Chapter-01 Ø All these reproductive events occur only

after puberty.
Human Reproduction ü There are remarkable differences
between the reproductive events in the
male and in the female, The sperm
Introduction formation (Spermatogenesis) continues in
ü Humans are sexually reproducing and old men, but formation of ovum
viviparous organisms. (Oogenesis) ceases in women around the
ü Reproduction is ability to reproduce age of 50 years.
individuals of same species. The main
events in reproduction include-
The Male Reproductive System
Gametogenesis-------> Insemination ------->
fertilsation-----> implanation----> gestation-
---> delivery/Parturition.

a)Gametogenesis:-
Ø it is the formation of gametes.
Ø Male gametes are sperms and female
gametes are egg/ovum.
Ø Formation of sperm is called
spermatogenesis
Ø Formation of egg is called
oogenesis
b)Insemination:-
Ø it is the transfer of sperms into the
female genital tract
c)Fertilisation:-
Ø it is the fusion of male and female The male reproductive system is located in
gamete. It results in the formation of the pelvis region. It consists of
zygote a) A pair of testis
d)Implantation:- b) Accessory ducts
Ø Attachment of Blastocyst on the c) Glands
inner wall of uterus (Endometrium) is d) External genitalia.
called implantation a)Testes
e)Gestation:- v The testes are situated outside the
Ø Embryonic development within the abdominal cavity (Extra abdominal )
uterus of mother is called gestation. within a pouch called scrotum.
Ø Human gestation period is 9 month. v The scrotum helps in maintaining the
Or low temperature of the testes (2–2.5oc
Ø The duration between fertilization lower than the normal internal body
temperature) necessary for
and parturition is called gestation.
spermatogenesis.
f)Parturition:-
Ø Delivery of the baby is the parturition
 b)Accessory Duct
Shape of Each Testis: Oval v The male sex accessory ducts include
Length: 4 to 5 cm v Rete testis,
Width: 2 to 3 cm v Vasa efferentia,
Position: Within scrotum v Epididymis and
v Vas deferens.
v The seminiferous tubules of the testis
v The testis is covered by a dense covering. open into the vasa efferentia through
v Each testis has about 250 compartments rete testis (They are irregular cavities
called testicular lobules. present in testes ).
v Each Testicular lobule contains one to v The vasa efferentia leave the testis and
three highly coiled seminiferous tubules open into epididymis.
in which sperms are produced. v The epididymis leads to vas deferens.
v Each seminiferous tubule is lined on its v Vas deferens receives a duct from
inside by two types of cells called seminal vesicle and opens into urethra as
Ø Male germ cells (spermatogonia) the ejaculatory duct .
and v These ducts store and transport the
Ø Sertoli cells. sperms from the testis to the outside
v The male germ cells undergo meiotic through urethra.
divisions finally leading to sperm v The urethra originates from the urinary
formation, while Sertoli cells (Nursing bladder and extends through the penis to
cells ) provide nutrition to the germ its external opening called urethral
cells. meatus.

Seminiferous tubules àRete testisà Vasa

efferentia à EpididymisàVas deferens
àEjaculatory duct à Urethra à Urethral
meatus

c)External Genitalia
ü The penis is the male external genitalia .
ü It is made up of special tissue ( Spongy
erectile tissue ) that helps in erection of
the penis to facilitate insemination.
ü The enlarged end of penis called the
glans penis is covered by a loose fold of
skin called foreskin.

d) Accessory Glands
ü It include
v The regions outside the seminiferous i)Paired seminal vesicles,
tubules called interstitial spaces, contain ii)A prostate and
small blood vessels and interstitial cells iii)Paired bulbourethral glands
or Leydig cell. (Cowper’s gland ).
v Leydig cells synthesise and secrete ü Secretions of all these glands constitute
testicular hormones called androgens. the seminal plasma which is rich in
Other immunologically competent cells
fructose, calcium and certain enzymes.
are also present.
ü The secretions of bulbourethral glands
also helps in the lubrication of the
penis.
 ü Seminal plasma along with sperm is a)Ovary
called Semen · Ovaries are the primary female sex
Seminal Plasma+Sperm= Semen organs
· Ovaries produce the female gamete
(ovum) and several steroid hormones
(ovarian hormones-Estrogen and
progesteron).
· The ovaries are located one on each side
of the lower abdomen
· Each ovary is about 2 to 4 cm in length
and is connected to the pelvic wall and
uterus by ligaments.
· Each ovary is covered by a thin epithelium
which encloses the ovarian stroma.
· The stroma is divided into two zones –
a peripheral cortex and an inner
medulla
b) Accessory ducts
· Accessory ducts include
v The oviducts (fallopian tubes),
v Uterus and
v Vagina
The Female Reproductive System
Oviduct :
· Each fallopian tube is about 10-12 cm
long), the part closer to the ovary is the
funnel-shaped infundibulum.
· The edges of the infundibulum
possess finger-like projections called
fimbriae, which help in collection of
the ovum after ovulation.
· The infundibulum leads to a wider
part of the oviduct called ampulla.
· The last part of the oviduct, isthmus
has a narrow lumen and it joins the
uterus
Uterus (Womb) ;
· The shape of the uterus is like an
inverted pear.
Ø The female reproductive system is located · The uterus opens into vagina
in pelvic region and through a narrow cervix.
Ø it consists of
· The cavity of the cervix is called
a)A pair of ovaries,
cervical canal which along with
b)Accessory ducts and
vagina forms the birth canal.
c)External genitalia
These parts of the system along with a pair
v The wall of the uterus has three layers of
of the mammary glands are integrated
tissue.
structurally and functionally to support the i) Perimetrium:-
processes of ovulation, fertilisation, It is the The external thin membranous
pregnancy, birth and child care. layer of uterus
 ii) Myometrium:- Mammary Gland
· It is the middle thick layer of uterus. It · The mammary glands are paired
contains smooth muscle. The structures (breasts) that contain
myometrium exhibits strong Ø Glandular tissue and
contraction during delivery of the Ø Variable amount of fat.
baby. · The glandular tissue of each breast is
divided into 15-20 mammary lobes
iii)Endometrium containing clusters of cells called alveoli .
It is the inner most layer of uterus and The cells of alveoli secrete milk, which is
is a glandular layer. The Endometrium stored in the cavities (lumens) of
undergoes cyclical changes during alveoli.
menstrual cycle · The alveoli open into mammary tubules.
· The mammary tubules of each lobe join to
c) External genitalia form a mammary duct.
The female external genitalia include · Several mammary ducts join to form a
i)Mons pubis, wider mammary ampulla which is
ii)Labia majora, connected to lactiferous duct through
iii)Labia minora, which milk is sucked out.
iv)Hymen and
v)Clitoris

i)Mons pubis:
It is a cushion of fatty tissue covered by skin
and pubic hair.
ii)The labia majora:
They are fleshy folds of tissue, which extend
down from the mons pubis and surround the
vaginal opening.
iii)The labia minora:
They are paired folds of tissue under the labia
majora.
iv)Hymen :
The opening of the vagina is often covered
partially by a membrane called hymen.
Alveoli Mammary tubules
Mammary ducts Mammary ampulla
[The hymen is often torn during the first lacteiferous duct
coitus (intercourse). However, it can also be
broken by a sudden fall or jolt, insertion of a
vaginal tampon, active participation in some
sports like horseback riding, cycling, etc. In
some women the hymen persists even after
coitus. In fact, the presence or absence of
hymen is not a reliable indicator of
virginity or sexual experience]

v)Clitoris :
The clitoris is a tiny finger-like structure
which lies at the upper junction of the two
labia minora above the urethral opening.
 Reproductive events · Each spermatogonium is diploid and
contains 46 chromosomes.
The main events in reproduction include-
A)Gametogenesis Steps in Spermatogenesis
B)Insemination · Some of the spermatogonia called
C)Fertilisation primary spermatocytes periodically
D)Implantation undergo meiosis.
E)Gestation · A primary spermatocyte completes the
F)Parturition first meiotic division (reduction division)
leading to formation of two equal, haploid
cells called secondary spermatocytes,
Gametogenesis-------> Insemination -------> which have only 23 chromosomes each.
fertilsation-----> implanation----> gestation- · The secondary spermatocytes undergo
---> delivery/Parturition. the second meiotic division to produce
four equal, haploid spermatids
· The spermatids are transformed into
A) GAMETOGENESIS spermatozoa (sperms) by the process
ü The process of formation of gamete is called spermiogenesis.
called gametogenesis. · Ie: Spermiogenesis is the conversion of
ü The gametes of male is called Sperm spermatid into sperm is called
and of female is called Egg/Ovum spermiogenesis
ü The process of formation of sperm is
called spermatogenesis.
ü The process of formation of egg/Ovum is
called Oogenesis.

a)Spermatogenesis
· The process of formation of sperm is
called spermatogenesis.
· It takes place at testis.
· Each testis has about 250 compartments
called testicular lobules. Each
Testicular lobule contains one to three
highly coiled seminiferous tubules in
which sperms are produced.
· Each seminiferous tubule is lined on its
inside by two types of cells called male
germ cells (spermatogonia/Sperm
mother cells) and Sertoli cells

· After spermiogenesis, sperm heads

become embedded in the Sertoli cells,
and are finally released from the
seminiferous tubules by the process
called spermiation.
· The release of sperm after
spermatogenesis from seminiferous
tubule is called spermiation
· From a single Primary spermatocyte 4
sperms are produced LH (luteinising hormone )
· From a single secondary Spermatocyte 2 ü LH acts at the Leydig cells and
sperms are produced stimulates synthesis and secretion of
androgens.
ü Androgens, in turn, stimulate the
Qn. How many sperms are produced from process of spermatogenesis.
100 primary spermatocyte ?
Ans: FSH (follicle stimulating hormone)
ü FSH acts on the Sertoli cells and
Qn. Which of the following is haploid cell/s ? stimulates secretion of some factors
Spermatogonia, Primary spermatocyte, which help in the process of
secondary spermatocyte, spermiogenesis
spermatid, Sperm ü

Ans:
Structure of sperm
It is a microscopic structure composed
of
Hormonal Control of Spermatogenesis
ü A head,
/ Male reproductive system ü Neck,
ü A middle piece and
ü A tail.
A plasma membrane envelops the whole
body of sperm.
The sperm head:
The head contains an elongated
haploid nucleus, the anterior portion of which
is covered by a cap-like structure, acrosome.
The acrosome is filled with enzymes
(Hyaluronidase) that help fertilisation of the
ovum.
The middle piece:
Middle Piece possesses numerous
mitochondria, which produce energy for the
movement of tail that facilitate sperm motility
essential for fertilization
Tail :
it helps in sperm movement

· Spermatogenesis starts at the age of ü The human male ejaculates about 200 to
puberty due to significant increase in 300 million sperms during a coitus of
the secretion of gonadotropin releasing which, for normal fertility, at least 60 per
hormone (GnRH-GnRH is secreted by cent sperms must have normal shape
Hypothalamus). and size and at least 40 per cent of
· The increased levels of GnRH then acts them must show vigorous motility.
at the anterior pituitary gland · The seminal plasma along with the
(Adenohypophysis ) and stimulates sperms constitute the semen
secretion of two gonadotropins –
luteinising hormone (LH) and follicle
stimulating hormone (FSH).
 ·
The secondary follicle soon transforms
into a tertiary follicle which is
characterised by a fluid filled cavity called
antrum. The theca layer is organised into
an inner theca interna and an outer theca
· The process of formation of a mature externa..
female gamete is called Oogenesis. · First meiotic division an unequal
· Oogenesis is initiated during the division resulting in the formation of a
embryonic development stage when a large haploid secondary oocyte and a
couple of million gamete mother cells tiny first polar body
(oogonia) are formed within each fetal · The secondary oocyte retains bulk of the
ovary; no more oogonia are formed and nutrient rich cytoplasm of the primary
added after birth. oocyte.
· These cells start division and enter into · The tertiary follicle further changes into
prophase-I of the meiotic division and the mature follicle or Graafian follicle.
get temporarily arrested at that · The secondary oocyte forms a new
stage,called primary oocytes membrane called zona pellucid
.
surrounding it.
· Each primary oocyte then gets
· The Graafian follicle now ruptures to
surrounded by a layer of granulosa cells
release the secondary oocyte (ovum)
and is called the primary follicle.
from the ovary by the process called
· A large number of these follicles ovulation.
degenerate during the phase from birth to
puberty. Therefore, at puberty only
60,000-80,000 primary follicles are left in
each ovary.
· The primary follicles get surrounded by
more layers of granulosa cells and a new
theca and are called secondary follicles.
 a)Bleeding phase/Menstrual phase

Structure of Human egg/ovum · This phase lasts for 3-5 days.

· The menstrual flow results due to
breakdown of endometrial lining of the
uterus and its blood vessels which forms
liquid that comes out through vagina.
· Menstruation only occurs if the released
ovum is not fertilised.

· Lack of menstruation may be indicative

of pregnancy. However, it may also be
caused due to some other underlying
causes like stress, poor health etc.
It is round, non motile, haploid, female
gamete. The human egg at ovulation is at the b)Follicular phase/proliferative phase
secondary oocyte stage. It has centrally The menstrual phase is followed by
located nucleus and dense cytoplasm. The the follicular phase.
cytoplasm stores food material required for · During this phase, the primary follicles
the entire process of development. The ovum in the ovary grow to become a fully
has 4 envelops. They are mature Graafian follicle and
a)Plasma membrane- simultaneously the endometrium of
b)Vitelline membrane uterus regenerates through
c)Zona pellucida proliferation.
D)Corona radiate · These changes in the ovary and the
(Structure of Human egg/ovum is NOT in uterus are induced by changes in the
text book) levels of pituitary and ovarian
hormones.
· The secretion of gonadotropins (LH and
FSH) increases gradually during the
Menstrual Cycle follicular phase and stimulates follicular
development as well as secretion of
The reproductive cycle in the female estrogens by the growing follicles.
primates (e.g. monkeys, apes and human · FSH (Follicle stimulating hormone)
beings) is called menstrual cycle . stimulate the growth of ovarian follicle to
become mature ovarian follicle (graffian
· The first menstruation begins at puberty follicle).During the growth of ovarian
and is called menarche. follicle, the growing ovarian follicle secrete
· Menstrual cycles ceases around 50 years Steroid hormone called Estrogen.
of age; that is termed as menopause. · Estrogen helps in the proliferation of
· Cyclic menstruation is an indicator of endometrium. Hence this phase of
normal reproductive phase and menstrual cycle is also called Proliferative
extends between menarche and phase.
menopause · Follicular phase or menstrual phase lasts
· In human females, menstruation is for about 8-12 days.
repeated at an average interval of about
c) Ovulatory phase
28/29 days, and the cycle of events
starting from one menstruation till the next · Both LH and FSH attain a peak level in
the middle of cycle (about 14th day).
one is called the menstrual cycle.
· Rapid secretion of LH leading to its
· The menstrual cycle may be said to be a
maximum level during the mid-cycle called
combination of ovarian cycle and uterine
LH surge induces rupture of Graafian
cycle.
 follicle and thereby the release of ovum
(ovulation).
· Ovulatory phase is the shortest phase in
the menstrual cycle.

d)Luteal phase/Secretory phase

The ovulation (ovulatory phase) is
followed by the luteal phase during which the
remaining parts of the Graafian follicle
transform as the corpus luteum.
· The corpus luteum secretes large
amounts of progesterone which is
essential for maintenance of the
endometrium. Such an endometrium is
necessary for implantation of the fertilized
ovum and other events of pregnancy.
· During pregnancy all events of the
menstrual cycle stop and there is no
menstruation.
· This phase lasts for about 14 days
· In the absence of fertilisation, the
corpus luteum degenerates (and become
corpus albican). This causes
disintegration of the endometrium
(because level of progesterone Menstrual hygiene
decreased) leading to menstruation,
marking a new cycle · Maintenance of hygiene and sanitization
· 10-17 days of menstrual cycle is called during menstruation is very important.
fertile period (The remaining days are · Take bath and clean yourself regularly.
called safety period ). because chance of Use sanitary napkins or clean home mad
fertilization is very high during this period. pads.
· Change sanitary napkins or homemade
pads after every 4-5 hrs as per the
requirement.
· Disopose of the used sanitary napkins
properly warpping it with a used paper.
· Do not throw the used napkins in the drain
pipe of toilet or in the open area.
· After handling the napkin wash hands with
soap
B) Insemination
· During copulation (coitus) semen is
released by the penis into the vagina
(insemination).
· The motile sperms swim rapidly, pass
through the cervix, enter into the uterus
and finally reach the Ampullary region
of the fallopian tube
· The ovum released by the ovary is also
transported to the ampullary region
where fertilisation takes place
 Clevage
· After fertilzation zygote starts mitotic
· The process of fusion of a sperm with an division .
ovum is called fertilization. · The mitotic division starts as the zygote
· Fertilisation can only occur if the moves through the isthmus of the oviduct
ovum and sperms are transported called cleavage towards the uterus and
simultaneously to the ampullary forms 2, 4, 8, 16 daughter cells called
region. This is the reason why not all blastomeres.
copulations lead to fertilisation and · The embryo with 8 to 16 blastomeres is
pregnancy. called a morula .
· The morula continues to divide and
How Polyspermy is prevented ? transforms into blastocyst as it moves
v During fertilisation, a sperm comes in further into the uterus.
contact with the zona pellucida layer of · The blastomeres in the blastocyst are
the ovum and induces changes in the arranged into an outer layer called
membrane that block the entry of trophoblast and an inner group of cells
additional sperms (Prevent poly attached to trophoblast called the inner
spermy ). Thus, it ensures that only one cell mass.
sperm can fertilise an ovum. The
secretions of the acrosome help the
sperm enter into the cytoplasm of the
ovum through the zona pellucida and the
plasma membrane.
v This induces the completion of the
meiotic division of the secondary
oocyte. The second meiotic division is
also unequal and result in the
formation of a second polar body and a
haploid egg.
v Soon the haploid nucleus of the sperm
and that of ovum fuse together to form
diploid zygote.

D) Implantation
· Attachment of Blastocyst on the inner
wall of uterus (Endometrium) is called
implantation
· The trophoblast layer of blastocyst
gets attached to the endometrium and
the inner cell mass gets differentiated
as the embryo.
· After attachment, the uterine cells divide
rapidly and covers the blastocyst. As a
result, the blastocyst becomes embedded
in the endometrium of the uterus . This is
called implantation and it leads to
pregnancy.
 · Immediately after implantation, the 2. it helps in the removal of carbon dioxide
inner cell mass (embryo) differentiates and excretory/waste materials produced by
into an outer layer called ectoderm and the embryo.
an inner layer called endoderm. A 3. Placenta also acts as an endocrine tissue
mesoderm soon appears between the and produces several hormones like human
ectoderm and the endoderm. These chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), human
three layers give rise to all tissues placental lactogen (hPL), estrogens,
(organs) in adults. progestogens, etc.

Inner cell mass contains certain cells · hCG, hPL and relaxin are produced
called stem cells which have the potency in women only during pregnancy.
to give rise to all the tissues and organs
· In the later phase of pregnancy, a
hormone called relaxin is also secreted
by the ovary.

E) Gestation
· The duration between fertilization and
parturition is called gestation.

· 1st month of pregnancy=Heart is

formed
· 1st sign of growing foetus may be
noticed by the listing to the heart
sound
· By the end of second month-Limbs
and digits formed
· By the end of 12 weeks (1st
trimester)= major organs formed
(Limbs and external genital organs
formed)
· 5th month= 1st movement of foetus,
Placenta appearance of hair on head
· After implantation, finger-like projections · By the end of 24th week (2nd
appear on the trophoblast called trimsester)= Body covered with fine
chorionic villi which are surrounded by hairs, eye lids separate, eye lashes
the uterine tissue and maternal blood. formed
· The chorionic villi and uterine tissue · By the end of 9 months of pregnancy,
become interdigitated with each other and =the foetus is fully developed and is
jointly form a structural and functional ready for delivery
unit between developing embryo
(foetus) and maternal body called
placenta During pregnancy the levels of hormones like
· The placenta is connected to the embryo estrogens, progestogens, cortisol,
through an umbilical cord which helps in prolactin, thyroxine, etc., are increased
the transport of substances to and from several folds in the maternal blood.
the embryo Increased production of these hormones is
essential for supporting the fetal growth,
Functions of placenta metabolic changes in the mother and
1. The placenta facilitate the supply of oxygen maintenance of pregnancy.
and nutrients to the embryo
· The average duration of human
pregnancy is about 9 months.
· Vigorous contraction of the uterus at the
end of pregnancy causes
expulsion/delivery of the foetus. This
process of delivery of the foetus
(childbirth) is called parturition.
· Parturition is induced by a complex neuro
endocrine mechanism.
· The signals for parturition originate
from the fully developed foetus and the
placenta which induce mild uterine
contractions called foetal ejection
reflex. This triggers release of oxytocin
from the maternal pituitary.
· Oxytocin acts on the uterine muscle and
causes stronger uterine contractions,
which in turn stimulates further secretion
of oxytocin. The stimulatory reflex
between the uterine contraction and
oxytocin secretion continues resulting in
stronger and stronger contractions. This
leads to expulsion of the baby out of the
uterus through the birth canal (Cervical
canal along with vagina is called birth
canal) – parturition.
· Soon after the infant is delivered, the
placenta is also expelled out of the uterus.

Lactation
Ø The mammary glands of the female
undergo differentiation during pregnancy
and starts producing milk towards the
end of pregnancy by the process called
lactation. This helps the mother in
feeding the newborn.
Ø The milk produced during the initial few
days of lactation is called colostrum
which contains several antibodies (IgA)
absolutely essential to develop
resistance for the new-born babies