LECTURE NOTES Two Types of Chemical Compounds
There are 4 organic compounds. Molecular / Covalent Compound –
1. Biomolecules – These are numerous substances Compound made of two nonmetals.
that are produced by cells and living organisms. Ionic Compound – Compound made of a
They have a wide range of sizes and structures and metal and a nonmetal. It forms when ions
perform a vast array of functions. are being transferred. It is made from a
DNA and RNA – they have the unique function of positively and negatively charged ion.
storing an organism’s genetic code, the sequence Source: [Link]
of nucleotides that determines the amino acid
sequence of proteins. 70% - 90% - made up from water.
10% - 30% - biomolecules and other substances
2. Macromolecules – they are made up of basic like elements,
molecular units. They are large molecules necessary
for life that are built from smaller organic Polar bond
molecules. They include: Unequal sharing of atoms.
Proteins – polymers of amino acids. They Dissolve in water.
also serve as transporters, moving nutrients Stronger bonds but not as strong as ionic.
and other molecules in and out of cells. Examples: Water, hydrogen fluoride, sulfur
Nucleic acids – polymers of nucleotides. dioxide and ammonia.
Carbohydrates – polymers of sugars. They Nonpolar bond
are made up of primarily of molecules Equal sharing of atoms.
containing atoms of carbon, hydrogen and Do not dissolve in water.
oxygen essential for energy sources. This is Very weak bonds.
the most abundant. Monosaccharides, Examples: Nobles gasses like He, Ne, Ar, Kr,
disaccharides, oligosaccharides and Xe for atoms. Carbon dioxide, Benzene,
polysaccharides. Methane and Ethylene.
Lipids – variety of modular constituents.
They stored energy and chemical Covalent bond
messengers. Represented by the lines.
In a single bond, you will find 2 electrons.
3. Bio Electronegativity
The unequal sharing of electrons.
4. Molecular level – They focus on the structure. It is the tendency of an atom to attract
This is the very smallest units that make up electrons.
organisms or elements.
Metals
Three Types of Formulas Lowest electronegativity value.
Empirical – Smallest whole-number-ratio of They loose and give electrons.
atoms or ions in a compound. Ions
Example: CH2 Any atom or molecule that has gained or lost one
or more of its valence electrons, giving it a net
Molecular – It tells you the actual number
positive or negative charge.
of atoms of an element in a compound.
Cation – positively-charged ions (more
Example: C2H4 protons, electrons are getting lost).
Structural – It indicates how the atoms are Anion – negatively-charged ions (more
bonded to each other. electrons than protons due to gaining of
electrons).
Water H2O For recitation:
1. Water is a dipolar bond. Intramolecular forces of attraction:
Since oxygen has a higher electronegativity forces that hold atoms together within a
than hydrogen, the side of the molecule molecule.
with the oxygen atom has a partial negative 1. Covalent bonding – atom sharing of electrons.
charge. A molecule with such a charge The electrons shared equally between the atoms.
difference is called a dipole. Bond between two nonmetals with similar
electronegativities.
2. Water forms a hydrogen bonding. Electronegativity – It is the tendency of an
Hydrogen bonds form between neighboring atom to attract a shared pair of electrons (or
hydrogen and oxygen atoms of adjacent electron density) towards itself.
water molecules. The attraction between An electron is more attracted to one atom
individual water molecules creates a bond than to another, forming a polar covalent
known as a hydrogen bond. bond. It formed when atoms of slightly
The charge differences cause water different electronegativities share electrons.
molecules to be attracted to each other (the The difference in electronegativity between
relatively positive areas being attracted to bonded atoms is between 0.5 and 1.9.
the relatively negative areas) and to other A nonpolar covalent bond is formed
polar molecules. This attraction is known as between the same atoms or atoms with very
hydrogen bonding. similar electronegativities; the difference in
between bonded atoms is less than 0.5.
3. Water can act as acid or base. It may dissolve in water but don’t dissociate
It undergoes autoionization. into ions.
When mixed with an acid, water accepts Atoms share electrons in their outer orbitals.
hydrogen ions and acts as a base. The number of covalent bonds an atom can
When water is mixed with a base, it donates form is called the valence of the atom.
hydrogen ions and acts like an acid.
Metallic bonding – this type of covalent bonding
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specifically occurs between atoms of metals, in
which valence electrons are free to move through
the lattice.
This bond is formed via the attraction of the
mobile electrons referred to as sea of
electrons and fixed positively charged metal
ions.
Samples are pure element metals such as
gold, aluminum or alloys like brass or
bronze.
2. Ionic bonding – atoms transfer electrons. One
atom essentially donates an electron to stabilize the
other atom.
Bond between metal and nonmetal. The
nonmetal attracts the electron, so it’s like
the metal donates its electron to it.
It forms when two ions of opposite charges
exchange electrons between them, where an
ion is an atom that has either lost or gained
an electron.
Ions that loss one or more electrons have A dipole-dipole force is when the positive
more protons than electrons, which means side of a polar molecule attracts the
they have a positive charge called cations negative side of another polar molecule.
(metals). The molecules need to be very close to each
On the other hand, gaining electrons grants other, like they are in a liquid.
the ion a negative charge called anions 3. Hydrogen bonding
(non-metals). It is an attraction between a partially
They are typically neutral. Ions combine in positive end of hydrogen on partially
ways that neutralize their charges. negative atom on another molecule like
Similarities: oxygen, nitrogen, or fluorine causes the
Both types of bonds lead to the formation bond between them to be polar.
of stable chemical compounds. Hydrogen bonds are dipole-dipole forces.
It takes exothermic reactions that release It is the strongest of the dipole-dipole
heat to create ionic and covalent bonds. attractions.
Valence electrons are involved in both
bonding processes. 4. Van Der Waals Force
It is the weakest intermolecular force and
Intermolecular forces – are the forces that exist consists of dipole-dipole forces and
between molecules. They are much weaker than dispersion forces.
the intramolecular forces but they are still It is the attraction of intermolecular forces
important because they determine the physical between molecules.
properties of molecules like their boiling or melting
point, density and more. London dispersion forces
1. Ion-Dipole Forces It is under the category of van der Waal
It is a force that results from the forces and it exists between all types of
electrostatic attraction between an ion molecules whether ionic or covalent, polar
and a dipole molecule. or nonpolar.
It exists between ionic species and polar The more electrons a molecule has, the
molecules. stronger the London dispersion forces are.
Remember that an ion is an atom that has
gained or lost one or more electrons and Three Types (from medium to strong bonds):
therefore has a negative or positive charge. London Dispersion forces (weak)
So, knowing that a dipole molecule has a Dipole-dipole forces (medium and
slight charge on either side and that ions induction)
have charges, either negative or positive. Hydrogen forces (strong and electrostatic)
Cations would be attracted to the negative
side of a polar molecule, and anions would
be attracted to the positive side.
2. Dipole-dipole forces
A dipole is a molecule that has both positive
and negative regions.
It exists between polar molecules. This is the
strongest intermolecular force.
A polar molecule is a molecule with a
slightly positive side and a slightly negative
side.
