Insects in Forensic Investigations

Meenakshi Bharti and Devinder Singh

Learning Objectives
1. To understand the role of insects in forensic investigations.
2. To know the different insect groups which help in solving post-mortem
interval of a body and the stages of decomposition.
3. To understand the methods of data collection and preservation for entomo-
logical evidence required for PMI investigations.
4. To have an overview of the latest forensic entomology techniques used to
solve homicidal cases.

1 Introduction

If all insects disappeared, all life on earth would perish. If all humans disappeared, all life
on earth would flourish. (Jonas Salk).

The scientific evidence prior to its admission in court should be tried for its
reliability. It should be verifiable, have a known error rate, and be acceptable to
forensic experts employing the technique (Tomberlin et al., 2010). The applied
discipline of Forensic Entomology meets the above-mentioned criterion and could
easily be validated in solving cases of homicide, suicide, negligence, accident, and
poaching. The discipline is based on the group of insects retrieved from a corpse to
estimate the post-mortem interval [PMI min]. It is also referred to as Time of
Colonization (TOC: Byrd & Castner, 2010) or Period of Insect Activity (PIA:
Byrd & Castner, 2010) as it is the amount of time required to reach the observed

M. Bharti (*) · D. Singh

Department of Zoology and Environmental Sciences, Punjabi University, Patiala, Punjab, India

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 165
Omkar (ed.), Insects as Service Providers,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-3406-3_7
166 M. Bharti and D. Singh

degree of colonization. One method utilizes the developmental rate of first genera-
tion of flies (mainly blow flies and flesh flies) to colonize the remains to estimate
PMI. Second method of PMI interpretation is based on the pattern of insect coloni-
zation as well as on the evaluation of populations of different insect species feeding
and co-existing on a body as it decomposes from fresh to skeletal remains. The insect
data generated from the above methods help in solving PMI, place of death, mode of
death or death due to drugs and poisons.
The present chapter aims to take the readers on a journey to the World of Forensic
Entomology to understand the intricacies and the importance of this discipline in the
field of Forensic Science.

2 Community Composition and Succession

Carrion is a protein rich ephemeral resource for a variety of organisms, which are
responsible for its gradual consumption, fragmentation, and dissipation. Carrion
attracts a conventional, taxonomically distinct, and functionally interconnected
group of small-bodied organisms that may be labelled as the carrion-associated
community (Villet, 2011). The carrion benefits its residents by acting as a
resource-enriched, ephemeral habitat and thereby helping many organisms to com-
plete significant part of their life cycle on it. Carrion could be encountered in
terrestrial or in aquatic ecosystems. On land, the body undergoes two
physiochemical processes: decomposition and mummification whereas in aquatic
environment the body undergoes saponification and adiopocere formation (Merritt &
Wallace, 2010). Therefore, the biotic community composition in the two habitats is
expected to be different. Apart from differences in habitation, the carrion species
structure will vary in different geographic locations.
The carrion community mainly comprises of three insect orders: Diptera, Cole-
optera and Hymenoptera; of which Diptera is by far the predominant group. Along
with different families of beetles, the immatures of species belonging to family
Calliphoridae (blow flies), Sarcophagidae (flesh flies) and Muscidae (house flies)
are mainly responsible for carrion consumption. The beetles and flies have distinc-
tive morphological characters and developmental cycles. For better understanding
and easy identification, important carrion insect groups are discussed in detail:
Insects in Forensic Investigations 167

2.1 Insect Orders

2.1.1 Diptera (Flies)

Family-Calliphoridae

During decomposition studies on different animal models such as rabbit, pig and
cow carcasses, it has been observed that the calliphorids, commonly called blowflies,
are first to visit a carrion generally within minutes or few seconds of death (Bharti &
Singh, 2017; Wang et al., 2017; Mondor et al., 2012). These flies feed and lay eggs
in the natural body openings. This family includes blue bottles (Genus Calliphora-
Fig. 1), green bottles (Genus Lucilia-Fig. 2) and screw worm flies (genus
Cochliomyia). Most species are shiny with metallicluster, generally green, blue,
bronze, and black in color. The antenna in adult flies is three segmented with hair
or arista on the last segment.
The mature larvae of blowflies range from 8 to 23 mm in length and are usually
white or cream colored (Bunchu et al., 2015). The terminal segment of the larval
body possesses six or more cone shaped tubercles about its perimeter and a pair of
posterior spiracles (breathing apparatus of the larva). These flies are the earliest to lay
eggs on the carcasses with the help of their telescopic ovipositor. Generally, numer-
ous batches of eggs are placed in the nose and mouth, as well as other natural body
openings (if exposed). Areas with open wounds are also selected for egg placement
(Bharti & Singh, 2003). Different species of flies are found visiting carcasses during
different seasons of the year, e.g., in India, flies belonging to genus Calliphora are
considered winter flies, whereas species of Chrysomya (Figs. 3 and 4) could be
found associated with carcasses throughout the year (Bharti & Singh, 2003). On the

Fig. 1 Calliphora
vomitoria

Fig. 2 Lucilia ampullacea

168 M. Bharti and D. Singh

Fig. 3 Chrysomya
megacephala

Fig. 4 Chrysomya
rufifacies

Fig. 5 Sarcophaga
albiceps

other hand, species belonging to genus Lucilia (Fig. 2) are considered warm weather
species.

Family Sarcophagidae

The adults of sarcophagids, commonly called flesh flies, are generally found feeding
on the nectar, or honeydew and only their larvae or maggots feed on animal flesh,
hence named as flesh flies (Fig. 5). These flies are not metallic in appearance, possess
black and grey stripes on the thorax and tessellated pattern on the abdomen. The eyes
are widely separated in both the sexes. The perimeter of terminal segment of the flesh
fly larvae is edged with tubercles whereas the posterior spiracles, unlike blow fly
larvae, are in a pit or depression (Szpila et al., 2015), which is used by taxonomists to
differentiate between flesh fly and blow fly larvae. Morphospecies of sarcophagids
are difficult to identify as few identification keys are available, therefore, it is
advisable that maggots should be reared to adult stage to facilitate positive species
identification. Generally, flesh flies are associated with carcasses throughout both
early and late stages of decomposition. Unlike calliphorids, females of this group
Insects in Forensic Investigations 169

larviposit(deposit living first instar larvae) on decomposing remains (Szpila & Pape,
2007). Flies of genus Sarcophaga (generally encountered on carcasses in India)
arrive on human remains concurrently or somewhat after the arrival of blow flies.
They are hard flyers and can even fly under extreme weather conditions that would
prevent the flight of most other flies. Under such circumstances, flesh flies may be
the first species to arrive on the carrion(Nandi, 2012).

Family Muscidae

Muscidae is a large family of flies many of which are synanthropic (strongly

associated with man), and it has often led to unintentional transportation and spread
of these species across the globe. Being synanthropic, these flies are found in large
numbers near human habitations and are thus carrier/vector of many diseases and
their close association with humans make them forensically important as well
(Greenberg & Kunich, 2002). Common members of this family are the house flies,
stable flies, horn flies and latrine flies. The adults prefer to feed on decaying animal
or plant materials, dung or excrement, and open wounds (Greenberg & Kunich,
2002). Muscids are small to medium-sized flies, dull grey to dark in colour with few
having metallic sheen (Fig. 6). The arista present on the third segment of the
antennae is like that of calliphorids. The larvae are cylindrical in shape (Grzywacz
& Pape, 2014). Muscids flies are ubiquitous, synanthropes and occupy every
terrestrial niche available. They infest dead bodies after the arrival of flesh flies
and blow flies. Like calliphorids, they often lay their eggs in natural body openings,
on wounds or soiled clothing. Generally, the instars feed directly on carrion, but
immatures of certain species of this group prey on the eggs and larvae of other
carrion-feeding insects, thereby impacting the faunal composition of the carcass
(Grzywacz et al., 2017). The muscid flies encountered on carrion generally belong to
genera Hydrotaea (bronze dump fly), Musca (House fly), Atherigona(Shoot-fly),
Neomyia, etc.

2.1.2 Coleoptera (Beetles)

Coleoptera is the largest insect order of class Insecta. Members of this order possess
chitinized forewings called Elytra, that cover and protect the membranous
hindwings. Only the hindwings are used for flight. They can be predaceous,

Fig. 6 Musca sorbens

170 M. Bharti and D. Singh

scavengers, vegetarians or parasitic in their feeding habits (Schroeder et al., 2002).

The larvae are called grubs, possess noticeable head and six legs. The common
families of beetles generally found associated with the dead bodies in India are:
Silphidae, Dermestidae, Tenebrionidae, Staphylinidae, Histeridae and Cleridae
(Bharti & Singh, 2003).

Silphidae

It constitutes the group of carrion or burying beetles, which are predaceous in nature.
It has been observed that the silphid beetles feed onthe dipterous maggots during
advanced stages of decomposition (Bharti & Singh, 2003). These are generally black
in colour with orange, red or yellow patches on the body and clubbed antennae
(Fig. 7).

Dermestidae

They are commonly known as skin beetles, and feed on dried skin and bones. The
Dermestids infest corpse during dry stage of decomposition. In this family, beetles of
genus Dermestes infest carcass during drier stages of decomposition and when found
in adequate numbers, can reduce a human carcass to a skeleton in 24 days (Magni
et al., 2015). For this reason, species of Dermestes are used for cleaning bones
(removing flesh) of museum specimens. The larvae are dark brown in color and
possess a broad light brown to yellow stripe extending lengthwise along the body
(Fig. 8). The dermestid larvae are covered with bunches of long dark hairs
(Kulshrestha & Satpathy, 2001).

Fig. 7 Calosilpha sp.

Insects in Forensic Investigations 171

Fig. 8 Dermestes
maculatus

Fig. 9 Gonocephalum sp.

Tenebrionidae

Commonly called as darkling beetles possess black elytra and hence the common
name (Fig. 9). These beetles feed on both fresh and decaying plant and animal
matters. Two genera, Gonocephalum and Scleron, are mainly found on carrion from
Indian subcontinent (Bharti & Singh, 2003).

Staphylinidae

The adults of rove beetles are slender in shape and have noticeably short elytra. The
elytra are square in shape and appears as pads on the thorax. The membranous
hindwings remain folded beneath and completely concealed, exposing last six to
seven abdominal segments. The body of the rove beetles appears divided into four
sections:head, thorax, wing cover and the abdomen (which is roughly equal to all the
first three together) (Fig. 10). The rove beetles are generally confused with the
earwigs and should be identified by the absence of pincer-like cerci at the tip of
the abdomen, which is an important feature of earwigs. Adults and larvae are quick
moving and are predaceous on maggots and the larvae of other insects
(Dekeirsschieter et al., 2013).
172 M. Bharti and D. Singh

Fig. 10 Philonthus
longicornis

Fig. 11 Saprinus sp.

Histeridae

Clown beetles are generally small, rounded, shiny beetles that are black or metallic
green in color (Shayya et al., 2018). Histerids possess short and square elytra which
does not completely covers the abdomen (Fig. 11). These beetles are generally
encountered on dead bodies, excrement, and other dead decomposing matter. The
beetles of this group prefer to stay underneath a dead body during daytime and could
be collected by lifting the body from the ground. Both larvae and adults are
predaceous and feed readily on maggots or flypuparia. They have also been observed
feeding on the larvae of dermestid beetles. Hister and Saprinus species of beetles are
found on the cadavers from bloating through the dry stages of decomposition (Bharti
& Singh, 2003).

Cleridae

Commonly known as checkered beetles, clerids are attracted to a dead body during
later stages of decomposition. The adults are predaceous, often bristly, and brightly
coloured. They predate human corpses found in the outdoor habitat. The adults are
slow fliers and typically run instead of flying (Hu et al., 2020). Apart from Diptera
and Coleoptera, many other arthropods are found to be associated with dead bodies,
like ants, wasps, spiders, etc.; but these are typically opportunistic feeders
Insects in Forensic Investigations 173

(scavengers of carcass as well as predators of carrion fauna)and do not contribute to

solving homicidal cases.

2.2 Stages of Decomposition

Though a continuum, for better understanding the process of decomposition has

been divided into four phases namely, fresh, bloated, decay and dry:

2.2.1 Fresh Stage

The fresh stage commences with death and continues till the bloating is first evident
(Byrd & Castner, 2010). During this stage, the body temperature falls to that of
ambient (algor mortis) and autolysis starts. Neither gross morphological changes are
produced nor is odour of decay detectable at this stage (Byrd & Castner, 2010).
Rigor mortis sets in during end of this stage. This stage attracts first wave of
forensically important insects, like Calliphoridae, Sarcophagidae and Muscidae
(Bharti & Singh, 2003).

2.2.2 Bloated Stage

Protein digesting enzymes start breaking the complex proteins into their monomeric
form, liberating gases in the process which inflate the body. The bloating marks the
beginning of this stage and is evident with the slight inflation of the abdomen caused
due to putrefaction (Payne, 1965). As it progresses, the skin of the abdomen and
between the limb joints tighten, giving carcass the appearance of a taut balloon.
Externally it is marked by loss of hair, and the odor of decay becomes noticeable as
the fluids begin seeping from the natural body openings to the outside. By the end of
this stage, because of putrefaction and maggot activity, the internal body temperature
rises. This stage invites many groups of beetle families, which feed on the carrion as
well as on the dipteran larvae (Grassberger & Frank, 2004).

2.2.3 Decay Stage

The release of putrefaction gases (ammonia, carbon-di-oxide, methane, hydrogen

sulphide) marks the beginning of this stage (Anderson & Van Laerhoven, 1996). The
skin usually cracks at many places due to feeding activity of dipterousmaggots. The
maggot activity leads to holes in the body, which facilitates the entrance of air thus
accelerating the process of aerobic protein decomposition. The burrowing activity of
the maggots make the soil powdery in texture under the carcass. Carrion temperature
rises above ambient and soil temperature and has been reported as high as 10
- 15
C
174 M. Bharti and D. Singh

above ambient during this stage (Singh & Bharti, 2001).The odour of decay is
strong. The fly maggots devour 90% of the carcass biomass by the end of this
stage (Bharti & Singh, 2003). Maximum diversity of carrion insect community could
be observed during this stage.

2.2.4 Dry Stage

This is the last stage of decomposition and is marked by dry skin, cartilage, and
bones of a carcass. The odor is typically of dried skin. Internal carcass temperature
approaches that of the ambient. The end of this stage is difficult to define due to its
long duration and lack of pronounced marking events. However, Tomberlin et al.
(2010) stated that the culmination point of this stage could be considered when
negligible carrion fauna is observed on the carcass. Dry stage could be marked by the
presence of beetles and pupae of Diptera.

3 Collection and Preservation of Entomological Evidence

During Death Investigations

Developed nations, like U.S.A, routinely seek expert opinion of forensic entomol-
ogists in solving homicidal cases. This has increased the demand for forensic
entomologists across the globe by the law enforcement agencies. Thus, a thorough
knowledge regarding collection, preservation, and shipment of the entomological
evidence is a prerequisite for the investigating officers (Amendt et al., 2006). The
rules for collection of insect evidence have been laid by the experts and are followed
by the investigating officials throughout the globe. But at times the investigating
officials’ neglect the insect evidence and base their investigations on common and
traditional methods, which sometimes possess high error rates. As the judicial
system mandates the proper collection and preservation of crime scene evidence
(Smith, 1986; Tantawi & Greenberg, 1993), for precise documentation of circum-
stantial evidence related to forensic entomology following procedure and protocols
should be adopted:

3.1 Observations and Notations to Be Made

on the Crime Scene

1. First and foremost, a forensic entomologist should visually observe the insect
active in and around the carcass from a distance, and later the dead body should
be examined closely.
Insects in Forensic Investigations 175

2. Approximation regarding the number and kind of insects, locations of major

insect infestations and presence of immature stages of insects should be noted
carefully.
3. Observations regarding insect predators, such as carrion or rove beetles, ants,
spiders, and wasps, should be made.
4. The exact position of the body with respect to position of head and face, parts in
contact with substrate, parts of the body in sunlight or shade, trauma caused
should also be taken into consideration (Catts & Haskell, 1990).

3.2 Collection of Abiotic Data

1. Abiotic information such as temperature, humidity, rainfall etc. is critical for

calculating post-mortem interval (PMI) by entomological means. The time
required for the insects to complete their life cycle is determined largely by the
temperature, relative humidity, and other abiotic factors to which they are
exposed. The growth of poikilothermic organisms such as carrion insects largely
depends on temperature. Ambient air temperature should be recorded at 0.3 to
1.3 m height near the body (Marchenko, 2001).
2. Surface temperature should be obtained by placing the thermometer on the
ground.
3. Temperature from the body surface should be obtained by placing the thermom-
eter on the upper surface of the body.
4. Under surface body temperature should be taken by sliding the thermometer
between the body and the ground surface.
5. Maggot mass temperature should be calculated by placing the thermometer into
the centre of the maggot mass.
6. Soil temperature should be taken immediately following body removal at a
ground point that was under the dead body remains prior to removal (Grassberger
& Reiter, 2002).

3.3 Collection of Insect Specimens from and Around the Body

1. Appropriate collection and preservation techniques, specimen labelling, and

data recording are important for the accurate evaluation of the entomological
data and for its acceptance by the criminal justice system. Therefore, it becomes
imperative that a complete and thorough collection as well as documentation of
the supporting evidence is carried out at the crime scene (Amendt et al., 2006).
2. Flying insects hovering over the body should be collected with the help of aerial
sweeping nets. The insects thus collected should then be transferred to the
killing jars fumigated with ethyl acetate or preserved in alcohol(Adams &
Hall, 2003).
176 M. Bharti and D. Singh

3. Ground crawling adults, like maggots, beetles and ants, should be collected with
forceps and killed and preserved in the same manner as with the adult flying
insects.
4. It has been observed that flies of forensic importance generally rest on the
nearby vegetation; thus, sweeping nets should be used to collect insects from
nearby plants or bushes.
5. After collecting the specimens from the surrounding vegetation an appropriate
route to physically approach the corpse should be identified to minimize the
destruction of the important circumstantial evidence.
6. While collecting insect samples, the carcass, or the clothes on its body or the
surrounding area should not be disturbed.
7. Utmost care should be taken while collecting insect evidence from the body with
the help of forceps etc. as post-mortem artefacts inflicted while collection of
specimens could mislead and cause needless speculation.
8. A thorough examination of clothing and body bag should be carried out at the
time of autopsy for insects not collected at the scene.
9. Eggs and larval stages should be collected and preserved in appropriate preser-
vative for future reference. It is especially important to put labels into each
collection vial bearing sample number, hour, date, case number, city, etc.
10. After preserving some of samples of different stages of insect development,
equal number of samples should be placed alive into maggot rearing cups. On
the spot larval rearing cups could be constructed from aluminium foil or from
re-sealable plastic bags perforated with multiple pinholes for air passage.
90-150 g piece of goat liver should be placed within the rearing pouch, which
will act as food source for the 30–60 larvae placed in the pouch.
11. Living puparia could be placed directly in containers containing sand. It is not
necessary to place these containers in pouches containing food source as this
stage does not consume food.
12. Live beetles should be collected and preserved separately as many beetles and
their larvae are predaceous on dipteran larvae.
13. After collecting samples from the body and its immediate surroundings, efforts
should be made to collect insects that have completed feeding and have migrated
from the dead body. Generally, these insects will be in their advance stage of
growth and development compared to the insects collected from the carrion and
thus are extremely valuable evidence in a death investigation. The migrating
insects (such are post-feeding maggots) could be found within a radius of 20 ft.
(6 m) from the deadbody (Haskell et al., 2001).
14. For accurate identification, the live larval samples collected from the carcass
during crime scene, should be reared to adult stage in the lab.
15. Insects and their immatures (egg, larvae) could be found infesting the eyes, ears,
nostrils, mouth, skin folds, genitals, anal region, or sites of trauma like gunshot
wounds or other injuries. (Haskell et al., 2001).
Insects in Forensic Investigations 177

3.4 Two Methods Are Generally Adopted to Calculate

the Post-Mortem Interval of a Body

(a) Estimate based on degree of development (ADH/ADD); (b) and estimate based
on stages of succession.

3.4.1 Estimate Based on Degree of Development

This method employs the age of immature insects that have fed on a body for
minimum PMI estimations. This approach does not estimate the maximum PMI,
because an unknown period may elapse between death and deposition of eggs or
larvae (Greenberg & Kunich, 2002). By assessing the insect fauna collected from the
crime scene and taking into account other abiotic factors, the degree of development
of forensically important insects could be calculated and thus PMI estimations
ranging from less than 1 day to more than a month could be made. Larvae of the
same age hatch and moult in relative synchrony, and these qualitative changes in
form are easily recognized. The age of an individual insect from the crime scene
generally falls within the range of the calculated age of the instars as identified in the
model studies (Marchenko, 2001). Generally, development studies at constant
temperatures are employed for calculating the age of the immature stages, where
growth at a constant temperature is divided by the time period under consideration
into short intervals (12 h) and then applying a model of development that is closest to
the mean temperature. Another approach is to model development in terms of
accumulated degree hours or degree days, a process known as thermal summation.
Accumulated degree days, a measure of the development time of immature
stages, assumes that the constant increase in development rate directly depends on
the increase in temperature. It is further assumed that no development occurs below
the minimum threshold temperature and a constant development rate occurs at
maximum threshold (Anderson, 2000). Linear models are used to describe degree
day calculations, where development is regarded as combination of temperature
above the minimum developmental threshold multiplied by time. Thus, five degrees
above minimum threshold for 2 days represents 10-degreedays (5X2), or 1 degree
above minimum development threshold for 10 days is 1X10 ¼ 10 degree days. With
ADD method, development events of different stages, like period of egg hatching,
stage transitions, oviposition to adult emergence, could be calculated (Kamal, 1958;
Grassberger & Reiter, 2002).

3.4.2 Estimate Based on Stage of Succession

This technique is based on understanding of the insect succession patterns. Here the
assemblage of species collected from the victim body are analysed with the help of
178 M. Bharti and D. Singh

software capable of calculating PMI using a large reference data set, a prerequisite
and easily constructed by forensic entomologists around the globe.

4 New Trends in Forensic Investigations

4.1 DNA-Based Methods in Forensic Entomology

Today, plethora of methods are available to a Forensic Entomologist, which can aid
in solving homicidal cases. One such method is molecular genotyping. It is evident
that correct species identification is a prerequisite for calculating PMI of a body by a
forensic entomologist. Closely related species generally have different growth rates,
diapause patterns and ecological habitats. Moreover, keys to immature stages of
forensically important insects are still in infancy. Under these circumstances,
DNA-based species delimitation could be of immense value for a forensic entomol-
ogist. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) has played a major role in species delineation
due to its high copy number, haploidy, high mutation rate and maternal inheritance
(Wells & Stevens, 2008; Bharti & Singh, 2017). DNA barcoding (short DNA
fragments that contain species-specific motifs) is the best way to assign species
name to unknown specimens (Gemmellaro et al., 2019). Barcoding ID’s are avail-
able for many species of family Calliphoridae (512), Sarcophagidae (994) on
GenBank database (Gemmellaro et al., 2019). Out of 1520 species of known
Calliphoridae and 9604 species of living Sarcophagidaean exceedingly small per-
centage of the species have been identified on the basis of molecular analysis. It is
thus imperative that DNA identification studies should be performed on forensically
important taxa and this helps build database in the NCBI library.

4.2 Cuticular Hydrocarbon Profiling Methods in Forensic

Entomology

Insect cuticle is covered by a waxy layer, which prevents insects from abrasion and
desiccation. The waxy layer is composed of free fatty acids, esters, alcohol and
cuticular hydrocarbons (CHCs) (Martin & Drijfhout, 2009). These hydrocarbons are
a mix saturated compounds, such as n-alkanes, mono-, di- or tri-methyl alkanes (with
one to three methyl groups) or unsaturated compounds, like alkenes, alkadienes and
more rarely methyl-branched alkenes (Martin & Drijfhout, 2009). Being volatile in
nature the CHCs help in communication, mate recognition, adaptation, and specia-
tion (Butterworth et al., 2018). The hydrocarbons occur in all life stages of insects
and are biologically stable. It has been proved by scientists that the CHC profiles are
species specific (Moore et al., 2013) and are thus a reliable tool for forensic
entomologists. Moreover, cuticular hydrocarbon profiles are not static and change
Insects in Forensic Investigations 179

with each development stage (egg to adult); thus could be effectively used to
calculate the age of the immature stages as well as in correct species identification
(Moore et al., 2014). So far, thousands of CH profiles have been generated and no
two profiles have been found to be similar (Martin & Drijfhout, 2009). Profiles of
forensically important species, say Calliphora vomitoria (Linnaeus), Calliphora
vicina (Robineau-Desvoidy), Protophormia terraenovae (Robineau-Desvoidy),
Aldrichina grahami(Aldrich), Chrysomya megacephala (Fabricius), Lucilia sericata
(Meigen), Achoetandrus rufifacies (Macquart), Boettcherisca peregrina (Robineau-
Desvoidy), and Parasarcophaga crassipalpis (Macquart), Cochliomyia
hominivorax, Phormia regina, Chrysomya varipes have been worked out (Roux
et al., 2006; Ye et al., 2007; Pomonis & Mackley, 1985; Stoffolano et al., 1997). It is
a known fact that at crime scene the insect evidence mainly comprises of develop-
mental stages of forensically important insects, which are then used to decipher the
time interval between death and discovery of the corpse. But, till date the gaps in the
life history stages (like, the pre-pupal stage or the post feeding stage) could not be
resolved based on morphological changes. In such a scenario, CHC profiles of
development stages of an insect could come in handy. Scientists are attempting to
develop a model that could be used in estimating the age of larvae or pupae and thus
increasing the accuracy of PMI calculations (Zhu et al., 2006; Zhu et al., 2007;
Moore et al., 2013; Zhu et al., 2013; Moore et al., 2014; Xu et al., 2014; Moore et al.,
2017; Bharti, 2021).

5 Conclusions

Insect attraction to and interaction with human body remains has been witnessed and
even used for centuries, and today medico-criminal entomology is being practiced
across the world. There is no dearth on the availability of scientific literature on this
topic but the number of qualified practicing forensic entomologists capable of
utilizing insect evidence is exceedingly small. In developed countries, this branch
of science has reached at an exciting stage in its evolution as testimony based on the
insect evidence and is routinely used in the courts; but there are no takers of this
branch of applied science in India and other developing nations. There is a strong
need to accept and recognize the discipline of forensic entomology and to encourage
its reliance in the court of law as biological evidence, which will present immense
opportunities to the qualified forensic entomologists as well.

Points to Remember
1. The branch of Forensic Entomology implies insects in solving homicidal
cases.

(continued)
180 M. Bharti and D. Singh

2. The forensically important insects mainly comprises of Diptera: blow flies

(Calliphoridae), flesh flies (Sarcophagidae), house flies (Muscidae) and
Coleoptera: Staphylinidae, Dermestidae, Tenebrionidae, Cleridae,
Histeridae, Silphidae, etc.
3. Different insects are found on different stages of corpse decomposition.
The estimated age of the immature insect that has fed on a body provides a
minimum post-mortem interval.
4. ADH and ADD methods are employed to calculate the PMImin.
5. Nowadays, DNA based techniques and Cuticular Hydrocarbon profiles are
employed for correct identification of forensically important insects.

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