'Good Execution and Other Necessary Skills': The Role of the Concertmaster in the Late

18th Century
Author(s): Robin Stowell
Source: Early Music , Feb., 1988, Vol. 16, No. 1 (Feb., 1988), pp. 21-33
Published by: Oxford University Press

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Robin Stowell

'Good execution and other necessary skills'

The role of the concertmaster in the late 18th century

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The duties of an orchestral leader nowadays are function. 'Much depends on the concertmaster', writes
common knowledge. As principal violinist, he is Quantz. who surprisingly claims that such a title was
responsible for making decisions about bowing and not assigned to the principal violinist by right.' But he
other technical matters, for playing solo violin admits that the appointment of a violinist was prefer-
passages. taking sectional rehearsals and conductingable and that a virtuoso technical standard was not
if required. and liaising between management and paramount. Quantz regarded other qualities to be
members of the orchestra. The duties and qualities equal. if not greater importance. recommending the
required of his 18th-century counterpart were con- appointment to such a post of a friendly, affable
siderably more extensive and varied, ranging from the person who commands respect and ideally 'has played
minutiae of concert administration to the actual for several years in large and celebrated orchestras.
direction of performances: the modern American and interm
them has acquired experience of good exe-
'concertmaster' seems more appropriate to this cution and the other necessary skills." Junker's des-

EARLY MUSIC FEBRUARY 1988 21

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cription of Christian Cannabich, Johann Stamitz's the composer from the first harpsichord, with the
successor as concertmaster at Mannheim in the late concertmaster responsible only for the technical
1750s, as the'main force that set the others in motion, aspects of the orchestral playing. The composer was
the power in which all of the various individual then substituted by another'cembalista', who adopted
strengths unite into a whole', and Rousseau's definition a subordinate role, while the concertmaster took
of the concertmaster as the chief 'which gives the tone, complete charge.' Further confirmation that control
guides all the symphonies, which rectifies them when was gradually passing into the hands of the concert-
in error, and on which they must all depend' admirably master comes from Spohr's description of an opera
summarize those qualities of initiative, leadership, performance in Milan in 1816 directed by the
taste and musicianship required for the post, as well as concertmaster, Rolla:
the proven ability to train and 'mould' an orchestra.3 There is no other directing whether at the clavier, or from the
The fact that much of the primary source material desk with the baton, than his, but merely a prompter with the
relevant to this survey is of German origin is not score before him, who gives the text to the singers, and if
surprising, as most 18th-century German violin treatises necessary, the time to the choruses.8
were devoted to the technical and expressive require- Whoever functioned as the true director-direction
ments of orchestral players (Ripienisten) rather than from the keyboard was fashionable in most German
advanced performers. Thus, Johann Joachim Quantz, and Austrian theatres-the concertmaster seems to
Johann Samuel Petri, Carl Ludwig Junker, Johann have been responsible for the orchestral contribution
Friedrich Reichardt and Heinrich Christoph Koch offer throughout the 18th century, and the harpsichordist/
valuable information on the subject;4 and there is also concertmaster 'dual control' system was for the most
one major Italian source, Francesco Galeazzi's Elementi part universally adopted, except in France.
teorico-pratici di musica (Rome 1791/6). This two- For much of the 18th century, performances at the
volume treatise incorporates a violin method as well as Paris Op6ra, as well as some elsewhere, were aided by a
a resume of a concertmaster's responsibilities;5 its batteur de mesure (time-beater), who generally stood at
author was an accomplished executant of 15 years' the front edge of the stage with his back both to the
experience as concertmaster in Rome's Teatro Valle. audience and the orchestra. This position gave him
These sources form the backbone of this survey, but in
sufficient contact with the singers and dancers and
order for it to be in any way complete, their content
probably enabled him also to act as a prompter." Near
naturally requires amplification from other instruction him were the harpsichordist and le petit choeur (a small
books, theoretical works, dictionaries, autobiographies, chamber ensemble), while the main orchestra sat in
travelogues, letters and more general musical literature. concentric semicircles facing him with their backs to
Whether the concertmaster functioned as com- the audience.10 Solos or small ensemble items were
mander-in-chief, co-commander or as a subordinate
directed by the batteur visually, somewhat in the
depended largely on national custom, period, musicalmanner of modern conducting; but in large-scale
genre and performing venue. For at least the first two-
choral numbers and dances he invariably beat time
thirds of the century the harpsichordist or, to be more
audibly by striking the music desk with his 'baton' so
accurate, the principal (concertino) harpsichordist ofthat the singers and dancers could discern the tempo.I1
the two normally employed in Italy and England-- Rousseau, like Hiller, Gr6try, Castil-Blaze and others,
took overall charge throughout opera performances complains of the 'intolerable noise of his [the batteur's]
and had particular responsibilities towards the singers.
stick which covers and stifles the whole effect of the
The concertmaster looked after the orchestra and was
orchestra'.12 Furthermore, Baron von Grimm's amusing
held accountable for its playing.6 Later in the century,
description of the time-beater is always worthy of
however, the identity of the actual director varied
recall:
according to different localities, opinions and circum-
And I saw a man who was holding a stick, and I believed that
stances, but most sources point to a gradual loosening
he was going to castigate the bad violins... And he made a
of the arrangement described above, due in no smallnoise as if he were splitting wood, and I was astonished that
way to those changes in taste and style that affordedhe did not dislocate his shoulder, and the vigour of his arm
the keyboard continuo a less significant role. Galeazzi,
terrified me. . . And I beheld that they called that 'beating
for example, explains the Italian custom for the first
the time', and although it was beaten most forcibly, the
three performances of a production to be directed by musicians were never together.13

22 EARLY MUSIC FEBRUARY 1988

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However, the batteur's value in establishing tempo and
maintaining the ensemble of multiple forces was
acknowledged by some writers, notably Gretry,
especially with regard to the control of the chorus."'
'How they actually managed at the Opera near the
end of the 18th century is rather obscured by a lack of
unequivocal contemporary information'." but beating
time was not necessarily consistent practice. Nor was
it consistent practice in other French theatres through-
out the century, for, as in Italy, a concertmaster
invariably directed performances at the Opera-
Comique and Theatre Italien, taking particular res-
ponsibility for the orchestra. The importance of the
batteur's role certainly diminished towards the end of
the century, his time-beating becoming increasingly
,/
sporadic. J. B. Rey, chef dorchestre at the Academie t-
from 1781 to 1810, evidently did not beat time in
recitatives and airs,'6 and performances in many
smaller French theatres, with fewer participants, rarely
involved a batteur.'7 Although the concertmaster
naturally had to heed the batteur's beat when appro-
priate, he still served as the orchestra's director, using
his bow as a baton when necessary to steady the
ensemble, and indicating details of interpretation by
2 J. P. Salomon (1745-1815): oil painting by J. Lonsdale (Lese-
his movements, attitudes and signals. The gradualund Erholungs-Gesellschaft. Bonn)
demise of the batteur resulted in the ascendancy of a
deputes to him the supervision of the instrumental playing."
more flexible, expressive and uniform orchestral body,
with the concertmaster unchallenged at the helm. Thus, shared responsibility was again the rule, the
Meude-Monpas defines a maitre de musique as a concertmaster normally directing the orchestra in
'musician who directs an orchestra, without playing aninstrumental and solo vocal items and the overall
instrument. It is he who beats time, using a baton';"l director managing the choruses, either from the or
however, baton-conducting in the 18th century was or, especially in large buildings, beating time visua
rare outside the limited realms of French opera and with his hands, a roll of paper or parchment, or wit
French court music. Pictures from that era of a man
stick. Such visual time-beating proved invaluable in
waving a roll of paper or parchment, usually infor the example, the fugal movements of oratorios
choir loft of a church, confirm the continuance of cantatas,
the serving to maintain optimum ensemble wi
practice of beating the tactus, but do not representout any interpretative function.20 But writers such
examples of interpretative conducting; such time- William Jackson found it distracting to the audien
beating, unnecessary for experienced orchestral players,
and degrading to the performers."
was employed in performances of motets, masses and Most 18th-century concerts of instrumental mus
oratorios throughout the 18th century. Koch confirms:
also involved shared direction, but the concertmaster
normally assumed the more important role, especi
In church music as well as in opera, the Kapellmeister must
when, later in the century, the basso continuo becam
have the score in front of him, partly in order to supervise the
texturally less important. Although Haydn'presided
parts and keep them together, and especially to give the
the keyboard' at some London performances, he wa
singers their cues. In church music he beats time throughout,
but in opera he generally plays the continuo part atnot
the necessarily the director; his appearance on stag
keyboard. In either case, he should pay attention to bothwas
the more likely to have been a commercial ploy
attract
vocal and instrumental parts, so that he is in a position to audiences. The orchestral direction was proba
correct immediately any mistake that may occur. When undertaken
a by Salomon, as concertmaster (see illus
According to Galeazzi, the concertmaster was res
concertmaster is also available, the Kapellmeister generally

EARLY MUSIC FEBRUARY 1988 23

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ponsible for every aspect of a performance, whether of such subtleties of interpretation requiring strict
good or bad, but this view was not universally orchestral discipline by an authoritative and highly
endorsed.22 C. P. E. Bach claims that opera and respected concertmaster.30 For optimum ensemble,
instrumental music were generally controlled from the therefore, concertmasters encouraged ripienists to
keyboard and that only for choral performances was memorize the first bar of the piece, to hold their bows
time-beating necessary.23 L6hlein agrees, maintaining close to the strings and to pay attention to their bow-
that good ensemble without a time-beater was practi- strokes, especially when part of a large orchestra.
cally impossible in churches when musicians were When everyone was ready, the concertmaster generally
widely scattered, while Junker states categorically that began each piece with long, separated, unequivocal
the director in church music was not a player but a and clearly visible strokes, erring perhaps on the slow
'time-beater'.24 An anonymous writer (1779) expounds side for safety's sake.31
somewhat exaggerated opinions regarding orchestral It was not always the concertmaster's prerogative to
direction under six main headings, claiming that a set tempos, but it was invariably his duty to convey
well-positioned, well-rehearsed and efficient orchestra them. Communication of tempo and rhythm visibly
can easily direct itself. But in less ideal circumstances (for example, by marking time with the bow, wagging
the playing invariably becomes forced and unbal-
the scroll, nodding the head or exaggerating bow-
anced, with the concertmaster, cembalist and bass
strokes) as opposed to audibly was the favoured
players generally over-asserting themselves andmethod,32 but foot- stamping or tapping the desk with a
bow to steady insecure ensemble, although univer-
exaggerating body movements to maintain ensemble.
sally abhorred, was by no means rare.33 Pisendel was
His preference is for the composer to direct from the
keyboard, supported by the basses and the concert- admired for preventing an orchestra of Italians from
master, who are close by and help to convey therushing during difficult passages for the soloist by
tempo. He accuses concertmasters of grimacing, foot-
loudly marking time with his foot,34 while in 17 10 the
suggestion was made by Sir Richard Steele that such a
stamping, hurrying, regulating tempos to their techni-
cal ability and expecting orchestras to accommodatesituation might be improved if one was to 'order the
Heels of the Performers to be muffled in Cotton'.35 This
them, invariably causing the bass sections to play
passagework unclearly.25 'marking the time' malaise appears to have worsened
Most of the performing qualities demanded of the as the 18th century progressed, and it was even more
18th-century concertmaster are those traditionally widespread with the enlarged forces of the early 19th-
required of orchestral leaders in modern times,century orchestra.36
although nowadays tonal blend within the string While it was the composer's aim 'to enquire into and
sections is arguably more highly prized. He had to beperfect
a everything that contributes to the lively
expression of the passions', the 18th-century performer
strong, confident and brilliant performer in order to be
heard both by someone nearby and by a singer on the strove for a 'good, distinct execution', communicating
stage.26 Although a virtuoso technique was not faithfully, but nevertheless personally, the composer's
intentions in a manner commensurate with the mood,
essential, such potential was understandably advan-
tageous, for in addition to playing orchestral solos, the
character and style of the composition.37 The concert-
concertmaster was invariably invited to contribute master
a was thus responsible for realizing the
composer's expressive intentions either as indicated
concerto or violin solo.27 The ability to sight-read freely
and without hesitation at least two or three bars at a or according to the (perhaps unwritten) performing
glance was a prerequisite of the position.28 conventions of the time, and communicating his
Both Quantz and Galeazzi emphasize the import- interpretation by gesture and example to his orchestra.
ance of the concertmaster's task of determining and Considerable experience and musical insight was
required
regulating the tempo, Quantz insisting 'If a piece is to for this, especially 'some understanding of
both composition and harmony, so that he can hit
be effective, it must not only be played in the tempo
appropriate to it, but also in the same tempo from correctly upon the style in which each composition
beginning to end, not faster at one place, slower must
at be executed, and thus can avoid the numerous
another'.29 Nevertheless, Schubart praised Cannabich
mistakes that might disfigure and spoil it'.38 If nuances
and the Mannheim orchestra for the expressive usewere
of not specified, it was his duty to introduce them,
dynamic shading and tempo rubato, the achievement establishing the 'peaks' and general contours of

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phrases as well as their expressive content, and to. Such a method invariably led to sharp tuning.45
highlighting certain dissonances, ornaments, chromatic Nevertheless, Leopold Mozart recommends somewhat
notes, cadences (especially interrupted), roulades and ambiguously that when no keyboard instrument is
such like.39 Careful preparation and innate musician- available, 'the pitch is taken from the wind instru-
ship were therefore essential, for he was also requiredments',46 and Vandenbroeck is adamant that a horn
to anticipate difficulties such as tempo changes andshould normally give the a' for tuning purposes, the D
complex rhythms and take steps to deal with them. He crook offering 'the most reliable and accurate note'.47
also :needed to be constantly alert, both visually and Early 19th-century writers placed the responsibility for
aurally, to maintain uniformity of ensemble, especiallytuning accuracy more firmly in the hands of the
when accompanying vocal soloists, who were oftenconcertmaster. Spohr recommends the establishment
positioned some distance from the orchestra.40 Galeazzi of a corporate wind-choir a' as a basis for orchestral
also stresses that accompanying instrumentalists musttuning, which
be observant of the tempo, accentuation, articulation, should take place as quietly as possible. The concertmaster
balance, expression, and the bowing (if appropriate) ofshould take his a' from the oboe, or even safer, from all the
the soloist. This need to interpret compositions uni- wind instruments together, and then let each individual
formly and harmoniously according to their style,violinist, cellist and so forth tune to his a'. Once each is
sentiment, purpose and the prevailing passion is ready, he must avoid disturbing the tuning of the others with
consistently reiterated by 18th-century theorists, who pointless preliminary flourishes. Once all are correctly
recognized that faithfulness to the composer's inten- tuned, several minutes' general silence should ensue; this
tions regarding tempo, rhythm and expression wasgreatly enhances the opening effect of the music.48
paramount. Baillot, however, advocates the use of a tuning fork of
Quantz is adamant that soloists should determine accepted pitch to which the others should tune-first
tempos,41 but Galeazzi places the responsibility more the oboe, and then all the other wind instruments.
firmly in the concertmaster's charge, without taking Then the string players must tune to him separately
away the soloist's customary rights. He warns thatand move to one side to finish tuning without being
theatre concertmasters are invariably required toheard.49 Towards the end of the century, the oboe was
assist singers regarding notes, tempo or memory increasingly employed as the backbone of orchestral
lapses, which may necessitate omitting beats, bars or pitch standards,50 but it was the duty of the concert-
entire lines. The concertmaster was supposed to master to overrule any unsatisfactory pitch in order to
convey this immediately to the orchestra in such a way counteract such significant variables as the temper-
that it would pass unnoticed by the audience.42 ature of the building.51
He was also responsible for ensuring accurate and Success in the role of concertmaster required a
uniform tuning in his orchestra. According to Quantz, strong and commanding personality, in order to achieve
he should first tune his instrument truly with the reasonable and proper orchestral discipline in such
keyboard, before directing each individual instrumen- matters as style and uniformity of bowing, fingering,
talist to tune to him. The playing of preludes should be timbre, ornamentation, intonation and expression.52
forbidden after tuning because these invariably caused Bremner complains that 'many leaders of orchestras
instruments 'to deviate from the common tuning'.43 either shew [sic] a bad example in doing more than they
Evidently, however, this 'common tuning' invariably ought, or take no pains to regulate the performance of
lacked uniformity, Quantz claiming that if each their fellow labourers'." Quantz, however, advises
instrument in a large accompanying body were tested concertmasters to rehearse individually those players
separately, almost every one would be untrue in itself whose execution differs from the rest, and he acknow-
and frequently not even two or three would be in tune leges the value of 'the art of simulation' in the
with one another.44
development of harmonious execution:
Galeazzi detests the 'continual, seemingly endless
This art of simulation is not only permissible, but most
tuning' of many orchestral players. He fully endorses necessary, and it does no offence to morals. He who strives
Quantz's recommendations, much preferring these to all his life to master his passions as fully as possible will not
the common Italian method in which a trumpet tunedfind it difficult to counterfeit in himself the passion required
to a note from the keyboard and, as the loudest in the piece to be performed. Only then will he play well and
instrument, played that note for all the others to tuneas though from the soul.54

EARLY MUSIC FEBRUARY 1988 25

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 Quantz stresses the importance of uniformity of theorists were concerned. Spohr states that 'those
execution and stylish leadership and recommends means of expression so effective in solo and concerted
that all players should conform to the concertmaster's playing, are out of place in the orchestra'."6 Uniformity
interpretation, accepting reasonable discipline for the of bowing led to unity of expression and musical
good of the ensemble.55 The discipline of the Mannheim purpose, both aurally and visually, as well as precision
orchestra was praised by W. A. Mozart: of ensemble. Galeazzi takes the pursuit of uniformity
Ah, if only the orchestra [at Salzburg] were organized as at to the limits of practicability, claiming that each
Mannheim-the discipline that prevails in this orchestra! - school of violin playing had its own bow-type and that
the authority that Cannabich has-there everything is done the best orchestras were those whose violinists were
seriously. Cannabich, who is the best leader [concertmaster] trained in the same school.66 No orchestra better
I have ever seen, is both loved and feared by his subordinates."6 fulfilled his aims than that at Mannheim under
Orchestral discipline extended to the addition of Cannabich in the 1760s and 70s; high standards o
ornamentation, though this was normally introduced ensemble seem to have been even more prevalent by
only by soloists, including undoubled wind players the turn of the century. A review of an orchestr
within the orchestra." However, Quantz, amongst concert given in 1810 by students of the Paris
others,58 claims that a ripienist Conservatoire reports that the violinists, trained indi-
must add nothing to a melody that might obscure it, vidually by different professors (who nevertheless had
especially if several people are playing the same part. drawn inspiration from a common source, Viotti),
Otherwise he will produce considerable disorder in the played in a much more polished and unified manner
melody. For it is not always possible for one person to divine
than the violinists formerly of the Concerts Clery, who
the thoughts of another.59
subscribed to different bowing schools and hence
Such theories were not always put into practice, adopted different approaches to bowing technique.67
however, for Quantz observes that 'Some musicians Pedagogical skill and careful psychology were other
have the bad habit of introducing, at times, all sorts of important attributes for an 18th-century concert-
fropperies, even in the ritornellos, and meanwhile master, who should be 'gifted with both the capacity
forget to read the notes correctly'.6 He likens such and sincerity to impart to others the skills that they
offenders to 'tavern fiddlers' and claims that 'if it need', in order to cultivate better soloists and
[discipline] is lacking the orchestra will always remain
ripienists.68 One of the most gifted concertmaster-
defective regardless of the number of able people it
pedagogues of the century was undoubtedly Christian
Cannabich in Mannheim (see illus.3), whose eminent
contains'.61 Similarly, Schubart criticized the Wfirttem-
berg court orchestra in the late 1760s for lack of disciples included his own son, Carl, and
violin
Wilhelm
unanimity regarding ornamentation, claiming that 'an Cramer. Furthermore, after Johann Stamitz's
orchestra of virtuosos is a world of kings without influential 'reign', the whole orchestra, whose stable
kingdoms'.62 Other writers suggest that the concert- membership was constituted by the 1770s almost
master alone improvized embellishments while the from natives of Mannheim, was indebted to
entirely
remainder of the orchestra kept to the written Cannnabich's
text,63 leadership in perpetuating its distinctive
but there is also evidence that rehearsed embellish- performing style, and passing down such traditions to
ments-generally specific ornaments added to
histhe
successors Frinzl and the Toeschis. Schubart
described Cannabich's influence thus:
principal melodic line in the treble register (although
the lower parts should add similar embellishments He isin
as great a teacher as he is a concertmaster. The
passages of imitation)-played a part in the perform-
principal solo violinists and the most outstanding orchestra
ing style of some orchestras.64 In such cases concert-
violinists come from among his students. His unique
masters were required to introduce ornamentation method
in a of painting with the bow has created a new violin
clear and obvious manner so that the other violinists sect. His most outstanding credits lie in his leadership of the
orchestra and in the training of artists.69
could follow suit. However, this practice declined
The technique of many orchestral players was
towards the end of the 18th century, when composers
gradually became more specific about the type limited,
and and the concertmaster was supposed to act as
extent of ornamentation permitted. a catalyst in their musical development by encouraging
Uniformity of bowing and expression were two private and public solo performances and organizing
interrelated objectives as far as early 19th-century
rehearsals of varied orchestral repertoire, in order to

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 ties for a concertmaster to possess in order to gain the
respect of his players.74 Sub-standard orchestras in-
variably reflected the weaknesses of their leader, but
Burney's description of the Mannheim orchestra as'an
army of generals, equally fit to plan a battle, as to fight
it' leaves no doubt as to its concertmaster's pedigree."
The concertmaster's duties were so multifarious
41' that success depended substantially on assistance and
co-operation from the orchestra as a whole, and
especially from certain individuals. All players were
301,
required to watch each other carefully in performanc
and especially to focus attention on the concertmaste
loo for ensemble and interpretation.76 Galeazzi also
stresses the importance of a strong, secure assistant
concertmaster to shoulder responsibility if, for example
lb. the concertmaster were in any way distracted from h
duties or required to supervize the orchestra.77 Further
more, Petri observes:

It is a great mistake, in provincial orchestras, that the leader

of the second violins frequently occupies his position only
because he is a good sight-reader ... But this is not all that is
required of him. He must also be a good player, who can
unite exactly with the leader of the first violins in execution
and ornamentation, and appropriately adjust what is written
in his own part.73
3 Christian Cannabich (1731-1798) The harpsichordist was all-important, too, and had
formidable accomplices in the principal cello and bass
assist them to convey the character and style of a wide players, who invariably played from his copy and
range of music.7o Quantz finds some benefit from a helped to convey the beat. Such a situation with 'too
town-band training: many cooks' could doubtless result in untidiness, due
Experience proves that those who have been trained in good to conflict (whether accidental or not) between the
town bands, and have long played for dances, make better various sources of direction. But Galeazzi endorses
ripienists than those who have practised only the galant the value of having quality string players as principal
manner of playing and only one type of music." thereby adding weight to the theory that instrumen
However, the 'town musician' was invariably res- tation was often flexible, and that some orchestral
ponsible for introducing undesirable technical andpassages were performed by solo players as appropriate,
expressive performing habits. even if not so indicated. Such an arrangement doubt-
While the ideal of preserving continuity of leader-less helped to compensate for inadequate rehearsal
ship within an orchestra presented obvious advantages,time by making technical and expressive accuracy a
notably in Mannheim in the third quarter of the 18thmore feasible proposition, as well as providing for
century, it also created problems, especially those greater variety of texture and timbre and, in certain
circumstances, more satisfactory balance. The common
encountered from 'internal' orchestral appointments.72
practice in operas, oratorios and masses for a violinist
Furthermore, it appears that the post of concertmaster
was not always awarded on merit but was invariably (normally, but not always, the concertmaster) to play a
gained either on grounds of seniority, or, as Quantz concerto between acts or parts, and for the concert-
observes, by someone currying favour with solo master to contribute cadenzas at the ends of appro-
performances, without any investigation being con- priate arias or orchestral movements (especially slow
ducted into his qualities of leadership." Not onlyones), also contributed much-desired textural variety.
performing ability but also experience, a friendly In addition to the overall quality of a performance,
personality and a good temperament were vital quali-Galeazzi considered the proper balance and proportions

EARLY MUSIC FEBRUARY 1988 27

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of the different instruments within the orchestra and that it is visually preferable to locate an orchestra at
the optimum placement of the players as principal one end of a rectangular hall. The first and second
objectives towards which a concertmaster should violins should normally be in two rows facing one
strive." Opinions regarding instrumental proportions another so that they may communicate with each
varied considerably according to national taste, local other (but might be placed in a single row if small
custom, availability, and musical genre. Galeazzi's forces were employed), with the principal cellist and
recommended string proportions are shown in Table 1, bass player positioned on either side of the harpsi-
alongside the comparative figures of three other chordist (most other cellists/bass players were relegated
theorists who give particular consideration to the to the extremities of the orchestral plan). The violas
18th-century concertmaster's lot. He claims that these should be located near the second violins, with whom
instrumental proportions should be flexible, according they often play in 3rds and 6ths, while the oboes
to the quality of players, the available budget and should be near the first violins, with whom they
other such circumstances.s0 His overlapping figures invariably have material in common. The brass instru-
contrast with the more specific recommendations of ments can then be seated near the concertmaster so
Quantz, Petri, and Koch; they suggest a less heavy bass that all the section principals of the orchestra are in
presence than most sources,"8 and support the close contact."7
importance attached in his text to viola strength in the The seating arrangements of Quantz, Meude-Monpas
harmonic texture. Interestingly, the available evidence and Junker would appear to have allowed section
regarding the instruments employed in Italian principals less close contact."8 Meude-Monpas
orchestras of the late 18th and early 19th centuries emphasizes the importance of the bass instruments
fails to endorse Galeazzi's ratios,82 and it appears that being near the first violins (the second violins being
Parisian taste was for a rich bass tone and a consequent opposite the first) and the wind instruments being
largesse in the number of lower strings employed. positioned en bloc, while the violas were accommo-
Normal string proportions in Paris were approximately dated wherever space allowed. However, Petri's
2-2-1-2-1.83 By contrast, the string sections of illustration and Koch's suggestions show some measure
Quantz, Galeazzi and Petri (1767) would seem to be of accord with Galeazzi's recommendations.89 Instead
treble-heavy, and of the four theorists only Petri of Galeazzi's row-like formation, Koch prescribes a
specifies the proportions in which the violins should semicircular orchestral plan similar to that introduced
be divided. When wind instruments were employed, by Haydn in his London concerts of 1791-3. Singers
one or more bassoons customarily doubled the bass (where appropriate) or strings with the chief melodic
line, even if no part was specifically provided for them; roles were positioned at the front with the 'weaker'
Galeazzi claims that if the number of violins exceeded instruments (flutes and violas), the section principals
16 (as it normally did, for example, in larger Italian being clearly visible both to their sections and to each
opera houses-Leopold Mozart informs us that other. the The bass principals were centrally located, with
string proportions in Milan were 14-14-6-2-6)84 theitfirst and second violin principals on either side of
was necessary to double the pairs of winds.85 Koch them. Brass and timpani were placed at the rear, while
approaches string-wind proportions from another any soloist would direct from the centre of the
angle, claiming that string sections of 4-4-2-2-2 or
semicircle. Although there were no standard orchestral
5-5-3-3-2 were adequate for performances in placements in the 18th century, both Galeazzi and
churches or theatres, but for symphonies (in which
Koch seem to subscribe to the widely adopted general
there are more wind instruments) 6-6-4-4-3 repre-
principles, notably forward placement of the principal
sents the smallest ensemble for satisfactory balance. melodic instruments and central location of the
'It is incredible', remarks Galeazzi, 'how the dis- section principals and the bass/continuo group, other
position or placement of each member of the orchestra positions being dependent on any visual or acoustical
problem peculiar to the venue.
influences the perfect performance, and here the skill,
good or bad, of the concertmaster is either admired or Orchestral placement in churches posed greater
censured.'86 Such decisions generally concerned three hazards, the position of the main organ and problems
types of venue-halls, churches and theatres. Fromof a distance invariably causing ensemble difficulties
musical standpoint, Galeazzi prefers a music-in-the- even with a time-beater. Junker and Koch in particular
emphasize these problems, Koch claiming that if the
round arrangement for chamber concerts but concedes

28 EARLY MUSIC FEBRUARY 1988

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 Table 1 Proportions of stringed instruments in the orchestra

Vln 1 Vln 2 Vla Cello Bass

Quantz, Versuch ... (1752) 2 2 1 1 1

3 3 1 1 1
4 4 2 2 2
5 5 2 3 2
6 6 3 4 2

Petri, Anleitung... (1/1767) 1-2 1-2 1 1 0-1

5-6 4-5 2 1-2 1

Petri, Anleitung ... (2/1782) 2 1 1 1 0-1

3 2 1-2 2 1
7 5 3 4-5 2

Galeazzi, Elementi ... (1791) 4 1 1 0

4-8 2 1 1
8-12 2 2 2
12-16 4 3 3

Koch, Lexihon ... (1802) 8 2 2 2

10 3 3 2

organ is atThe principal

the front
second violinist should be located right nextof
to
orchestralthe concertmaster
arrangemen without any instrumentalist between
a forward them, provided that there is no soloist in a concerto
position of or other
t
principal solo obbligato piece. If there are to be only two
violinist andplatforms,
the oboes should be placed at the sides by the first violins
with the organist. Prob
and the violas by the second violins, because they would be
Swiss and German chu
unable to be above the same platform as the violins; some of
main organ, but some
the basses are located around the organ and the others are at
small portable organ
the extremities of the platforms. If the orchestra were to have
w
ensemble performances
three or more platforms, the first should accommodate the
the disposition
singers with the maestroof an
and the portable or
organ; the second
much the prerogative
the violins, the third the oboes, violas, bassoons, etc. and theo
the church's
fourth the brass; own Kape
the basses should be distributed partly on
Galeazzi resolves that
the first and partly on the second platforms, ensuring always t
body as that the oboes relate
near as to the firstpossible
violins and the violas to the
second violins.93
divided into two grou
church. He Junker also prefers
favours the use of tiered staging, onan
concave tiered rows to the more common'convex' and account of the tonal advantages and less strained
'straight' practices, this method offering superiorperformances that generally result.94
sound projection, instrumental balance and sightlines In most Italian opera orchestras each of the two
to and from the concertmaster. His elaborate seating
harpsichordists (the principal of whom was the maestro),
proposals are explained in some detail, with recom-
situated at either end of the orchestra, was surrounded
mendations varying according to the number of tiersby his own group of bass instruments. As Zaslaw
employed and including optimum measurements points out, 'the horns often stood behind the ripieno
between platforms.92 He is flexible regarding continuo
the players with bells raised. A long music desk
disposition of the first violins, but is more exacting
ran parallel to the front of the stage, and ranged along
about the placement of other instruments: this-half facing the audience and half the singers-

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4 Turin Theatre Orchestra, c.1790 (Galeazzi,
Elementi teorico-pratici di musica) rtu i" ofeelt' 0rchjtra e

Nos

A director (raised) 1
b first violins 20
c second violins 16
d oboes 4
.la.t....
e clarinets 2
f horns 2
g violas 6
h bassoons 3
I principal cellos 2 o timpani 1
L principal double basses 2 p trumpets 2
m other cellos & double basses 9 q primo violino de' Balli 1
n other horns 2 r harpsichords 2 Total 75 players

5 Teatro San Carlo, Naples, orchestral layout, 1786

~cMC
r I~E Po
K 00 2p K~&Od
Q*. __ i _ KoaMm. W- 0iwO
IcQO oo l J E l11o 0o00

1 first harpsichord
6 Dresden Theatre Orchestra, 1754 (Galeazzi, Elementi teorico-pratici di musica)
2 second harpsichord
3 cellos
4 double basses
D~tribbukone "ell' OrchejJra -LetLR.Teatro"6( DLrefJ . 5 first violins
6 second violins
7 oboes
8 violas
a violas
0 00
b bassoons
c horns
d trumpets & timpani
.P atem.

were the violinists, violists, flautists and oboists'" both

(see plans 'Platea' indicates where the audience sat. In
illus.4). The disposition of the orchestra at the Teatro
the Dresden plan 'd' indicates a platform on each side
San Carlo, Naples (1786) reveals some notable varia- for trumpets and timpani; the second violins, oboes
and violas played with their backs to the stage.
tions (see illus.5), but the layout of the Dresden opera
Galeazzi considers the Dresden plan excellent for
orchestra (illus.6) under Hasse was similar to the Turin
model. By the last quarter of the century, however, ensemble, all the principal players being in close
most German orchestras included only one harpsi- contact, but prefers the Turin scheme because it offers
chord, which was placed centrally between the strings
opportunity for superior orchestral ensemble, blend
on one side and the winds on the other. and balance and a more satisfactory, elevated position
Galeazzi claims that for optimum balance the heads
for the concertmaster." Illus.4 clearly illustrates that
of the orchestral players should be on a level withthe
theconcertmaster, instead of occupying a central
floor of the stage. His survey includes the Dresden
position, sat at the head of the two single rows of first
plan alongside that of the Turin opera orchestra.
and In
second violins, the firsts facing the stage and the

30 EARLY MUSIC FEBRUARY 1988

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seconds opposite with their backs to the stage. The established in Germany by musicians such as Reichardt,
concertmaster was thus able to oversee all the strings Spontini, Anselm Weber and Mendelssohn, because
and maintain particular contact with the principal the old 'dual control' system had doubtless caused
cellist. Galeazzi's only further recommendation is that divided allegiances within orchestras. Nevertheless,
the two rows should be given opposite curvatures, in even in the 1820s in England, Philharmonic Society
order for the violas and winds to be accommodated in concerts were directed by the joint efforts of concert-
the middle. master and keyboard player, the latter helping to
The normal disposition of French opera orchestras maintain ensemble and filling in the harmony. The
concertmaster's dominance lasted for a longer period
is illustrated in illus.7, a seating plan of the Grand
Theatre in Versailles (1773) in which orchestral in France, Habeneck apparently officiating both in
personnel are actually named. It shows the usual concert and in opera from a first violin part (with
semicircular orchestral distribution around the batteur additional cues). Although this practice was scorned
de mesure, who marked the time facing the stage. by Berlioz, there are many tributes to Habeneck's
With the gradual decline of the importance of the prowess at such direction." Perhaps exceptionally,
keyboard's contribution to the orchestra, the stature Deldevez, as late as 1878, preferred direction with the
and significance of the concertmaster blossomed bow to that with baton, claiming that 'the violin is the
further. But as the size of orchestral forces increased natural instrument of the orchestral director'." How-
ever, David Charlton has brought to light some
in the early 19th century, and the repertoire became
interesting evidence of the employment of a system
broader in scope, with rhythms more irregular, tempos
approaching modern conducting practice in March
less uniform, dynamics more prevalent, and textures
1788, when the concertmaster at the Comedie-Italienne,
more complex, the concertmaster's player/director
La Houssaye, was required 'to lead [conduire] the
role became increasingly difficult to sustain. Ragged
ensemble was evidently becoming all too common,orchestra
as from full score and to beat time as need be
Spohr's description of untidy playing at the Phil- with his bow."00 This provides almost certain proof
that either a first violin part or short score was
harmonic Society demonstrates." Such indiscipline,
normally used by the concertmaster/director prior to
whatever its causes, was combatted by such eminent
the late 1780s and also points to techniques of
concertmasters as Schuppanzigh, Clement, David and
Habeneck, and by the gradual ascendancy of the direction in the immediate future, which involved the
concertmaster playing less and beating rather more
conductor with baton. By the beginning of the 19th
century, beating time seems to have been firmly
than previously. In so doing, he doubtless indicated

7 Versailles, Grand Theatre, seating plan, 1773

",
?il t Ll

1 44fT ...,>

EARLY MUSIC FEBRUARY 1988 31

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his desired interpretation in greater expressive detail, 2Ibid, p.207
3See C. L. Junker, Zwanzig Componisten: eine Skizze (Bern, 1776),
invariably keeping his violin close by to demonstrate
pp.22-27; J. -J. Rousseau (ed.), Dictionnaire de Musique (Paris,
matters of technique, phrasing, style and expression. 1768/R1969), 'Violon'.
The knowledge, experience, expertise, taste, musical 4Quantz, op cit; J. S. Petri, Anleitung zur practischen Musih (Lauban,
1767); Junker, Einige der vornehmsten Pflichten eines Kapellmeisters oder
insight and other qualities required of a concertmaster,
Musikdirektors (Winterthur, 1782); J. F. Reichardt, Ueber die Pflichten
as well as his numerous responsibilities, would lead des Ripien-Violinisten (Berlin and Leipzig, 1776); H. C. Koch, Musik-
one to expect that he was a well-respected and well- alisches Lexikon (Frankfurt am Main, 1802)
5Vol. i, Article XIX, 'Del regolare, o sia de' doveri di un primo
paid member of 18th-century society. Few could fail to violino'
respect Carbonelli, Castrucci, Festing, Giardini, Clegg, 6Koch, op cit, 'Kapellmeister'
Cramer, Barth6lemon and Salomon, amongst others, 7F. Galeazzi, Elementi teorico-pratici di musica, (Rome, 1791-6), i,
art. xix
who were prominent concertmasters in London in the
8L. Spohr, Selbstbiographie (1860), Eng. trans. as Louis Spohr's
late 18th century. However, it is evident that the Autobiography (London, 1865/R1969) ii, p.258
concertmaster's lot was not necessarily a happy one 9G. Smart, Journals, p.27, cited in A. Carse, The Orchestra from
Beethoven to Berlioz (Cambridge, 1948), p.312
and that his social status was not generally high.l0t 'ON. Zaslaw, 'Toward the Revival of the Classical Orchestra', PRMA,
Pierre La Houssaye's position at the Comedie-Italienne, ciii (1976-7), pp.158-87, on p.162
for example, was continually being undermined by the "See J. J. O. de Meude-Monpas, Dictionnaire de musique (Paris,
1787), 'Baton de mesure'.
executive committee.'02 Furthermore, pay and con-
"2Rousseau (ed.), op cit, 'Orchestre'; see Carse, The Orchestra in the
ditions appear to have varied considerably during the 18th Century (Cambridge, 1940), p.103
period. Wendeborn maintains that British-based foreign '3F. W. von Grimm (1753), cited in O. Strunk, Source Readings in
Musical History (New York, 1950), p.623
musicians were 'extravagantly paid',103 but circum- "4See New Grove, 'Orchestra'.
stances became less favourable towards the end of the 15Carse, The Orchestra from Beethoven to Berlioz, p.293
century. The Mannheim concertmasters, though'6D. Charlton, 'Orchestration and orchestral practice in Paris,
1789-1810', (diss., U. of Cambridge, 1973), p.58
reasonably well remunerated, were not necessarily the
"According to Brenet, time-beating was normal practice at the
highest paid instrumentalists at that court;104 pay Concert
and Spirituel in the same way as at the Op6ra until 1762; see
conditions for professional musicians in Vienna were
Carse, The Orchestra in the 18th Century, p.103.
'8Meude-Monpas, op cit, 'Maitre de musique'
generally poor, 105 and Galeazzi, doubtless with a chip
'9Koch, op cit, 'Kapellmeister'
on his shoulder from his own experiences, draws
20Ibid, 'Taktgeben'
interesting comparisons between singers' and concert-
21W. Jackson, Observations on the Present State of Music in London
(London, 1791), p.25
masters' fees in Italy. He complains:
22Galeazzi, op cit, i, art. xix
One cannot loathe enough the worst abuse of our corrupt
23C. P. E. Bach, Versuch die wahreArtdas Clavier zu spielen (i, Berlin,
1753/R1957); ii, Berlin, 1762/R1957), Eng. trans. W. J. Mitchell as
times, i.e. that a concertmaster of a theatre, who must know
Essay on the true art ofplaying keyboard instruments (New York, 1949/R
infinitely :more than any singer, must study incomparably
London, 1974) pp.34-5
more to sustain his position with dignity, and must work24G. L6hlein, Anweisung zum Violinspielen (Leipzig and Ziillichau,
considerably more, is then paid so far out of proportion.
1774), p.55; Junker, Einige der vornehmsten Pflichten, p.17
Sometimes he receives little more than 5% of the amount a 25See Carse, The Orchestra in the 18th Century, pp.97-100.
singer earns.' 06 26Galeazzi, op cit, i, art. xix
27Quantz, op cit (Eng. trans.), pp.207-8
Shabby treatment, indeed, for a musical jack-of-all- 28See Galeazzi, op cit, i, art. xix
trades who was required to master so much! For, 29Quantz, op cit, (Eng. trans.), p.279. See also pp.208 and 278-94.
as
30C. F. D. Schubart, Gesammelte Schriften (Stuttgart, 1809), i, p. 153
Galeazzi claims, 'Few are the arts in which there is a
33Galeazzi, op cit, i. art. xix
position as difficult to sustain as that of the concert- 32Reichardt, Briefe einer aufmerksamen Reisenden die Musik betreffend
master.' 107 (Frankfurt and Leipzig, 1774-6), p.40
33Galeazzi, op cit, i, art. xix
34S. Nelson, The Violin and Viola (London, 1972), p.84
Robin Stowell is a senior lecturer in music at University 35Tatler, 2 May, 1710, cited in Nelson, op cit, p.84
College, Cardiff He is the author of the book Violin 36See, for example, Carse, The Orchestra from Beethoven to Berlioz,
technique and performance practice in the late 18th pp.336-7.
aQuantz, op cit (Eng. trans.) pp.205 and 215ff
and early 19th centuries, and he combines his academic
38Ibid, p.207
interests with a performing career as a violinist. Iglbid, pp.274-8 and 254-9
40Galeazzi, op cit, i. art. xix
'J. J. Quantz, Versuch einerAnweisung die Flifte traversiere zu spielen 41Quantz, op cit (Eng. trans.) p.209
(Berlin, 1752/R1952), Eng. trans. E. R. Reilly as On Playing the Flute 42Galeazzi, op cit, i, art. xix
(London, 1966), pp.206-7 and 214-5 4aQuantz, op cit (Eng, trans.) pp.209-10

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 44Ibid, p.266 7Galeazzi, op cit, i, art. xix
45Galeazzi, op cit, i. art. xix 7"Petri, op cit, p.173, trans. in Spitzer and Zaslaw, op cit, pp.538-9
46L. Mozart, Versuch einergriindlichen Violinschule (Augsburg, 1756), 79Galeazzi, op cit, i, art. xix. Much has already been published on
Eng. trans. E. Knocker as A Treatise on the Fundamental Principles of these subjects. In order to avoid unnecessary duplication of
Violin Playing (London, 2/1951), pp.217-8 information, the reader is referred to the following selected sources
470. J. Vandenbroeck, Mbthode nouvelle et raisonnee pour apprendre i' to supplement this article, drawn chiefly from those treatises which
donner du cor (Paris, c. 1789), p.3 devote special sections to the concertmaster's role: Carse, The
48L. Spohr, Violin-Schule (Vienna, 1832), p.249 Orchestra in the 18th Century, pp.16-47; Zaslaw, op cit, pp.170-80;
49P. Baillot, L'art du violonr nouvelle methode (Paris, 1834), p.251 Zaslaw'The size and composition of European Orchestras, 1775-95'
50According to Charlton, op cit, p.66, G. Vogt claims in an in J. P. Larsen, H. Serwer and J. Webster (eds), Haydn Studies.:
unpublished oboe tutor (F-Pn Ci.50, f. 19; c. 1813) that the oboe was Proceedings of the International Haydn Conference. Washington, DC
the regulator of pitch in orchestras. As it was narrower than other (1975) (New York, 1981), pp.186-8; New Grove, 'Orchestra'; Groman,
wind instruments, Vogt maintains that it reached most quickly the op cit, pp.4-5; MGG, x, 'Orchester' I-XVI.
temperature required to give a constant pitch. SoGaleazzi, op cit, i, art. xix
51Vandenbroeck, TraitW general de tous les instrumens de vent, cd s See MGG, 'Orchester'.
l'usage des compositeurs (Paris, c. 1794/R 1973), p.64 821Idem
52Quantz, op cit (Eng. trans.), pp.208-10 and 272 S3Charlton, op cit, pp.122 and 135-8
53R. Bremner, 'Some Thoughts on Concert Music', in J. G C. 84L. Mozart, letter 15 December 1770
Schetky, Six Quartettos.... Op. VI (London, 1777), p.iii 85Galeazzi, op cit, i, art. xix
54Quantz, op cit (Eng. trans.), p.273 S6Galeazzi, op cit, art. xix. It should be noted here that some 18th-
55Ibid, p.272 century orchestras stood at long music desks when performing
56W. A. Mozart, letter to his father from Paris, 9 July 1778, cited in (except for the keyboard players and cellists) in concerts; opera
M. A. Groman, 'The Mannheim Orchestra under the leadership of orchestras, however, normally played seated.
Christian Cannabich', (diss., U. of California, Berkeley, 1979), p.86 "7Idem.
57See J. G. Tromlitz, Ausfiihrlicherundgriindlicher Unterricht die Fl6te SSMeude-Monpas, op cit, 'Orchestre'; Quantz, op cit (Eng. trans.),
zu spielen (Leipzig, 1791/R Amsterdam, 1973) p.369, cited in J. Spitzer pp.212-3; Junker, Einige der vornehmsten Pflichten ..., pp. 19-20
and N. Zaslaw, 'Improvised Ornamentation in Eighteenth-century sgPetri, op cit, 2/1782, p.188; Koch, op cit, 'Stellung', col.1437
Orchestras', JAMS, xxxix (1986), pp.539-40. 90Koch, op cit, 'Stellung' cols.1435-8; Junker, Einige der
58See, for example, L. Mozart, op cit, p.214; J. A. Scheibe, Critischer vornehmsten Pflichten..., pp.17-20
Musihus (Leipzig, 1745/R1970), p.715; Reichardt, Ueber die Pflichten ... 91For example, Galeazzi, op cit, i, art. xix
92Idem
pp.79-80; D. G. Tilrk, Klavierschule," oder, Anweisung zum Klavier- 93Idem
spielen fiir Lehrer und Lemende, mit Iritische Anmerlungen (Leipzig,
1789,2/1802/R1967), p.331; Tromlitz, op cit, p.250; Spohr, op cit, 94Junker, op cit, pp.14-15
p.249. 95Zaslaw, op cit, p.160
59Quantz, op cit (Eng. trans.) p.272 96Galeazzi, op cit, i, art. xix
60ldemn 97Spohr, Autobiography (Eng. trans., London, 1865), ii, p.81
61Ibid, p.274; for a discussion of how dance music infiltrated 98H. Berlioz, Mimoires de Hector Berlioz (Paris, 1870) ii, p.241; E. M.
orchestral music, see Spitzer and Zaslaw, op cit, p.545ff. E. Deldevez, De lart du chefd'orchestre (Paris, 1878) pp.2-3 and 141n,
62Cited in Spitzer and Zaslaw, op cit, p.544n. See also J. Potter, as cited in Carse, The Orchestra from Beethoven to Berlioz, p.371ff.
Observations on the Present State of Music and Musicians (London, 99Deldevez, op cit, p.75
1762), p.79. o00D. Charlton, 'Orchestra and Chorus at the Com6die-Italienne
63Anon., Wahrheiten die Musih betreffend gerade herausgesagt von (Op6ra-Comique) 1755-99', in M. H. Brown and R. J. Wiley (eds),
einem teutschen Biedermann (Frankfurt, 1777), pp.44-5
Slavonic and Western Music" Essays for Gerald Abraham (Oxford and
64Quantz, op cit (Eng. trans.), p.210 and pp.242-3. The term Michigan, 1985) pp.87-108, on p.93
'specific ornaments' is used to denote Quantz's wesentliche Manieren 10'See M. Sands, 'Music as a profession in eighteenth-century
(i.e. trills, appoggiaturas, mordents etc.) as opposed to his willhiihr- England', ML, xxiv (1943), pp.90-2.
liche Manieren ('improvised' ornaments). This theory is endorsed by 'o2Charlton, op cit, in Brown and Wiley (eds), pp.92-3
many other writers of the period; see Spitzer and Zaslaw, op cit, '03F. A. Wendeborn, A View of England towards the Close of the
pp.536-7. Eighteenth Century (1785-8), Eng. trans., author, (London, 1791), ii,
65Spohr, op cit, p.248. Among his prohibited additions Spohr p.237
includes tempo rubato, portamento (except in certain places), vibrato, 104See Groman, op cit, pp.41, 50-1 and 59-60.
the introduction of unspecified dynamics, accents and bowings, o05 See C. Brown, 'The orchestra in Beethoven's Vienna', in this
and the exploitation of position-work for special tonal effect. issue, p.4.
66Galeazzi, op cit, i. pp.76-7 and 211 '06Galeazzi, op cit, i, art. xix
67Les Tablettes de Polymnie (April 1810), pp.3-4; Eng. trans. in '07Idem
Zaslaw, op cit, p.159
68Quantz, op cit (Eng. trans.), p.207
69Grornan, op cit, p.87 EARLY MUSIC May 1988
70Quantz, op cit (Eng. trans.), p.211
71Ibid, pp.210-11
72Ibid, p.206-7 Performing Beethoven's
3Ibid, p.297 early piano concertos
74Ibid, pp.207 and 209
75C. Burney, The Present State of Music in Germany, the Netherlands
Robert Winter
and United Provinces (London, 1773), i, p.93
76See, for example, L. Mozart, op cit (Eng. trans.), p.224

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