Instrumentation and Control
Student Notes
Note
This document contains the important points discussed in the pre-recorded courseware. It will help in revising the
important concepts related to Instrumentation and Control course.
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Instrumentation and Control
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MODULE 4- THERMAL SENSORS
This module creates an understanding of the principles of thermal energy,
temperature, and development of a working knowledge of the various thermal sensors
employed for temperature measurement.
Focus Topics
Thermal energy
Thermal sensors
Temperature measurement using thermal sensors
1. THERMAL ENERGY-Thermal energy is energy possessed by an object or system
due to the movement of particles within the object or the system. Because thermal
energy is due to the movement of particles, it is a type of kinetic energy, which is the
energy due to motion.
Solids-Thermal energy of a solid is ZERO. If energy is added to it by adding
heat to it, then it may have some finite thermal energy >0.
Liquids-The thermal energy is sufficient to cause the molecules to move about
and to no longer maintain the rigid structure of the solid. The average speed
with which they move is a measure of the thermal energy imparted to the
material.
Gas- Further increases in thermal energy of the material intensify the velocity of
the molecules until finally, the molecules gain sufficient energy to escape
completely from the attraction of other molecules. Such a condition is
manifested by boiling of the liquid.
2. TEMPERATURE- Thermal energy per molecule of a material is related by the
statement that the material has a certain degree of temperature; the different sets
of units are referred to as temperature scales.
Absolute Temperature Scales- An absolute temperature scale is one that
assigns a zero temperature to a material that has no thermal energy, that is, no
molecular vibration. Two common scales are the Kelvin scale in Kelvin (K) and
Rankine scale in degrees Rankine (oR).
Relative Temperature Scales- The relative temperature scales differ from the
absolute scales only in a shift of the zero axis. Two scales are Celsius (related
to the kelvin) and the Fahrenheit (related to the Rankine), with temperature
indicated by (oC) and (oF) respectively.
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Instrumentation and Control
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3. METAL RESISTANCE VS TEMPERATURE DEVICES-Metal resistance increases
almost linearly with temperature.
RTD (Resistance Temperature Detectors) - The RTD is a sensor that depends
on the increase in metallic resistance with temperature. This increase is very nearly
linear, and analytical approximations are used to express the resistance versus
temperature as either a linear equation,
Or a Quadratic relationship
RTD sensitivity can be noted from typical values of linear fractional change in
resistance with temperature.
RTD has a response time of 0.5 to 5 s or more.
Signal Conditioning- RTD is generally used in a bridge circuit (figure4). The
effective range of RTDs principally depends on the type of wire used as the
active element.
Thermistor- Measures temperature through changes of material resistance.
Exhibits a large change in resistance with temperature and has wider signal
conditioning applications.
Resistance versus temperature is highly nonlinear and has a negative slope
(figure5).
The sensitivity of the thermistor is a significant factor in their application.
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Instrumentation and Control
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Thermistor is available in various forms and sizes ranging from few mm to cm.
The temperature range and response time depends on the materials used to
construct the sensor
4. THERMOCOUPLES- A thermocouple is a junction of dissimilar metal wires,
usually joined to a third metal wire through two reference junctions. A voltage is
developed across the common metal wires that is proportional, almost linearly, to
the difference in temperature between the measurement and reference junctions.
Thermoelectric Effects-
Seebeck effect- emf produced is proportional to the difference in temperature
and to the difference in the metallic thermal transport constants. If the metals are
the same, the emf is zero, and if the temperatures are the same, the emf is also
zero.
Peltier Effect-We construct a closed loop of two different metals, A and B.
Because of the different electrothermal transport properties of the metals, one of
the junctions will be heated and the other cooled.
Thermocouple characteristics-
The value of temperature can be found using the following interpolation equation:
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Instrumentation and Control
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VM-measured voltage, VH -higher voltage, VL- lower voltage, TH and TL
temperatures corresponding to these voltages respectively.
Reverse situation occurs when the voltage for a particular temperature, TM, which
is not in the table, is desired. an interpolation equation can be used as-
Thermocouple Sensors- Simply a welded or even twisted junction between two
metals. The size of the TC wire is determined by the application and can range from
#10 wire in rugged environments to fine #30 AWG wires or even 0.02-mm microwire in
refined biological measurements of temperature.
Sensitivity -Strongly depends on the type of signal conditioning employed and
on the TC itself.
Range -The thermocouple temperature sensor has the greatest range of all the
types.
Time Response- Thermocouple time response is simply related to the size of the
wire and any protective material used with the sensor.
Signal Conditioning -The key element in the use of thermocouples is that the
output voltage is very small, typically less than 50 mV, the thermocouple is used
with a high-gain differential amplifier.
Reference Compensation A problem with the practical use of thermocouples is
the necessity of knowing the reference temperature. Reference compensation
can be achieved by –
1. Controlled temperature reference block
2. Reference compensation circuits
3. Software reference correction
Noise- thermocouples are susceptible to electrical noise. Noise reduction
techniques are
1. The extension or lead wires from the thermocouple to the reference junction
or measurement system are twisted and then wrapped with a grounded foil
sheath.
2. The measurement junction itself is grounded at the point of measurement.
3. An instrumentation amplifier with excellent common-mode rejection is
employed for measurement.
5. OTHER THERMAL SENSORS-
Bimetallic strip- A bimetal strip converts temperature into a physical motion of
metal elements. This flexing can be used to close switches or cause dial
indications.
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Instrumentation and Control
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They are relatively inaccurate, having hysteresis, relatively slow time response,
low in cost
Used when On/Off cycle rather than smooth or continuous control is desired.
Gas Thermometers- Gas and vapor-pressure temperature sensors convert
temperature into gas pressure, which then is converted to an electrical signal or
is used directly in pneumatic systems Based on a basic law of gases.
Converts temperature information into pressure and useful in pneumatic
systems.
No moving parts and no electrical stimulation is necessary
Time response is slow in relation to electrical devices
Vapor-Pressure Thermometers- Converts temperature information into
pressure.
If a closed vessel is partially filled with liquid, then the space above the liquid
will consist of evaporated vapor of the liquid ata pressure that depends on the
temperature.
If the temperature is raised, more liquid will vaporize, and the pressure will
increase.
Decrease in temperature will result in condensation of some of the vapor, and
the pressure will decrease.
Vapor pressure depends on temperature.
Liquid Expansion Thermometers- Liquid shows an expansion in volume with
temperature. Liquid in- glass thermometer is based on this effect.
Solid-State Temperature Sensors- These devices offer voltages that vary
linearly with temperature over a specified range.
The operating temperature is in the range of -50⁰ to 150⁰C.
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Instrumentation and Control
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The time constant in good thermal contact varies in the range of 1 to 5 s, and
in poor thermal contact it may increase to 60 s or more.
The dissipation constant is in the range of 2 to 20mV/⁰C depending on the case,
conditions, and heat sinking.
6. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
1. Identify the nature of the measurement
2. Identify the required output signal
3. Select an appropriate sensor
4. Design the required signal conditioning
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