one gully to
Determination of spacing between gullies another is shown in table 6.3.
A maximum contributory amount of water
egul,per (m) = (10,000 ⋅ Qgul,per) / (q’ ⋅ w) = inflow Qd from the entire drained area for the
(10,000 ⋅ 5.5) / (528.6 ⋅ 15.0) = 6.94 m example considered:

A spacing egul = 6.50 m between adjacent Qd = q’ ⋅ l ⋅ b/10,000 = 0.0528 ⋅ 52 ⋅ 15.00 =

gullies is selected. 41.2 l/s, which is less than the pipe
conductibility on the last section Qc.
Determination of diameters of drainage pipes

Table 6.3: Example of tabular calculation

Section Lsec w Fsec Qout (l/s) Dpipe I v Qpipe Tout (s)

from to (m) (m) (m2) Gully Total (mm) (%) (m/s) (l/s) Section Total
1-2 6.5 15.0 97.5 5.2 5.2 150 2 1.22 21.5 5 5
2-3 6.5 15.0 97.5 5.2 10.3 150 2 1.22 21.5 5 11
3-4 6.5 15.0 97.5 5.2 15.5 150 2 1.22 21.5 5 16
4-5 6.5 15.0 97.5 5.2 20.6 150 2 1.22 21.5 5 21
5-6 6.5 15.0 97.5 5.2 25.8 200 2 1.48 46.4 4 26
6-7 6.5 15.0 97.5 5.2 30.9 200 2 1.48 46.4 4 30
7-8 6.5 15.0 97.5 5.2 36.1 200 2 1.48 4.4 4 34
8-9 6.5 15.0 97.5 5.2 41.2 200 2 1.48 46.4 4 39

7. Maintenance of drainage and height shall be foreseen at least in one end

piping system of road bridges cross girder. In the bottom slab, at least one
opening of sufficient dimensions equipped
7.1 Accessibility of drainage and piping with a cover shall be designed to enable
system replacement of the drainage duct.
If the collecting drainage pipes above the
All elements requiring maintenance or bridge piers are attached to the vertical
renewal must be accessible. drainage pipes, the transitions from the
longitudinal pipes to the vertical ones shall be
Longitudinal drainage ducts placed between accessible to enable inspection and
superstructure longitudinal girders shall be cleansing.
accessible by means of special maintenance
devices (special lifts) or by construction of If possible, the grooves for placing vertical
special walkways. dewatering pipes shall be left uncovered to
be inspected and maintained easier.
Is the longitudinal drainage system placed At the lower end of the vertical dewatering
within superstructure box cross section, an pipe, an inspection shaft shall be foreseen to
access opening of 0.80 m width and 1.20 m allow accessibility and cleansing of the pipe.

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Drainage and piping

Fig. 7.1: Cleansing of longitudinal pipe

7.2 Cleansing and maintenance of At each inlet of transverse drainage pipes

drainage and piping system into the longitudinal collecting pipe, a
cleansing opening shall be designed. These
The drainage and piping system shall be openings must be closed with a suitable
designed in such a way that economical cover. An access of the cleansing device
maintenance and cleansing are possible. through such an opening shall be made
possible.
Cleansing of the dewatering system is
performed periodically as well as in case of
stoppage. The periodical washing out of the
dewatering system is carried out with the
help of a high-pressure water jet. Cleansing
in case of stoppage is performed by means
of a high-pressure water jet as well, or by the
aid of machines for mechanical cleaning with
scrapers. In the first case, special cleansing
pipes shall be foreseen (figure 7.1), while in
the second case, high quality pipes are
required.

When cleaning the pipes with a high-

pressure water jet, the cleansing nozzle is
introduced into the system in the counter-flow
direction. In this way, water outflow is
ensured. Therefore, special cleansing pipes
with shafts are foreseen. The distance
between the shafts is determined by the Fig. 7.2: Cleansing shaft and cleansing pipe
cleansing procedure allowing cleansing of 70
m of pipe from one shaft. Those shafts are
located on the carriageway slab. They differ
from the gullies in having a cover instead a
grid.

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Drainage and piping Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

8. DESIGN OF DRAINAGE AND The hydraulic calculation shall include the

PIPING SYSTEM OF ROAD necessary data on the selection of the rainfall
BRIDGES intensity, the frequency of design shower, the
unit precipitation intensity, the outflow
The design of drainage and piping system of coefficient and the outflow time. By the
a bridge is a constituent part of the bridge hydraulic calculation, arrangement of gullies
design. and dewatering capacity of the entire
When planning and designing the drainage drainage and piping system shall be verified.
and piping system o a bridge, a permanent
coordination with the road design and the
water economy guidelines is required.

At the preliminary design stage, the drainage

and piping system of the bridge shall be
specified together with the bridge outline
scheme.

In the building permit design and the

execution design, the drainage and piping
system of the bridge shall be elaborated as
an independent design.

Contents of building permit design and

execution design:
- Approved input documents such as water
economy requirements and data,
environment protection guidelines, hydro-
meteorological data;
- Technical report (description of the system,
installation and building-in, maintenance);
- Hydraulic calculation, static analysis;
- Drawings, details;
- Bill of quantities.

In the execution drawings, general

arrangement of the piping network at an
appropriate scale including all constituent
parts of the drainage and piping system shall
be presented. All details necessary for the
execution shall be included, e.g. inclinations
of transverse and longitudinal pipes,
fastening devices, cleansing openings,
description of materials for individual
elements, fittings, etc.

Technical reports shall comprehend the

execution technology for the drainage and
piping system. Moreover, they must give
material quality and performance
requirements, they have to emphasize the
need of attesting, and they shall specify
conditions of attaching to recipients (sewage,
river, etc.).

The bill of quantities must enable a due

material purchase and balancing of the works
carried out.

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 GUIDELINES FOR ROAD DESIGN,
CONSTRUCTION, MAINTENANCE AND
SUPERVISION

Volume I: DESIGNING

Section 2: DESIGNING BRIDGES

DESIGN GUIDELINES (DG 1.2.6)

Part 6: BEARINGS FOR BRIDGES
Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Bearings

INTRODUCTION

In case that a rigid connection between the bridge superstructure and the bridge supports (piers,
abutments) cannot be carried through, bearings shall be foreseen to enable a transfer of selected
forces and moments.

The present DG 1.2.6 deals with an overall topic of designing, installation, and maintenance of
bridge bearings. The up-to-date and most frequently applied bearings on bridges are discussed in
detail.

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Bearings Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

CONTENTS

1. SUBJECT OF DESIGN GUIDELINES .......................................................................................... 5

2. REFERENCE REGULATIONS ..................................................................................................... 5
3. EXPLANATION OF TERMS ......................................................................................................... 5
4. CHARACTERISTICS OF BEARINGS .......................................................................................... 5
5. SYSTEMATIZATION OF BEARINGS........................................................................................... 6
6. SUPPORTING .............................................................................................................................. 8
7. UP-TO-DATE BRIDGE BEARINGS.............................................................................................. 8
7.1 Fixed concrete hinge bearing (reinforcement hinge) .......................................................... 9
7.2 Reinforced elastomeric bearings....................................................................................... 11
7.2.1 Bearing types ................................................................................................................. 11
7.2.2 Composition of bearings ................................................................................................ 11
7.2.3 Bearing characteristics................................................................................................... 11
7.3 Pot bearings ...................................................................................................................... 12
7.3.1 Types of pot bearings .................................................................................................... 12
7.3.2 Composition of bearings ................................................................................................ 13
7.3.3 Characteristics of bearings ............................................................................................ 13
8. APPOINTMENT OF BEARINGS ................................................................................................ 13
8.1 Parameters for selection of bearings ................................................................................ 13
8.1.1 Static parameters:.......................................................................................................... 13
8.1.2 Structural parameters: ................................................................................................... 13
8.1.3 General parameters: ...................................................................................................... 13
8.2 Bearing load capacity........................................................................................................ 13
8.3 Bearing rotation and displacement capacity ..................................................................... 13
8.4 Bearing dimensioning........................................................................................................ 13
8.5 Bearing design data .......................................................................................................... 14
8.6 Bearing design .................................................................................................................. 14
8.7 Data to be obtained by the contractor prior to bearing installation ................................... 14
9. CONDITIONS FOR STRUCTURAL DESIGN IN THE BEARING AND HINGE AREAS ............ 16
10. TAKING OVER, STORAGE, INSTALLATION, MAINTENANCE, AND REPLACEMENT OF
BEARINGS.................................................................................................................................. 19
10.1 Taking over of bearings..................................................................................................... 19
10.2 Storage of bearings ........................................................................................................... 20
10.3 Installation of bearings ...................................................................................................... 20
10.4 Maintenance of bearings................................................................................................... 20
10.5 Replacement of bearings .................................................................................................. 20
10.6 Record of bearing.............................................................................................................. 20

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Bearings

1. SUBJECT OF DESIGN Pot bearing is a bearing whose main

GUIDELINES constituent part is a steel pot filled with an
elastomer.
The intention of the present design guidelines
is to define bearing types, to present Spherical bearing is a bearing composed of
recommendations for their use for different of steel spherically shaped concave and convex
methods of bridge supporting, as well as to elements that enable the supporting point to
specify conditions and methods of appointing rotate by means of their mutual sliding.
a bearing, of designing the bridge structure in
the bearing area, and of taking over, storing, Ball-jointed rocker bearing is a bearing
installation, maintenance, and replacement of enabling rotations around the supporting
most frequently used up-to-date bearings. point.

This design guideline is particularly Tangential rocker bearing is a bearing

applicable to reinforced concrete, pre- enabling rotations around the supporting line.
stressed reinforced concrete and composite
bridges of spans up to 150 m. Hinge bearing is a bearing enabling
rotations by means of mechanical elements –
hinges.
2. REFERENCE REGULATIONS
Bearing for horizontal forces is a bearing
This design guideline DG 1.2.6 includes the enabling transfer of horizontal forces.
following codes:
DIN 4141 German codes for bearings Reinforcement hinge is a part of concrete
EN 1337:2000 General Design Rules structure designed and reinforced in such a
EN 1337-1:2002 way that it can work as a ball-jointed rocker
EN 1337-2:2000 Sliding elements bearing and a tangential rocker bearing,
EN 1337-2:2002 respectively.
EN 1337-3 Elastomeric bearings
EN 1337-4 Roller bearings Bearing load capacity is the highest value
EN 1337-5 Pot bearings of permissible loading acting on bearing.
EN 1337-6 Rocker bearings
EN 1337-7:2000 Spherical and cylindrical Bearing displacement and rotation
PTFE bearings capacity is a capability of a bearing to
EN 1337-7:2002 enable relative (superstructure vs.
EN 1337-8 Guided bearings and restrained substructure) displacement and rotations.
bearings
EN 1337-9:1997 Protection Bearing block is a part of concrete structure
EN 1337-9:2002 onto which a bearing is placed.
EN 1337-10 Inspection and maintenance
EN 1337-11:1997 Transport, storage and
installation 4. CHARACTERISTICS OF
EN 1337-11:2002 BEARINGS

Bearings connect different structural

3. EXPLANATION OF TERMS elements and transfer only selected forces or
moments. The transfer of other forces is
Bearing is a structural element enabling a completely or partially excluded by enabling
transfer of selected forces from the certain relative displacements or rotations.
superstructure to the substructure.
Bridge bearings must:
Supporting means a structure supporting
system in a broader meaning. - take vertical and horizontal reactions of the
superstructure and transfer them to piers
Reinforced elastomeric bearing is a and abutments;
product made of rubber, i.e. polychloroprene - enable vertical deformations of
with at least 60% of an elastomer, reinforced superstructure main girders; in the bearing
with steel plates. areas, those deformations appear as
rotations being a consequence of the slope
of elastic bending lines of girders;

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- enable superstructure expansion in bridge 5. SYSTEMATIZATION OF BEARINGS

axis (for wide bridges also in transversal
direction) due to a uniform temperature In the points where two structural elements
oscillation over the entire cross section. are in contact, six internal forces (Fx, Fy, Fz,
Mx, My, Mz) and six relative displacements
By an adequate selection of bearings to (vx, vy, vz, ϑx, ϑy, ϑz) can occur. These are so-
transfer certain internal forces and moments, called degrees of freedom of a bearing.
the designing engineer can optimize a bridge
structure, because the selection of bearings
crucially influences the internal forces and
the structural deformability thus affecting the
price, durability, and serviceability of the
particular bridge.

A bearing enables deformability of both

superstructure and substructure as required
by different types of loading (temperature,
shrinkage, creep, deformations due to pre-
stressing), however without any harmful
loading of the structure. In this function,
secondary (constrained) internal forces arise
in the bearings. These forces are a
consequence of differential deformations of
the superstructure and the substructure.
Their magnitude is extremely dependent on
the bearing type.

With elastically deformable bearings

(elastomeric bearings, steel springs with
dampers, etc.) it is possible to affect the
structural dynamic response, i.e. to isolate
dynamically a part of the structure. This is
particularly important for construction and
service of structures situated in vicinity of
dynamically extremely sensitive buildings, or
when a certain structure is designed to be
seismically isolated thus ensuring an
undamaged structure (in elastic condition) Figure 1: Internal forces and displacements
during a seismic event.
In certain structural systems such as An individual bearing type enables a transfer
continuous superstructures being founded in of certain forces as well as some
such a way that differential settlements occur displacements. The principle of functioning is
due to lasting settlement of the foundation the following: the principal internal forces are
soil, structural deformations can be kept transferred by a bearing in such a way that
within acceptable limits by means of the corresponding relative displacements or
hydraulic jacks and inserting or taking away rotations are prevented, whereas the
steel plates below bearings. remaining relative displacements and
rotations are made feasible. Hereby, so-
When a bridge is constructed by incremental called secondary or constrained internal
launching or whenever heavy and large forces arise whose magnitude is limited
structural elements have to be moved, the depending on the bearing type.
up-to-date sliding bearings can be foreseen
to enable the horizontal transport. Static and kinematical designation of
bearings is indicated in the DIN 4141, Part 1
(September 1984), where the bearing types
are systematically classified on the basis of
the characteristic principal internal forces and
degrees of freedom.

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Table 1: Bearing designations

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It should by taken into consideration that a the pier stiffness could lead to excessive
secondary internal force (constrained internal moments in the piers. The reinforcement
force) acts in the direction of each degree of hinge is usually carried through on the top of
freedom. For bearings intended to take a pier; however, it can also be situated
predominantly vertical loads it is reasonable underneath or even on both ends of a pier.
to appoint the z-axis in the vertical load
direction thus the bearings with tensile forces Reinforcement hinges are not
in the z-direction represent a special case, recommendable in cases where significant
whereas the loads Fx and Fy as well as the settlements of the pier foundations are
moment Mx have mainly an alternating sign. expected. Even pot bearings are only
All the bearing types according to the DIN conditionally applicable in such cases.
4141 classification have the ϑz degree of To ensure a correct supporting, the following
freedom. For all the bearing types it is conditions shall be fulfilled:
assumed that they cannot take the moment - an adequately conceived supporting;
Mz. Since several bearings are sensitive to - an accurate determination of foreseen
rotations ϑz, it shall always be verified maximum moments, forces, displacements,
whether an appointed bearing corresponds to and rotations;
the selected supporting system. - a correct selection of bearings;
- a regular installation of bearings.
A bridge structure will function in accordance
6. SUPPORTING with the designer’s idea when all conditions
mentioned above are entirely implemented.
Supporting influences the bridge durability, Clearly, when a bearing is not properly
functioning and economy. All efforts should installed, the supporting is not and cannot be
be directed to such a bridge design where appropriate. Therefore, it shall be ensured
the superstructure and the substructure are that the construction site receives an exact
rigidly connected. However, bearings cannot plan of the bearing installation including all
be avoided for more complex bridges. For required information on the bearings,
this purpose, the supporting shall be adjustments, and directions and magnitudes
conceived to correspond to the static system of foreseen displacements. Moreover, an
and to pay regard to the characteristics of the adequate supervision is obligatory to ensure
foreseen bearings. a correct installation of bearings.
An up-to-date supporting is ensured by:
- bearings enabling rotations in all directions,
- bridge scheme enabling the structure also 7. UP-TO-DATE BRIDGE BEARINGS
transverse deformations at minimum
secondary forces, e.g. in such a way that in Up-to-date bridge bearings can be classified
one supporting axis only one bearing fixed in the basic groups indicated in table 2.
in transversal direction is applied, whereas
the other bearings are free in all directions. Theoretically, forces can be transferred via
contact points, lines or surfaces. In the first
Fundamental conceptions of selecting the two cases, steel elements permitting high
supporting with respect to the bridge scheme Hertz’s stresses are required to transfer the
in plan are described in the DG 1.2.1 forces, whereas in the third case, elastomers
On the supports (i.e. piers and abutments) can be used.
where major settlements are expected or Rotation of a bearing is made possible by
reliable soil mechanical data is not available, rolling of a plate on a sphere (in all directions)
such bearings shall be foreseen, which can or a cylinder (in one direction), by sliding
stand additional displacements or between spherically shaped convex or
settlements without significant secondary concave steel elements of a bearing, or by
forces, or bearings that can be the deformation of an elastomeric body.
accommodated to the long-term settlements Displacements of a bearing are enabled by
(e.g. by inserting or taking away of steel the elastic deformation of an elastomeric
plates). body (small displacements) or by the
interacting sliding of two bearing elements. In
A fixed concrete hinge bearing the second case, the contact surfaces are
(reinforcement hinge) is particularly PTFE and stainless steel as a rule.
appropriate to connect the superstructure Beside the bearings shown in table 2, fixed
and the substructure where no major concrete hinge bearing (reinforcement
displacements are expected (shorter bridges hinges) are frequently used. This bearing
or central parts of longer bridges), and where type is described in detail in item 7.1.

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Table 2: Basic groups of bearings

7.1 Fixed concrete hinge bearing Materials:

(reinforcement hinge)
Concrete grade MB 40, galvanized deformed
steel reinforcement RA 400/500-2

Hinge dimensions:
Fz , D
AG ,max = a ⋅ b =
2α dej β w28

Structure: 1 Cross girder

2 Narrowing area
3 Distributing area
(support)

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Fz ,max Range of taking transverse moments:

AG ,min =
⎡ ⎛ α dej ⎞⎤ Mx ≤ 1/6 b Fz no special measures
0.85β w28 ⎢1 + λ ⎜1 − 2.35η ⎟⎥ required
⎢⎣ ⎜ β w28 ⎟⎥ Mx > 1/6 b Fz
⎝ ⎠⎦ special stress verification
and special structural
measures required
Fz ,max
η= ,
Fz , D Angle of rotation:
Fz
λ = 1 .2 − 4
a
≤ 0.8, α dop = , Fz , D ≤ Fz ≤ Fz ,max
d 2 AG β w 28
α0
α dej = + α1 Retroacting moment:
2
Fz a 2 Fz
M y,R = (1 − )
α0 rotation due to pre-stressing, 2 9 αAG β w 28
shrinkage and creep
α1 rotation due to temperature, traffic
When hinges are not cracked or contain
load, etc.
centrically built-in rebars, My,R can become
Fz,max maximum normal force
significantly greater!
Fz,D normal force at dead load
AG cross section of reinforcement hinge
Reinforcing of the hinge:
βw28 cube compressive strength after 28
days

Additional conditions:

a ≤ 0.3d, a ≤ 0.4b,
b0 ≥ 0.7a, however ≤ 4 cm
b ... optional

Construction depth:

e ≤ 0.2a, however ≤ 4 cm
tgβ ≈ 1/8

Range of vertical load bearing capacity:

1 ... anchoring ~ 30 φ
Fz,D ≤ Fz ≤ Fz,max 2 ... galvanized rebars

Load at failure:
Splitting forces:
d
Fz , Br = 3 0.75β w 28 ab + σ 02 As Z1 = 0.3 Fz,max
a Z2 = 0.3 (1-b/c) Fz,max
As cross section of reinforcement in the Z3 = 0.03 a/b Fz,max
hinge Z4 = 0.3 (1-b/k) Fz,max

Range of horizontal load bearing capacity: Changeability: not changeable!

Fh ≤ 1/8 Fz no special measures required Sphere of application:

Fh ≤ 1/4 Fz to be reinforced with straight
rebars according to structural For all bridges allowing a use of tangential
principles bearings, however only in such cases when
Fh > 1/4 Fz should be avoided whenever no subsequent height accommodation (e.g.
possible (this ratio can be due to settlements) is required.
improved by pre-stressing of
the hinge)

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7.2 Reinforced elastomeric bearings

7.2.1 Bearing types

7.2.1.1 Bearings without sliding function:

• elastically free in all directions,

• elastically free in one direction, • transversally elastic free, longitudinally

elastic and sliding free bearing (VGE2).

7.2.2 Composition of bearings

Up-to-date reinforced elastomeric bearings

are made of:
• fixed bearing.
- an external elastomeric layer serving as
corrosion protection of steel plates;
- internal elastomeric layers enabling the
function of a bearing;
- steel vulcanized-in steel plates preventing
transverse extensions and enabling
significant loading of these bearings.

The bearings with a sliding function contain

sliding plates with specially executed sliding
surfaces (stainless steel surface in contact
with PTFE).

7.2.3 Bearing characteristics

7.2.1.2 Bearings with sliding function An elastomeric bearing can also take
horizontal forces that, however, must not act
• elastic in all directions and sliding free permanently. During the transfer of these
bearing (VG2), horizontal forces, displacements occur being
necessary for creation of the retroacting
force. Since this force is transferred by
friction, a minimum pressure set up by the
vertical load shall be ensured.

The retroacting horizontal force:

v v
H = A⋅G ⋅ , = tan γ
• transversally fixed, longitudinally elastic h h
and sliding free bearing (VG1),

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v horizontal displacement at force H, - secondary retroacting forces are activated

h total depth (thickness) of elastomeric due to horizontal displacements,
layers, - temperature range of application: from –
G shear module of the elastomer 30°C to +70°C,
A area of the bearing in plan - should not be combined with steel or pot
bearings on the same pier or abutment.
Dimensions in plan:
Changeability:
− rectangular bearings: from 100x100 mm
to 900x900 mm, Due to short service life of elastomers, the
− circular bearings: from φ 200 to φ 900 changeability of reinforced elastomeric
mm. bearings shall be ensured.

Construction depth: from 14 to 332 mm. Sphere of application:

Load bearing capacity (vertical): from 100 to Without sliding function these bearings can
12,150 kN be used for all bridges of shorter or middle
spans, particularly for broad and inclined
Angle of rotation: from 1 %0 to 36 %0 . bridges, as well as for the central parts of
longer bridges. With the sliding function,
Permissible pressures on bearings: bearings of this type can be applied where
the elastically free bearings should be
Bearing dimensions in plan Permissible combined with the sliding ones.
mm pressure
MPa 7.3 Pot bearings
up to 150x200, up to φ 200 10.0
up to 250x400, up to φ 350 12.5 7.3.1 Types of pot bearings
greater 15.0
• fixed bearing (P);
Minimum required pressures on bearings:

Bearing dimensions in plan Minimum pressure

mm MPa
up to 350x400, up to φ 350 3.0
greater 5.0

In case of insufficient minimum pressures,

i.e. when the friction is unsatisfactory, one of
the anchored elastomeric bearing types shall
be foreseen.
• sliding free in all directions (P2);

Types of anchored elastomeric bearings • transversally fixed, longitudinally sliding

free bearing (P1).
The individual blocks of elastomeric bearings
must not be combined to obtain greater load
bearing or displacement capacity.

Special characteristics:

- small construction depths,

- simple installation,
- uniform distribution of pressure on
concrete,
- compression occurs due to vertical load
(vertical yielding),

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7.3.2 Composition of bearings 8.2 Bearing load capacity

− steel pot, The bearing load capacity in both vertical and

− elastomeric cushion, longitudinal direction (longitudinally and
− pot cover. transversally) is determined on the basis of
the maximum forces acting on the particular
7.3.3 Characteristics of bearings bearing.

Dimensions in plan: from φ 290 mm to φ 8.3 Bearing rotation and displacement

1,910 mm capacity
Construction depth: from 65 mm to 210 mm
The required rotation and displacement
Load bearing capacity: capacity of a certain bearing is calculated
− vertical: 1,000 kN – 50,000 kN from the actions mentioned below. For the
− horizontal: 100 kN – 2,500 kN permanent loads, i.e. dead load and pre-
stressing, plastic deformations (creep) shall
Angle of rotation: up to 10 %0 in all be taken into consideration.
directions.
Actions to determine the required rotation
capacity:
8. APPOINTMENT OF BEARINGS
- deformations of the superstructure due to
8.1 Parameters for selection of bearings the dead load, pre-stressing, traffic load,
settlements, temperature differences, and
In addition to the bearing type appointed at differential shrinkage;
the selection of supporting, the following - rotations of the pier head due to its
structural and general parameters shall be displacement.
taken into consideration for the selection of
the most appropriate bearings. Actions to determine the required
displacement capacity in both longitudinal
8.1.1 Static parameters: and transverse direction:

- vertical forces acting on a bearing – - deformations of the superstructure due to

maximum, permanent, minimum; the pre-stressing, uniform temperature
- horizontal forces in both longitudinal and oscillation (over the entire cross section),
transverse direction; uniform shrinkage, displacements of
- required displacements and the number of abutments, and rotation of the girder;
possible displacements; - displacement of the pier head at “elastic
- required rotations and the number of supporting” due to braking forces, wind
possible rotations; forces, and friction forces.
- displacements and rotations;
- safety against position change; 8.4 Bearing dimensioning
- magnitudes of secondary (constrained)
forces that the structure can stand. Up-to-date bearings are products of the up-
to-date industry. They should be designed by
8.1.2 Structural parameters: an adequate expert, and their dimensioning
shall be carried through in accordance with
- material for bridge superstructure; the data submitted by the structural designer.
- superstructure construction method; Those data are indicated in 8.5. Only
- spatial conditions at abutments, piers, and reinforcement hinges shall be designed and
superstructure; dimensioned by the bridge designer himself.
- accommodation of pier and abutment The procedure of dimensioning the
settlements. reinforcement hinges is indicated in 7.1.

8.1.3 General parameters: The bridge designer shall provide for the
transfer of forces from the bearing into both
- installation of bearings; substructure and superstructure (cross
- maintenance of bearings; girder). He is particularly obliged to foresee
- replacement of bearings; an adequate reinforcement to take the
- economy; splitting forces.
- appearance.

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8.5 Bearing design data 8.6 Bearing design

Bridge contractors shall select the bearings The selected bearing supplier is obliged to
and their suppliers on the basis of the work out a bearing design comprising the
following data (figure 2, table 3): following items:

- scheme of bearing arrangement in plan: - arrangement drawing of bearings with

position, designation, orientation (which is exact designations appointing each
of extreme importance for curved and wide individual bearing;
bridges), as well as magnitude and - drawings of individual bearings;
direction of pre-adjustment shall be - instructions for installation, maintenance,
specified for each bearing; and replacement of bearings.
- vertical forces: permanent, maximum and
minimum forces; The bearing design shall be submitted to the
- horizontal forces: maximum forces in both bridge designer for approval.
longitudinal and transverse direction;
- displacements: maximum displacements in 8.7 Data to be obtained by the contractor
longitudinal or both longitudinal and prior to bearing installation
transversal direction (for all bearings free in
one or all directions); Before the bearing installation, the contractor
- rotations: maximum rotations in both is obliged to obtain the following data and
longitudinal and transverse direction; documents ensuring that the bearing has
- pre-adjustments (for sliding bearings) at been selected in accordance with the design
presumed temperature upon installation, documents, as well as that its conformity has
and required modifications of adjustment at been proven by an appropriate certificate and
temperature upon installation that differs that the bearing is in a perfect condition:
from the presumed one.
- approval of the bearing design by the
bridge designer;
- certificate of suitability for all the bearings
to be installed on a bridge;
- record of the bearing taking over.

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Figure 2: Scheme of bearing arrangement in plan

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Bearings Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

9. CONDITIONS FOR STRUCTURAL These bearing plates shall be installed

DESIGN IN THE BEARING AND absolutely horizontally, and the levelling
HINGE AREAS mortar shall entirely fill the void between the
bearing block and the bearing plate. All
For a proper functioning of bearings certain required dimensions are indicated in figure 3.
structural conditions shall be fulfilled by the
load bearing bridge structure (figures 3, 4, 5) In case of monolithic concrete structures
ensuring a correct position of bearings, the where concrete is cast directly onto bearings,
foreseen displacements and rotations, as as well as of bridge rehabilitations where the
well as inspection, maintenance, and available space is insufficient, the use of
replacement of the bearings. steel bearing plates in combination with
elastomeric bearings is not necessary.
There are two types of structural conditions:
general conditions and special conditions. Since the bearing service life is shorter than
The general conditions shall be fulfilled the bridge one, conditions for bearing
irrespective of the bearing type and will be replacement shall be ensured. The bridge
handled in this chapter. The special designer shall foresee sufficient place for
conditions depend on the bearing type and placing hydraulic jacks as well as a place for
are presented within descriptions of the an easy replacement of a bearing. The
individual bearings. required dimensions are indicated in figure 4.
Common and simple hydraulic jacks shall be
Generally, a bearing is placed onto the foreseen. Locations where jacks will be
bearing block located either below (figure 3) placed must enable a transfer of forces
or both above and below. The bearing block acting onto the bearing. Therefore, sufficient
enables a correct placing of the bearing as dimensions of such locations shall be
well as a perfect transfer of forces. The ensured by the bridge design.
concrete grade shall be at least MB 30 or
equal to that of the bridge structure. Bearing The structure has to be of such a shape that
blocks can be executed either with or without the bearings are protected from atmospheric
construction joints. The required dimensions and other harmful actions as much as
are indicated in figure 3. Special attention possible. Special attention shall be paid to
shall be paid to an adequate reinforcing of the prevention of wetting the bearing,
the bearing block in the area where reaction especially with salt water.
forces enter the block: reinforcement to cover
splitting, and reinforcement in the cross If feasible, the bearings shall be protected
girder to cover bending. Bearings should not from birds by means of wire meshes or
be in a direct contact with the bearing block. Plexiglas to prevent dirt and to enable
It is recommended to place the bearings on a inspection of bearings.
steel bearing plate connected with the
bearing block via levelling mortar.

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Bearings

Figure 3: Structural design in bearing area and required dimensions of bearing block and
bearing plates (in mm)

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Bearings Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

Figure 4: Conditions for placing hydraulic jacks upon bearing replacement

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Bearings

Figure 5: Schematic presentation of interdependence of structure and bearings

10. TAKING OVER, STORAGE,

INSTALLATION, MAINTENANCE, The bearing installation drawing, all
AND REPLACEMENT OF certificates, licences, eventual special
BEARINGS instructions, and the record of bearing shall
be permanently available on the construction
An adequate supporting can be achieved by site.
installing undamaged and properly fabricated
bearings, by their maintenance and, if 10.1 Taking over of bearings
required, by their replacement as well.
Upon taking over of the bearings, the
In case that no special instructions by the following shall be checked:
bearing supplier, contractor, supervising - eventual visible damages, in particular of
engineer or carrier are available, the corrosion protection;
provisions of this design standard shall be - cleanliness of bearings;
taken into consideration. - conformity with the bearing design;
- bearing designations;
Transportation, provisional storage, and - bearing dimensions;
installation of bearings shall be carried - magnitude and direction of pre-adjustment;
through only by specially appointed and - possibility of subsequent modification of
qualified labour. pre-adjustment.

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10.2 Storage of bearings After installation the bearings shall be

rechecked to establish whether any changes
After being transported to the construction in the bearing position or any damage to the
site, the bearings shall be carefully unloaded bearings have occurred.
and kept in an appointed store protected from
atmospheric actions and impacts by the A record of bearing shall be kept prior to its
construction site in order to remain clean and installation and afterwards. The record shall
undamaged. be signed by the bridge contractor, by the
representative of the bearing supplier, and by
10.3 Installation of bearings the supervising engineer. An example of the
record form is presented in 10.6.
Special attention shall be paid to the bearing
installation to prevent damage to the 10.4 Maintenance of bearings
bearings and structure as well as to ensure a
proper functioning. For an adequate bearing maintenance,
regular inspections, periodical examinations,
Bearings shall be installed in accordance with and maintenance in its strictest meaning, i.e.
exact instructions being a constituent part of cleaning, renewal of corrosion protection,
the bearing design, or with special lubricating and eliminating of structural
instructions. defects affecting the bearing (e.g. wetting)
shall be carried through.
Prior to application of filling mortar below the
bearing, the following shall be checked: The bearing maintenance shall be worked
out in the bearing design and approved by
- identity of the installed bearing with the the institution that has issued a certificate on
designed one; the bearing suitability.
- height levels;
- bearing orientation (X-axis or Y-axis); 10.5 Replacement of bearings
- horizontality of the bearing;
- magnitude and direction of the pre- The bearing design shall comprehend certain
adjustment; conditions to ensure a correct bearing
- consideration of supplier’s eventual special function. When these conditions fail to be
instructions for bearing installation; fulfilled due to damages or wearing out which
- filling mortar (composition, properties, is established upon regular inspection and
method of its filling below the bearing). verified by a control investigation, the bearing
shall be replaced.
When a bearing has to be exceptionally
inclined towards the horizontal, this shall be When a bearing is replaced due to wearing
extra denoted in the design (in the bearing out, the entire structure shall be taken into
installation drawing as well) and checked consideration, since an unfavourable
prior to concreting. redistribution of reaction forces can occur
because of the stiffness change.
The bearings shall be secured by means of
special accessories in such a way that they The worn out bearings shall be replaced
remain in their designed position during simultaneously on the entire bridge. In case
installation. Wooden wedges must not be that this might not be necessary, all the
used. bearings on the same transverse bearing
axis shall be replaced.
Before establishing the bearing function,
installation accessories shall be removed. When a bridge is reconstructed, eventual
modifications of the static system shall be
Welding and flame cutting can be carried considered, and the bearings shall be
through only if permitted by the bearing redesigned, if necessary.
supplier in order to prevent excessive
temperature loading. 10.6 Record of bearing

The inclination of the bearing plane can A record of taking over, installation, and
deviate from the designed inclination by no condition at the beginning of the service of a
more than 5 %0, unless specified otherwise. bearing shall be kept. An example of the
record form is presented on the next page.

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Table 4: Record of bearing

Road: Section: km:

Bridge (designation, location):
Method of installation:
No. of bearing drawing
No. of supplier / order:
No. of certificate: Validity of certificate:
Client: Receiver: Supervisor:
No. Stage Description Entry
1 Location of installation (No. of support / position)
2 Bearing type
3 Vertical force Fz in kN
4 Horizontal force Fx/Fy in kN
5 Calculated displacement (from fixed point) in mm ±ex/±ey
6 Previous adjustment in mm ±ex/±ey
7 No. of drawing / No. of sheet
8 Delivery date
Prior to
9 Properly unloaded, supported and covered
installation
10 Designation on bearing
11 Displacement gauge on bearing (yes/no)
12 Cleanliness and corrosion protection
13 Fixing structure
14 Cleanliness of contact surface
15 Thickness of joint (mortar) in mm above/below
16 Mortar composition / quality test
17 Method of mortar application
18 Date / hour
19 Temperature of structure in °C
20 Installation Direction and magnitude of previous adjustment in mm/m
21 Deviation from horizontal in mm/m
longitudinally/transversally
22 Cleanliness and corrosion protection
23 Date / hour
24 Temperature of structure in °C
25 Blocking loosened / removed
26 Service Cleanliness and corrosion protection
27 Deviation from horizontal in mm/m
longitudinally/transversally
28 Zero-measurement displacement/slip/opening in mm
29 Notes / warnings

Contractor: Bearing manufacturer: Supervisor:

Place: Date:

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 GUIDELINES FOR ROAD DESIGN,
CONSTRUCTION, MAINTENANCE AND
SUPERVISION

Volume I: DESIGNING

Section 2: DESIGNING BRIDGES

DESIGN GUIDELINES (DG 1.2.7)

Part 7: EXPANSION JOINTS ON BRIDGES
Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Expansion joints

INTRODUCTION

Expansion joints are movable joints between the bridge superstructure and the abutment or
between two parts of the bridge superstructure.

Bridge designers should tend to such bridges that do not require any expansion joints. When
expansion joints are inevitable, their number shall be small as possible.

Expansion joints, particularly those for large movements, are designed, selected and installed
extremely professionally. Recent findings based on investigation and monitoring of built-in
expansion joints are taken into consideration. Up-to-date materials of highest quality offered by
professional, proven and reliable manufacturers are employed.

Only such expansion joints shall be installed that ensure a faultless waterproofing and a perfect
and controlled drainage. In addition, they shall fulfil the following requirements:
- to be able to accommodate all expected movements,
- to be reliable and resistant when taking loads,
- to resist corrosion and abrasion actions,
- to be noiseless when passed by vehicles,
- to have a long period of life,
- to ensure simple control, maintenance, repair, and replacement.

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Expansion joints Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

CONTENTS

1. SUBJECT OF DESIGN GUIDELINES .......................................................................................... 5

2. REFERENCE REGULATIONS ..................................................................................................... 5
3. EXPLANATION OF TERMS ......................................................................................................... 5
4. BASIC REQUIREMENTS ............................................................................................................. 6
4.1. Bridge conception................................................................................................................ 6
4.2. Selection of adequate expansion joint ................................................................................ 6
5. TYPES AND FIELDS OF APPLICATION ..................................................................................... 6
5.1. Waterproof expansion joints................................................................................................ 6
5.2. Expansion joints for minimum movements ......................................................................... 7
5.3. Expansion joints for small movements................................................................................ 8
5.4. Expansion joints for medium movements ........................................................................... 9
5.5. Expansion joints for large movements ................................................................................ 9
5.6. Expansion joints for extremely large movements ............................................................. 10
6. APPOINTMENT OF EXPANSION JOINTS AND ACCOMPANYING TECHNICAL
DOCUMENTS ............................................................................................................................. 10
6.1. Design calculation in general ............................................................................................ 10
6.2. Calculation of movements in expansion joint.................................................................... 11
6.3. Drawings ........................................................................................................................... 11
7. Requirements for bridge structure in expansion joint area ......................................................... 13
7.1. General.............................................................................................................................. 13
7.2. Bridge superstructure ........................................................................................................ 14
7.3. Bridge substructure ........................................................................................................... 14
7.4. Waterproofing, asphalt, kerbs and walkways with edge beams ....................................... 14
7.5. Drainage............................................................................................................................ 16
7.6. Checking of procedures prior to placing an order for expansion joint............................... 16
8. TAKING OVER, INSTALLATION, MAINTENANCE, AND REPLACEMENT OF EXPANSION
JOINT.......................................................................................................................................... 18
8.1. Taking over of expansion joint from manufacturer............................................................ 18
8.2. Installation of expansion joint ............................................................................................ 18
8.2.1. Installation of bituminous expansion joints and elastomer fillers ................................... 18
8.2.2. Installation of rubber expansion joint ............................................................................. 18
8.2.3. Execution of waterproofing at expansion joint ............................................................... 20
8.2.4. Application of wearing course at expansion joint........................................................... 20
8.2.5. Inspection and maintenance of expansion joints ........................................................... 20
8.2.6. Replacement of expansion joints ................................................................................... 20
8.2.7. Attestation of expansion joints ....................................................................................... 20

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Expansion joints

1. SUBJECT OF DESIGN Bituminous sealing compound consists of

GUIDELINES polymerized bitumen. It is used for sealing of
joints where asphalt layers are connected to
The intention of the present DG 1.2.7 is to the expansion joint elements.
define criteria for determination of the
expansion joint type and to give technical Concrete structure is a wider expression for
conditions for its proper design, installation a part of the bridge structure, constructed of
and use. cement concrete onto or into which
expansion joint elements are fastened or
Within the present framework, the guidelines anchored.
specify bases for calculation of the expansion
joint moving capacity. In the subsequent Seepage water pipe is a specially shaped
chapters, instructions for designing of small pipe serving to drain the water arising
expansion joints are given. Moreover, from the concaves at expansion joint and
requirements to be fulfilled by the bridge seeping through the asphalt layers.
structural elements to enable a reliable
installation and subsequent function of Expansion opening is the spacing between
expansion joints are indicated as well. structural elements that is bridged by the
expansion joint.
Essential constructive details of expansion
joints in the carriageway area, pedestrian Expansion joint is an element bridging the
walkway and edge beam are presented. movable joint between the superstructure
and the abutment or between two parts of the
In the second part of this design standard, superstructure.
installation, inspection, maintenance, and
replacement procedures for expansion joints Simple expansion joint is an element
are determined. installed into the joint between the bridge
carriageway and the connecting road
carriageway. In general, this applies to minor
2. REFERENCE REGULATIONS bridges and to roads of lower ranking.

The present design guideline includes foreign Disconnecting of structure is a wider term
codes and other technical regulations stated for structural discontinuities enabling mutually
in corresponding passages of the subsequent independent moving of separated structural
text. The latest edition is always valid. parts.

- Structural bearings and expansion joints for Elastomer is a wider term for the synthetic
bridges, Structural Engineering Documents rubber possessing required physical and
IABSE, Zürich, 2002; chemical properties. In bridge construction,
- DIN 1072; chloroprene rubber is mainly used.
- Austrian guidelines RVS 15.45: Bridge
Equipment – Expansion Joints, 1985 Comb is a constituent part of an expansion
(Brückenausrüstung joint, shaped as a comb or saw where two
Übergangskonstruktionen); elements extending one into another ensure
- TL/TP-Fü, Germany. continuity of the expansion joint surface.

Walkway is a part of the bridge carriageway

3. EXPLANATION OF TERMS intended for pedestrians and cyclists. It is
usually raised above the carriageway.
Asphalt expansion joint is a term for the
wide assortment of expansion joints where Steel profile in expansion joints is a specially
the extensible part of an expansion joint is profiled steel girder on which a rubber seal is
made of a mixture for which the term pressed or screwed.
“asphalt” has become familiar.
Steel anchor is a round steel loop, a
Bituminous expansion joint is a narrower specially formed element made of steel plate,
term for an asphalt expansion joint whose or a cylindrically shaped element, embedded
extensible part is made of a mixture of in structural concrete, creating a rigid
polymerized and/or elastomer enriched connection between the bridge structure and
bitumen, and of stone-filler. the expansion joint.

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Dowel is a narrower term for steel anchor 4.2. Selection of adequate expansion joint
embedded in concrete or stuck into a
preliminarily drilled hole. All participants in the bridge construction are
obliged to select expansion joints, in
Expansion joint opening is the width particular those for large movements, in an
between stiff elements of an expansion joint. extremely professional manner. They shall
It depends on setting and functioning of the take into consideration the newest knowledge
structure, and determines the expansion joint based on researches and profound
moving capacity. observations of expansion joints in service.
The best solutions offered by reliable
Movement of expansion joint is a common expansion joint manufacturers in a certain
term for all possible movement vectors in the moment, shall be selected.
expansion joint axis, including rotation.
Up-to-date expansion joints shall be built to
Temperature expansion is an expression fulfil the following requirements:
for shortening or lengthening of structural
elements due to their temperature change. - movements in both horizontal and vertical
direction shall be ensured;
- they shall be perfectly waterproof and shall
4. BASIC REQUIREMENTS enable a perfectly waterproof drainage,
respectively;
The present design guideline deals with - load bearing capacity of their elements
expansion joints on road bridges. shall ensure the ultimate limit state, all the
serviceability limit states, and the fatigue
4.1. Bridge conception resistance for the entire service life;
- when passed by vehicles they shall not
When designing a bridge, designers shall make any noise; they shall enable an
tend towards such a conception where no adequate passing of all participants in
expansion joint or a minimum number of traffic;
expansion joints is required. - they shall be resistant to corrosive actions
including to abrasion due to sand on the
Designers shall take into consideration that carriageway, and to de-icing salts;
installation of extremely oblique and/or - their control, maintenance, repair, and
curved expansion joints with branches, or replacement shall be made possible;
expansion joints of greater longitudinal and - their service life shall be long (depending
transversal falls, and other expansion joints on the expansion joint type; service life of
of irregular shape, requires special asphalt expansion joints shall be at least as
executions with unverified details. Such long as that of the asphalt carriageway);
expansion joints are less reliable, more - their price shall be reasonable and the
complicated for inspection and maintenance, quality guaranteed.
and make construction more expensive.
Therefore, expansion joints of such kind shall
already be avoided in the early stage of 5. TYPES AND FIELDS OF
bridge design. APPLICATION
Furthermore, the bridge designer is obliged On bridges where the space below the
to bear in mind that expansion joints must be expansion opening is not accessible, only
perfectly designed in all the structural waterproof expansion joints shall be installed.
elements, i.e. in the carriageway as well as in
the areas of kerbs, pedestrian walkways and 5.1. Waterproof expansion joints
cycle tracks, edge beams, bordures, concrete
safety barriers etc. Therefore, those elements An expansion joint is waterproof when:
shall be designed with care as well.
- a waterproof seal is installed that is water-
When several bridges are constructed on one tightly connected with the waterproofing
road section, expansion joints shall be made layer on the bridge (figures 4, 8, and 9),
uniform if possible. In this way, control and - a seal is water-tightly built-in into a steel
maintenance are simplified and the costs bearing profile or a high-performance
reduced. concrete pad to be water-tightly connected
with the waterproofing layer on the bridge
(figures 5, 6, 7), or

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Expansion joints

- a trapping gutter is installed in the expansion joints (figure 10), and simple
expansion opening below the expansion expansion joints with covering steel plate,
joint; the following expansion joints belong which are installed in the walkway areas
to this group: expansion joints made of and less significant bridges.
heavy rubber seals shown in figures 6, 8,
and 9, and similar expansion joints where In table 1, expansion joints are classified in
seals consist of several elements not different basic groups with regard to their
interconnected water-tightly; comb moving capacity.

Table 1: Systematization of expansion joints

Point Expansion joint type Distance Movement in expansion opening Materials for
between expansion joint
adjacent x-direction y-direction z-direction
expansion
joints
5.2 For minimum up to 20 20 mm1) 5 mm1) 5 mm1) steel end profile and
movements (30) m (± 10 mm) bituminous sealing
(carriageway end) compound
5.3 For small movements up to 50 50 mm 5 mm 1 mm2) polymerized
(70) m (± 25 mm) bituminous sealing
compound,
elastomer filler,
rubber, steel
3) 3)
5.4 For medium movement up to 150 m 150 mm 5 mm 1 mm rubber seal, bearing
(± 50 mm) profiles, steel
anchors, anchor
bolts, etc.
5.5 For large movements4) up to 300 m 300 mm 5 mm3) 1 mm3) rubber seal, steel
(± 150 mm) anchors, steel
3)
5.6 For extremely large above ≥ 300 mm 5 mm 1 mm3) bearing elements,
4)
movements 300 m (± 150 mm) steel combs and
saws, heavy plates,
elements of
synthetic materials,
etc.
1)
Indicated values of movements are approximate only; they are ensured by means of suitably shaped
asphalt-concrete wedges.
2)
Limitation to 1 mm applies to bituminous expansion joints, e.g. Thorma Joint. Solutions with rubber seals are
less sensitive to vertical movements.
3)
Indicated values are approximate only since the moving capacities in both y-direction and z-direction vary
significantly for individual types of expansion joints with respect to their structural specificities.
4)
Expansion joints for large and extremely large movements are often water-permeable. In such cases a
perfect drainage and an access below the expansion joint shall be ensured.

5.2. Expansion joints for minimum As a rule, a carriageway end is executed on

movements motorway, main road and regional road
bridges, on condition that their length does
In this case, an expansion joint is built-in into not exceed 20 m, and on bridges on roads of
the joint between the bridge carriageway and lower ranking, provided that they are not
the connecting road carriageway. This longer than 30 m. Expected deformations,
particularly applies to bridges where the bridge settlements, and connecting fill
bridge scheme (e.g. a frame structure) and settlements shall be taken into consideration.
the distance between adjacent joints or the
road ranking do not require “true” expansion
joints – only the carriageway end is carried
out.

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The sealing joint of the carriageway end is

carried out during application of the wearing
course or, afterwards, by means of a joint
cutter. The latter procedure enables a better
and continuous application of the wearing
course.

The carriageway end shown in figure 1 is

executed at the joint between the bridge
asphalt carriageway and the road gravel
carriageway.

For the execution of the carriageway end, Figure 3: Carriageway end, end profile
details shown in DG 1.2.8 shall be taken into
consideration as well. 5.3. Expansion joints for small movements

With respect to their execution, expansion

joints for small movements are divided in two
basic groups:

- asphalt expansion joints, and

- rubber expansion joints.

Asphalt expansion joints or elasto-

bituminous expansion joints are made of
polymerized bitumen having improved elastic
properties. The material is poured into a
groove in a previously executed asphalt
carriageway thus becoming a constituent part
of the carriageway.
Figure 1: Principle of carriageway end
Their fastening is ensured by sticking on the
The joint is sealed with bituminous sealing concrete base on the lower side, and by
compound made of modified bitumen (figure lateral sticking on or leaning against the
1). For the execution of the end profile, a layers of the asphalt-concrete carriageway
workshop drawing shall be worked out taking (figure 4).
into consideration the geometry of the bridge
carriageway (figures 2 and 3), as this is the
case for the expansion joint bearing profiles.

Figure 2: Detail of carriageway end

Figure 4: Principle of asphalt expansion joint

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Rubber expansion joints consist of a steel When asphalt expansion joints cannot be
bearing profile firmly anchored to the built-in due to specific circumstances, rubber
concrete structure on both sides of the joint, expansion joints for small movements shall
and of a rubber seal that is water-tightly fixed be installed.
to the bearing profile (figure 5).
Asphalt expansion joints are preferential
because they are simple, made of one
material being similar to the material they are
installed into, silent, and simple for
maintenance and replacement.

5.4. Expansion joints for medium

movements

Expansion joints of moving capacity up to

150 mm belong to this group. They are made
of steel profiles with intermediate profiles
supported in different ways (figure 7), and of
Figure 5: Principle of rubber expansion joint rubber seal shown in figure 8, respectively.
with anchors embedded in
concrete 5.5. Expansion joints for large movements

Expansion joints made of rubber seal Expansion joints for large movements, with a
screwed directly on the concrete structure on movement capacity of up to 300 mm, are
both sides of the joint (figure 6) belong to this complex mechanical devices consisting of a
group as well. great number of elements sensitive to wear
and fatigue, and difficult to be maintained.

Figure 7: Expansion joints with intermediate

profiles for medium and large
Figure 6: Principle of rubber expansion joint movements
with screwed-on anchoring

Asphalt expansion joints are generally

installed on road bridges where the distance
between adjacent expansion joints does not
exceed 50 m provided that the required
moving capacity amounts to maximum 50
mm or to such a value that is guaranteed by
the manufacturer.

Asphalt expansion joints shall not be

foreseen when the resulting inclination of the
bridge carriageway is greater than 5%, and
when longitudinal movements greater than
10 mm or vertical movements greater than 1
mm appear in the joint axis. Figure 8: Expansion joint for medium
movements with screwed-on
anchoring

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Expansion joints Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

Expansion joints with heavy reinforced rubber 6. APPOINTMENT OF EXPANSION

seals are shown in figure 9. In case that the JOINTS AND ACCOMPANYING
seals consist of several parts – blocks in the TECHNICAL DOCUMENTS
longitudinal direction (of common length
2,000 ÷ 3,000 mm), which are not This chapter comprehends basic instructions
interconnected water-tightly, a seepage water to appoint the type and moving capacity of an
trapping gutter shall be installed into the joint. expansion joint as well as the extent of the
accompanying technical documents serving
for ordering the expansion joints from the
selected manufacturer.

The fundamental criteria to determine the

expansion joint type are as follows:
- magnitude and direction of movement,
- type of bridge structure (material, static
system),
- road category,
- quality,
- method of ensuring drainage, and
- price.
Figure 9: Principle of expansion joint with
reinforced rubber seal for large The selection is also influenced by the
movements special conditions to be well considered by
the designer, also from the point of view of
In this domain, waterproof expansion joints in maintenance and replacement (e.g. jams on
the shape of comb are frequent as well heavy traffic roads). In case of roads with
(figure 10). extremely heavy traffic, the criterion of a
simple and quick replacement prevails over
the price.

6.1. Design calculation in general

In the design calculation, magnitude and

direction of movements as well as reactions
in the expansion joint affecting the abutment
and superstructure elements are determined.

The design calculation for the expansion joint

is a constituent part of the bridge design
calculation.

In the design calculation, first the static

system is defined, the centre of movements
specified, and the distance between adjacent
Figure 10: Principle of comb expansion joint expansion joints determined. Construction
with seal for large movements stages and time schedule shall be taken into
consideration. Then, directions and
In case of expansion joints for large magnitude of movement vectors in the
movements, accordance with criteria stated expansion joint are specified considering the
in the introductory chapter shall be verified geometry and static system of the bridge,
very prudentially at any rate. arrangement of bearings, actions on the
bridge, own deformations of structural
5.6. Expansion joints for extremely large elements, deformations of foundation ground,
movements etc.

All that is stated in the previous chapter (5.5.)

applies to expansion joints for extremely
large movements as well. However, the
approach shall be even more sophisticated.

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Expansion joints

6.2. Calculation of movements in The final value of concrete shrinkage and

expansion joint the final value of concrete creep coefficient
as well as the time history shall be taken
In the calculation of movements serving for from the relevant codes.
determination of the required moving
capacity of an expansion joint, provisions Table 2: Fictive limit temperatures
stated in chapter 6.1 of the DIN 1072 (1985),
and appurtenant explanations (Appendix 1), Bridge type Fictive Fictive
shall be assumed. maximum minimum
temperature temperature
Movements are specified taking into Steel and
composite + 75°C - 50°C
consideration the principal, additional and
bridges
special loads (§3, §4, and §5 in the DIN
Concrete
1072) in their most unfavourable combination bridges and
with the following actions: bridges with + 50°C - 40°C
- superstructure: temperature change, pre- steel profiles
stressing, shrinkage and creeping of embedded in
concrete, effects due to superstructure concrete
deformations (e.g. rotation above the
bearing); On the basis of calculated data on directions
- substructure: movements and/or rotations and limit values of movements as well as
of structural elements. movements for a temperature change of 1K
in the expansion joint, the designer shall work
To calculate the movements in expansion out a protocol for placing the order. This
joints, the following provisions shall be protocol is a constituent part of the bridge
additionally taken into consideration: construction design.

- When calculating movements due to a In table 3, an example of such protocol is

temperature change, fictive limit mean presented.
temperatures of the structure in
accordance with the table 2 are assumed; The calculation of the expansion joint moving
for both concrete and steel structures, the capacity gives us an assurance that the
coefficient of the temperature elongation of expansion joint will function within the range
αT = 1.2×10-5 is adopted. where its moving capacity is not exceeded.
- When determining the expansion joint
opening, the starting temperature of +10°C 6.3. Drawings
specified by the DIN for the design
calculation of the bridge structural elements The bridge construction design shall include
is not allowed for; namely, the actual the expansion drawing as well. The latter
measured mean temperature of the bridge serves the expansion joint manufacturer to
structure is relevant. prepare workshop drawings.
- Values given in the table 2 can be reduced,
when the expansion joint is accurately The expansion joint drawing shall comprise
adjusted to the measured temperature all required height levels determining the
(mean temperature of the structure of the expansion joint geometry, with indicated
final static system) during its installation; in direction changes, height differences,
this way, for bridges stated in the first row position in plan with respect to the bridge
of the table 2, both limit temperatures can axis, eventual direction changes and
be reduced by 15°C, whereas for bridges curvatures in plan, location of eventual field
stated in the second row of the same table, welds, details in walkway and edge beam
they can be diminished by 10°C. areas, including details of covering plates,
- In case of an expected change of the etc. In addition, the drawing shall include all
position of the centre of movements, the details related to the installation, the
increased values of the limit temperatures essential data on material quality, and
by 15°C and 10°C, respectively, shall be requirements referring to the corrosion
considered due to the construction protection as well as all the required remarks.
progress. In figure 11, the required dimensions to be
- In the calculation of concrete shrinkage and entered in the expansion joint drawing are
creep effects, unfavourable actions shall be given, whereas in figure 12, an example of an
increased by a factor 1.3. Favourable expansion joint workshop drawing is
actions are not taken into consideration. presented schematically.

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Table 3: Example of protocol for placing the order for expansion joint

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Expansion joints

On the basis of the protocol for placing the

order as well as of the expansion joint design
drawing, the selected manufacturer prepares
a workshop drawing, which includes all the
data required for the expansion joint
adjustment during its installation.

The manufacturer is obliged to submit his

workshop drawing to the designer for
approval.
Figure 11: Essential dimensions in the
expansion joint drawing

Figure 12: Example of expansion joint drawing

7. Requirements for bridge structure traffic load according to the DIN 1072 with a
in expansion joint area dynamic factor ϕ = 1.4 shall be considered.

This chapter deals with the guidelines for the In the bridge conception, a simple and
bridge construction design with respect to the effective drainage of surface and seepage
requirements imposed by the expansion joint water from the expansion joint area shall be
installation. taken into consideration. This also applies to
cases where water-tightness of expansion
7.1. General joints fails to function properly.

In general, when designing bridge elements Moreover, sufficient ventilation of the opening
into which the expansion joints will be below the expansion joint and of the
installed, a sufficient cross section shall be structural elements in the expansion joint
ensured enabling a reliable installation and a area shall be ensured. For this purpose, in
correct transfer of forces from the expansion case of more complex expansion joints, a
joint anchorage into the bridge structure. joint of minimum width of 15 cm shall be
foreseen below the expansion joint (figure
For all the bearing structural elements that 13).
take traffic actions from the expansion joint,

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Expansion joints Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

When designing reinforcement, it shall be 7.3. Bridge substructure

born in mind that after installation of the
expansion joint, a protective concrete cover - In case of bridges where the distance
of minimum 4.5 cm shall be feasible in all between adjacent expansion joints is
places. greater than 100 m, a control walkway is
Inspection and subsequent replacement of foreseen on the abutment enabling
expansion joints shall be ensured as well. inspection of the expansion joint from
Attention shall be paid to the traffic jams, below.
which must be kept within acceptable limits.
In the technical report of the bridge - The rear wall of the abutment into which
construction design, precise installation the expansion joint is installed shall be at
instructions shall be included, whereas the least 40 cm thick or more, if this is required
bridge maintenance design shall comprehend by the manufacturer’s specification.
instructions for inspection, maintenance, and
replacement of the expansion joint. - The abutment upper surface below he
expansion joint shall be designed with
7.2. Bridge superstructure adequate falls and drainage gutters
collecting the water in case that the
- In the bridge superstructure, an adequate expansion joint fails to be waterproof.
and sufficiently large groove for expansion
joint installation with a correctly designed 7.4. Waterproofing, asphalt, kerbs and
anchoring reinforcement (for anchored walkways with edge beams
expansion joints), and sufficient dimensions
and deviations for bolted fastenings, - When designing an expansion joint, the
respectively, shall be foreseen. profile on the carriageway and on the
pedestrian walkway shall be considered.
- If possible, the remaining thickness of the The position of the bridge carriageway
structure around the groove shall amount dewatering line is particularly important. In
to at least 20 cm, unless the conditions of this place, the expansion joint is drained as
taking the loads prior to hardening of the well.
groove concrete require greater
dimensions. - When detailing an expansion joint in the
pedestrian walkway and cycle track area, a
- In the walkway area, a simpler execution of perfect connection of the waterproofing to
anchoring shall be considered. the expansion joint shall be ensured below
the walkways and in the edge beam area
- In superstructures reinforced with pre- as well.
stressed tendons, the vicinity of tendon
anchorages shall be taken into
consideration, in particular the possibility of
damaging them.

- The minimum spacing between an

expansion joint anchor and a tendon
anchorage shall amount to 20 cm.

- All structural elements in the expansion

joint area (e.g. cross beams) that might
come into contact with the carriageway
water in case of damaged expansion joint
shall be equipped with suitable eaves.

- When an expansion joint type is installed

that requires intercepting of water by
means of a trapping gutter placed in the
expansion joint opening, all manufacturer’s
instructions for a proper installation of the
expansion joint and for the gutter
dewatering shall be fully respected.All
essential requirements stated above are
shown in figure 13.

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Expansion joints

Figure 13: Design of structural elements in the expansion joint area

On principle, an expansion joint is led in the

pedestrian walkways on the level of the
superstructure where it is anchored as well
(figure 14). Such execution does not require
sealing of installation ducts because the
water runs from those ducts onto the
waterproof expansion joint. This is also
suitable for expansion joints made of heavy
rubber seals since no direction changes are
required or these are insignificant.

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When communal installations in walkways

are equipped with expansion joints, the
possibility of inflow of condense or surface
water via installation ducts shall be
considered. This should be particularly born
in mind in case of leading the expansion joint
“above” (figure 15).

Figure 14: Expansion joint in walkway area

(led below, i.e. on the
superstructure level)
Figure 16: Execution of asphalt expansion
An expansion joint can be led in the walkway joint at concrete safety barrier
upper surface at anchoring to the
superstructure (figure 15). This method offers 7.5. Drainage
a reliable raised connection of the
waterproofing, whereas installation ducts - When designing a bridge and subsequently
cannot be led. its dewatering, such solutions shall be
Furthermore, attention should be paid to the adopted that ensure a smallest possible
expansion joint seal, which must be raised on inflow of surface water to he expansion
its ends in order to prevent water to flow joint area. For this purpose, a bridge gully
away. is built-in next to the expansion joint in the
When the pedestrian walkway surface is carriageway drainage line.
intended for public pedestrian traffic and/or - Alternatively, an outflow from the channel
cyclists, the expansion joints in the walkway on the connecting fill can be arranged,
area shall be designed to ensure a safe when the expansion joint is located on the
passing of pedestrians, cyclists, and disabled higher side of the bridge.
persons. - On bridges with long parallel wings a gully
is installed next to expansion joint. A similar
solution is foreseen on bridges where the
water flows at wings thus entering the
expansion joint area.
- Next to expansion joint, the seepage water
is intercepted to a greatest possible extent
as well.
- The seepage water shall also be drained
away from all depressions that arise from
the raised ends of the waterproofing at the
expansion joint.

7.6. Checking of procedures prior to

placing an order for expansion joint

To avoid inattentions prior to placing an order

for installation joint(s), the design solutions
shall be checked. The review is carried out
on the basis of a checking-list attached by
renowned manufacturers to their technical
Figure 15: Expansion joint in walkway area
documents.
(led above, i.e. in the walkway
upper surface)

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Figure 17: Design of structural elements in expansion joint area – walkways

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8. TAKING OVER, INSTALLATION,

MAINTENANCE, AND When the contractor is incapable to install an
REPLACEMENT OF EXPANSION expansion joint by himself, he is obliged to
JOINT engage an appropriate subcontractor or an
instructor.
8.1. Taking over of expansion joint from
manufacturer The most essential general instructions are
given below. In addition, specific design
Expansion joint is taken over by the requirements and installation
construction site manager. In case that his instructions/requirements by the expansion
knowledge is insufficient, an expert shall be joint manufacturer shall be taken into
engaged. consideration.

During taking over, dimensions, materials 8.2.1. Installation of bituminous expansion

and corrosion protection are examined and joints and elastomer fillers
compared to those specified in the design.
The results shall be entered in a suitable - With regard to other bridge construction
record (table 4). Moreover, it shall be works, expansion joint shall be installed as
checked whether the expansion joint late as possible, and in conditions that will
possesses all required technical documents, in the subsequent operation of the
i.e. attestation certificates, a guaranty expansion joint ensure minimum possible
document, and manufacturer’s instructions. extensions of its movable parts.
The manufacturer’s instructions shall - During the application of asphalt
comprise the following provisions in carriageway layers, a groove for building-in
connection with the expansion joint: of expansion joint shall be carried out. The
- storage, groove dimensions shall be harmonized
- transportation, with the data supplied by the manufacturer.
- installation, Lateral sides of the groove shall be cut by
- maintenance, and means of a joint cutting tool up to the
- replacement. waterproofing layer.
- The groove shall be cleaned and eventual
The acceptance procedure shall be carried damages of concrete surface repaired. Into
out by means of an appropriate checking-list. the joint, a seal made of foamy rubber shall
be built-in. Then, an adhesive layer of
The suitability of the expansion joint at taking elastic polymerized bitumen is applied, and
over shall be certified by an entry in the an aluminium strip to bridge the movable
record comprising all the stages up to the joint is installed. This strip is fixed by
technical acceptance of the expansion joint inserting nails. Afterwards, the filler is built-
(table 4). in and the wearing course of polymerized
bitumen applied.
8.2. Installation of expansion joint - For all procedures described above the
manufacturer is obliged to submit an
Expansion joint is installed in accordance attestation certificate on installation
with design and manufacturer’s instructions, conditions and procedure, as well as on the
after the investor’s engineer has verified the suitability of the materials used.
suitability of both expansion joint and
structural elements into which the expansion 8.2.2. Installation of rubber expansion
joint will be built-in. joint
An appropriate checking-list for this activity is
required as well. - Immediately after being delivered to the
construction site, the expansion joint shall
Installation of complicated expansion joints be properly stored (unless it is installed
shall be inspected by an adequate committee immediately after delivery) to prevent
constituted of engineer’s representative, damages and dirtiness.
construction site manager, designer, - Expansion joint shall be installed as late as
manufacturer’s representative, and, if possible. This is particularly essential in
required, representative of an authorized case of bridges with a higher rate of
company for testing materials and structures. development of long-term time
The suitability of conditions for installation is deformations (concrete shrinkage and
certified by entries in the record mentioned creeping, consolidation of foundation soil).
above (table 4).

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Expansion joints

Table 4: Record of expansion joint (example)

Bridge (road section, designation, position):

Client (investor):
Receiver:
Expansion joint manufacturer’s name, order number:
Number of expansion joint certificate, issued by:
Validity of certificate:
Contractor, site manager:
Designing bureau, responsible designer:
Number of bridge execution and expansion joint installation design:
Investor’s engineer, responsible supervisor:
No. Stage Description Entry
1 Installation location (No. of support, axis)
2 Expansion joint Expansion joint type
3 basic data Moving capacity perpendicular to expansion joint axis
4 Movement at 1°C
5 No. of technical documents for expansion joint, validity
6 Date of taking over at manufacturer’s workshop
7 Date of delivery to construction site
8 Delivery of Marking on expansion joint
9 expansion joint to Expansion joint delivered in perfect condition (yes/no)
10 construction site Integrity of all steel elements and blocking
11 Condition of corrosion protection of steel elements
12 Integrity of rubber seal
13 Expansion joint properly deposited, supported, protected
14 Adequacy of groove and niche dimensions
15 Cleanliness and preparation of contact surfaces
16 Before installation Adequacy of anchor reinforcement
17 Adequacy of holes for anchor bolts
18 No. of technological design for installation
19 No. of geodesic report on geometry survey
20 Date / hour
21 Superstructure temperature in °C
22 Width of joint opening
23 During Adequacy of expansion joint fastening (geometry)
24 installation Adequacy of expansion joint fastening (firmness)
25 Expansion joint blocking removed
26 Corrosion protection, seal(s), cleanliness before sealing
27 Designation and number of material samples
28 Date / hour
29 Service Superstructure temperature in °C
30 Width of joint opening
31 Corrosion protection, seal(s), covering steel plates

Contractor: Expansion joint manufacturer: Supervisor:

Place: Date:

Prior to installation, the groove geometry - All dimensions shall be thoroughly

(dimensions and height levels), as well as controlled during construction works (a
adequacy of connecting reinforcement in the permanent geodesic control is required).
groove shall be checked. The groove and - The set expansion joint is then placed into
reinforcement shall be cleaned of all the groove and the anchors welded onto
impurities and residuals from concreting. the connecting reinforcement. First, all
- In case of steel bridge structures, all edges anchors on one side, and then on the other
shall be prepared to carry out filed welds. side of expansion joint are welded. In this
- Afterwards, the percentage of already way, the expansion joint is already
accomplished long-term structural connected with the bridge structure;
deformations shall be established and the therefore, all elements for fixing the
mean temperature of the structure expansion joint during transport and
measured. On the basis of those findings installation shall be immediately loosened.
the expansion joint opening is set. - The procedure is analogical for expansion
joints with bolted anchoring.

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Expansion joints Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

- In case of steel bridge structure, first the carriageway surface after completed rolling.
anchoring profile is welded onto the Such deepening enables further compaction
superstructure; then, anchors at abutment of the wearing layer at expansion joint under
are welded and the blocking removed. The wheel load. Moreover, in this way the
same procedure applies to expansion joint expansion joint is protected from the plough
located between two superstructure units. impacts.
- After fixing is completed, the suitability of
installation is re-checked, in particular the 8.2.5. Inspection and maintenance of
height position, so that the expansion joint expansion joints
will be entirely levelled with the
carriageway upper surface after the Inspection and maintenance procedure is
carriageway asphalt layers are carried out. prescribed by the expansion joint
The prescribed deepening of 5 mm shall manufacturer. Upon technical acceptance,
be taken into account. the contractor hands over the instructions
- Finally, after an adequate preparation, being a constituent part of technical
concrete is cast into the groove in documents to the bridge administration. The
accordance with the approved procedure. latter inserts the prescribed procedure into
the technical instructions that serve
8.2.3. Execution of waterproofing at responsible staff to perform correct
expansion joint inspection and maintenance.

Prior to application of waterproofing, cement When maintenance works are expected to

skin shall be removed from the concrete affect traffic, adequate specialists for traffic
surface by means of sand blasting, high- regulation shall be engaged.
pressure water jet, brushing, etc. The The maintenance staff shall inspect
waterproofing layer is carefully glued onto the expansion joints at least once a year. At the
expansion joint profile. The remaining part of same time, bridge structural elements into
the expansion joint is sealed with bituminous which the expansion joint is built-in shall be
compound. The same applies to the checked as well.
previously left joint at expansion joint, which
has been formed in the waterproofing 8.2.6. Replacement of expansion joints
protective layer. Alternatively, the protective
layer is connected to the expansion joint with Expansion joints shall be replaced in
bituminous sealing strip. The procedure is accordance with the procedure that is
defined by the technical conditions for the identical to the installation procedure for a
waterproofing end at vertical boundary new expansion joint, i.e. on the basis of the
surfaces. Special attention shall be paid to all execution design documents.
the joints between those boundary surfaces However, the specificity of the replacement
and the expansion joint boundary surface. procedure shall be taken into consideration.
Special attention shall be paid to removal of
8.2.4. Application of wearing course at existing expansion joints because such
expansion joint procedures are destructive and may affect
the bridge structure.
The wearing course at expansion joint shall
be applied with special care. Stiff elements of Furthermore, it shall be taken into account
the expansion joint prevent thickening of that expansion joints are often replaced
bituminous concrete next to expansion joint under traffic thus step-by-step installation is
during rolling, thus leading to crumbling of the required. In such cases, expansion joints
wearing course at expansion joint. shall be equipped with a field joint.
Sufficient thickening is achieved in such a
way that, prior to rolling, stiff expansion joint 8.2.7. Attestation of expansion joints
elements are covered with small wooden
board – template of an appropriate thickness. Until appropriate European standards are
After the roller has passed the joint several introduced, the suitability of expansion joints
times, the wooden board is removed. The is verified and certified on the basis of
excessive thickness of the wearing course is regulations stated in chapter 2.
then compacted up to the prescribed rate by
subsequent rolling (the roller must not strand
onto the expansion joint). The thickness of
the board shall be such that the expansion
joint remains deepened by 5 mm below the

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 GUIDELINES FOR ROAD DESIGN,
CONSTRUCTION, MAINTENANCE AND
SUPERVISION

Volume I: DESIGNING

Section 2: DESIGNING BRIDGES

DESIGN GUIDELINES (DG 1.2.8)

Part 8: TRANSITION FROM THE ROAD TO THE BRIDGE
Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Transition

INTRODUCTION

Bridges represent a discontinuity in the road body laying-out due to the change of material and the
way of transferring the load into the ground. Therefore, excessive differential settlements between
the bridge structure and the road body may occur.

Bridge abutments are rigid structures, without settlements or with minor ones only. On the contrary,
road bodies are less rigid than bridges depending on the type and quality of the soil below road
fills. Consequently, road body settlements are considerable and of a long duration.

The present Design Guidelines deal with problems occurring during construction of backfill wedges
at abutments, of transition slabs, and wing walls, as well as with the settlements around abutments.

As bridges represent a discontinuity in the road body alignment, excessive differential settlements
may occur between the bridge structure and the adjacent road fill.Designers and experts in soil
mechanics shall solve the problem of differential settlements between the bridge and the road body
(fill, cut), taking into account the order of magnitude of these settlements.

For the transition from the non-rigid road body to the rigid bridge structure, transition slabs are
foreseen. In this way, impacts and differences in the deformability, that could affect traffic safety
and impose additional dynamical loads to the structure, are prevented.

Wing walls are constituent structural elements of bridge abutments. They ensure stability of fills
and backfills at both bridge accesses as well as give form to connecting cones of the road body.
Wing walls are constructed of reinforced concrete of equal material characteristics as bridge
abutments that they are directly connected with. The wing wall length is limited by the structural
design and should be economical. Therefore, wing walls of excessive length must be avoided. If
longer wing walls are directed by the ground relief expansion joints shall be introduced and the
wing wall will proceed to a retaining wall. In these Design Guidelines, basic types of wing walls are
indicated with regard to their position and structure. Basic geometric parameters as well as the
principles of static analysis and reinforcing of wing walls are presented.

For any road bridge a contact between the bridge and the ground shall be brought to effect. Such a
contact of the road body with the bridge can be raised or solid.In the present Design Guidelines
functional, geometrical and aesthetical problems appearing at the contact of the road with a bridge
in a fill, a cut and a mixed profile (cut and fill) are discussed. The purpose of these Design
Guidelines is to provide general directives, details and schemes for a correct solution of the
transition of the road from the road body to the bridge. A visual and constructive transparent
solution and connection shall be attained.

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Transition Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

CONTENTS

1 SUBJECT OF DESIGN GUIDELINES .......................................................................................... 5

2 REFERENCE REGULATIONS ..................................................................................................... 5
3 EXPLANATION OF TERMS ......................................................................................................... 5
4 BACK FILL WEDGES AT ABUTMENT ........................................................................................ 6
4.1 General................................................................................................................................ 6
4.2 Determination of differential settlements between the bridge and the road body............... 7
4.3 Measures for reduction of differential settlements .............................................................. 7
4.4 Execution of fills and backfill wedges.................................................................................. 7
5 TRANSITION SLABS.................................................................................................................. 14
5.1 General.............................................................................................................................. 14
5.2 Criteria for selection of solution of transition from the bridge carriageway to the road
carriageway ....................................................................................................................... 14
5.3 Solutions and details with transition slab .......................................................................... 15
5.4 Solutions and details without transition slab ..................................................................... 16
6 WING WALLS ............................................................................................................................. 23
6.1 General.............................................................................................................................. 23
6.2 Parallel wing walls ............................................................................................................. 23
6.3 Inclined wing walls............................................................................................................. 24
6.4 Rectangular wing walls ..................................................................................................... 25
6.5 Independent wing wall....................................................................................................... 26
6.6 Cantilever wings ................................................................................................................ 26
6.7 Combined independent-cantilever wings .......................................................................... 26
6.8 Geometric parameters of wing walls ................................................................................. 26
6.9 Calculation, design and reinforcing of wing walls ............................................................. 28
7 SETTLEMENTS AROUND ABUTMENT .................................................................................... 29
7.1 Shapes of the contact between the bridge and the road body ......................................... 29
7.2 Berms ................................................................................................................................ 32
7.3 Cones ................................................................................................................................ 33
7.4 Paving the slopes .............................................................................................................. 34
7.5 Dewatering the contact between the bridge and the road body ....................................... 35

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Transition

1 SUBJECT OF DESIGN structure taking into consideration concrete

GUIDELINES safety barriers, steel safety barriers, kerbs,
drainage, shafts, installations, noise barriers,
The present Design Guidelines deal with etc.
problems occurring during construction of
backfill wedges at abutments, of transition
slabs, and wing walls, as well as with the 2 REFERENCE REGULATIONS
settlements around abutments.
- Rulebook of technical norms for concrete
As bridges represent a discontinuity in the and reinforced concrete made of natural
road body alignment, excessive differential and artificial lightweight aggregate filler,
settlements may occur between the bridge Official Gazette of SFR Yugoslavia, No. 15-
structure and the adjacent road fill. 296/90
- Rulebook of technical norms for foundation
Designers and experts in soil mechanics of structures, Official Gazette of SFR
shall solve the problem of differential Yugoslavia, No. 15-295/90,
settlements between the bridge and the road - Rulebook of technical norms for
body (fill, cut), taking into account the order determination of magnitude of actions on
of magnitude of these settlements. The bridges (January 4, 1991)
mentioned order of magnitude of the - Guidelines for road design (Volume 1 –
permissible differential settlements should be Part 1) in Bosnia and Herzegovina
defined by the terms of reference for the - Slovenian technical specifications for
particular road category (chapter 4). bridges: TSC 07 108, TSC 07 109, TSC 07
110
For the transition from the non-rigid road - Directive drawings for bridges and other
body to the rigid bridge structure, transition civil engineering structures, issued by the
slabs are foreseen. In this way, impacts and German Federal Ministry for Traffic, Road
differences in the deformability, that could Construction Department, 1994 and 1995
affect traffic safety and impose additional (Richtzeichnungen für Brücken und andere
dynamical loads to the structure, are Ingenieurbauwerke)
prevented (chapter 5). - Guidelines for bridges, issued by the
German Federal Ministry for Traffic, Road
The magnitude of the road fill deformation Construction Department, 1995
behind the abutment can be reduced and (Richtlinien für Brücken)
controlled by transition slabs being
constituent parts of abutments of rear walls of
frame structures. 3 EXPLANATION OF TERMS

Wing walls at bridge abutments are Overlay is an artificial accumulating of

discussed in the chapter 6, whilst the chapter material to create, as a rule, an earth body of
7 deals with the settlements around bridge certain shape.
abutments.
Backfill wedge is a void appearing at the
The present Design Guidelines specify bridge or its abutment respectively, when the
conditions of application of different wing wall bridge construction commences
types as well as the geometric parameters. simultaneously with the execution of the road
Basic principles of static analysis as well as body in the near vicinity of the bridge
of the reinforcing of wing walls are also structure.
indicated.
Settlement is a vertical, downwards
The contact of the road body with the bridge orientated movement of the structure due to
or the transition from the bridge to the road compression of the foundation ground or fill
body represents a discontinuity in view of under static or dynamic loading.
both load bearing capacity and aesthetics.
Therefore, both bridge designer and road Drainage is a constructive device for
designer shall cooperate in designing the collecting and leading-away of free water in
contact between the road body and the the ground.
bridge. They shall specify or design the slope
angles, berms and widening, as well as Water-impermeable soil is such a soil that
define the transition from the bridge is resistant to penetration of water under
superstructure to the road pavement certain pressure.

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Transition Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

Water-permeable soil is such a soil that is Rectangular bridge is such a bridge, which
not resistant to penetration of water under axis intersects the axis of an obstacle at an
certain pressure. angle of 90°.

Transition slab is an element placed on the Oblique bridge is such a bridge, which axis
road fill attaching the bridge. It prevents an intersects the axis of an obstacle at an angle
eventual height difference (step) between the ≠ 90°.
carriageway on the connecting fill and the
carriageway on the bridge. Slope angle of 1 : n is a ratio of the height to
the length.
Wing wall is a structural element of the
abutment at both ends of a bridge. It serves Paved surface is a surface below the bridge,
for transition from the road body to the artificially protected from erosion.
bridge.
Channel is a regulated and stabilized zone
Wall parameters are certain limitations and for draining the precipitation water.
provisions serving for economical design of
individual wall types. Gutter element is a precast element of a
channel shape intended for draining the
Inclination of wall rear side is an precipitation water.
obliqueness specified by the soil mechanics
characteristics of the fill or cut of the ground Cascade is a type of a drain channel having
to which a bridge is attached. the shape of a step; by means of a cascade,
the prescribed fall of the channel is made
Cantilever on the wing wall top serves for feasible.
fastening the edge beam, walkway and
railing.
4 BACK FILL WEDGES AT
Strengthening column is a local widening of ABUTMENT
the wing wall in the place where the wall
proceeds to its cantilever part. The 4.1 General
mentioned widening can be equal to the
foundation width and it can run along the The term road means a traffic surface whose
entire wing wall height or only up to the point load bearing structure is formed by a road
where the cantilever part of the wing wall body generally constructed of natural earth
commences. materials in a shape of a fill, a cut or their
combination. The road body is founded on a
Length of a wing wall is the distance from natural ground on which the road laying-out
the place, where the wall is fixed to the runs. Due to the terrain configuration and
abutment, to the wing wall end. different impediments on it such as deep
valleys, rivers, existing roads, railway lines
Slope is the steep inclined side of the fill or etc., the road body cannot be exclusively
cut. constructed of earth material along the entire
route. Certain road sections must be made in
Fill is a raised and stabilized road body. a form of different bridges, viaducts etc.
representing a discontinuity in the road body
Cut is a spread excavation in the natural laying-out.
ground for the needs of road construction.
Within the framework of its purpose, a road
Mixed profile is a combination of a cut and a shall ensure a safe and comfortable traffic.
fill in a slope. This can be achieved by a sufficient bearing
capacity and, to a highest possible degree,
Cone is a shape of the fill termination at the by unchangeable design geometry in vertical
bridge. and horizontal sense.
Bridges represent a discontinuity in the road
Shoulder is a widened part of the road body body laying-out due to the change of material
out of the carriageway. and the way of transferring the load into the
ground. Therefore, excessive differential
Berm is a widened, generally horizontal part settlements between the bridge structure and
of the cut or fill. the road body may occur.

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Transition

4.2 Determination of differential - Maximum fill height on the known thickness

settlements between the bridge and of compressible layer of foundation soil,
the road body which the bridge length depends on.
Excessively deformable connections to the
The duty of road designer, bridge designer, bridge shall be avoided.
and soil mechanics expert is to solve the
problem of differential settlements between The bridge designer can influence the
the bridge and the road body (fill, cut), taking magnitude of the bridge abutment absolute
into consideration the order of magnitude of settlements particularly by selecting the
settlements. The mentioned order of foundation method.
magnitude of the permissible differential amentally, a bridge can be founded on
settlements should be defined in the design flexible or rigid ground. Generally, both
specification for the particular road category. shallow and deep foundation is possible.
The problem of differential settlements Since for modern, statically undetermined
between the bridge and the connecting road bridges, the abutment settlements shall be as
body shall be solved in a special design small as possible, special attention has to be
chapter or in the geological-soil mechanical paid to a correct design and execution of the
report by adequate calculations of absolute road connecting fill, and consequently to a
settlements of both the bridge and the road proper location of abutments, which the
body. On the basis of comparison of those bridge length depends on.
values, the bridge designer, the road In case that the road carriageway is made of
designer, and the soil mechanics expert gravel, the problem of differential settlements
specify eventual modifications in the is practically unimportant, since the arisen
conceptual design of one and/or another load height difference can be accommodated by
bearing structure. periodical additional macadamising of the
carriageway. For modern motorways, the
4.3 Measures for reduction of differential matter is less simple because not only
settlements levelling asphalt must be applied but also all
the elements of the road carriageway
The road designer, the bridge designer, and structure (such as barriers, kerbs and shafts)
the soil mechanics expert shall determine the have to be corrected in height.
construction technology for the bridge
abutment and the execution method for the 4.4 Execution of fills and backfill wedges
connecting earth fill, including a definition of
time sequence of the individual construction In construction practice it generally happens
stages. The mentioned experts shall also that the bridge construction commences
harmonize the quality of backfilling material in simultaneously with the road body
order to clearly specify the earth pressures construction in the immediate vicinity of the
acting onto the abutment, and to assess bridge. As a consequence, voids called
correctly the effects of fill compaction on the wedges occur at bridges or their abutments.
abutment stability. Both designers and the The problem of differential settlements
soil mechanics expert shall specify the between the bridge and the connecting road
geometry of the connecting fill (slopes, fill is even increased by those wedges.
berms, widening at the bridge etc.) including Due to the final stages of bridge construction
the transition from the bridge superstructure (e.g. pre-stressing of superstructure), the
to the road carriageway structure (concrete connecting road fill can generally not be
safety barrier, steel barriers, kerbs, drainage, executed immediately after completion of
shafts, transition slabs etc.). abutments. However, the road contractor
The drawings in both the road design and tends towards a prompt balance of earth
bridge design shall be harmonized. masses along the road route, therefore he
The road designer can influence the forces the fill construction in the bridge
magnitude of the fill absolute settlements by vicinity as well.
the following: Practically in all cases the joint between the
- Preliminary preparation of the compressible bridge and the fill or soil-in-situ shall be
layer of the future fill foundation soil by carried out by compacted earth material, i.e.
preliminary loading, horizontal and vertical a fill and backfill respectively. Is the bridge
drainage, replacement of soil-in-situ with an higher than the soil-in-situ, problems with
improved material, load transfer into the connecting road fill may occur. However, if
depth by means of sand piles, etc. the bridge is below the soil-in-situ level,
- Type of selected material for construction backfilling can become problematic.
of the connecting road fill.

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Transition Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

Solutions of fill execution differ from those for In principle, the fill construction technology
backfilling. (also in close vicinity of the bridge), the fill
Accumulation of water behind abutments and compaction rate and the method of
creation of hydrostatic pressure can be preparation of foundation (in-situ) soil are
prevented by carrying out a filter layer of specified in relevant codes. More detailed,
suitable permeable stone material, by those requirements are given in tender
applying filter bricks to the abutment wall or documents. Cases representing special
by building-in of another permeable material. difficulties shall be worked out very exactly in
If a filter is foreseen, backfill or fill can be in the design. This particularly applies to
principle made of cohesive or non-cohesive construction of wedges at bridges that are
soils, provided that an adequate compaction not specially comprehended in codes.
and permissible settlements can be Figures below show fundamental principles
achieved. Attention should be paid to a to be taken into consideration for construction
satisfactory outflow of water accumulating in of wedges.
the layer behind abutment.
In figures 4.1, 4.2, 4.3 and 4.4, four
In case that the foundation bottom is located characteristic examples of backfill wedge
in a permeable ground, it is sufficient to construction are shown in case that the
connect directly the filter layer with abutment is located in a cut.
permeable soil-in-situ, while the fill or the
backfill behind abutment are made of In figures 4.5, 4.6, 4.7 and 4.8, four
available backfilling material. characteristic examples of construction of the
road fill portion next to abutments.
When the foundation bottom is located in an
impermeable ground, the construction pit In figures 4.9 as well as in table 4.1, details
around the foundation shall be backfilled with and requirements for compaction in case of
compact clay up to the contact with soil-in- fill construction in zone A, i.e. 200 cm below
situ, while the impermeable ground surface the vertical alignment, and in zone B, i.e. in
shall be inclined towards the drainage to be the remaining lower part of the fill.
placed at the soil-in-situ level. Up to a half,
the drainage pipe is built-in into concrete In order to construct backfill wedges or fills
base being in contact with compact clay. behind abutments with smallest possible
Onto the drainage performed in such a way, settlements, permeable stone material shall
a filter layer is executed at the abutment wall be used, since it can be compacted quite
simultaneously with fill or backfill. The easily and no special filter layers are
drainage shall be attached to a suitable necessary.
recipient (surface ditch or sewer).
Fill or backfill height, material quality and The inner part of abutment structure shall be
compaction required are essential criteria to as simple as possible, with even surfaces, to
decide whether a transition slab should be enable an easy building-in and compaction of
constructed or not. backfill wedges as well
as accessibility for compacting means.
The most suitable material for the easiest
building-in and compaction is permeable From the above mentioned facts it is evident
stone material. For gravel wedges, only that a permeable stone material is the most
outflow of water from the contact between the suitable material for construction of fills or
gravel wedge and the soil-in-situ shall be backfills in the wedge area, since no filters
ensured, if the latter consists of impermeable are required in such cases.
material.

In case that a quality earth material is

available on construction site, e.g. quality
clays and marls, while gravel locations are far
away, earth material won by excavation
works on the road route can be used for
backfill wedge construction, since such a
solution is the most economical one.
However, filter at the abutment cannot be
avoided in this case.

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Transition

Fig. 4.1: Cut in permeable ground – backfill with permeable material

Fig. 4.2: Cut in impermeable ground – backfill with permeable material

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Transition Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

Fig. 4.3: Cut in impermeable ground – backfill with cohesive soil

Fig. 4.4: Cut in rock – backfill with permeable material

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Transition

Fig. 4.5: Fill constructed of permeable material on permeable soil-in-situ

Fig. 4.6: Fill constructed of cohesive soil on permeable soil-in-situ

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Transition Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

Fig. 4.7: Fill constructed of permeable material on impermeable soil-in-situ

Fig. 4.8: Fill constructed of cohesive soil on impermeable soil-in-situ

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Transition

Fig. 4.9: Details and compaction requirements

Table 4.1: Compaction requirements for construction of fills (zone A), backfills (zone B), and
substructure formation level

zone A zone B substructure

formation level
C.R. Ev2 modul C.R. Ev2 modul C.R. Ev2 modul of
of of deformation
deformatio deformatio (acc. to
n (acc. to n (acc. to DIN)
DIN) DIN)
non- 98 % 60 non-cohezive 95 % 45 non-cohezive 100 80
cohezive composition composition %
compositio
n
cohesive 95 % 45 cohesive soil 92 % 20 cohesive soil 98 % 30
soil

soil-in-situ in zone A → same criteria as for the fill in zone A

soil-in-situ in zone B → same criteria as for the fill in zone B
C.R. (Proctor compaction rate)
Ev2 = modulus of deformation
below transition slab → modulus Ev2 same as prescribed for formation level

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5 TRANSITION SLABS 5.2 Criteria for selection of solution of

transition from the bridge carriageway
5.1 General to the road carriageway

Bridge structures at abutments are non- The following criteria are essential to select a
deformable, without settlements or with minor solution of transition from the bridge
ones. carriageway to the road carriageway:
Road bodies are more deformable than - Road category;
bridges, depending on the type and quality of - Height, material and construction quality
ground below the fill, on fill height, material of
type and conditions of fill construction. the fill behind abutment, as well as type
Settlements of the road body (fill) are greater and quality of the ground below the fill;
and of long duration. - Height position of the superstructure
For the transition from deformable road body upper surface with regard to the road
to non-deformable bridge structure it is vertical alignment.
essential to specify necessary measures to Road categories are defined by character,
avoid negative effects of deformability volume, speed and safety of the traffic. Three
difference on traffic safety and to prevent categories can be distinguished: motorways
additional dynamical loading of the bridge. and main roads, regional and local roads,
and non-categorized roads (field and forest
Settlement of the fill behind abutment creates roads, village roads).
deformations that cause impact of vehicles
upon arrival onto the bridge and upon leaving Construction methods and materials of fills
it, therefore reducing the traffic safety. and backfill wedges behind abutments are
The slope of deformed fills shall not be described in detail in chapter 4. Provided that
greater than 1:200 (0.5%) and 1:300 (0.35%) a fill is executed in accordance with the
for motorways respectively. criteria and requirements given in chapter 4,
only fill height and ground quality under the
The magnitude of fill deformation behind fill are essential to decide whether a
abutments can be reduced and controlled by transition slab is required or not. In view of
introducing transition slabs as constituent height, three types of fills are distinguished:
parts of abutment or frame structure end wall. low fill of up to 6 m height, medium-high fills
For bridges on roads of lower categories and of 6-10 m height, and high fills of over 10 m
for short bridges on motorways and main height.
roads, solutions without transition slabs are In table 2 and figure 10, criteria are given to
possible as well, provided that requirements decide whether the transition from the bridge
specified in 5.2 are fulfilled. carriageway to the road carriageway should
be carried through by a transition slab or
without it.

Table 5.1 Criteria for decision whether the transition from the bridge carriageway to the road
carriageway should be carried through by transition slab or without it

POSITION OF BRIDGE UPPER

FILL HEIGHT H (m) SURFACE WITH REGARD TO
ROAD CATEGORY VERTICAL ALIGNMENT h (m)

≤6 6-10 > 10 0 0.4 – 1.0 > 1.0

MOTORWAYS AND MAIN ROADS YES YES YES YES* YES NO
REGIONAL AND LOCAL ROADS NO YES YES NO* NO NO
NON-CATEGORIZED ROADS NO NO YES NO* NO NO

YES is a solution with transition slab

NO is a solution without transition slab
YES* for motorways and main roads it is not recommended to design bridges of length L < 10 m
with their upper
surface on the motorway or main road vertical alignment
NO* a transition slab is not required when measures according to chapter 5.4 are taken and
the expected settlement difference amounts to < 15 mm

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Fig. 5.1: Supplementary explanation of table 5.1

5.3 Solutions and details with transition rigidly connected with the bridge
slab superstructure (frame structures) or it is fixed
and connected with the superstructure by
In point 5.3, elements for the solution with means of bearings and expansion joint.
transition slab are given.
Fundamental differences in the transition slab In figure 5.4, a general solution, whilst in
design result from the type of road figure 5.5, a detail of supporting of transition
carriageway structure. Roads with asphalt slab in case of reinforced concrete frame
and roads with concrete pavement are structures is shown, with a distance from the
known. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, all centre of movement smaller than 30 m when
carriageways of motorways and other roads fill settlements not greater than 15 mm are
are made of asphalt; consequently, details expected.
and solutions are appropriately adapted to In figure 5.6, a general solution, whilst in
such carriageways. figure 5.7, a detail of supporting of transition
Solutions and details referring to concrete slab in case of reinforced concrete frame
carriageways will be worked out in detail structures is shown, with a distance from the
when concrete pavements will be designed centre of movement between 30 m and 50 m.
for the Slovenian motorways. The transition slab rests on the load bearing
In figure 5.2, sketches and elements are structure via neoprene bearing without
shown defining geometry and length of anchor. As a consequence, movements of
transition slabs depending on the angle of the frame structure are not transferred to the
obliqueness and on the height of the road fill transition slab. An asphalt expansion joint is
at abutment. foreseen above the joint between the frame
structure and the transition slab.
In figure 5.3, reinforcement scheme
(combination 3.70 m, 6.20 m, 8.70 m) for 25 In figure 5.8, a general solution, whilst in
cm thick transition slabs is shown. Since figure 5.9, a detail of supporting of transition
profiles and spacing of rebars are given, slab in case of reinforced concrete beam
design static calculation is not required, superstructures of distances up to 100 m
except in some specific conditions. Concrete between two consecutive expansion joints
grade C25/30 and reinforcement S 400 (Φ when fill settlements not greater than 15 mm
16/20 for anchors) are specified. are expected.

Transition slabs are concreted on compacted In figure 5.10, a general solution, whilst in
gravel base onto which a layer of lean figure 5.11, a detail of supporting of transition
concrete underlay of 10 cm thickness has slab in case of reinforced concrete beam
been cast previously. The latter follows the superstructures, with a distance from the
transition slab inclination of 10% with regard centre of movement greater than 100 m,
to the road vertical alignment. The protective when fill settlements not greater than 15 mm
concrete cover amounts to 5 cm. are expected. The sketches also include a
Transition slabs lean lineally on the bridge detail of the chamber serving for inspection,
bearing structure. The detail of leaning maintenance and replacement of expansion
depends on abutment type: the latter can be joint.

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5.4 Solutions and details without In figure 5.13, a possibility of transition

transition slab without transition slab is shown for the case
where the upper bridge or culvert surface of
In table 5.1, conditions and criteria for an opening of less than 10 m (L<10 m) is
solutions without transition slabs are lowered by 40 cm minimum with regard to the
indicated. vertical alignment of a motorway or other
In figure 5.12, a possibility of transition roads. (For motorways, the expected
without transition slab is shown for the case differential settlement between the bridge
where the upper bridge or culvert surface of and the road fill amounts to < 15 mm).
an opening of less than 10 m (L<10 m) is In figure 5.14, a possibility of transition
situated in the vertical alignment of a without transition slab is shown for the case
regional, a local or a non-categorized road. where a fill higher than 1.0 m is carried
An improved (stabilized) bearing layer shall through above a bridge or a culvert of an
be foreseen at a length of 2.0 m + 2.0 m. opening less than 10 m (L<10 m).

Fig. 5.2: Sketches and elements for determination of transition slab length and geometry

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Fig. 5.3: Scheme of transition slab reinforcement

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Fig. 5.4: Transition slabs for reinforced concrete frame bridge structures with a distance of
< 30 m from the centre of movement

Fig. 5.5: Detail of supporting and top of transition slab for reinforced concrete frame
bridge structures with a distance of < 30 m from the centre of movement

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Fig. 5.6: Transition slabs for reinforced concrete frame structures with a distance of
30 m - 50 m from the centre of movement

Fig. 5.7: Detail of supporting and top of transition slab for reinforced concrete frame
bridge structures with a distance of 30 m - 50 m from the centre of movement

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Fig. 5.8: Transition slabs for reinforced concrete beam bridge superstructures of distances
of ≤ 100 m between two consecutive expansion joints

Fig. 5.9: Detail of supporting and top of transition slab for reinforced concrete beam
bridge superstructures with a distance of ≤ 100 m from the centre of movement

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Fig. 5.10: Transition slabs for reinforced concrete beam bridge superstructures of distances
of > 100 m between two consecutive expansion joints

Fig. 5.11: Detail of supporting and top of transition slab for reinforced concrete beam
bridge superstructures with a distance of > 100 m from the centre of movement

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Fig. 5.12: Solution without transition slab for culverts and bridges of opening up to 10 m on
regional, local and non-categorized roads

Fig. 5.13: Solution without transition slab for culverts and bridges of openings up to 10 m on
roads of all categories

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Fig. 5.14: Solution without transition slab where a fill higher than 1.0 m is placed above
culverts or bridges of openings up to 10 m

6 WING WALLS 6.2 Parallel wing walls

6.1 General Generally it can be said that parallel wing

walls give the most appropriate appearance
In the longitudinal direction, a wing wall of a structure (figure 6.1). Therefore,
represents the beginning or the end of a abutments with parallel wings are
bridge. It is in close relation to the relief of the recommended for locations where an
ground where the structure is located. optimum structural shape should be
Classification of wing walls, their properties achieved. However, good results can be
and characteristics, as well as geometric obtained with other wing shapes as well,
parameters and design recommendations are taking into account the location of the
given below. Moreover, other important structure.
design parameters such as conditions Parallel wings are capable to retain the
imposed by water economy experts, backfill earth wedge located between both
geometry, sight on the road below the wings. As a consequence, settlement of the
structure, geological conditions etc. are fill behind the abutment is reduced.
mentioned as well.
The backfill wedge behind the abutment shall
Wing walls can be classified with regard to be compacted in 30 cm thick layers up to the
their position and to their structure. specified density. In general, this can be
achieved by means of suitable compaction
Classification of wings with regard to their machines. However, during compacting
position: process, an additional lateral pressure acts
- Abutments with parallel wings on the wings, which must not be neglected
- Abutments with inclined wings when specifying the wing thickness and
- Abutments with rectangular wings. designing the wings.

Classification of wings with regard to their

structure:
- Independent wing walls
- Cantilever wings
- Combined independent-cantilever wing
walls.

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6.3 Inclined wing walls

Inclined wings offer several possibilities of

designing the transition from the bridge to the
surrounding area, since such wings can be
executed at any acute angle with regard to
the bridge axis. The angle α varies between
30° and 90°. Inclined wings can also enable
a better entry to the profile below the bridge
than the parallel ones (e.g. for a water
stream). However, it should be noted that
both, the abutment and the inclined wing,
must create a visual integrity.

In figures 6.3 and 6.4, examples of inclined

wings are shown. Those wings are extremely
accentuated while the wing itself is
connected with the abutment in a slope.
However, the wing can be carried out
completely vertically.

Generally, the height of inclined wings

decreases with going away from the
structural axis and follows the embankment
slope. There is also a possibility to design an
inclined wing in a constant height along the
entire length, or to lower it only partly. Those
height differences can be carried out
stepwise as well. Using these variable
Fig. 6.1: Parallel wing wall elements, a more suitable appearance of the
abutment can be attained.
In case of parallel wings the rear water does
not accumulate in the backfill wedge area,
since it can be led away behind the abutment
out of the structure area.

If the wings are parallel, the superstructure

bearing can be visible or hidden behind the
wall, which is an actual extension of the wing
wall (figure 6.2) enabling better anchoring of
the wing wall reinforcement.

Fig. 6.3: Inclined wing wall in a slope

Fig. 6.2: Visible and hidden bearing of the Fig. 6.4: Inclined wing wall with a vertical
bridge superstructure wing

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It is also not indispensable that the visible

side of the abutment is vertical, but it can
also be inclined. However, it is recommended
to apply such solutions after a due
consideration, and to pay full attention the
design of the visible abutment wall (e.g.
stone facing, relief concrete, etc.).

There is also another possibility, where short

parallel wings continue to inclined ones Fig. 6.7: Plan of a bridge with inclined wings
(figure 6.5). However, such solution, in
comparison with the others, does not fulfil all There are several other possibilities for the
aesthetic criteria, since certain shape design of inclined wings, such as curvature of
deficiencies can be noticed. wings in plan. In this way, accommodation to
the backfill wedge is better. Moreover, the
backfill wedge angle can be varied as well.

The end of an inclined wing wall should run

pointedly, but such a solution is not
appropriate. Therefore, it shall be interrupted
Fig. 6.5: Inclined wing attached to a short a bit before, and a backfill wedge is arranged
parallel wing around the inclined wing wall end.

In figure 6, a detail of attachment of an 6.4 Rectangular wing walls

inclined wing wall to the abutment is shown.
Yet, the connecting angle is limited to α ≥ As a matter of fact, rectangular wings are a
30°. special case of inclined wing walls.
Therefore, for the rectangular wings the
same presumptions are valid as for the
inclined ones (figure 6.8). In a great majority,
the use of such wing walls is conditioned by
the ground, on which the structure is located,
as for example, where retaining walls already
exist (water stream bed, road in a cut).

Fig. 6.6: Detail of attachment of an inclined

wing to the abutment

Also in case of inclined wing walls, the bridge

superstructure bearing can be either visible
or hidden behind the wall.

In general, inclined wing walls are used for

bridges where the angle between the bridge
axis and the bridged impediment is acute (α
≤ 75°), thus the bridge obliqueness must be
adjusted to the ground (figure 6.7).
Fig. 6.8: Rectangular wing wall

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For independent structures located in an 6.7 Combined independent-cantilever

open land, such wings are not appropriate, wings
since they would make impossible a look at
the bridge, and the width of the opening Those wings are carried out where wings
below the bridge would be optically longer than 6.0 m are required by the ground.
increased. First, an independent wing wall is
The wing ends can be designed in the same constructed, from which a cantilever wing
way as already mentioned for the inclined continues.
wings. However, a backfill wedge at wing
ends is not desired. 6.8 Geometric parameters of wing walls

6.5 Independent wing wall Dimensional parameters of wing walls are the
following:
The simplest solution is a combination of a
massive abutment and independent wing - Length, thickness and lower end
walls placed on both sides. In this way, each - Relation between the wing and the ground
structural element (abutment, wing) can be inclination
analysed extra. The dimensioning shall be - Cantilever overhang at the ends of the wing
performed in such a manner that the stability wall.
conditions are ensured and that the
permissible foundation soil stresses are not A wing wall should end at least 1.0 m behind
exceeded. Such walls can be constructed of the point where the plane of the final ground
stone, concrete or reinforced concrete. is attached to the carriageway plane or to the
carriageway vertical alignment.
Independent wing walls are used when
retaining walls protecting the road body are The minimum thickness of wing walls shall
designed at the bridge. Therefore, their amount to 30 cm for cantilever wings of 4.0 m
shapes and design solutions are the same as length, and 40 cm for longer cantilever wings
for the retaining walls, thus ensuring a respectively. The connecting wall between
uniform appearance of both, the bridge as the cantilever wing and the abutment must be
well as the carriageway next to the bridge. at least 60 cm thick. Such a dimension
enables an adequate placing of
In case of independent wing wall, special reinforcement in the area of transition from
attention shall be paid to a correct design of the cantilever wing to the abutment. It also
the expansion joint. If a gravity wing wall is ensures attaining of required dimensions of
relatively high and founded in poor ground, it the protective concrete cover above the
tends to lean outwards. The abutment wall, reinforcement for elements in contact with
which is orientated in the rectangular soil (5.0 cm).
direction, cannot follow those movements. As
a consequence, a dislocation occurs, the The wing shall not be longer than 10.0 m.
walkway is damaged (if its expansion joint is The length of the cantilever part of the wing
not in the same place), and some soaking wall shall be between 2.0 m and 6.0 m (figure
appears as well if the joint is not sealed with 6.9).
a strip having a sufficient moving capacity.
In case where the cantilever wing continues
6.6 Cantilever wings from the intermediate wall, its length should
not exceed 5.0 m in order to keep loading
The use of cantilever wings is to a great within such an order of magnitude that no
extent conditioned by the relief of the ground difficulties occur when arranging the
where the bridge is located. In case that the reinforcement in the cross section.
load bearing ground is relatively low under
the upper level of the existing ground, also If a longer wing wall is directed by the ground
the abutment will be of such a height that relief an expansion joint shall be carried out,
cantilever wings will be realizable at assumed and the continuation of the wing wall must be
inclination of the backfill cone. This means treated apart of the structure (retaining wall).
that under the wing itself no reinforced It is also possible to modify the cone
concrete foundations will be required. The inclination by introducing an adequate
application of cantilever wings is directed revetment, or to construct a retaining wall of
also by the wing length itself. Wings that are 2.0 m visible height at the bottom of the cone.
longer than 6.0 m should not be attached to
abutments as cantilever ones.

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The minimum height of the wing wall end The width of the walkway on the bridge is
amounts to 1.0 m. In case that a horizontal greater than the wing wall thickness.
wing end is foreseen (its length depends on Therefore, a cantilever overhang shall be
the inclination of the definitive ground), the executed on the wing top. To that cantilever
minimum height of the wing wall end is overhang, edge beam and railing are
1.50m. fastened. The maximum width if such
cantilever overhang is 1.50 m while its
Foundation of the wall part of the wing wall is thickness amounts to at least 22.0 cm. Figure
executed together with the front wall of the 6.10 shows different solutions of the
abutment on the basis of soil mechanics cantilever end of a wing wall. It should
data. Generally, a strip foundation is emphasized that in case of 6.10c, an
foreseen. Its width shall be such that the obliqueness of 60° shall be carried out at the
allowable compressive stresses of the inner side of the wing wall, which enables a
foundation ground are ensured. quality fill construction. The execution of the
cantilever overhang as shown in figure 6.10d,
is independent on the fill construction.
a)

b)

c)

Fig. 6.9: Geometric parameters of wing walls

The inclination of the rear side of the wing

wall is equal to the final inclination of the d)
ground (cone, fill, cut) and it is at least 1.0 m
below the level of the definitive ground. The
inclination depends on the characteristics of
the fill or cut and amounts to:

i=1:2 fill of cohesive soils

i = 1 : 1.5 fill of gravel material
i = 1 : 1.25 fill of stone material
i=1:1 revetment of stones or
concrete slabs
Fig. 6.10: Ends on the wing wall

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If the cantilever overhang width exceeds 1.50

m, the walkway is interrupted along the wing
wall edge, and the joint is filled up with a
sealing compound. Below the detached part
of the walkway, a quality compaction of the
backfill soil shall be carried out.

In case that the cantilever wing wall

construction is permitted by the ground
characteristics, it is reasonable (in order to
take vertical loading) to extend the wing in
the superstructure area over the abutment. In
this way, a better connection between the
wing wall and the abutment is ensured (figure
6.11).

Fig. 6.12: Strengthening of the wing wall

6.9 Calculation, design and reinforcing of

wing walls

In the calculation of internal forces and

moments occurring due to action of external
loading and dead weight on the wing wall, it
can be assumed that the wing wall is a 2D-
element fixed to the abutment wall at one
edge and to the wing wall foundation at the
other edge. The wing wall foundation is
Fig. 6.11: Cantilever wing wall with lateral connected with the abutment foundation.
wall at the bridge bearing
In case of cantilever wing, only one edge of
In case that certain difficulties, related to the wing wall is rigidly supported. All other
horizontal deformations occur when carrying edges are free and exposed to load action.
out the design dimensioning (effect of the
earth pressure and traffic load portion), a If the deformations on the top of the wing or
strengthening column can be constructed at the fixed-end moments (restraint moments)
the end of the wall part of the wing wall. are excessive, strengthening of the wing wall
can be foreseen in a form of a reinforced
The width of the a.m. strengthening column is concrete column, which partly strengthens
equal to the foundation width, while its the third edge of the wing wall (figure 6.12).
thickness is equal to the wing wall thickness In this way, the deformation on the top of the
(figure 6.12). The column can run along the wing wall is reduced, and at the same time
entire wing wall height, or only up to the point the fixed-end moment (restraint moment) at
where the cantilever part of the wing wall the joint wing-abutment or wing-foundation is
commences. diminished as well.

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As a load, the earth pressure force acts on 7 SETTLEMENTS AROUND

the wing wall. This force is caused by ABUTMENT
compacted backfill material between both
wing walls. The force magnitude increases 7.1 Shapes of the contact between the
linearly with the depth (height) of the wing bridge and the road body
wall. Moreover, the uniformly distributed
traffic load acts on the wing wall as well. It The following three basic shapes of the
acts along the entire wing wall height with a contact between the bridge and the road
constant value. body can be encountered in practice, where
The design calculation is generally performed the angle of the bridge to the obstacle
by means of computer software for analysing amounts to 90°:
2D-structures. Those programs usually work
on the basis of finite element method (FEM). - contact between the road body and a
bridge in a fill (Figure 7.1);
Figure 6.13 shows the fundamental principle - contact between the road body and a
of wing wall reinforcing. Both, external and bridge in a cut (Figure 7.2);
internal side of he wall is reinforced. The - contact between the road body and a
basic spacing between reinforcing bars bridge in a mixed profile, i.e. cut and fill
amounts to e=20 cm, while in the extreme (Figure 7.3);
loading area it is only e=10 cm. The
overlapping length of individual bars shall
satisfy criteria specified in relevant
regulations. If the reinforcement is too dense
at the transition from the wing wall to the
abutment and, as a consequence, some
difficulties occur when casting the concrete, a
local widening (“voute”) can be carried out.
The length and width of that widening shall
not exceed the double thickness of the wing
wall.

The reinforcement for taking the vertical

loading is led along the entire wing wall. By
means of an appropriate anchor length, the
reinforcement is tied up with the abutment
wall. The reinforcing bars shall be without
any overlapping. Fig. 7.1: Contact between the road body and
a bridge in a fill

Fig. 7.2: Contact between the road body and

a bridge in a cut

Fig. 6.13: Schematic presentation of the

wing wall reinforcement

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Fig. 7.3: Contact between the road body and Fig. 7.6: Oblique contact between the road
a bridge in a mixed profile body and a bridge in a mixed profile

Further possible shapes of the contact The contact between the road body and the
between the road body and the bridge occur bridge can be shaped in the following two
where the angle of the bridge to the obstacle ways (Figure 7.7):
amounts to ≠ 90° (Figures. 7.4 – 7.6). a) the cone of the contact between the road
body and the bridge begins next to the
abutment wall;
b) the cone of the contact between the road
body and the bridge is moved below the
bridge.
In case of a), the bridge is “narrowed”,
confined, it seems massive, the sight
distance below the bridge is quite poor, the
bridge span is shorter, whereas the abutment
wings or wing walls are longer; large
concrete surfaces are exposed.
In case of b), where the cone is formed below
the bridge, the sight becomes “open”, the
bridge is more transparent, its span is longer,
whilst the wings are shorter and, in general,
executed as cantilever ones.
Fig. 7.4: Oblique contact between the road
body and a bridge in a fill
The length of the contact between the road
body and the bridge is practically the same in
both abovementioned cases, on condition
that the fact is neglected that in case b) a
berm is generally executed below the bridge
to enable the control of structural bearings,
except in frame structures.

There are no common instructions to be

adopted by both the road and the bridge
designer when deciding upon shaping of the
contact between the road body and the
bridge. However, the designers shall be
aware of the fact that the shape of the
Fig. 7.5: Oblique contact between the road abutment structure is affected irrespective of
body and a bridge in a cut the selected contact shape. The shaping of
the contact between the road body and the
bridge, and, consequently, of the abutment,
is influenced to the greatest possible extent
by the height of the fill or cut to be shaped at
the contact. The obstacle type (transport
route, stream, valley, etc.) shall be taken into
account.

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Fig. 7.7: Shaping of the contact between the road body and the bridge

By all means, when designing bridges across

streams, instructions and guidelines for slope When executing fills along the wing outer
arrangement shall be considered specified, in edge, the fill height at the wing shall be
general, by the relevant water-economy increased to allow for the settlements. The
authority. mentioned excess height depends on the fill
height and compaction grade. The fills shall
The form of bridge wings or wing walls be carried out in compliance with the chapter
depends on the selection of the cone shape. 4.
Designers shall realize that shaping of wings
and cones must be considered as a whole.

Below the bridge, a cone is formed at an

abutment made of a solid wall, or between
the abutment bearing columns. Abutments
consisting of bearing columns are not
recommended for bridges on motorways,
main roads and across streams. Sliding of
the wedge between the columns and
consequently deformations (settlements) of
the carriageway pavement can occur. In
bridges across streams, cone base can be
jeopardized at high water levels.

For medium and major water streams it is

appropriate to foresee an intermediate space
between the stream itself and the cone base.
In this way, the flow opening and the distance
between the abutment and the stream are
increased. In addition, more space to form
and suitably protect the cones is won.
Moreover, an undisturbed passage of local
traffic, cattle, anglers, water administration
employees, etc., as well as an access in case
of bridge repair works is made feasible.

To prevent settlements of the fill edges, the

wings shall be extended horizontally by at
least 1.0 m into the road body. For cantilever
wings, the vertical deepening shall amount to
1.5 m minimum (Figure 7.8).

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Fig. 7.8: Arrangement of shoulder and wing at the contact between the road body and the bridge
without a berm for the bearing inspection

7.2 Berms at the abutment. The berm shall be so

formed as to ensure a minimum height of 1.8
At the transition from the road to the bridge, m (Figure 7.9). An access to the berm shall
the shoulder shall be so widened as to be ensured at least from one side (from
achieve a distance of 50 cm between the above or from below).
shoulder outer edge and the edge beam or Such a berm can be omitted below bridges
the service stairs. Consequently, the berm having no classical bearings on the
width amounts to 1.30 m (50+80 cm) in case abutments (e.g. frame structures). However,
of service stairs. The transition from the a berm of 50 cm in width shall be foreseen, if
increased to the normal shoulder width is a drainage ditch is located at the abutment
carried through in a length of 15 m. When no (Figures 7.8, 7.9, 7.10).
service stairs are foreseen, the transition Both the arrangement of the shoulder at the
shall be executed in a length of 10 m (Figure transition from the widened shoulder – berm
7.8). to the normal width, and the length of the
When ducts for installations are foreseen in ramp depend on the following:
the bridge walkway, a control shaft shall be - the type of the surface water drainage,
designed at the widened portion mentioned - the bridge walkway height,
above (DG 1.2.12 Installations on Bridges). - whether the shoulder is also intended for
In case that the cone base of the contact pedestrians, and
between the road body and the bridge is - eventual placing of a control shaft for
moved below the bridge, a berm of at least installations.
1.0 m in width shall be executed on the cone

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7.3 Cones Where steeper cones are required, e.g. in

case of insufficient space, inclinations can be
Cones shall be so designed as to fulfil the increased. However, the cones shall be
requirements imposed by the environment. adequately paved over their entire surface
(not only below the bridge) to ensure the
If possible, the cone slopes shall be 1:1.5. stability. In such a case, a toe shall be
The inclination can be increased in cases of executed at the cone base.
high fills, as the wing length can easily The change of the inclination angle of the
exceed 10 m. Anyway, the stability of such a cone to the road fill shall be carried on the
cone shall be ensured by suitable cone itself (Figures 7.8, 7.9).
arrangements when placing the soil, by
selecting adequate material, and verifying the By height, the cone base is adjusted to the
stability by calculation. neighbouring ground, whereas the cone top
In dependence of the material type, the cone fits the formed berm. The accommodation of
slope shall be as follows: the cone by height is shown in Figures 7.11
and 7.12.
1:2 for cohesive soils
1:1.5 for gravel-sandy material The cone toe shall be moved from the road
1:1.25 for stone material, and gutter edge or from the water stream bank by
1:1 for materials faced with stones or at least 50 cm.
concrete slabs.

Fig. 7.9: Arrangement of shoulder and wing at the contact between the road body and the bridge
with a berm for the bearing inspection

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7.4 Paving the slopes Concrete slabs, turf pavers, concrete paving
stones or natural stone can be used for
Slopes at abutments below bridges need to paving the slopes. Paving elements shall be
be paved, as natural vegetation cannot placed onto an elastic sandy underlay; they
thrive. must not be embedded in concrete.
In bridges across water streams paving of The entire slope shall be paved in the width
slopes below the structure shall be of the bridge plan.
harmonized with the bank protection.

Fig. 7.10: Paving the slope

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At the base of a fill or a cut, a concrete toe alignment), and the method of the complete
shall be executed in a depth of 80 cm and a dewatering system.
width of at least 30 cm. On all other sides,
the paved surface shall also be confined by The following fundamental rule applies: the
means of cast-in-situ or precast concrete sills water shall be led away from the abutment in
(Figure 7.10). the shortest way possible, as stability
problems of the bridge substructure may
Bridges running on a longer section relatively occur.
low above the ground require special
consideration, as the vegetation can thrive For bridges of a relatively small area where
neither on the fill slope nor under the entire the calculated spacing of the gullies is
bridge. In such a case, the “shady” ground greater than the bridge length, the complete
below the bridge shall be paved as well. dewatering is carried out at the contact
between the road body and the bridge.
The paving material shall be so selected as
to fit the surroundings to the greatest Two basic examples can be distinguished:
possible extent. The material shall be - the longitudinal fall of the road alignment is
autochthonous, e.g. quarry-stone in karstic oriented towards the bridge (Figure 7.11),
territories, gravel-stone in regions along and
lowland rivers, etc. - the longitudinal fall of the road alignment is
oriented away from the bridge (Figure
7.5 Dewatering the contact between the 7.12).
bridge and the road body
In the first case, drainage of the contact
The contact between the road body and the between the road body and the bridge shall
bridge shall be drained off. Both design and be foreseen by means of a road gully placed
execution of the precipitation water drainage just before the parallel wing or, in case of
depend on the bridge transverse and oblique and rectangular wings, next to the
longitudinal fall, the location appointed for transition slab (Figure 7.11).
collecting the precipitation water (further
down below the bridge or in the bridge

Fig.7.11: Dewatering the contact between the road body and the bridge – the longitudinal fall is
oriented towards the bridge

In the second case, i.e. when the longitudinal The most common types of gutters used to
fall of the road alignment is oriented away drain the contact between the road body and
from the bridge, the bridge gully shall be the bridge are the following:
located as near as possible to the expansion
joint, whilst drainage of the contact between - paved gutter (Figure 7.13)
the road body and the bridge is carried out - gutter made of precast reinforced concrete
behind the wing. Dewatering can be elements (Figure 7.14).
executed via road gully into the precipitation
water drainage system, or, when the
precipitation water is collected below the
bridge, by means of a channel/gutter on the
fill towards a lower point (Figure 7.12).

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Fig. 7.12: Dewatering the contact between the road body and the bridge – the longitudinal fall is
oriented away from the bridge

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Gutters are paved with quarry-stones of quantity to be led away. Such gutters paved
rough square stones in a thickness of at least with natural stone are designed at locations,
20 cm. The stones shall be placed onto a where suitable stone is available, particularly
sandy-gravel underlay. The gutter bottom in regions, where the stone is an
shall be widened at the outlet, and a concrete autochthonous material, well consistent with
toe shall be constructed. Both width and the surroundings (Figure 7.13).
depth of the gutter depend on the water

Fig. 7.13: Paved gutter

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Gutters/channels made of precast reinforced plates shall be placed between adjacent

concrete elements are placed directly onto elements, approximately at every three
the fill. Precast elements are particularly elements. Both inlet and outlet shall be
suitable, where the fill are still not fully widened and made of concrete (Figure 7.14).
consolidated, which is quite a frequent
phenomenon. To prevent sliding, anchor

Fig. 7.14: Gutter made of precast reinforced concrete elements

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Cascades are a special arrangement at be made of prefabricated concrete elements

terminations of fills at bridges. They are (Figure 7.15) or quarry-stones (Figure 7.16).
commonly used for steeper slopes, and can

Fig. 7.15: Cascade made of prefabricated concrete elements

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Fig. 7.16: Cascade made of quarry-stone

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 GUIDELINES FOR ROAD DESIGN,
CONSTRUCTION, MAINTENANCE AND
SUPERVISION

Volume I: DESIGNING

Section 2: DESIGNING BRIDGES

DESIGN GUIDELINES (DG 1.2.9)

Part 9: JOINTS IN CONCRETE BRIDGES AND
STRUCTURES
Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Joints in concrete bridges

INTRODUCTION

Joints are essential elements both during the construction and in the service life of structures, as
they enable a correct design of the construction technology, which influences substantially the
structural durability. Joints shall be already planned within the building permit design and the
project implementation design.

Both the design and the execution of the joints also depend on the structural scheme, properties of
the concrete placed, and the way of protection of the concrete being in contact with soil, ground
water or running water.

Areas at joints represent structural weak points. Therefore, the joints shall be properly conceived
and designed as well as carried out very thoroughly.

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Joints in concrete bridges Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

CONTENTS

1 SUBJECT OF DESIGN GUIDELINES .......................................................................................... 5

2 REFERENCE REGULATIONS ..................................................................................................... 5
3 EXPLANATION OF TERMS ......................................................................................................... 5
4 GENERAL ..................................................................................................................................... 5
4.1 Basic Considerations .......................................................................................................... 5
4.2 Purpose of Joints................................................................................................................. 5
4.3 Classification of Joints......................................................................................................... 6
5 EXPANSION JOINTS (EJ)............................................................................................................ 6
5.1 Definition ............................................................................................................................. 6
5.2 Design ................................................................................................................................. 6
5.3 Execution............................................................................................................................. 7
5.4 Materials.............................................................................................................................. 7
5.5 Maintenance........................................................................................................................ 7
6 CONTACT JOINTS (CONTACTJ) .............................................................................................. 12
6.1 Definition ........................................................................................................................... 12
6.2 Design ...............................................................................................................................12
6.3 Execution........................................................................................................................... 12
6.4 Materials............................................................................................................................ 13
6.5 Maintenance...................................................................................................................... 13
7 FICTIVE JOINTS (FJ) ................................................................................................................. 16
7.1 Definition ........................................................................................................................... 16
7.2 Design ...............................................................................................................................16
7.3 Execution........................................................................................................................... 16
7.4 Materials............................................................................................................................ 16
7.5 Maintenance...................................................................................................................... 16
8 CONSTRUCTION JOINTS (CJ) ................................................................................................. 18
8.1 Definition ........................................................................................................................... 18
8.2 Design ...............................................................................................................................18
8.3 Execution........................................................................................................................... 18
8.4 Materials............................................................................................................................ 18
9 JOINTS IN CULVERTS .............................................................................................................. 20
9.1 Joints in monolithic culverts .............................................................................................. 20
9.2 Joints in pre-cast culverts.................................................................................................. 20
10 JOINTS IN FRAME AND BEAM SINGLE-SPAN BRIDGES ...................................................... 21
11 JOINTS IN FRAME AND BEAM MULTI-SPAN BRIDGES ......................................................... 23
11.1 General.............................................................................................................................. 23
11.2 Joints in Abutments ........................................................................................................... 23
11.3 Joints in Piers .................................................................................................................... 23
11.4 Joints in Superstructure .................................................................................................... 23
11.4.1 Slab Superstructure ....................................................................................................... 23
11.4.2 Beam Superstructure ..................................................................................................... 24
11.4.3 Box Cross-Section Superstructure ................................................................................ 24
11.4.4 Composite Superstructure With Pre-Cast Girders......................................................... 24
12 JOINTS IN RETAINING STRUCTURES .................................................................................... 24
12.1 General.............................................................................................................................. 24
12.2 Gravity Wall ....................................................................................................................... 24
12.3 Reinforced Concrete Wall of “L” Shape ............................................................................ 24
12.4 Anchored Wall Constructed in Segments From the Top Downwards............................... 24
12.5 Pile Wall ............................................................................................................................ 25

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Joints in concrete bridges

1 SUBJECT OF DESIGN 4 GENERAL

GUIDELINES
4.1 Basic Considerations
In the present Design Guidelines, individual
joint types are defined. In addition, motives The basic reasons requiring execution of the
for designing and execution the joints are joints in structures are the following:
presented. - Size of the structure (area, concrete
quantity);
Basic rules of the joint design are indicated. - Construction method (casting shifted by
time);
- Creep and shrinkage phenomena.
2 REFERENCE REGULATIONS
The construction technology of major bridges
The following codes, norms and technical and other civil engineering structures shall be
regulations are included in the present thoroughly planned as to precisely define
Design Guidelines. casting of individual sections at different
times. Greater quantities of concrete, cast to
DIN codes construct individual structural elements,
DIN 1055, DIN 4227, DIN 1072, DIN 1045, essentially affect the magnitude of creep and
DIN 4019, DIN 7865, DIN 4060, DIN 1623, shrinkage phenomena in the structure. All
DIN 1541, DIN 4033, DIN 4062, DIN 4102, these factors condition the joints in a
DIN 18540. structure. Joints shall be already planned at
the stage of working out the building permit
Austrian Guidelines design and the project implementation
Wasserundurchlässige Betonbauwerke – design.
Weiße Wannen
(Waterproof Concrete Structures–White Joints are essential elements both during the
Tubs), construction and in the service life of a
Österreichischer Betonverein, March 1999 structure as they enable a correct conception
of the construction technology, which has a
great influence on the structural durability.
3 EXPLANATION OF TERMS
The joint design and execution depend,
Expansion joints (EJ) among others, on the structural scheme,
properties of the cast concrete and the
Expansion joint is a common term for an method of protection of the concrete being in
opening between two structural elements. It contact with soil, ground water or running
shall be so designed and executed as to water. Namely, structures can be made either
allow displacements and rotations of of
structural elements, as well as to be
waterproof at the same time. - Waterproof concrete in accordance with the
“white tub” principle, or
Contact joints (CONTACTJ) - Concrete protected with the black
waterproofing (“black tub”).
Contact joint is a common term for dividing of
individual parts of the same structural Areas at joints represent structural weak
element. points. Therefore, the joints shall be properly
conceived and designed as well as carried
Fictive joints (FJ) out very thoroughly.

Fictive joint is a common term for weakening 4.2 Purpose of Joints

of the structural element section, enabling
formation of controlled cracks. The reasons imposing execution of structural
joints are the following:
Construction joints (CJ)
- Separation of structural elements due to
Construction joint is a common term for a the size, the construction in stages or the
joint appearing between two structural construction of an additional element to the
elements or two parts of the same structural existing structure;
element cast at different times.

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Joints in concrete bridges Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

- A better accommodation of the structure to Expansion joints enable movements of

the properties of the foundation ground divided structural elements in several
where a non-uniform settlement of the directions. They also allow an eventual
structure is expected. The reasons of this rotation without constraints. This type of
phenomenon are the following: joints can also be called spatial joints as
variable properties of the foundation they allow settlements, elongations and
ground,variable ground water level, rotations of structural elements.
excavation of new and particularly deeper
construction pits, different dynamic effects Divided elements can move perpendicularly
of the traffic load, execution of individual to the joint plane (opening and closing of the
construction sections shifted by time. joint) without occurrence of constraints.
Transverse movements of joint can be
- Reducing of the effects of secondary forces prevented by means of notches. This type of
and moments due to concrete shrinkage joints can be called tensile joints. They
and creep, as well as by the temperature enable a change of structural element shape
effects; (length) due to phenomena of shrinkage and
creep as well as to temperature changes.
- Creation of logical construction segments
for major structures, thus simplifying the An expansion joint also allows movements of
formwork, reinforcement and casting; divided structural elements in the joint plane
(settlement of the element) without
- Taking of movements due to external load appearance of constraints. Such type of
applied to the structure; joints can be named separating joints or
joints allowing settlement. They enable a
- Taking of movements due to seismic non-uniform settlement of structural elements
action; for numerous reasons indicated in 4.2

- Formation of controlled cracks. The expansion joint width shall be

determined for each individual case.
4.3 Classification of Joints
Expansion joints in bridge superstructures
By the purpose and the method of execution, are not subject of these Design Guidelines as
the joints can be divided as follows: they are discussed in the DG 1.2.7
Expansion Joints on Bridges.
- Expansion joints (spatial joints)
- Contact joints (dividing joints)
- Fictive joints (joints for designed
cracks)
- Construction joints

5 EXPANSION JOINTS (EJ)

Fig. 5.1: Schematic presentation of an
5.1 Definition expansion joint

Expansion joint is a common term for an 5.2 Design

opening between two structural elements. It
shall be so designed and executed as to Expansion joints shall be so carried out as to
allow movements and rotations of structural fully divide adjoining structural elements. The
elements, as well as to be waterproof at the reinforcement is entirely interrupted, and the
same time. concretes of those elements are divided as
well. The joint is filled up with a special
Expansion joints are always required when material and so executed as to be
movements of structural elements due to waterproof.
internal (constrained) and external forces
have to be made feasible. In this way, the The water-tightness of expansion joints is
occurrence of tensile stresses in concrete provided by means of sealing strips. They
and the formation of cracks are prevented. shall be placed on the surface of a structural
element when its thickness amounts up to 50
cm, or into the cross-section interior when its
thickness is > 50 cm.

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In certain cases, the expansion joint width 5.5 Maintenance

can be verified by calculation. However, it
shall often be determined empirically. This On the backside, the expansion joint shall be
particularly applies in cases where the executed in such a way that it is durable as
magnitude of movements is affected by no maintenance is feasible.
several factors, thus their total effect cannot
be exactly assessed. Anyway, such a width On the exposed surfaces, the mastic shall be
of a joint shall be specified that no secondary restored and mechanical damages to
forces or damages to the sealing material concrete made good (trapezoidal shape).
occur in the structure. The surrounding
temperature during concreting shall be taken When an expansion joint does not ensure the
into account in specifying the joint width. water-tightness, it shall be adequately
repaired.
Both the spacing and the width of expansion
joints depend on the structural type, static
requirements, special construction states,
structural geometry, and action effects due to
shrinkage, creep, temperature, external
loading, etc.

As a rule, the expansion joint width shall

amount to 2 cm.

5.3 Execution

Expansion joints are executed

simultaneously with erecting the formwork
and placing the reinforcement.

To carry out an expansion joint, some flexible

material shall be used as a formwork, which
must not reduce the expansion joint opening
neither affect its purpose. Subsequently, the
expansion joint formwork is not removed.

On the exposed side, the joint shape is

achieved by means of a trapezoidal lath.

The water-tightness of a joint is ensured by

means of PVC or rubber strips, fixed in such
a way that they cannot be moved or
damaged.

5.4 Materials

An expansion joint shall be made of a hard

foamy (polystyrene), rubber or bituminous
panel. On the exposed side it shall be sealed
with sealing mastic or a sealing strip of the
colour of concrete surface. On the backside,
a sealing strip shall be placed.

The sealing strips shall be made of durable

PVC material or synthetic rubber.

On the exposed side of the structure, the joint

shape is achieved by means of a trapezoidal
lath.

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Fig. 5.2: Expansion joints for structural elements of a thickness < 50 cm, with a sealing strip on the
backfilled side

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Fig. 5.3: Expansion joints for structural elements of a thickness > 50 cm with a groove

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Joints in concrete bridges Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

Fig. 5.4: Expansion joints for structural elements of a thickness > 50 cm with a sealing strip in the
cross-section interior

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Joints in concrete bridges

Figure 5.5: Expansion joints for structural elements of a thickness > 80 cm with a groove

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Joints in concrete bridges Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

6 CONTACT JOINTS (CONTACTJ) shall be placed on the surface of a structural

element when its thickness amounts up to 50
6.1 Definition cm, or into the cross-section interior when its
thickness is > 50 cm.
Contact joint is a common term for dividing of
individual parts of the same structural The spacing of contact joints without
element. interspacing depends on the construction
technology.
The following types are distinguished:
Contact joints with interspacing are carried
- Contact joints without interspacing (Fig.6.2) out during erecting the formwork and placing
- Contact joints with interspacing (Fig.6.3) reinforcement of a structural element. The
interspacing is shaped by means of a ribbed
Contact joints allow only insignificant ductile steel plate.
movements and rotations of individual parts
of a structural element. They render possible Both the width and the shape of an
a subsequent construction of individual parts interspacing depend on the spacing of
of a structural element. contact joints, the concrete thickness and the
type of the structural element, which they
Contact joint with an interspacing allow appear in.
movements due to shrinkage, temperature
action and settlement. As soon as the The reinforcement in the cross-section is not
changes of the length and of the position of interrupted.
individual parts of a structural element are
completed, the interspacing shall be cast. Contact joints with interspacing can be
sealed with a sealing strip on the surface or
Contact joints with an interspacing enable the in the interior of the structural element, or
change of the stiffness of a structural they are executed without sealing strip, when
element, the modification of the stress the structure is protected by means of a black
distribution, and the change of the static waterproofing.
system. For these properties, contact joints
can be distinguished from very similar Spacing of contact joints with interspacing
construction joints, which are exclusively depends on the structural and static
imposed by technological reasons. properties of the particular structure, or on
the construction method.

Both the shapes and the methods of

execution of contact joints with interspacing
are shown in sketches hereinafter.

6.3 Execution

Contact joints are executed simultaneously

Figure 6.1 Schematic presentation of a with erecting formwork and placing
contact joint without interspacing, reinforcement of a structural element.
and of a contact joint with
interspacing A contact joint without interspacing is
executed in such a way that the parts of a
6.2 Design structural element are cast one by one. The
reinforcement is interrupted, so that there is
Contact joints without interspacing are no homogenous connection between
carried out in such a way that the parts of a individual parts. The dividing layer can be a
structural element are cast one by one sort of coating, oiled paper, cardboard, etc.
without homogenous connection. The
reinforcement is interrupted. The concretes of The sealing PVC or rubber strips ensuring
the adjoining parts are divided by means of a the water-tightness shall be adequately fixed
thin dividing foil such as different types of to prevent their movement or damage. The
coatings, oiled paper, cardboard, etc. shape of a contact joint without interspacing
can be achieved by means of a triangular
The water-tightness of contact joints is lath.
ensured by means of sealing strips. They

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Joints in concrete bridges

A contact joint with interspacing shall be

formed during erecting formwork and placing
reinforcement of a structural element. A
ribbed ductile steel plate shall be applied as
the joint formwork. The contact joint shall be
appropriately reinforced as well.

The exposed sides of the contact joint on wall

elements shall be shaped by the aid of
trapezoidal laths.

6.4 Materials

The dividing layer of a contact joint without

interspacing can be a type of coating, oiled
paper, cardboard, etc.

The formwork for contact joints is made

either of a ribbed ductile steel plate or a
profiled panel.

The sealing strips are made of durable PVC

material or synthetic rubber.

The shapes of contact joints on exposed

sides of the particular structure shall be
achieved by means of trapezoidal, triangular
or rectangular laths.

6.5 Maintenance

On its backside, a contact joint shall be

executed in such a way that it is durable, as
no maintenance is practicable.

On exposed sides, mechanical damages to

concrete shall be made good (trapezoidal,
triangular shape).

When a contact joint does not ensure the

water-tightness, it shall be adequately
repaired.

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Fig. 6.2: Contact joints without interspacing

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Fig. 6.3: Contact joints with interspacing

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7 FICTIVE JOINTS (FJ)

The joint water-tightness is ensured with PVC
7.1 Definition or rubber strips, which shall be properly fixed
to prevent their moving or damage. Into the
Fictive joint is a common term for weakening cross-section interior, injection pipes enabling
of the structural element section, enabling subsequent injecting and sealing of the
formation of controlled cracks. cross-section can also be inserted.

Fictive joints are arranged on locations where In the cross-section, the reinforcement runs
tensile stresses and, as a consequence, continuously, or it is partly interrupted
cracks are expected due to creep and
shrinkage effects in young concrete. 7.4 Materials

The purpose of fictive joints is achieved when Inserting pieces used to carry out fictive joints
they weaken at least a third of the structural can be made of planks, hard plywood panels,
element cross-section. foamy panels or circular pipes. All those
materials shall be waterproof.
7.2 Design
Inserting pieces located out of the cross-
A fictive joint is carried out in such a way that section thus being covered with the
the cross-section of a structural element is protective concrete shall be treated with a
weakened by at least one third. For this special end strip.
purpose, different water-resistant materials
can be used. (Fig.7.2) The backside of a fictive joint shall be sealed
with an adequate strip made of durable PVC
In structural elements where shrinkage is material or synthetic rubber; it can also be
restrained, the distance between two sealed by means of a special sealing coating.
adjacent joints amounts to 5 – 8 m for a
concrete thickness up to 1.0 m. For greater On the exposed side the fictive joint shape is
concrete thicknesses, this distance shall achieved with the aid of a trapezoidal lath.
amount to 4 – 6 m.
7.5 Maintenance
In structural elements where shrinkage is not
restrained, these distances can be greater. On the backside, the fictive joint shall be
executed in such a way that it is durable and
no maintenance is required.

On the exposed surfaces, mechanical

damages to concrete shall be made good
(trapezoidal shape).

When a fictive joint does not ensure the

Fig. 7.1: Schematic presentation of a fictive water-tightness, it shall be adequately
joint repaired.
7.3 Execution

Fictive joints are carried out in such a way

that planks, hard plywood panels, foamy
panels or circular pipes are inserted into the
structural element cross-section during
erecting formwork and placing reinforcement.
These inserted pieces shall be waterproof.

The locations of cross-section weakening

shall be adequately sealed.

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Joints in concrete bridges

Fig. 7.2: Fictive joints

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Joints in concrete bridges Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

8 CONSTRUCTION JOINTS (CJ) moistened to achieve a better adhesion

between the existing and new concrete, and
8.1 Definition to prevent the existing concrete to absorb the
moisture from the new one.
Construction joint is a common term for a The construction joint surface shall also be
joint appearing between two structural adequately roughened (exposed coarse
elements or two parts of the same structural grains), which can be achieved by washing
element cast at different times. the concrete surface with a high-pressure
By means of construction joints, large bridges water jet immediately after striking the
and other civil engineering structures are structural formwork, by sandblasting of the
divided in smaller working units, which makes hardened concrete or by means of a
placing of formwork and reinforcement pneumatic hammer.
easier, and reduces the concrete quantity. Special attention shall be paid to the
The arrangement of construction joints formwork of the subsequent structural
depends on the structural type, on the way, element. In the joint area, the formwork shall
how the structure is used, on static be pressed tightly to the hardened, old
requirements, special construction states, concrete. In this way, a harmonized
structural geometry, and creep and shrinkage continuation of the following structural
effects in the concrete. element or construction segment is made
Construction joints can run either horizontally possible, as well as flowing-away of the
or vertically. cement wash and occurrence of “nests” in
As the construction joints are weak points in the concrete prevented.
the structure, they shall be reasonably Vertical construction joints are carried out
arranged and their number limited. with the help of a profiled formwork or ribbed
Notwithstanding the break of casting, a ductile steel plate, which are removed only in
construction joint shall represent a solid and cases where the structural elements are
waterproof contact between two construction subjected to a high loading.
segments, so that all the action effects In case that the construction joint formwork
appearing in the cross-section can be remains in its position permanently, no
transferred. further treatment of the construction joint
surface is required. Otherwise, it shall be
8.2 Design suitably protected, cleaned, roughened and
moistened.
Construction joints shall be foreseen at those Construction joints can be carried out as
places in the structure where casting of waterproof. They are sealed with strips made
concrete is interrupted. They are located of durable PVC material or synthetic rubber
between individual structural elements placed on the outer side of the structural
(foundation – wall, wall – superstructure), or element. As sealing material within the cross-
within a structural element dividing it in section, strips made of steel plate can be
several units (carriageway slabs). used. They shall be adequately fixed to
Construction joints can be either horizontal or prevent their moving and damage during
vertical. casting operations.
Both the position of construction joints and Into the cross-section interior, injection pipes
the method of their execution shall already be enabling subsequent injecting and sealing of
determined at the design stage of bridges the cross-section can also be inserted.
and other civil engineering structures.
8.4 Materials
8.3 Execution
Vertical construction joints are carried out by
A construction joint takes rise at the spot of means of a profiled formwork or ribbed
interrupting casting of concrete. ductile steel plate.
The structural element reinforcement
continues without any disturbance. The Construction joints are sealed with the aid of
concrete surface of the cast segment shall be suitable strips made of durable PVC material
suitably after-treated. The concrete shall be or synthetic rubber placed on the external
protected from frost and drying-up, and side of the structural element.
washing-out of the fresh concrete shall be
prevented. Into the cross-section interior, pipes to
Prior to casting the subsequent segment, the perform injecting, and strips made of steel
surface of the construction joint of the plate are built-in.
existing element shall be cleaned and

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Joints in concrete bridges

Fig. 8.1: Construction joints

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Joints in concrete bridges Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

9 JOINTS IN CULVERTS a) pipe culverts encased in concrete

9.1 Joints in monolithic culverts

The following culvert types can be

distinguished:
- Pipe culverts encased in concrete;
- Box culverts;
- Arch culverts.

For longer monolithic culverts expansion

joints in transverse direction are designed.

The transverse expansion joints are placed at b) box culvert

spacing of 10 – 20 m, whereas their width
amounts to 2.0 cm.

The wall and slab thickness of monolithic

culverts is less than 50 cm. Therefore the
expansion joint shall be designed as shown
in Fig. 5.2.

The expansion joint arrangement depends on

the following:
- ground properties,
- fill thickness above the culvert,
- culvert geometry, c) arch culvert
- construction method.

In the cross-section of monolithic culverts

construction joints are foreseen. The
construction joint arrangement depends on
the culvert type and dimensions.

For culverts encased in concrete, horizontal

construction joints are designed in the culvert
walls only, 15 cm above the bottom slab (Fig.
9.1a). Fig. 9.1: Construction joints in transvers
direction of monolithic culverts
Contact joints between pre-cast pipes, which
serve as the inner formwork, are not treated. 9.2 Joints in pre-cast culverts
However, flowing-out of cement wash
through these joints shall be prevented. In the pre-cast culverts made of pre-cast
elements such as pipes, box elements or
For box culverts, construction joints are arch elements, the in-situ joint is actually a
foreseen at the contacts bottom slab – wall transverse expansion joint, which has to be
and wall – upper slab (Fig. 9.1b). The joint adequately treated.
detail is similar to that shown in Fig. 8.1b or
8.1c. In the pipe foundation, transverse expansion
or contact joints at spacing of 10 – 20 are
For arch culverts, horizontal construction located, depending on the ground properties
joints are only foreseen at the joint bottom and the fill thickness above the culvert (Fig.
slab – arch (Fig. 9.1c). The joint detail is 9).
similar to that shown in Fig. 8.1b or 8.1c.

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Joints in concrete bridges

a) wedged expansion – contact joint

Fig. 9.2: Cross-section of a pipe culvert not

encased in concrete

In Fig. 9.3 details of transverse expansion –

contact joints of pre-cast pipes are indicated b) straight expansion – contact joint
in dependence of the pipe wall thickness.

a) for φ100cm ( φ150cm)

Fig. 9.4: Detail of expansion – contact joint in

pre-cast box and arch culverts
b) for φ200cm

10 JOINTS IN FRAME AND BEAM

SINGLE-SPAN BRIDGES

In frame and beam single-span bridges all

the types of joints can occur:
- expansion joints
- contact joints
- fictive joints
- construction joints.

Both the expansion and contact joints reduce

the negative effects of creep and shrinkage,
Fig. 9.3: Detail of expansion – contact joint in of temperature, as well as of variable ground
pre-cast pipe culverts properties.

In Fig. 9.4 details of transverse expansion – Fictive joints are designed in the walls of
contact joints of pre-cast box or arch wide frame structures, which are typical of
segments are shown. motorway bridges. By means of fictive joints
the cross-section is weakened, thus locations
of controlled cracks are achieved.

The horizontal construction joints are

imposed by the construction technology.

In a strip foundation, expansion or contact

joints can be foreseen, when this is required
by the ground properties.

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Joints in concrete bridges Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

At the joint foundation – wall and wall – Both the expansion and contact joints are
superstructure horizontal construction joints designed particularly in case of wide bridges
appear. (on motorway and highways) and deformable
ground. They can also occur, when a new
The position of the horizontal construction bridge is constructed next to the existing one.
joint at the contact wall – superstructure is The fictive joints only weaken the cross-
selected in such a way that all the section, thus controlled cracks are allowed by
modifications of the section shape are carried the execution of those joints.
out in the joint plane (cantilever for transition
slabs, Fig. 10.1). Both the expansion and contact joints are
carried out either as smooth or grooved. The
In the frame wall, expansion, contact and latter is required when a static interaction of
fictive joints can be foreseen in the adjoining elements should be attained. The
transverse direction (Fig. 10.2). groove shape depends on the wall thickness.

Fig. 10.1 Arrangement of construction joints in bridge frame structures

Fig. 10.2: Arrangement of both expansion and fictive joints in the walls of frame bridge structures
on motorway and highways

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Joints in concrete bridges

11 JOINTS IN FRAME AND BEAM 11.2 Joints in Abutments

MULTI-SPAN BRIDGES
Abutments of a width of < 8.0 m comprise
11.1 General only horizontal construction joints (foundation
– wall and wall – superstructure or support
In frame and beam multi-span bridges all the upper part). Other types of joints are not
types of joints can occur: required.
- expansion joints
- contact joints Abutments of a width of 8.0 – 12.0 m
- fictive joints comprise, in addition to the abovementioned
- construction joints. horizontal construction joints, a fictive joint in
the wall as well.
Both the expansion and contact joints reduce
the negative effects of creep and shrinkage, In the abutments wider than 12.0 m,
of temperature, as well as of variable ground expansion, contact and construction joints
properties. can occur in the foundations and walls.
Construction joints in the foundations as well
Fictive joints are designed in the walls of as those in the walls shall be mutually
wide frame structures, which are typical of shifted.
motorway bridges. By means of fictive joints
the cross-section is weakened, thus locations In the walls, fictive joints are also possible,
of controlled cracks are achieved. yet it is recommended to unite them with the
construction joints.
The horizontal construction joints are
imposed by the construction technology. At the joints foundation – wall and wall –
superstructure (or support upper part)
In the strip foundation of frame structures, horizontal construction joints appear.
expansion or contact joints can be designed,
when this is required by the ground Both the expansion and the contact joints are
properties. executed as smooth or grooved. The latter is
required, when a static interaction of
At the joints foundation – wall (end, adjoining elements should be attained.
intermediate) and wall (end, intermediate) –
superstructure, horizontal construction joints 11.3 Joints in Piers
appear. In both end and intermediate walls of
a frame, expansion, contact and fictive joints In the piers, horizontal construction joints are
can be planned in the transverse direction. In foreseen at the joint foundation – wall (pier).
the superstructure, only contact joints can be In the wall piers of underpasses and
foreseen. overpasses of a length of > 10 m, both
expansion and contact joints can also be
In the strip foundation of beam structures, foreseen, when this is required by the ground
expansion or contact joints can be designed, properties.
when this is required by the ground
properties. Both the expansion and the contact joints are
executed as smooth or grooved. The latter is
At the joints foundation – abutment and required, when a static interaction of
foundation – pier, horizontal construction adjoining elements should be attained.
joints occur. In abutments and piers,
transverse expansion, contact and fictive 11.4 Joints in Superstructure
joints can be foreseen, when the abutments
and piers are designed as walls of greater 11.4.1 Slab Superstructure
width.
In the superstructures, only contact joints are In the superstructure of a slab cross-section
possible. both construction and contact joints are
foreseen. They are imposed by the
Expansion joint structures bridging a movable construction method as well as by the creep
joint between the superstructure and the and shrinkage effects. Contact joints with
abutment or between two parts of the interspacing allow a modification of the
superstructure are discussed in an extra structural element stiffness, of the stress
Design Guideline. distribution, and of the static system as well.

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Joints in concrete bridges Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision
accentually vertical, horizontal or raster
11.4.2 Beam Superstructure components.

In the superstructure of a bean cross-section It is recommended to unite the fictive joints

both construction and contact joints are with the construction ones. The fictive joints
designed. They are imposed by the can also weaken the cross-section and allow
construction technology as well as by the the formation of controlled cracks.
creep and shrinkage effects. Contact joints
with interspacing allow a modification of the 12.2 Gravity Wall
structural element stiffness, of the stress
distribution, and of the static system as well. To execute a gravity wall, a horizontal
construction joint foundation – wall is
11.4.3 Box Cross-Section Superstructure required. The joint shall be grooved to take
the earth pressure more reliably.
For superstructures of box cross-section Gravity walls of a greater length are carried
horizontal construction joints are designed at out of longitudinal segments of 4.0 – 8.0 m in
the joint lower slab – web and web – upper length (most frequently of 6.0 m). Contact
slab. joints are foreseen between those segments.
In the longitudinal direction, both construction Expansion joints are designed at every two or
and contact joints are foreseen in three longitudinal segments, at spacing of 12
dependence on the construction method. – 13 m.
When a deck is constructed by means of the Both expansion and contact joints are
cast-in-situ free cantilevering or incremental executed as straight or grooved ones. They
launching method, construction joints are shall be waterproof.
foreseen, whereas contact joints are
designed in case of the segmental 12.3 Reinforced Concrete Wall of “L”
construction technology. Shape

11.4.4 Composite Superstructure With To execute a concrete wall of “L” shape, a

Pre-Cast Girders horizontal construction joint foundation – wall
is required. The joint shall be grooved to take
For composite decks with pre-cast girders the earth pressure more reliably.
both construction and contact joints are “L” walls of a greater length are carried out of
designed in the carriageway slab and above longitudinal segments of 4.0 – 8.0 m in length
the piers. Contact joints with interspacing (most frequently of 6.0 m). Contact joints are
allow a modification of the structural element foreseen between those segments.
stiffness, of the stress distribution, and of the Expansion joints are designed at every two or
static system as well. three longitudinal segments, at spacing of 12
– 13 m.
Both expansion and contact joints are
12 JOINTS IN RETAINING executed as straight or grooved ones. They
STRUCTURES shall be waterproof.

12.1 General 12.4 Anchored Wall Constructed in

Segments From the Top Downwards
In the retaining walls all the types of joints
can occur. Anchored walls constructed from the top
At the joint foundation – wall, a horizontal downwards, are executed of longitudinal
construction joint imposed by the segments of 3 x 2.20 m in width and of 2.55 –
construction method is foreseen. 3.0 m in height.
Expansion joints and contact joints can also At the joint of adjacent longitudinal segments,
be designed. They reduce negative effects of vertical contact joints occur. After the casting
creep and shrinkage, of temperature and of of three longitudinal segments is completed,
variable ground properties. an expansion joint is carried through at a
distance of approx. 20 m. The latter shall be
Fictive joints are foreseen in exceptional waterproof.
cases only. By means of these joints, visible At the joint of adjacent height segments and
effects in concrete due to the contact at the joint foundation – wall, horizontal
between formwork panels can be hidden, and contact joints are foreseen.
large exposed surfaces can be divided in

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Joints in concrete bridges

12.5 Pile Wall the spacing of 10 – 12 m. In case that a wall

of 2.0 – 6.0 m in height is constructed above
For a pile wall, expansion joints with a groove the pile wall, expansion, contact and
are designed in the area of the beam, which construction joints are foreseen in such a
function is to interconnect the piles. wall, as it applies to “L” walls.
Expansion joint with a groove are placed at

Fig. 12.1: Joints in gravity walls with or without a relieving cantilever

Fig. 12.2: Joints in reinforced concrete walls of “L” shape

Fig. 12.3: Joints in anchored walls constructed in segments from the top downwards

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 GUIDELINES FOR ROAD DESIGN,
CONSTRUCTION, MAINTENANCE AND
SUPERVISION

Volume I: DESIGNING

Section 2: DESIGNING BRIDGES

DESIGN GUIDELINES (DG 1.2.10)

Part 10: FORMWORK, FINISHING AND FACING OF
CONCRETE SURFACES
Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Formwork

INTRODUCTION

The final appearance of each concrete structure is a result of the quality and finishing of concrete
surfaces. Exposed surfaces shall be solid and smooth. The most essential element having
influence on the final performance of exposed concrete surfaces is the formwork, which gives the
concrete its shape and appearance. Therefore, a special accuracy is required when selecting and
arranging the formwork.

Finishing of exposed concrete surfaces can be carried out by moulding of fresh concrete mixture in
the formwork already prepared, by subsequent painting or by stonecutting.

Individual bridge elements can be faced with stone when it is intended to increase their
aesthetic value, particularly when the bridge is located in a region where the stone appears
as a traditional material.

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Formwork Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

CONTENTS

1 SUBJECT OF DESIGN GUIDELINES .......................................................................................... 5

2 REFERENCE REGULATIONS ..................................................................................................... 5
3 EXPLANATION OF TERMS ......................................................................................................... 5
4 FORMWORK FOR EXPOSED CONCRETE SURFACES ........................................................... 5
4.1 General................................................................................................................................ 5
4.2 Joints ................................................................................................................................... 6
4.3 Formwork Timber Elements ................................................................................................ 6
4.4 Colour of Exposed Concrete Elements ............................................................................... 6
4.5 Formwork Anchoring and Strutting...................................................................................... 6
4.6 Casting Concrete................................................................................................................. 7
5 FINISHING OF EXPOSED CONCRETE SURFACES ............................................................... 10
5.1 General.............................................................................................................................. 10
5.2 Protective Concrete Cover ................................................................................................ 10
5.3 Finishing of Exposed Concrete Surfaces in Formwork ..................................................... 11
5.4 Finishing of New Exposed Concrete Surfaces after Striking the Formwork ..................... 12
5.5 Finishing of Exposed Concrete Surfaces on Underpasses .............................................. 13
5.5.1 Underpasses with Parallel Wings .................................................................................. 13
5.5.2 Underpasses with Oblique Wings.................................................................................. 13
5.5.3 Underpasses with Cylindrical Wing Walls ..................................................................... 14
5.6 Finishing of Exposed Concrete Surfaces on Overpasses ................................................ 14
5.6.1 Single-span Overpasses ............................................................................................... 14
5.6.2 Two-span Overpasses................................................................................................... 15
5.6.3 Three-span Overpasses ................................................................................................ 15
5.6.4 Four-span Overpasses .................................................................................................. 15
6 FACING APPLIED TO CONCRETE SURFACES ...................................................................... 16
6.1 General.............................................................................................................................. 16
6.2 Facing Made of Irregularly Arranged Stone – Cyclopic Walls .......................................... 16
6.3 Facing Made of Quarry-stone ........................................................................................... 16
6.4 Facing Made of Cut Stones............................................................................................... 17

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Formwork

1 SUBJECT OF DESIGN cement concrete type, pre-cast elements or

GUIDELINES other suitable material.
Pavement surfacing applied in certain cases
The present Design Guidelines cover the (on a bridge, with slabs)
problems arising when exposed concrete
surfaces are to be carried out on bridges. Bridge deck surfacing is composed of a
The goal of these Design Guidelines is to waterproofing sealing and a wearing course.
provide durable, quality and aesthetically Being able to take the loading, it acts as a
acceptable bridges. pavement structure and protects the bridge
deck from the surface water action.
The subject of the present Design Guidelines
is finishing of concrete surfaces after Freeze resistance is a material (compound,
hardening by a mechanical treatment, as well mixture) soundness assessed by the test of
as facing of exposed (visible) surfaces with alternating freezing – thawing cycles.
stone.
Freeze and thawing salt resistance is a
resistance of hardened cement concrete or
2 REFERENCE REGULATIONS its products being soaked and exposed to
alternating freezing – thawing cycles
The following European Norms for the design accompanied by a simultaneous thawing salt
of concrete structures are included in the action.
present Design Guidelines:
Protective concrete cover is a cement
EN 1992-1-1 Part 1-1 General Rules and concrete layer above the outer edge of the
Rules for Buildings steel reinforcing bars. It this way, corrosion
EN 1992-1-2 Part 1-2 General Rules – protection of re-bars is provided 4,5cm
Structural Fire Design (5,0cm).
EN 1992-1-3 Part 1-3 General Rules – Pre-
cast Concrete Elements and Structures
EN 1992-1-4 Part 1-4 General Rules – 4 FORMWORK FOR EXPOSED
Lightweight Aggregate Concrete with Closed CONCRETE SURFACES
Structure
EN 1992-1-5 Part 1-5 General Rules – 4.1 General
Structures with Un-bonded and External Pre-
stressing Tendons The term “exposed concrete” relates to
EN 1992-1-6 Part 1-6 General Rules – concrete or concrete elements, which, by
Concrete Structures their appearance, influence the aesthetic
EN 1992 Part 2 Concrete Bridges value of a particular structure. This applies to
EN 206-1:2000 Part 1 Specification, both civil engineering structures and
Performance, Production and Conformity buildings. Particularly to the latter, the
exposed concrete is important, since
residential, business and other buildings are
3 EXPLANATION OF TERMS subject to critical eyes of passers. However,
it does not mean that in civil engineering
Quarry-stone is a piece of stone won at a structures such as bridges, the exposed
quarry by breaking or blasting. The shape of concrete surfaces can be ignored.
quarry-stones is irregular. They can be built-
in without any additional treatment. With regard to the required durability of
concrete, the surfaces should be solid and
Stone facing is an external wall (e.g. cement smooth.
concrete wall) revetment made of suitably
shaped quarry-stone. One of the most essential elements affecting
the final performance of concrete surfaces is
Packed rock-fill is a retaining structure positively the formwork giving the concrete its
made of cubic or flat quarry-stones of shape and appearance, unless, of course,
suitable size placed in dry. the exposed surfaces are covered.
Therefore, a special accuracy is required
Facing when selecting and arranging the formwork.
Treatment/protection of exposed structural
surfaces by shot cement concrete, other

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Formwork Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

The present technology of execution of On surfaces interconnected at an optional

exposed concrete surfaces employs the angle, the joint arrangement shall remain the
following formwork materials: timber, steel same, and the joints shall be continuous.
and plastic.
4.3 Formwork Timber Elements
Timber is the most widespread material to
manufacture formworks used to carry out Distinction is made between a formwork
exposed concrete surfaces. Due to a made of boards and a formwork made of
relatively attractive price and favourable panels. For the latter, a perfect smoothness
mechanical properties (bearing capacity, without any edging is required. It is
specific gravity, workability), timber is the recommended to apply only one formwork
most popular material. It can be practically type to a particular structural element, such
used for all types of structures. The basic as abutment, pier, etc.
deficiency of timber is the fact that the
formwork gets damaged at repeated The dimensions of formwork timber panels
application, thus it becomes unsuitable for amount to 50/200/2.5 cm. The panels shall
further use. be so coupled as to prevent shifting of joints.
When boards are used to erect a formwork,
A subsequent repair of new exposed their dimensions of all shall be the same. The
concrete surfaces is not permitted. formwork panels shall be of the same shape
and size. The same formwork material shall
For the fabrication of precast concrete be applied to the ends as well. The direction
elements, steel formwork is commonly used. of placing the formwork shall also be kept.
A protective coating shall be applied to steel The corner edges shall be executed
formwork prior to casting. The coat that might slantwise.
remain on the exposed concrete surface shall
not affect the final appearance of the latter. 4.4 Colour of Exposed Concrete Elements

When a concrete surface is curved, the It is generally requested that exposed

formwork can also be made of plastic concrete surfaces keep the appearance of
modular elements. The local stability and the natural concrete. The colour of these
supporting system of those elements shall be surfaces shall be uniform and without stains.
ensured. Adequate coating materials shall be used to
protect the formwork elements in order to
As the formwork is an important element, the avoid stains on and a non-uniform colour
formwork drawings shall include all the shade of exposed concrete surfaces.
requirements and directives to be considered
by the contractor. 4.5 Formwork Anchoring and Strutting

4.2 Joints During casting certain horizontal forces act

on the formwork walls (dead weight of
Inaccurate and shifted joints of formwork concrete mixture). These forces shall be
elements affect the appearance of exposed taken by means of anchors serving to fasten
concrete surfaces. Even for surfaces to be together the formwork walls. The anchors are
additionally finished at a later stage, such fixed on the formwork outer side. After
joints can be disturbing. striking the formwork, visible spots remain on
the concrete surfaces, where the formwork
The number of joints between formwork was linked together. This cannot be avoided
panels shall be reduced as much as possible. even by a subsequent finishing of the
exposed side. Therefore, the anchor
Therefore, when placing the formwork for locations shall be uniformly distributed
exposed concrete surfaces, the joints shall preliminarily, which shall be indicated in detail
be generally arranged in accordance with a in the formwork drawing.
special drawing, notwithstanding a
subsequent finishing of those surfaces. The The number of anchors and struts shall
joints shall be distributed uniformly and be reduced as much as possible. No steel
simply as much as possible. Any imitation of anchors or their constituent parts subject
masonry joints as well as shifting of joints is to corrosion must remain on the surface.
not allowed.

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Formwork

The voids that remain after removal of the

anchors shall be filled up with the same
concrete mixture as it has been used to cast
the structural element itself.

Should the anchors remain in the concrete,

their points shall be hidden below the
concrete surface.

Not only anchors but also spacers and

propping material for steel reinforcement
shall be uniformly distributed which shall be
foreseen in advance. Namely, after striking
the formwork, these elements remain visible.
It is obligatory to use concrete spacers made
of the same concrete mixture as it has been
used to cast the structural element itself.

4.6 Casting Concrete

The quality of casting the concrete mixture

also affects the final performance and
appearance of concrete surfaces. The most
uniform distribution of the concrete mixture is
achieved by a constant vibrating using
vibrating tables. However, this method is only
applicable to fabricate precast elements in
workshops. On construction sites, pin
vibrators are commonly used.

For the precast elements, bur also in general,

the edges shall be executed slantwise. In this
way, a non-uniform crumbling of exposed
spots on the concrete surface is prevented.
Such shaping of edges is carried out by
means of inserting triangular fillets into the
formwork. The fillet dimension is selected in
view of the concrete element dimensions;
however, the fillet shall not be smaller than
1.5/1.5 cm. It can be made either of wood or
plastic. Steel formwork used to fabricate
precast elements, usually require plastic
fillets.

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Formwork

Fig. 4.1: Arrangement of formwork composed of panels to construct a frame reinforced concrete
structure

Fig. 4.2: Arrangement of formwork composed of panels to construct a beam reinforced concrete
structure

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Formwork

Fig. 4.3: Arrangement of formwork composed of boards to construct a frame reinforced concrete
structure

Fig. 4.4: Arrangement of formwork composed of boards to construct a beam reinforced concrete
structure

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Formwork Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

5 FINISHING OF EXPOSED depending on the environmental

CONCRETE SURFACES aggressiveness rate. The Eurocode 2 defines
the minimum concrete covers within a range
5.1 General of 10 to 40 mm, plus additional 5 to 10 mm
with regard to the quality control performed.
Finishing of exposed concrete surfaces can
be carried out by moulding of fresh concrete The practice has shown that the concrete
mixture in the formwork already prepared, by covers recommended by different regulations
subsequent painting or by stonecutting. are rather insufficient under extremely severe
conditions. This particularly applies to the
5.2 Protective Concrete Cover maritime environment or to the roads where
de-icing salt is used. In such cases the
The load bearing capacity of any concrete concrete cover should be determined on the
elements depends on the cross-section of basis of the calculated penetration rate of
both the steel reinforcement and the concrete aggressive substances, or of the assumed
within the reinforcement, whereas its mechanism of concrete decay. A thicker
durability depends on the concrete cover to concrete cover ensures a better adhesion of
the reinforcement, protecting the latter from the concrete to the steel reinforcement, and a
external aggressive actions. All these better protection from moisture and fire. It
aggressive impacts, including the climate and also enables the application of aggregate of
the environment, act on the concrete from the major grain size.
outside. Therefore, the durability of concrete
is predominantly dependent on the The design concrete cover or the distance
composition and properties of the upper layer between the reinforcement and the formwork
consisting of the following layers: shall be ensured by means of placing
- cement skin of a thickness approx. 0.1 mm, washers, spacers or lineal props at suitable
- fine mortar layer of a thickness approx. 4 spacing. In aggressive surroundings, the
mm, material of spacers shall enable a good
- concrete layer of a thickness approx. 30 adhesion to concrete. The spacer geometry
mm. shall ensure the stability in the position
foreseen.
The quality of the surface concrete is lower
than the quality of the concrete in the To both the thickness and the quality of the
structural element interior and of the concrete, special attention shall be paid
laboratory specimen due to the following during casting works as well. The achieving
reasons: wall effect at the formwork, concrete of design properties being of an extreme
anisotropy as a consequence of importance to the concrete cover quality and
sedimentation and segregation after durability is essentially affected by an
compaction, different conditions of surface adequate compaction and a thorough after-
finishing and different conditions of curing. All treatment of concrete. A deficient after-
this leads to major variations in water/cement treatment (curing) can increase the concrete
ratios, in aggregate/cement ratios, in cover permeability even by a factor of one
aggregate fineness modulus, and to a greater hundred.
porosity of the surface layers in comparison
with the concrete interior. A greater porosity For bridges, the concrete cover on the
allows an easier penetration of aggressive external side shall be minimum 4.5 cm,
substances from the air or solutions, and whereas on the internal side it shall be
contributes to an increase of extension under minimum 3.5 cm. For structural elements
freezing-thawing conditions, particularly in in contact with soil, the concrete cover
the presence of de-icing salt. shall amount to at least 5.0 cm.

Each intervention such as impregnation, To ensure a correct concrete cover, a spacer

application of protective coating etc., shown in Fig. 5.1 shall be placed. By its
introduced to improve the concrete element shape, such spacer is able to provide a
resistance, requires the cement skin and, concrete cover either of 4.5 cm or 3.5 cm,
sometimes, the concrete layer to be depending on the particular requirement. In
removed. the spacer centre there is a hole of 2.5 mm,
enabling fastening of the spacer to an
The European Norms for the design of adjoining rebar.
reinforced concrete structures specify
minimum concrete cover to the reinforcement

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Formwork

The minimum concrete cover is determined

in dependence on the structural type, the
environmental aggressiveness rate, the
concrete grade, the rebar diameter and the
casting method.

Where the specified concrete cover to

reinforcement exceeds 5 cm, it shall be
reinforced with a thin mesh. The distance
between the mesh reinforcement in the
concrete cover and the concrete external
surface shall not be less than 2.0 cm.

5.3 Finishing of Exposed Concrete

Surfaces in Formwork

Exposed concrete surfaces in the formwork

are finished by means of inserting fillets into
the prepared formwork, depending on the
specified grooves.
The proposed horizontal grooves are spaced
at 80 to 120 cm.

Fig. 5.1: Spacer to achieve the specified

concrete cover

A spacer shall be made of a concrete mixture

consisting of sandy aggregate of 0-4 mm
grain size, cement PC 45, water, acrylate,
and 1 kg/m3 of polypropylene fibres.
Spacers shall be arranged as shown in Fig.
5.2, i.e. at spacing of 50d in all directions,
where d is the nominal diameter of the rebar
located closest to the formwork. However,
the spacing shall not be less than 50 cm.
By means of a wire, a spacer shall be so
firmly fastened to the rebar located closest to
the formwork as to ensure the stability of the
reinforcement and the specified concrete
cover.

Fig. 5.3: Finishing of horizontal grooves of a

depth > 2 cm

Horizontal grooves of a maximum depth of 2

cm can be carried out without any
intervention in the concrete reinforcement. In
case that grooves deeper than 2 cm are
foreseen, they shall be adequately reinforced
as shown in Fig. 5.3.

Fig. 5.2: Method of placing spacers

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Formwork Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision
5.4 Finishing of New Exposed Concrete
Surfaces after Striking the Formwork

A subsequent finishing of new exposed

concrete surfaces shall be reduced as much
as possible. The final appearance of new
exposed concrete surfaces shall already be
designed at the stage of preparation of the
formwork drawings.

A subsequent finishing with stonecutting tools

shall be limited to decorative concrete
parapets, edge beams and wing walls. The
concrete cover shall not be less than 5 cm.

A subsequent finishing of new concrete

surfaces in aggressive environments is
prohibited as the compactness of the
Fig. 5.4: Finishing of horizontal grooves of a concrete surface is disrupted.
depth up to 2 cm
After removal of the formwork, new exposed
When concreting with a horizontal joint is concrete surfaces can also be painted with a
carried out, it is recommended to finish the suitable paint. However, this is only
construction joint is such a way that the latter recommended when the resistance of
is concealed in the groove deepening. By this concrete to aggressive surroundings is
means, an incorrect joining of the old and the increased by this operation.
new concrete is avoided.
Recently, a method has been developed
The final appearance of concrete surfaces is where a fresh concrete mixture is finished by
also affected by the treatment of edges. As paint application, and a stone texture is
they are sensitive, they are prone to impressed simultaneously. However, both the
damages, so they require a special paint and the stone texture are applied to
treatment. When the angle of one side to the horizontal surfaces only. In this way, the
adjacent one amounts to 90°, the edge shall colour stability is ensured, and there is no
be executed slantwise by 2 cm on each side, harmful effect on the concrete.
which can be achieved by placing a wooden
angle fillet. When determining the stone colour and the
texture pattern, the natural environment shall
be taken into account.

Finishing of road bridge surfaces with such a

material is suitable to walkways surfaces and
access paths.

Fig. 5.5: Treatment of edges

The treatment of sharp edges shall already

be foreseen at the design stage of a
structural element. The surface treated
slantwise shall not be less than 20 cm. For
such a surface, the same reinforcing
principles apply as to the adjacent surfaces.

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Formwork
5.5 Finishing of Exposed Concrete
Surfaces on Underpasses A “deepening” of the front part of the
carriageway slab above the underpass entry
5.5.1 Underpasses with Parallel Wings is proposed by means of a cantilevered
structure to a depth of 35 cm. In this way, an
The underpass wings are parallel. The impression of a portal is given with a
connecting slopes are of a conical shape. minimum of architectural arrangements, and
the concern for aesthetical design is
Horizontal grooves of 7 cm width and 2 cm emphasized (Fig. 5.6 and 5.7).
depth at a spacing of 80-100 cm are
proposed for the surfaces of the underpass The portal can also be pointed out by a
supporting walls (Fig. 5.6). “deepening” of the entire portal, i.e. of the
carriageway slab and the vertical walls.

Fig. 5.6: Underpass with parallel wings with a portal partly pointed out

5.5.2 Underpasses with Oblique Wings the front part of the carriageway slab above
the underpass entry is proposed by means of
The underpass wings are oblique, and the a cantilevered structure to a depth of 35 cm.
connecting slope ends at the wing. In this way, an impression of a portal is given
with a minimum of architectural
Horizontal grooves of 7 cm width and 2 cm arrangements, and the concern for
depth at a spacing of 80-100 cm are aesthetical design is emphasized.
proposed for the surfaces of the underpass
supporting walls (Fig. 5.6). A “deepening” of

Fig. 5.7: Underpass with oblique wings with a portal partly pointed out

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Formwork
5.5.3 Underpasses with Cylindrical Wing proposed for the surfaces of the underpass
Walls supporting walls.

At the underpass entry, a vertical declination At the underpass entry, a double portal is
of semicircular walls is proposed. Vertical proposed by foreseeing a 40 cm wide and 35
grooves of 15 cm width and 2 cm depth cm deep frame, sectioned by means of
spaced at 80 cm should be to the wall horizontal joints, as a continuation of the
surfaces. grooved wall (Fig. 5.8).

Horizontal grooves of 7 cm width and 2 cm

depth at a spacing of 80-100 cm are

Fig. 5.8: Underpass with cylindrical wing walls and with a portal pointed out

5.6 Finishing of Exposed Concrete ensured by a proper selection of the structure

Surfaces on Overpasses and a harmony of dimensions, which should
be taken into consideration by structural
5.6.1 Single-span Overpasses designers. Any element on such structures,
which has no functional character, acts
This alternative is neutral in view of shaping. tastelessly. However, it does not mean that
The superstructure is designed as a slight all those structures shall be equal.
arch providing the structure with a suitable
elegance. By having a look below the Following the abovementioned
overpass, an impression of an intentionally considerations the only reasonable way to
distorted landscape image is offered. Such a design such structures is to devote a bit more
solution is recommended particularly for attention to designing of the exposed
overpasses across the roads running in cuts. surfaces of abutments.

Bridges on motorways are particularly

engineering structures. Their beauty is

Fig. 5.9: Single-span overpass

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Formwork
5.6.2 Two-span Overpasses The design of such overpasses is only
reasonable by selecting a structure being the
Two-span overpasses are foreseen, above most appropriate to the particular
all, where a motorway runs on an nearly flat environment. It is only recommended to
ground or in a semi-cut. In Fig. 5.10 an emphasize and, in view of the composition, to
overpass with precast prestressed girders treat large concrete surfaces, i.e. those of
(composite cross-section) is shown. All other abutments and piers.
overpass structural elements are monolithic.

Fig. 5.10: Two-span overpass

Horizontal grooves of 7 cm width and 2 cm in embankments, and when the width of the
depth at a spacing of 80-100 cm are motorway central reserve is relatively small.
proposed for the surfaces of the overpass
abutments and piers. The motorway runs below the overpass
central span being longer than both side
If required, vertical grooves of 30x30 cm can spans, which are of an equal length. A
also be foreseen for the abutments. In such a straight or curved superstructure is supported
groove, the vertical drainage pipe can be put with piers of different shapes. By means of
out of sight. such a design solution, a visually open profile
of the road space is created and a
The pier(s) of such an overpass can also be transparency ensured. The structure
designed in a different way, depending on the composed in accordance with static and
designer’s imagination. constructive conditions is both economical
and harmonic. An execution of horizontal
5.6.3 Three-span Overpasses lines spaced at 80-120 cm is proposed on the
piers and abutments.
Three-span overpasses are designed
particularly in cases where they are located

Fig. 5.11: Three-span overpass

5.6.4 Four-span Overpasses direction, but the space should be provided

for en eventual future third lane.
Four-span overpasses are foreseen in cases To the four-span overpasses all the
where the motorway central reserve is wide abovementioned considerations apply. The
or the motorway consists of three traffic lanes superstructures can be of various types. The
in each direction. They are also designed concrete surface finishing is identical as for
when there are only two traffic lanes in each the overpasses described above.

Fig. 5.12: Four-span overpass, composite or monolithic

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Formwork

Fig. 5.13: Abutment and composite deck Fig. 5.14: Abutment and monolithic deck

6 FACING APPLIED TO CONCRETE Facings or walls made of irregularly arranged

SURFACES stones, i.e. cyclopic walls are generally
applied to retaining walls on roads. However,
6.1 General they are not recommended for bridges.

Parts of bridges, especially abutments and The cyclopic walls are not characterized by
piers, can be faced with stone when it is the stone size, but by the polygonal shape of
intended to increase their aesthetic value, their faces.
particularly when the bridge is located in a
region where the stone appears as a
traditional material. In addition, by facing
structural elements, their resistance to
external impacts is increased.

The general appearance of exposed surfaces

faced with stone depends on the stone type,
quality, size, shape and colour, on the ratio of
bigger stones to smaller ones, on the method
of finishing the surfaces, and on the way how
to carry through the joints.

The following rules shall be considered in Fig. 6.1: Appearance of a part of cyclopic wall
stone facing design:
- the stone shall be finished in such a way as The stones intended to execute such a wall
to emphasize its structure as much as or a facing shall have at least three bearing
possible and to reduce the visible traces of planes. Individual stones shall extend to the
tools to the minimum extent; wall depth by at least 20 cm. At reasonable
- bigger stones shall be placed to the lower spacing, some bigger stone blocks shall be
rows of the wall; individual stones shall be embedded extending to the concrete mass
longer than higher, they shall be by 40 cm minimum.
overlapped by at least 20 cm;
- the joints in the wall shall be approximately The size of an individual stone of a cyclopic
of the same width; on the wall face the wall shall amount to 40-60 cm. The number
mortar shall not be unnecessarily visible; of sides of a stone shall not exceed five
the deficiencies shall not be levelled with (pentagon). The width of joints between
mortar; no false joints shall be made in the adjacent stones on the wall face shall be
mortar; within the limits of 20-40 mm.
- the general appearance of the wall shall
not resemble to tiling.

Exposed concrete surfaces can also be faced

with prefabricated concrete slabs when the
latter serve as formwork panels.

6.2 Facing Made of Irregularly Arranged 6.3 Facing Made of Quarry-stone

Stone – Cyclopic Walls

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Formwork
To execute a quarry-stone facing, stones with casting concrete, or it is carried out after
natural or artificially made bearing planes concreting. In the first case, the cut stones
shall be used. The joint width shall amount to shall be fastened by means of steel clamps
15-30 mm. The layer heights in the same wall or anchors on every second or third joint
can be different, but the adjacent vertical behind the wall mass. At other joints usual
joints shall be shifted by at least 10 cm. clamps are built-in for an interconnection of
stones. When the walls are already cast and
Individual stones shall be placed in such a the stone facing is carried out subsequently,
way that the resulting load, i.e. the pressure the surfaces to be faced shall be roughened
force acts vertically to the direction of the to ensure a good adhesion between the
stone layer. facing and the wall. The connection between
the wall and the facing is also achieved by
To the quarry-stone walls the same rules and means of steel clamps. The void between the
principles apply as to the cyclopic walls. The wall and the stone facing shall be filled up
only difference is, that the shaping of the wall with cement mortar or concrete containing
face is more regular in facing with quarry- fine aggregate.
stones.
Finishing of joints has a strong influence on
The stones are of a rectangular shape and of the appearance of the wall face. The better
dimensions of (20-40)/(40-80) cm. the finishing of the stone, the thinner can be
the joints, and vice versa. The joint
thicknesses can vary from 3 to 20 mm. For
thinner joints, mortar containing finer sand is
used, and inversely, for thicker joints, the
mortar shall be made of sand of bigger grain
size. After the facing is completed, i.e. the
wall mass has settled definitively, the
exposed portions of the joints shall be
finished. The colour of the mortar to be
applied to the joint shall be selected
according to the foreseen appearance of the
Fig. 6.2: Appearance of a part of quarry- wall face.
stone wall The exposed surface of a joint can:
- be levelled with the stone face,
Depending on the shape of a block built-in, - be deepened within the joint, or
the wall face can be of different appearances: - extend out of the wall face.
- the layers are of the same dimensions, or
they differ in height; The appearance of the wall face depends on
- thicker and thinner layers alternate the method of placing stones, which can be
regularly; arranged in layers in different ways.
- individual blocks are bigger, extending over The method of arranging cut stones where
two or three layers; the horizontal layers are the same on the
- the layers are not accentuated; entire wall face, and the stones are placed in
- the exposed surface is not finished (relief a shape of a cross (Fig. 6.3) is called the
surface). gothic bond. The stones of two vertically
adjoining layers overlap by one fourth.
6.4 Facing Made of Cut Stones

Cut stones are finished by approx. 15 cm in

depth. Horizontal joints shall be continuous,
whereas the vertical ones shall run
perpendicularly to the bearing joints.
The heights of individual facing layers shall
be different. The ratio of the height to the
length varies from 1:1.2 for slate to 1:1 for
hard stones. Fig. 6.3: Appearance of a wall portion in a
gothic bond

Concrete walls can be faced in two ways. Stones in different layers need not be of the
The stone facing can serve as formwork for same height. However, it is required to place

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Formwork Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision
bigger stones in lower layers. The stones
shall overlap by at least 10 cm.

Fig. 6.4: Appearance of a wall portion of an

ordinary combination
Fig. 6.5: Appearance of a wall portion of an
Stones can also be arranged in irregular irregular combination
combination. There are no horizontal layers
in such a wall. However, a contact of three
corners of different stones in a single point
shall be avoided. The stones shall overlap by
at least 10 cm, as it applies to the gothic
bond as well.

Fig. 6.6: Abutment with facing of cut stones

In road bridges it is reasonable to apply stone

facing to abutments, provided that they are
located in an environment allowing this, or
when the abutment durability is increased. In
exceptional cases, piers, when located in
river streams, can also be faced with stone.
By this means, piers are protected from
harmful water actions.

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 GUIDELINES FOR ROAD DESIGN,
CONSTRUCTION, MAINTENANCE AND
SUPERVISION

Volume I: DESIGNING

Section 2: DESIGNING BRIDGES

DESIGN GUIDELINES (DG 1.2.11)

Part 11: BRIDGE MAINTENANCE EQUIPMENT AND
MAINTENANCE PLAN
Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Bridge mainteance equipment

INTRODUCTION

Bridge maintenance equipment is essential for bridge inspection and particularly for bridge
maintenance and repair works.

Each bridge shall comprise maintenance equipment such as stairs, benchmarks, informational
boards, ventilation openings and access points. A direct access or such by means of a special
vehicle shall be ensured to all he bridge structural elements and furniture.

To each road bridge a maintenance plan is mandatory. It shall comprise all the essential
information of the bridge, as well as the conditions on and the methods of the bridge inspection and
maintenance.

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Bridge mainteance equipment Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

CONTENTS

1 SUBJECT OF DESIGN GUIDELINES .......................................................................................... 5

2 REFERENCE REGULATIONS ..................................................................................................... 5
3 EXPLANATION OF TERMS ......................................................................................................... 5
4 BRIDGE MAINTENANCE EQUIPMENT – GENERAL ................................................................. 6
5 MAINTENANCE STAIRS.............................................................................................................. 7
5.1 Stairs at Abutments ............................................................................................................. 7
5.2 Stairs in Hollow Piers ........................................................................................................ 10
5.3 Accesses to Superstructures ............................................................................................ 10
5.4 Maintenance of Bridge Installations .................................................................................. 10
6 BENCHMARKS FOR BRIDGE GEOMETRY AND DEFORMATION CONTROL ...................... 14
7 INFORMATIONAL BOARDS ...................................................................................................... 16
8 OPENINGS FOR VENTILATING AND DEWATERING BOX CROSS-SECTIONS ................... 17
9 SPECIAL VEHICLES FOR BRIDGE INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE ............................... 18
9.1 Characteristics of Special Vehicle..................................................................................... 18
9.2 Vehicle for Maintenance of Bridge Drainage and Piping .................................................. 19
10 BRIDGE MAINTENANCE PLAN................................................................................................. 19
10.1 Technical Report ............................................................................................................... 19
10.2 Bridge Superintendence.................................................................................................... 20
10.2.1 Technical Inspection ...................................................................................................... 20
10.2.2 Routine Inspection ......................................................................................................... 20
10.2.3 Regular Inspection ......................................................................................................... 21
10.2.4 Main Inspection.............................................................................................................. 21
10.2.5 Extraordinary Inspection ................................................................................................ 21
10.2.6 Detailed Inspection ........................................................................................................ 21
10.2.7 Measurements in Periods Between Individual Inspections ........................................... 22
10.3 Bridge Maintenance Works ............................................................................................... 22
10.3.1 Regular Cleansing of Bridges ........................................................................................ 22
10.3.2 Other Maintenance Works and Particularities ............................................................... 22
10.4 Drawings ........................................................................................................................... 23

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Bridge mainteance equipment

1 SUBJECT OF DESIGN Ventilation openings are required to

GUIDELINES ventilate confined box cross-sections.

Bridge maintenance equipment is essential Special vehicles for inspection are

for bridge inspection and particularly for vehicles equipped with a collapsible scaffold
bridge maintenance and repair works. allowing an access to those structural
elements, which are inaccessible by common
Each bridge shall comprise maintenance means, in order to carry out inspections and
equipment such as stairs, benchmarks, eventual repairs.
informational boards, ventilation openings
and access points. A direct access or such Technical inspection is a professional
by means of a special vehicle shall be inspection of works performed, where the
ensured to all he bridge structural elements latter are compared with the drawings,
and furniture. technical description and technical
conditions. Form, quality and stability of the
To each road bridge a maintenance plan is structure are inspected.
mandatory. It shall comprise all the essential
information of the bridge, as well as the Routine inspection: by this inspection,
conditions on and the methods of the bridge condition of the structure is established and
inspection and maintenance. the defects jeopardizing the traffic are made
good simultaneously.

2 REFERENCE REGULATIONS Regular inspection: by this inspection,

which is carried through every two years
The present Design Guideline is based on (unless a main inspection is foreseen in the
the Rulebook on Technical Norms for same year), all parts of the bridge furniture,
Concrete and Reinforced Concrete (Pravilnik carriageway and load bearing system being
o tehničkim normativima za beton i armirani accessible without any special equipment are
beton), PBAB 87, Yugoslav Official Gazette checked. Beside the phenomena
No. 11/1987, Articles 286 and 287, as well as endangering the traffic safety, eventual
on the German Guidelines Richtzeichnungen damages or adverse effects that might
für Brücken und andere Ingenieurbauwerke jeopardize structural safety, serviceability and
(Guide-Drawings for Bridges and Other Civil durability shall be found out.
Engineering Structures).
Extraordinary inspection is carried out by
professional commissions, whose task is to
3 EXPLANATION OF TERMS assess the condition of the bridge during or
immediately after an exceptional event (flood,
Bridge equipment: all the elements, which heavy transport, etc.).
no not belong to the bridge structure, yet they
are required for a proper functioning of a Main inspection is performed every six
bridge. years and upon expiry of the guarantee
period. The extent of this inspection is the
Maintenance plan: all the documents same as that of the extraordinary inspection.
providing adequate instructions for the bridge However, the main inspection also covers
management after the construction has been items and places, which are hidden or
completed, ensuring a maximum reliability inaccessible by regular means.
and durability of a bridge.
Detailed inspection is a base for an
Maintenance stairs serve bridge inspectors assessment of the actual quality and safety
and maintainers to reach all the essential of the entire structure, or a base for
places on a bridge and/or to those places, diagnosing and determining the rehabilitation
from which it is possible to come to the spot method.
of inspection or maintenance.

Benchmarks are required to control road

bridge deformations and settlements.

Informational boards comprise the

information of the year of construction, the
investor, the contractor, the designer, etc.

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Bridge mainteance equipment Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

4 BRIDGE MAINTENANCE Bridges shall be conceived in such a way that

EQUIPMENT – GENERAL different installations and furniture do not
affect adversely their appearance, that
Bridge maintenance equipment is essential maintenance carriages can be employed,
for bridge inspection and particularly for and an access for inspection vehicles is
bridge maintenance and repair works. ensured.

When designing a new bridge, due regard To each road bridge a maintenance plan is
shall be given to the feasibility of its mandatory. It shall comprise all the essential
inspection, maintenance and rehabilitation. information of the bridge, as well as the
Special attention shall be paid to bridges conditions on and the methods of the bridge
comprising plenty of furniture and inspection and maintenance.
installations. This applies in particular to
urban bridges.

Each bridge shall comprise maintenance

equipment such as stairs, benchmarks,
informational boards, ventilation openings
and access points. A direct access or such
by means of a special vehicle shall be
ensured to all he bridge structural elements
and furniture.

Fig. 4.1: Bridge scheme with maintenance equipment indicated

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Bridge mainteance equipment

5 MAINTENANCE STAIRS surfaces of the stairs can be of concrete or

stone. Minimum concrete grade shall be
5.1 Stairs at Abutments C25/30, and freeze resistance XF3 shall be
ensured.
For all bridges an access to the abutments
from the road level shall be ensured (Fig. 5.1, For wide bridges (four traffic lanes),
5.2) particularly on motorways, stairs shall be
executed on both abutment sides.
Stairs at abutments shall be carried out on
one side at the wing, parallel with the bridge For bridges and overpasses where a road is
axis. The width of the stairs shall amount to running below, the access to the abutments
80 cm minimum, whilst the height of each shall be made feasible from the road below,
stair shall be 17-18 cm. in the bridge/overpass axis (Fig. 5.2).

The slope below the stairs shall be additional For minor bridges (of a height < 3 m) and
consolidated, and a foundation shall be slopes of 1:1.5 – 1:2.5, stairs can be omitted.
constructed at both the beginning and the In such a case, the access is enabled over
end of the stairs. The dimensions of each the slope.
foundation depend on the ground type and Before the abutment, an access path of 1.0
quality; in general they shall amount to 50/80 m width and ≥ 1.80 height shall be executed.
cm.
Detailed technical sketches are shown in Fig.
The thickness of the bearing slab of the stairs 5.3 and 5.4.
shall amount to approx. 15 cm. The slab shall
be constructively reinforced. The upper

Fig. 5.1: Position of stairs enabling access to below the bridge

Fig. 5.2: Position of stairs enabling access to bearings from the road below the bridge

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Bridge mainteance equipment Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

Fig. 5.3: Sketch of stairs running parallel with the structure

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Bridge mainteance equipment

Fig. 5.4: Sketch of stairs enabling access below the bridge

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5.2 Stairs in Hollow Piers 5.4 Maintenance of Bridge Installations

Hollow piers of internal dimensions greater Installations placed in the bridge walkways,
than 1.5 m, shall receive, at a height of 2.0 m shall be conducted in PVC ducts of φ110 or
from the ground, an opening including a steel φ80 mm. Installation inspection shafts of
door of 90/140 cm, equipped with a lock. 41/107 cm ensure interventions during
inspection and maintenance. Their
Access to the pier interior is made possible arrangement shall be agreed with the
through the door (Fig. 5.5). A steel ladder relevant public service administrations.
with a back-guard is fixed to the pier wall
over the entire pier height. By means of the Installation of major dimensions, such as
ladder, inspection and minor repairs are water supply, sewage system, hot-water
allowed (Fig. 5.6). supply, low-pressure gas conduit, shall be
conducted on steel brackets with suitable
When a box superstructure supported by fixed or movable supports. For longer and
means of bearings is placed onto such piers, higher bridges, maintenance of essential
a free pass from the pier into the installations on the outer side of the bridge
superstructure and vice versa shall be carried shall be made feasible by means of a
out (Fig. 5.7). For piers, which are rigidly specially arranged carriage.
connected with the bridge deck, such
provision is not required. For larger bridges, i.e. of a length more than
100 m, where major installations are
5.3 Accesses to Superstructures conducted, the maintenance of the latter shall
be made possible by providing of permanent
For bridges having a chamber at abutment a steel walkways of 80 cm width, or a carriage
free pass to the box superstructure through shall be foreseen, from which all the works
this chamber shall be enabled. can be carried out.

Bridges without a chamber shall have an On box girder bridges installations are often
access opening, i.e. a door in the box girder led in the bridge interior. Their location shall
lower slab. be selected in such a way that they do not
hinder placing of additional tendons
The opening size amounts to 60/140 cm. For eventually required for bridge strengthening.
an easier placing of eventually required For maintainers of the installations, an
additional tendons, the opening shall be access to the box deck is enabled through
placed at a distance of 1.5 – 2.0 m from the suitable openings.
abutment. Box girders comprising wall cross
girders shall have openings of 80/140 cm
minimum in these cross girders to enable a
free pass.

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Fig. 5.5: Galvanized steel door enabling entry into hollow piers

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Fig. 5.6: Steel ladder enabling inspection of hollow pier interior

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Fig. 5.7: Passage from the box deck into the pier and vice versa

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6 BENCHMARKS FOR BRIDGE - they shall be fully accessible and protected

GEOMETRY AND DEFORMATION from damage,
CONTROL - they shall be built-in on both sides, on all
the piers and at particularly deformable
During construction of a bridge, benchmarks locations.
referring to the existing level net (in heights The levelling of benchmarks built-in shall be
above sea level) shall be built-in in certain in heights above sea level. It shall be
places being adequately guarded. In this prepared by an authorized institution.
way, a survey control of the bridge during the
construction and in the service life is made The results of the zero-measurement of all
feasible (Fig. 6.1, 6.2, 6.3). the bridge benchmarks shall be recorded in
an adequate form specified by the
The following two criteria are decisive to maintenance plan.
select the benchmark locations on bridges:

Fig. 6.1: Detail of a benchmark on pier

Fig. 6.2: Detail of a benchmark on abutment or outside the bridge

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Fig. 6.3: Detail of a benchmark on superstructure

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7 INFORMATIONAL BOARDS Boards indicating the title of the bridge or the

obstacle, or providing information relating to
All bridges shall be fitted with an the traffic safety are a constituent part of the
informational board made of brass and fixed traffic design.
to the abutment. It shall indicate the
contractor’s name and the year of
construction (Fig. 7.1).

Fig. 7.1: Informational board

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8 OPENINGS FOR VENTILATING sewage system running through the deck box
AND DEWATERING BOX CROSS- girder (Fig. 8.1).
SECTIONS
Hollow piers shall receive ventilation
For closed superstructure and substructure openings next to the top in a cross line
box sections, ventilation openings shall be through both walls. In this way it is possible,
foreseen. during bridge repair works, to insert steel
In the superstructure openings of φ 200 mm girders for erection of working scaffolds or
spaced at 20 m shall be executed. Each jacks used to repair/replace the bearings
opening shall be protected with a mesh of (Fig. 8.2).
1x1 cm, as the birds must be prevented to
enter the structural element. Openings are At the bottom of hollow piers, openings for
also indispensable at the lowest points of the evacuation of eventual water shall be
box cross section to enable draining executed.
condensed water or the water from the

Fig. 8.1: Ventilation openings

Fig. 8.2: Openings for hollow pier ventilation

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9 SPECIAL VEHICLES FOR BRIDGE

INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE

Bridge inspection and maintenance are

extremely important, since due repairs can
prevent major damages to the bridge.

For this purpose the following equipment can

be used:

A suitable steel ladder fixed to the bridge

railing. By means of such a ladder,
particularly installations on outer bridge sides
can be inspected, where the cantilever
amounts to less than 1.5 m.

A prefabricated carriage, placed onto the

walkway and supported as cantilever over
horizontal reach ................................................ 18m
the railing, is used for inspection and platform width ................................................... 1,7m
maintenance of installations on larger width required on the bridge ............................. 2,5m
bridges. The structural design of the carriage maximum weight acting on the bridge .............. 600kg
should allow the adjustment with regard to maximum weight of the telescopic platform....... 300kg
the walkway width, and a simple assembling. maximum lowering depth ................................. 9,0m
platform rotation ............................................... 180°
A basket on a hydraulically controlled arm is total weight ................................................26.000kg
foreseen for inspection and minor repair of total length .................................................... 12,0m
total width ......................................................... 2,5m
superstructures at certain inaccessible
total height ........................................................ 4,0m
locations, when employment of special own hydraulic drive
vehicles is not reasonable. power supply to the platform

A movable, 1.0-1.5 m wide platform made of Fig. 9.1: Scheme and characteristics of the
aluminium, which can be synchronically special vehicle MB1 180-1,7/S
moved in either vertical or horizontal
direction. It is intended for minor
maintenance works on bridge
superstructures.

A special vehicle for inspection and

maintenance works on both superstructure
and substructure of a bridge. It is essential to
be familiar with all the characteristics of such
a vehicle in view of its mass, accessibility,
manoeuvring capabilities, outline dimensions
and platform load bearing capacity.

9.1 Characteristics of Special Vehicle

The special vehicle MB1 180-1,7/S is

intended for bridge inspection. In addition,
such a vehicle can also be used for minor
maintenance and repair works (Fig. 9.1 and
9.2).

Fig. 9.2: Possible use of special vehicle

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9.2 Vehicle for Maintenance of Bridge

Drainage and Piping

In accordance with the maintenance plan, an

annual cleansing of drainage pipes is
foreseen immediately after the wintertime.
For this purpose, companies carrying out
maintenance are equipped with suitable
vehicles (Fig. 9.3).

- tank volume 10.000 l

- useful volume 6.000 l
- additional suction connection for taking the water from open sources
- high pressure washing-out hose 13-40 m and 25-120 m
- watering can 0,5m
- cleansing head AQUA-BULL 250N
- pneumatically controlled closing pins
- negative pressure pump – suction capacity at 400 mbar – 1.060 m3/h
- high pressure pump – capacity 320 l/min
- working pressure 170 bar
- control of filling, water chamber, mechanical float and external pointer
- box for suction hose and suction hose itself

Fig. 9.3: Scheme and characteristics of a vehicle for drainage maintenance

10 BRIDGE MAINTENANCE PLAN The bridge maintenance plan comprises the

following:
Bridge maintenance plan (BMP) is a - Technical report
constituent part of the as-built design for - Provisions of bridge superintendence
bridges of spans of ≥ 5 m. - Bridge maintenance instructions
BMP belongs to the contractor’s obligations. - Drawings and tables.
It shall be worked out by the structural
designer who was responsible for the bridge 10.1 Technical Report
detailed design.
The goal of the BMP is to present briefly all • General information: road, section, bridge,
the general information on the road, bridge, contractor + subcontractors, designer,
designer, contractor and supervisor, as well supervisor.
as on the load bearing structure, foundation, • Extent and content of the bridge as-built
ground, foreseen settlements and bridge design.
furniture. The BMP shall also include the • A brief general description of the bridge.
maintenance instructions to preserve the • Design loading in the bridge service life
designed function, service level, safety and (live load, wind, earthquake) and conditions
durability of the particular bridge. for heavy transports.

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• Materials of the bridge load bearing 10.2.1 Technical Inspection

structure.
• Description and technical characteristics of The technical inspection upon bridge handing
the bridge load bearing structure over, also called zero-inspection, is carried
(foundations, piers, abutments, out in accordance with the current
superstructure). Construction Law by the authority that has
• Expected settlements of the piers and issued the building permit.
embankments at piers in view of the
ground characteristics, and provisions to The following is established by the technical
accommodate inadmissible differential inspection:
settlements. - whether the bridge has been executed in
• Bridge construction technology. accordance with the design documents and
• Description and technical characteristics of construction rules/standards;
the bridge furniture (bearings, expansion - presence of all the quality control
joints, drainage and piping, waterproofing, certificates,
asphalt carriageway, railings, barriers, - evidence of general safety of both the
installations). bridge and traffic.
• Description and technical characteristics of
maintenance equipment. Test loading of bridges, having a span more
• Bridge particularities. than 15 m, shall be carried through. The test
loading results shall comply with the design
10.2 Bridge Superintendence values.

By implementing the bridge superintendence, Both the zero levelling and the protocol of the
traffic safety, serviceability and durability of a measurement of reference points shall be
bridge are ensured. A level of the regular attached to the maintenance plan. By means
maintenance can be determined, and of these documents, settlements and
deficiencies that might cause major damage deformations in the bridge service life will be
can be established and made good. checked (Table 1).

The bridge superintendence is composed of On the basis of positive results of the

the following activities: technical inspection, the relevant authority
- carrying out inspections, issues a service licence for the bridge.
- preparation of reports,
- planning maintenance or repair works. 10.2.2 Routine Inspection

Bridge inspections are divided by time and Routine inspections are carried out by road
function in the following ones: inspectors at least once a month. The goal of
- technical inspection (upon bridge handing a routine inspection is to find out and make
over), good particularly those deficiencies that
- routine inspections (at least once a month) might jeopardize the bridge.
- regular inspections every 2 years,
- main inspections every 6 years and prior to Extent and method: visual establishing of
expiry of the guarantee period, deficiencies on the bridge structure,
- extraordinary inspections (immediately carriageway and furniture, as well as making
after exceptional events), good of minor defects, particularly cleaning,
- detailed inspections (with a special announcing noticeable settlements or
intention). deformations of both the structure and road
body at abutments.
In the guarantee period the inspections, with
the exception of the routine ones, are carried Documents: an evidence of inspections
through with the knowledge of the contractor performed shall be kept in the bridge
liable to the guarantee. The bridge maintenance book. When a major defect is
owner/maintainer is obliged to inform the discovered, the inspector is obliged to inform
contractor of the date of inspection. In the the road maintainer in writing.
guarantee period, the owner/maintainer must
also organise an extraordinary inspection in The inspection shall be carried out by the
case of an exceptional event. road inspector being supplementary schooled
in this domain.

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10.2.3 Regular Inspection 10.2.4 Main Inspection

Regular inspections are carried out every two Main inspections are carried through every
years, unless a main inspection coincides six years and upon expiration of the liability
with the regular one. period.

The intention of the regular inspection is to Intention: goals and content of main
check all the elements of the bridge furniture, inspections are the same as it applies for
carriageway and load bearing system, which regular inspections. However, a main
are accessible without any special devices. inspection shall also cover locations of an
Beside phenomena, that threaten the traffic insufficient accessibility or covered places,
safety, damages and adverse features on the such as lower side of the deck, piers,
structure, which could jeopardize the bridge bearings, etc. Suitable devices enabling
safety, serviceability and durability, shall be access shall be employed.
found out.
During each main inspection, levelling of
Extent: reference points, i.e. benchmarks shall be
- on the entire bridge, all the changes that performed, which must be entered into a
have occurred from the last regular suitable form (Table 1).
inspection shall be established;
- condition of the bridge and individual Performer of the inspection: a crew under the
elements shall be assessed, as well as a lead of an expert, i.e. civil engineer having
deviation from the original quality shall be passed a professional exam and being
found out; specially qualified for inspection of bridges
- eventual major deformations of both the and assessment of their condition.
superstructure and substructure shall be
measured; 10.2.5 Extraordinary Inspection
- upon first inspection, levelling of reference
points (benchmarks) shall be carried out, Extraordinary inspections shall be carried out
and the results shall be recorded in an during/after exceptional events such as:
adequate form; - earthquake, heavy rainfall, flood, landslide,
- eventual measures for additional exceptional temperatures, fore in close
investigations shall be proposed; vicinity;
- maintenance provisions shall be - serious traffic accidents and impacts of
suggested. vehicles on the bridge;
- exceeded loading or phenomenon of
Method: the condition is assessed within the sudden damages;
abovementioned scope, especially visually - spilling of liquids harmful to the load
and by means of simple investigations bearing structure;
(percussion, sclerometry, levelling, etc.). - events during war.

Documents: a record of the inspection shall Both extent and goal of the inspection
mandatory be kept. General data as well as depend on the type and extent of damages or
bridge and furniture condition shall be on the reason of the inspection.
recorded. A standard record can be used. In
the conclusion of the protocol, measures to 10.2.6 Detailed Inspection
make good defects and to ensure bridge
durability shall be foreseen. Detailed inspections serve as a base to
assess the actual quality and safety of the
Performer of the inspection: a crew under the entire structure or as a base to carry through
lead of an expert, i.e. civil engineer having a diagnosis and define the rehabilitation
passed a professional exam and being principle. A detailed inspection shall be
adequately experienced. In the guarantee executed in the following cases:
period, a representative of the contractor,
who is liable to the guarantee, shall be - if the quality, bearing capacity or safety are
informed of the inspections planned. doubtable;
- in case of increase of loading or in when
heavy transports are foreseen;
- if the results of regular or main inspections
impose certain rehabilitation measures;
- in case of disputes, litigations or similar.

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The content and extent of a detailed 10.3.1 Regular Cleansing of Bridges

inspection depend on the motives for such an
inspection. Beside visual inspection, the Regular cleansing of a bridge includes a
structure shall be tested statically and general cleansing twice a year, i.e. in the
dynamically. In addition, characteristic spring and autumn, and an additional
structural elements and their materials shall cleansing ordered by the road inspector,
be investigated as well. when his own capabilities are exceeded.
Both the date and extent of regular cleansing
Detailed inspections are performed by shall be recorded in the maintenance book.
professional institutions, having at disposal
adequate equipment and experienced staff The spring cleansing shall be carried out
being able to execute the investigations after the winter season of ploughing and
required and to interpret the results obtained. strewing sand or de-icing salt.
The report shall include the results of all the
measurements carried out, as well as Regular cleansing includes particularly the
appropriate decisions foreseen. following:
- washing of concrete safety barrier to
10.2.7 Measurements in Periods Between remove the salt on the inner exposed side,
Individual Inspections - cleaning of carriageway surface and
removal of sand,
On certain bridges, where major settlements - cleansing of gullies and drainage through
due to poor foundation conditions or major the gullies,
deformations due to particularities of the - cleansing of expansion joints being nearly
bridge deck are expected, some fully opened in that period.
measurements shall also be performed in
periods between individual inspections (Table The autumn cleansing shall be performed
1). Both extent and frequency of such prior to the winter season. All the dirt due to
measurements shall be indicated in the the traffic and vegetation shall be removed.
technical report of the maintenance plan The following works are included:
(9.1.7). - cleaning of carriageway surface (removal
of oil and other debris from the vehicles,
In the guarantee period, those leaves and other vegetation;
measurements shall be carried out by the - cleansing of gullies;
bridge contractor. Preliminarily, the bridge - cleansing of expansion joints;
maintainer shall be informed of the - cleaning of bearing block at the abutment.
measurements. The results of those
measurements shall be submitted to the Additional cleansing is carried out when the
bridge maintainer by the contractor. road inspector orders so. The reasons that
have led to such decision shall be done
10.3 Bridge Maintenance Works away.

Information of certain specific climatic 10.3.2 Other Maintenance Works and

conditions for bridge maintenance works. Particularities
Beside cleansing of the bridge and its
furniture as well as replacement of wearing Other maintenance works are determined on
parts, all other works not intervening in the the basis of conclusions of bridge inspections
bridge structure also belong to the and to ensure the traffic safety. Particularly
maintenance. the following is comprised:
The extent of the required maintenance
works, except regular cleansing, is - repair of damages to bridge drainage,
determined by the conclusions of the - touching-up corrosion protection coating on
abovementioned inspections. steel elements,
- repair of barriers damaged due to vehicle
For each bridge, a maintenance book shall impact,
be kept where all the events that have - replacement of furniture wearing parts,
happened on the bridge (such as - application of protective coating to exposed
maintenance works, inspections, exceptional concrete surfaces,
heavy transports, etc.) are recorded. The - maintenance of electronic weather station
maintenance book shall be accessible to the and emergency call,
contractor until the liability period has - patching asphalt,
expired. - filling cracks and joints.

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Expansion joint: it is essential to cleanse A table comprising the results of checking

the expansion joint opening. In case that the reference points/benchmarks, including the
expansion joint sealing strip is mechanically results of the zero measurement prior to
damaged, which can be perceived on the bridge technical inspection (Table 10.1).
basis of bearing block soaking or visually
from above, the strip shall be completely or Magnitudes of critical settlements and
partly replaced within the scope of the deformations shall be indicated. When the
maintenance works. specified values are exceeded, prompt action
shall be taken and the investor, contractor
Where an expansion joint is fitted with two and designer shall be advised.
sealing strips, the height position of the
middle steel beam compared to the both end The zero reference point/benchmark
beams shall be checked upon passing over including its height above sea level shall be
of a heavy vehicle. An increased noise at that indicated and drawn.
moment can also be an indication that certain
expansion joint elements are damaged or
worn out.

For the needs of the winter service, the

expansion joint location on a bridge shall be
marked.

Bearings: reinforced rubber bearings do not

require any special maintenance. Eventual
changes established on the bearings shall be
recorded. In case of irregularities such as

- horizontal deformation greater than 70% of

the thickness,
- cracking of rubber by layers (due to
overloading),
- irregular cracking of rubber (due to its age
or other reasons),
- other deformations (rotations, slips, turning
up, one-sided lifting, etc.), suitable
measures such as loosening of bearings,
repair of bearing cushions or replacement
of bearings shall be foreseen.

Drainage and piping: checking of gullies,

seepage water pipes, superstructure
dewatering pipes, expansion joint drainage,
dewatering of bearing blocks and other load
bearing structural elements and furniture
DG 1.2.5.

10.4 Drawings

Characteristic reduced scale and uniform

layout drawings of a bridge (plan, longitudinal
section, characteristic cross section, section
through abutments, section through
characteristic piers), emphasizing
maintenance equipment such as stairs,
ladders, openings and doors (Fig. 10.1).

A sketch of reference points/benchmarks

required for checking bridge deformations
and settlements, including the information of
the zero benchmark with reference to the
existing level net.

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Fig. 10.1: Bridge layout drawing indicating arrangement of benchmarks (1 – 10)

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 GUIDELINES FOR ROAD DESIGN,
CONSTRUCTION, MAINTENANCE AND
SUPERVISION

Volume I: DESIGNING

Section 2: DESIGNING BRIDGES

DESIGN GUIDELINES (DG 1.2.12)

Part 12: BRIDGE INSTALLATION
Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Bridge installation

INTRODUCTION

Installations can be found on almost all bridges. They are particularly numerous on bridges situated
in towns and settlements.

It is very important to study thoroughly the needs for installations already when planning and
designing bridges, and to select such structure that enables an appropriate crossing.

Installations shall be led on bridges in such a way that they can be easily maintained and, if
necessary, supplemented or removed as well.

Installations are inspected and maintained in accordance with the maintenance design. Any
imperfection on the installations shall be made good in due time.

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Bridge installation Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision

CONTENTS

1 SUBJECT OF DESIGN GUIDELINES .......................................................................................... 5

2 REFERENCE REGULATIONS ..................................................................................................... 5
3 EXPLANATION OF TERMS ......................................................................................................... 5
4 GENERAL ..................................................................................................................................... 5
5 FUNDAMENTAL RULES FOR LEADING INSTALLATIONS ON BRIDGES................................ 6
5.1 Leading of installations in protective ducts in walkways ..................................................... 7
5.2 Leading of installations in protective ducts in edge beams................................................. 7
6 INSTALLATIONS FOR COMMUNAL AND URBAN NEEDS ....................................................... 8
6.1 Electric installations............................................................................................................. 8
6.2 Telecommunication installations ......................................................................................... 8
6.3 Water supply pipes and waste water pipes (sewer pipes) .................................................. 8
6.4 Water for remote heating (hot water pipes) ........................................................................ 8
6.5 Gas conduits ....................................................................................................................... 9
6.6 Oil conduits.......................................................................................................................... 9
7 INSTALLATIONS ENABLING UNDISTURBED USE OF BRIDGES AND ROADS ................... 11
7.1 Drainage and piping of bridges ......................................................................................... 11
7.2 Lighting.............................................................................................................................. 11
7.3 Emergency call installations.............................................................................................. 11
7.4 Traffic and signalling-safety installations .......................................................................... 11
7.5 Earthing ............................................................................................................................. 11
7.6 Cathodic protection ........................................................................................................... 11
7.7 Monitoring.......................................................................................................................... 12
7.8 Installations for heating of carriageways........................................................................... 13
8 DISTANCES BETWEEN INSTALLATIONS ............................................................................... 13
9 FASTENING OF INSTALLATIONS ............................................................................................ 13
10 TRANSITION OF INSTALLATIONS FROM BRIDGES TO ROADS .......................................... 14
10.1 Bridges on motorways....................................................................................................... 14
10.2 Bridges in towns and settlements ..................................................................................... 14
11 INSPECTION SHAFTS AND INSPECTION CHAMBERS ......................................................... 15
11.1 Inspection shafts on bridge structures .............................................................................. 16
11.2 Passable inspection shafts................................................................................................ 16
11.3 Inspection chambers ......................................................................................................... 16
12 MAINTENANCE, INSPECTION AND REPLACEMENT OF INSTALLATIONS IN BRIDGE
LOAD BEARING STRUCTURES ............................................................................................... 18

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Guidelines for Road Design, Construction, Maintenance and Supervision Bridge installation

1 SUBJECT OF DESIGN 4 GENERAL

GUIDELINES
The basic purpose of up-to-date bridges on
The present design guidelines deals with motorways, on categorized roads out of
individual installations and determines their towns, and in particular those in towns and
position on bridges. settlements, is to enable roads to cross
natural and artificial obstacles. Moreover,
Fundamental rules for leading installations on their task is to enable transition of
bridges and for transition of installations into installations as well.
the road body are presented.
A distinction between the following
installations shall be drawn:
2 REFERENCE REGULATIONS
- Installations for communal and urban
The present design guidelines comprises needs, and
- Installations enabling an undisturbed use of
- JUS N.B2.741 bridges and roads.
- JUS N.B2.754
- JUS N.B4.901 Installations for communal and urban
- Guidelines for placing and fastening of needs:
installations on bridges (Richtlinien für das
Verlegen und Anbringen von Leitungen an - Electric installations
Brücken, Ausgabe 1994); - Telecommunication installations
- ZTV-KOR 92 - Water supply pipes
- ZTV-K-88; - Waste water pipes (sewer pipes)
- DIN 1076 - Water for remote heating (hot-water pipes)
- DIN 1998. - Gas conduits
- Oil conduits.

3 EXPLANATION OF TERMS Installations enabling undisturbed use of

bridges and roads:
Installations are ducts or cables serving for
transmission of materials or energy. - Drainage and piping of bridges
- Lighting
Earthing is a conducting connection between - Emergency call installation
electric apparatus or metallic elements and - Traffic and signalling-safety installation
earth. It serves as protection from lightning. - Earthing
- Cathodic protection
Cathodic protection is protection of steel - Monitoring
elements of a structure from corrosion. - Installations for heating of carriageways

Monitoring means observation of structures For all installations listed above, technical
from remote measuring places. regulations, instructions and
recommendations are available, which shall
Inspection shaft enables control of be strictly adhered to in order to ensure
installations placed in bridge walkways. faultless functioning of the installations.

Passable inspection shaft serves for It is of extreme importance to study the

overcoming of height differences, for present and the future needs for installations
distribution of installations within the bridge very thoroughly already whilst planning and
(in plan), and for compensation of different designing a bridge. In this manner, capacities
expansions of the bridge superstructure and of installations can be specified.
installations.
Bridge designers should select such bridge
Chamber is a closed space, attached to structures that offer sufficient space for
abutment by means of hinges. Its function is leading of installations, since the needs for
the same as that of the passable inspection energy, water, gas, etc., generally increase.
shaft. It is designed for a greater number of Bridge structures not enabling an appropriate
installations appearing particularly on urban transition of installations shall be avoided.
bridges.

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Transition of certain installations on bridges Any subsequent extensions of installations

shall be solved by special design. must not interfere with the bridge
superstructure. All necessary permits shall be
Loads imposed by installations shall be obtained.
adequately taken into consideration in design
calculations. It shall be born in mind that The following basic guidelines shall be taken
capacities of installations can increase in the into consideration as well:
future; therefore, adding of installations shall
be made feasible, and an appropriate bridge - Permission by the investor;
structure shall be foreseen for that purpose. - Permission by the designer;
- Working out of drawings;
- Maintenance of the bridge and other
5 FUNDAMENTAL RULES FOR installations must not be made difficult;
LEADING INSTALLATIONS ON - Maintenance and replacement of
BRIDGES installations shall be enabled.

Installations are led on bridges only in case Installations to be placed on bridges shall be
where other possibilities are unacceptable for arranged in such a way that:
technical and economical reasons.
- Traffic safety on bridges and below them is
Unless impracticable, installations shall be not reduced;
placed simultaneously with bridges. In - Clear opening or flow-through profile is not
extreme cases, special bridges enabling diminished;
transition of installations are foreseen. This is - Durability of a bridge and its equipment is
particularly true for gas conduits, oil conduits, not jeopardized;
conduits for chemicals or any other conduits - No damages on elements (e.g. reinforcing
that might cause heavy damage on bridges in steel, pre-stressing steel, corrosion
case of failure. protection), installed equipment (e.g.
Installations must not be placed in load drainage pipes), and on existing
bearing concrete elements of superstructures installations occur during subsequent
and substructures. placing and fixing of installations;
- Aesthetical appearance of a bridge is not
Installations on bridges shall be led through affected;
protective ducts being wrapped up with - Inspection and testing of bridges are not
isolating material as circumstances may hindered;
require. These ducts shall be adequately - Preservation of bridges and their
fixed onto the load bearing structure and, if equipment is not essentially aggravated.
required, equipped with expansion joints.
Installations shall be led through the bridge in For all types of installations a design shall be
such a way that they can be maintained, worked out where technical solutions,
supplemented or removed. assembling instructions, and safety
precautions are indicated. It is also
Some bridges are exposed to intensive traffic necessary to prepare a common
loading causing vibrations and major arrangement drawing of all installations
deformations. In such cases, an adequate showing their mutual position. Namely,
bridge superstructure shall be designed to certain installations must not be led together
minimize the vibration and deformation thus requiring an adequate spacing and
phenomena. The installations must be placed protection.
away from ruts as much as possible. They
are fastened to the load bearing structure by All metal elements of a bridge shall be
means of elastic connections. earthed because of possible contact with
electric installations or for stroke of lightning.
Installations that fluids flow through can
provoke special loads acting on the bridge Installations shall be carried out in such a
structure. This should be taken into way that all electric currents are immediately
consideration in the bridge design. cut off in case of bridge collapse.
Placing and fastening of installations on
existing bridges is permitted only in case that
this is allowed by static and constructive
characteristics of a bridge, and that the
bridge appearance is not essentially affected.

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Already in the bridge design stage, static and height is insufficient (7 cm above the asphalt
constructive requirements shall be taken into at kerb) to enable leading of installations in
consideration whilst determining the position walkways.
of installations. Undisturbed maintenance
and inspection of structures as well as their This case is frequent when a bridge is
eventual lifting (replacement of bearings, designed as frame structure.
equalizing of settlements) shall be ensured. Into edge beams, three ducts of ∅ 125 mm
or six ducts of ∅ 80 mm can be placed. The
On principle, placing of installations onto the edge beam dimensions are adjusted to the
visible bridge surfaces including piers and number of ducts running in the particular
abutments is not allowed. edge beam (Fig. 5.1a and 5.1b).

When installations are placed onto the

external cantilevers, the appearance of a
bridge can be improved by:

- Constructing cornices;
- Executing metal or concrete shutters;
- Harmonizing of colours of both,
installations and structure;
- Constructing of an edge beam with a raised
vertical end up to 1.0 m (figure 5.1);
- Ensuring that the lower edge of
installations including suspensions,
supports and eventual trapping devices is
located higher than the lower edge of the
superstructure.

Fig.5.1a: 3 ducts of ∅ 125 mm in the edge

beam

Fig.5.1: Edge beam with raised vertical end

up to 1.0 m

5.1 Leading of installations in protective

ducts in walkways

Ducts for installations may be placed in

walkways under the condition that the
walkway upper edge at the kerb is at least 18
cm above the asphalt level. When the
walkway height at kerb is smaller (7 cm), the
Fig.5.1b: 6 ducts of ∅ 80 mm in the edge
installations shall be led below the cantilever
beam
5.2 Leading of installations in protective
ducts in edge beams

Installations are placed in edge beams when

the bridge length does not exceed 50.0 m
and when bridges are designed in such a
way that the carriageway slab is without
cantilevers where installations could be
placed, and, at the same time, the walkway

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6 INSTALLATIONS FOR COMMUNAL 6.3 Water supply pipes and waste water
AND URBAN NEEDS pipes (sewer pipes)

6.1 Electric installations Water supply pipes and waste water pipes
are set in box girders in such a way that they
Two types of electric installations can be are suspended on the upper slab (figure 6.4)
placed on bridges: or placed onto a suitably prepared base in
the bottom slab (figure 6.4). A direct outlet
- Low-voltage electric installation; shall be foreseen for the case of damaged
- High-voltage electric installation. installations. Both water supply pipes and
waste water pipes may be placed in the box
Electric installations can be disposed below girder interior only when the latter is
superstructure cantilevers (figure 6.1), passable.
between reinforced concrete T-beams, or in
the box interior in case of box When the cross section of a bridge
superstructures (figure 6.4). superstructure is a slab, these installations
are placed below the cantilevers (figure 6.5).
These installations may be placed above In case of a slab with reinforced concrete T-
cantilevers, in walkways (figure 6.1) or in beams, the installations are placed between
edge beams (figures 5.1a and 5.1b) only T-beams (figure 6.1).
when another method of leading of
installations would cause essential Water pipes shall be placed into protective
constructive and design imperfections, as ducts and adequately thermally isolated.
well as when no shafts for inspection and
hauling of installations are required (short In water supply pipes and waste water pipes
bridges). the water temperature is constant while the
structure temperature varies continuously
Protective ducts must not hinder building-in due to air temperature changes. Therefore,
of steel reinforcement. extensions of the pipes differ from those of
the superstructure. These differences in
Electric installations shall be placed into length shall be appropriately surmounted.
plastic ducts or steel ducts protected from The pipes must not be rigidly connected to
corrosion. the structure. However, they shall be
fastened on certain spots in order to prevent
6.2 Telecommunication installations their movements particularly due to the traffic
loading.
Telecommunication installations can be
disposed below superstructure cantilevers, The weight of both, water supply pipes and
between reinforced concrete T-beams, or in waste water pipes filled with water shall be
the box interior in case of box taken into account for the dead load and
superstructures. therefore included in the design calculation.

These installations may be placed above Leading of water piping shall be worked out
cantilevers, in walkways or in edge beams in a special design, which has to be at
only when another method of leading of designer’s disposal already in the conceptual
installations would cause essential stage of the bridge design. Only in this way,
constructive and design imperfections, as the designer can foresee in due time the
well as when no shafts for inspection and required spaces for installation of air vents for
hauling of installations are required (short the water pipes.
bridges).
6.4 Water for remote heating (hot water
Protective ducts must not hinder building-in pipes)
of steel reinforcement.
As a rule, water pipes for remote heating (hot
Telecommunication installations shall be water pipes) are suspended below the
placed into plastic ducts or steel ducts superstructure cantilever (figure 6.2) or at the
protected from corrosion. reinforced concrete T-beam (figure 6.1) in
case of a slab with reinforced concrete T-
beams.

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Hot water pipes shall be efficaciously isolated Generally, gas conduits are placed below the
to prevent excessive thermal losses. These outer cantilever of bridge superstructures
pipes are subjected to changes in length due (figures 6.1 and 6.4).
to temperature differences. Therefore, these
temperature changes shall be adequately For safety reasons, placing of gas conduits in
surmounted. the box girder interior is not allowed.

The pipes must not be rigidly connected to In exceptional cases when superstructures
the structure. However, they shall be are one-piece made of slab with reinforced
fastened on certain spots in order to prevent concrete T-beams, or when superstructures
their movements particularly due to the traffic are two-piece made of slab with reinforced
loading. concrete T-beams or box girders, gas
conduits may be placed on the lower side
The weight of water pipes for remote heating (figure 6.6).
filled with water shall be taken into account
for the dead load and therefore included in Leading of gas conduit shall be worked out in
the design calculation. a special design, which has to be at
designer’s disposal already in the conceptual
When there is traffic below bridges that carry stage of the bridge design. Only in this way,
water pipes for remote heating, precautions the designer can foresee in due time the
ensuring safety of participants in traffic shall necessary openings.
be taken in such a manner that trapping
devices for hot water leaking out are 6.6 Oil conduits
installed.
Oil conduits are not led on bridges. It is
6.5 Gas conduits preferable to foresee a special bridge to bring
an oil conduit over different hindrances. Such
As a rule, high-pressure gas conduits must a bridge must fulfil all safety precautions in
not placed into or onto bridges when the gas order to prevent pollution of environment in
working pressure is greater than 16 bars. case of eventual unexpected oil outflow.

Fig. 6.1

Fig. 6.2

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Fig. 6.3

Fig. 6.4

Fig. 6.5

Fig. 6.6

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7 INSTALLATIONS ENABLING between reinforced concrete T-beams, or in

UNDISTURBED USE OF BRIDGES the box interior in case of box
AND ROADS superstructures.
Protective ducts must not hinder building-in
7.1 Drainage and piping of bridges of steel reinforcement.

This subject is treated in DG 1.2.5 Traffic and signalling-safety installations shall

be placed into plastic ducts or steel ducts
7.2 Lighting protected from corrosion.
Inspection shafts are located before both
Lighting is a type of installation that appears bridge ends when bridges are shorter than 50
particularly on urban bridges and on bridges m. In case of longer bridges, the inspection
in the area of illuminated crossroads. shafts are placed on the bridge itself at
intervals of 30-40 m.
Electric installation that feeds the lighting
system is placed in bridge walkways. 7.5 Earthing
Protective ducts must not hinder building-in
of steel reinforcement. When electric installations, lighting or traffic
Electric installation shall be placed into and signalling-safety installations requiring
plastic ducts or steel ducts protected from feeding with electric energy are placed on a
corrosion. bridge, all steel elements of the bridge shall
Inspection shafts are located at each be earthed (Fig.7.1).
candelabrum on the bridge as well as on both
ends of the bridge. Metal handrails on bridges where no electric
installations are placed shall be earthed as
Bridges on which lighting is foreseen shall be well due to possible strokes of lightning.
earthed. When a metal handrail on a bridge is
connected with the walkway reinforcement,
7.3 Emergency call installations the designer shall investigate whether the
handrail has to be earthed or not. Earthing
Emergency call installations can be disposed details shall be worked out by specialized
below superstructure cantilevers, between designers.
reinforced concrete T-beams, or in the box
interior in case of box superstructures. 7.6 Cathodic protection
These installations may be placed above
cantilevers, in walkways or in edge beams Cathodic protection is protection of structural
only when another method of leading of steel elements from corrosion. It is
installations would cause essential particularly applied to steel elements in water
constructive and design imperfections, as or ground. It is often used for pipelines and
well as when no shafts for inspection and tanks buried in earth. Recently, cathodic
hauling of installations are required (short protection is used in reinforced concrete
bridges). structures as well.

Protective ducts must not hinder building-in Cathodic protection is based on the following
of steel reinforcement. principle: by means of controlled electric
current running between an anode and a
Telecommunication installations shall be steel element (cathode) to be protected from
placed into plastic ducts or steel ducts corrosion, reduction of potential and therefore
protected from corrosion. prevention of metal dissolving is achieved.

7.4 Traffic and signalling-safety Cathodic protection can also be carried

installations through by fastening of self-sacrificing
electrodes on structural steel elements to be
Traffic and signalling-safety installations can protected from corrosion. These electrodes
be found on all bridges. Electric installation are made of magnesium, zinc or aluminium
feeding the system of traffic control lights is having a lower electrochemical potential than
placed into bridge walkways. the structural steel elements. Steel being a
more precious metal is preserved on account
Electric installation feeding the remaining of the less precious metals, which oxidize
traffic and signalling-safety installations is and consequently decay instead of steel.
placed below superstructure cantilevers,

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Fig. 7.1: Earthing

- bridge with piers
- bridge without piers

In reinforced concrete structures, pre- Monitoring means observing of condition of a

stressing steel is protected by means of structure from a remote measuring location.
cathodic protection. The electric current The following can be monitored:
density recommended for the cathodic
protection amounts to 5-20 mA/m2. The - Load bearing capacity of the structure;
hydrogen brittle failure occurs at electric - Corrosion rate;
current density values that are much higher - Environmental factors.
than those required for cathodic protection.
By monitoring of load bearing capacity of a
The execution of cathodic protection shall be structure, bridge stability is observed during
subject of a special design to be worked out its construction and service. Static and
by cathodic protection experts in cooperation dynamical parameters of the bridge are
with the bridge designer. measured, which are essential factors to
determine its safety and serviceability. A
7.7 Monitoring permanent monitoring of the bridge condition
is particularly important in case of exceptional
Monitoring is convenient especially for large loads (heavy transports, strong winds,
and important bridges situated in severe earthquake). Load cells to monitor the load
climatic conditions or in an aggressive bearing capacity of the bridge structure are
environment. connected with the measuring station where
structural responses are recorded by means
The need for monitoring as well as the of computers. In this way, relative
execution method for each individual deformations, temperature of the structure,
structure shall be defined by the client on the and magnitude of accelerations are
basis of design specifications. monitored. Using these data, structural
stresses as well as magnitudes and velocities
of structural displacements can be
calculated.

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Monitoring of corrosion means observing the The horizontal distance between telephone
corrosion rate of structural steel elements installations and electric power installations
built-in in concrete, buried in ground or of voltage up to 1 kV shall amount to at least
placed in ducts, such as anchors, pre- 0.3 m.
stressing steel, and steel reinforcement. Cells
to monitor the corrosion are installed at The horizontal distance between telephone
critical locations of the bridge structure. installations and electric power installations
of voltage above 1 kV shall amount to at least
On the basis of data won by means of the 0.5 m.
monitoring systems and regular inspections
of bridges, adequate arrangements can be When the required spacing cannot be
made in due time in order to prevent achieved, protective measures being valid for
structural damages and decay. electric power installations shall be taken into
consideration.
7.8 Installations for heating of
carriageways
9 FASTENING OF INSTALLATIONS
For major bridges situated in severe climatic
conditions it is recommendable to study the In case of necessity, suspending structures
possibility of placing installations for heating and their actions on the bridge shall be
of the bridge carriageway. This can be verified by appropriate calculations. All
achieved either by gas or electric current. suspending devices shall be protected from
Maintenance of such bridges is easier since corrosion.
salting of carriageways and removing of
snow is not required. Moreover, damages of Suspending structures can be fastened
the bridge structure due to the salt action are subsequently by screwing them on concrete
avoided. (figure 9.1). However, it is also possible to
build-in suitable profiles during bridge
Constructive solutions of installations for construction.
heating of carriageways shall be worked out The distance between fastened installations
in a special design. In case that such amounts to approximately 2.0 m. However, it
installations are foreseen, the thickness of depends on the duct diameter, stiffness, and
the asphalt layer shall be increased. material.

Steel reinforcement must not be damaged

8 DISTANCES BETWEEN with devices for fixing of installations.
INSTALLATIONS Installations must never be rigidly fastened to
the superstructure.
The clear spacing between installations and
structural elements shall amount to minimum
2xD (twice the pipe diameter) to enable
maintenance works.

Fig. 9.1: Detail of fastening of installations below cantilever

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Fig. 9.2: Workshop drawing of suspension for four ducts

In areas where chamber walls are bored It can pass over to the road body in different
through, installations shall be elastically ways:
placed down onto the base. Moreover, they
must be flexible longitudinally and - It can continue into the road body via a
transversally as well. shaft; in case of shorter bridges, no shafts
The size of openings in the walls shall be are required;
sufficient to enable transition of ducts and - It can come down in front of the abutment;
protection around them. - It can pass through the hollow abutment.

The function of installations must not be Other installations on motorway bridges such
disturbed during lifting of the superstructure. as emergency call installations or traffic and
As circumstances require, separable signalling-safety installations pass over to the
connections shall be foreseen. road body via shafts situated in road
At bridge expansion joints, particularly at shoulders or central reserves.
transition between the superstructure and the
abutment, ducts for installations shall be 10.2 Bridges in towns and settlements
equipped with expansion joints.
Bridges in towns and settlements often
enable numerous installations for communal
10 TRANSITION OF INSTALLATIONS and urban needs to overcome different
FROM BRIDGES TO ROADS hindrances. These installations pass over to
the road body via inspection chambers
10.1 Bridges on motorways located in the abutment area and fixed to the
abutments by means of hinges.
In general, bridges on motorways contain
only those installations that enable an
undisturbed use of the bridge and the road.
They are described in paragraph 4.
Bridge drainage and piping is always present.

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11 INSPECTION SHAFTS AND - Passable shafts at both bridge ends

INSPECTION CHAMBERS serving for overcoming of the height
difference, for distribution of installations
The following types of inspection shafts and over the bridge in plan, and for
chambers are considered: compensating of different extensions of the
- Inspection shafts on bridge structures superstructure and the installations.
serving for inspection of installations in the - Chambers behind abutments in case of
walkways on bridges of considerable urban bridges carrying a great number of
lengths; installations.

Fig. 11.1: Inspection shaft with metal cover

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11.1 Inspection shafts on bridge 11.3 Inspection chambers

structures
When a greater number of installations are
When installations are present on a bridge, placed on a bridge, it is more reasonable to
inspection shafts are located in the walkway foresee an inspection chamber at both bridge
area. Such shafts shall be foreseen on ends.
bridges longer than 50.0 m.
In the inspection chambers, installations are
Inspection shafts are always situated in distributed, their height differences are
walkways when lighting is present on a overcome, and their length discrepancies
bridge. In such cases, they are placed at compensated. Eventual new installations can
each candelabrum. The size of inspection be introduced through those chambers as
shafts depends on the number of ducts well.
passing through.
Dimensions of inspection chambers depend
Inspection shafts are not permitted in the on the number of installations; however,
carriageway slab area. chambers shall not be smaller than 2.0 x 2.0
Inspection shafts are shallow in the walkway m.
area. Dewatering of these shafts shall be
ensured. They shall be closed with metal Opening in the walls of inspection chambers
covers (figure 11.1). shall be carried through in the area of bearing
blocks and shall be watertight. These
The maximum allowed diameter of openings shall allow eventual rotation of
pipes/ducts to be placed in the walkways bearings without imposing constraints, and
amounts to ∅ 11.0 cm. ensure that the installations do not come in
contact with protective ducts.
11.2 Passable inspection shafts
Inspection chambers are connected to
Passable inspection shafts are walled-in abutments by means of hinges.
spaces closed with reinforced concrete
covers.

Inspection shafts shall be foreseen at both

bridge ends when different installations have
to be placed on the bridge. Inspection shafts
shall be carried through in those places
where direction of installations is changed
(e.g. change of position in plan, of height,
etc.) or different valves appear.

Dewatering of passable inspection shafts

shall be arranged. The shafts are closed with
reinforced concrete covers (figure 11.2).
In figure 11.2, standard passable inspection
shafts are shown. However, these shafts can
be bigger as well.

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Fig. 11.2: Passable inspection shaft with concrete cover for ducts placed in walkways

Fig. 11.3: Position of passable shafts in plan

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12 MAINTENANCE, INSPECTION AND

REPLACEMENT OF
INSTALLATIONS IN BRIDGE LOAD
BEARING STRUCTURES

Leading of installations on bridges, their

position, and method of fastening shall be
such that an undisturbed maintenance,
inspection and replacement are enabled.

In case of box superstructures, installations

are placed in the box interior. The latter shall
be passable thus enabling a simple control
over the installations.

Installations fixed to bridge cantilevers or

located between reinforced concrete T-
beams are accessible by means of specially
manufactured ladders or, in exceptional
cases, from a special inspection vehicle
adequately equipped to enable an access to
the bridge superstructure lower side.

The valid regulations require preliminary tests

to prove a safe operation of certain
installations (pressure tests for water supply
pipes and waste water pipes). These tests
shall be carried through before the bridge is
handed over for traffic.

Managers of installations shall work out

maintenance designs for individual
installations, carry through regular
inspections, and simultaneously make good
eventual deficiencies and damages of the
installations. These activities shall be
performed in accordance with relevant
standards.

Devices for fastening of installations shall be

tested and inspected as well. The devices
that are fixed directly to the bridge shall be
inspected by the bridge owner, while the
devices on the installations themselves by
the managers of those installations.

All inspections of the installations shall be

announced in due time. Records of executed
inspections and tests of installations located
on the bridge shall be kept.

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