Radio Navigation Chapter 1

RADIO THEORY

It is generally agreed that even a partial understanding of radio theory helps in appreciating the
limitations of the various radio aids to navigation. The theory of radio transmission,
propagation, and reception is extremely complex. Some aspects are not fully understood and
are still the subject of research. These notes aim to introduce the fundamentals as simply as
possible with a minimum of mathematics.

DC AND AC

Before dealing with radio waves it is necessary to mention some basic terms, which students
for professional licences encounter when studying electrical theory as part of the ARB
syllabus.

To begin with, DC and AC stand for Direct Current and Alternating Current respectively.

Figure 1(a) shows a simple DC circuit with a battery driving a current through a resistance
(such as a light or heater or DC motor). In such a circuit, the current flows in one direction
only as shown in the diagram. A graph can be plotted as in Figure 1(b) of current against time.
This will be a straight line – until the battery begins to fail.

Figure 1(a) Figure 1(b)

Direct Current

In the simple circuit depicted in Figure 2(a), the battery has been replaced by an alternator,
which causes alternating current to flow in the circuit. This simply means that the direction of
current flow is being reversed at regular intervals. At one instant the flow is clockwise, the
next it is anticlockwise round the circuit. A graph of current against time in this case would
appear as in Figure 2(b). It can be shown that the curve is a sine curve.

Figure 2(a) Figure 2(b)

Alternating Current

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A study of this curve shows that the current starts at zeros (point A), increases to a
maximum value in one direction (at B), decreases to zero (at C), increases to maximum
again in the opposite direction (at D), and then reduces to zero at point E. This sequence of
events is called a Cycle, which could be defined as one complete oscillation of the
alternating current. The + and – signs on the graph simply indicate the reversing directions
of current flow.

It can be seen from the graph in Figure 2(b) that at points B and D the instantaneous
current flow has a maximum value. This peak value (in either direction) is called the
Amplitude of the current. Since a similar graph of alternating voltage in the circuit could
be plotted, the term amplitude is defined as the peak value of the alternating quantity
(current or voltage).

The term Frequency is used to state the number of cycles occurring in one second for
example, in the United Kingdom the frequency of the mains electricity supply is 50 cycles
per second (50 Hertz, see paragraph 13).

RADIO WAVES

If an alternating current of suitably high frequency is fed to a transmitting aerial, the

energy is not confined to the metal of the aerial but radiates out into space in the form of
electro-magnetic waves (radio waves). This radiation of energy through space comprises
alternating electrical and magnetic fields at right angles to each other. The amplitude of
each field varies (oscillates) between zero and a maximum value, at the same frequency as
the alternating current in the aerial.

POLARIZATION

The term polarization is used to describe the direction or plane of oscillation of the
electrical field of an electro-magnetic wave. For instance a vertical transmitting aerial
produces (mainly) a vertically polarized radio wave, with the electrical field oscillations
occurring in the vertical plane and the magnetic field oscillations in the horizontal plane.
For efficient reception, the receiving aerial should also be vertical. If the transmitting aerial
is horizontal, the receiving aerial should also be horizontal.

Figure 3 Vertical Polarization

The electric and magnetic fields oscillate at right angles to each other and both are at right
angles to the direction of propagation (or travel) of the radio wave. The three dimensions
involved make this somewhat difficult to visualize or depict on paper. Figure 3 is designed to
show the peak values E and M of the electric and magnetic fields of a vertically polarized
wave.

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SPEED OF PROPAGATION

Radio waves travel at the speed of light. The speed is virtually constant and is:-

300 000 00 metres per second

or 30 000 000 000 cm/sec (since 1 metre = 100 cm)
or 300 000 km/sec (since 1 km = 1 000 metres)

The speed of propagation is approximately:-

186 000 statute miles per second
162 000 nautical miles per second

WAVELENGTH

The wavelength of a radio wave can be defined as the distance travelled by the radio signal
during the transmission of one cycle. Wavelength is normally expressed in metres it is less
than one metre, when centimetres are used.

FREQUENCY UNITS

Extremely low frequencies are expressed in cycles per second (cps) or by the later term Hertz
(Hz). One Hertz equals one cycle per second.

Radio frequencies are high and for convenience the following units may be used:-

kilo k 103 Hz
Mega M 106 Hz
Giga G 109 Hz
Tera T 1012 Hz

The most familiar of these are kHz and MHz.

USE OF FREQUENCY UNITS

kHz are used, normally, up to 3 000 kHz (3 MHz)

MHz are used, normally, between 3 and 3 000 MHz (3 GHz)
GHz may be used from 3 GHz upwards, though it is common to continue to use MHz.
THz are not currently used with radio with radio navigation aids.

Examples:
Droiwich Broadcasting Station 200 k Hz (or kc/s)
VHF R/T Emergency Frequency 121.5 MHz (or Mc/s)
Doppler Navigation Aid 8 800 MHz (or Mc/s)
or 8.8 GHz (or Gc/s)

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WAVELENGTH, FREQUENCY, and SPEED OF PROPAGATION

The relationship between these three quantities is:-

c = fλ
where c = Speed of propagation (metres/sec)
f = Frequency in Hz (or cps)
λ = Wavelength in metres

This being so, it can be seen that:-

F= c and λ= c
λ f
With these formulae, it is a fairly simple matter to find the wavelength corresponding to a
frequency.

It can be seen from the formulae that wavelength is inversely proportional to frequency, so
that if frequency is increased, wavelength will decrease. If the frequency were doubled the
wavelength would be halved. The transmission listed below exemplify wavelength
decreasing as frequency increases.

Facility Frequency Wavelength

Droitwich Broadcasting Station 200 kHz 1 500 metres
Fan Marker 75 MHz 4 metres
Precision Approach Radar 10 000 MHz 3 cm

FREQUENCY/WAVELENGTH CONVERSIONS

The student is expected to be able to convert a given frequency to the corresponding

wavelength in the appropriate units with computer accuracy (normally 3 significant
figures).

Example No.1. What is the frequency corresponding to a wavelength of 1 500 metres?

Frequency Hz = Speed of Propagation (metres/sec)

Wavelength (metres)

= 300 000 000

1 500
= 200 000 Hz or cps = 200 kHz or kc/s (answer)

Example No. 2. What is the wavelength of a 300 kHz transmission?

Wavelength (metres) = Speed of Propagation (metres/sec)

Frequency

= 300 000 000

300 x 1 000

= 1 000 metres (answer)

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The calculation can be made slightly less tedious by modifying the original formulae to
read:

Frequency in kHz or kc/s = 300 000

Wavelength (metres)

and Wavelength (metres) = 300 000

Frequency (kHz or kc/s)

The formulae can be further modified for frequencies in MHz:

Frequency in MHz or Mc/s = __300___

Wavelength (metres)

and Wavelength (metres) = 300 __

Frequency (MHz or Mc/s)

Some further worked examples follow.

Example No. 3. Find the transmission wavelength of a 75 MHz marker beacon.

Wavelength = 300__
Frequency (MHz)

= 300
75

= 4 metres (answer)

Example No. 4. What is the wavelength of a VOR transmitting on 116.3 MHz?

Wavelength = 300__ metres

8 800

= 300 x 100 cm
8 800

= 300 = 3.41 cm (answer)

88

Example No. 5. What is the wavelength corresponding to a frequency of 600 MHz?

Wavelength = 300_
600

= 0.5 metre = 0.5 x 100 cm

= 50 cm (answer)

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Example No. 6. What is the wavelength of a Doppler transmission on 8 800 MHz?

Wavelength = 300_ metres

8 800

= 300 x 100 cm
8 800

= 300 = 3.41 cm (answer)

88

Example No. 7. What is the frequency of a 20 cm transmission?

Frequency MHz = 300__

Wavelength (metres)

= 300__
20/100

= 300 x 100 = 1 500 MHz (answer)

20

Example No. 8. Wavelength 3 500 metres. What is the frequency?

Frequency kHz = 300 000__

Wavelength (metres)

= 300 000__
3 500

= 85.7 kHz (answer)

Example No. 9. How many wavelengths, of the nearest whole number, of frequency
200 MHz, are equivalent to 35 feet?

Wavelength = 300 = 1.5 metres

200

1.5 metres = 4.92 feet (by computer, or multiplying by 3.28)

Number of wavelengths to 35 feet = 35_

4.92

= 7 approximately (answer)

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FREQUENCY SPECTRUM

The table below shows the frequency coverage of the various frequency bands, together
with the radio aids using these bands.

Frequencies
Frequency Wavelength Facilities
Band
VLF Very long range navigation aids
3-30 kHz 100 km-10 km
Very low frequency (Omega, Derlac)
Decca, Dectra, NDB, Consol,
LF Loran-C, Radio Range,
30-300 kHz 10 km- 1 km
Low frequency long/medium wave
broadcasting stations (B/S)
MF NDB, B/S, Consol, Loran-A,
300-3 000 kHz 1 km-100 metres
Medium frequency Radio Range.
HF
3-30 MHz 100 metres-10 metre HF R/T, HF W/T.
High frequency
VHF R/T,VDF, VOR,
30-300 MHz VHF Very high 10 metres-1 metre marker(beacons, ILS Localiser
frequency)
300-3 000 UHF ILS Glidepath,DME, some
1 metre-10 cm
MHz Ultra high frequency Surveillance Radar
Precision Approach Radar
(PAR), some Surveillance
SHF Super high
3-30 GHz 10 cm-1 cm Radar, Doppler, Airborne
frequency
Weather Radar (AWR), Radio
Altimeter
EHF Extremely high Airfield Surface Movement
30-300 GHz 1 cm-1 mm
frequency Radar, experimental radar

The SHF band is sometimes referred to as the ‘centimetric’ or ‘microwave’ band, while
the term ‘decimetric’ may be applied to UHF and millimetric to EHF, but these terms are
not in fact precisely defined.

Another system of identifying different portions of the frequency spectrum is by letter

designators, this method being mainly used for classifying radar equipments. For instance,
L-band radar operates on frequencies between 390 and 1650 MHz, corresponding to
wavelengths of between about 77 and 18 cm. The following table gives more examples
with typical wavelengths and frequencies associated with each letter-band.

Designator Typical Wavelength and Frequency

S 10 cm 3 GHz
C 6 cm 5 GHz
X 3 cm 10 GHz
J 2.25 cm 13.3 GHz
K 1.25 cm 24.0 GHz
Q 0.8 cm 37.5 GHz

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PHASE

In carlier paragraphs the sinusoidal variations of an alternating current or voltage during

one cycle were described. The stage reached in a cycle at a given instant in time is known
as the Phase of the current or voltage. Phase is expressed in degrees (between 0° and
360°). This is illustrated in Figure 4.

Figure 4 Phase

PHASE DIFFERENCE

Two radio waves on the same frequency can be:-

(a) ‘In Phase”
(b) ‘Out of Phase’ by any number of degrees from 1° to 359°

It is essential that the two signals are on the same frequency for there to be a fixed phase
difference between them. If they were on different frequencies (and therefore different
wavelengths) the phase difference would be continually changing.

With some radio aids, including VOR, Decca, and Decra, the phase difference between
two signals is measured in order to establish a position line.

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PHASE COMPARISON

Some radio navigation systems use the comparison of phase between two signals to define
navigational information. The first important point is that the two signals being compared
must have the same frequency, otherwise any phase comparison would be meaningless.
The second point is that one signal will be designated the reference signal and the other a
variable signal and that the comparison must yield a positive result.

Figures 5(a), (b), and (c) depict examples of ‘in phase’ and ‘out phase’ signals.

To determine the phase difference between 2 signals, first identify the position of (for
example) zero phase on each of the waves, then move in the positive direction from the
chosen point on the reference wave to measure the phase angle through which the
reference wave has travelled before zero phase is reached on the variable wave.

In this example, starting at zero phase on the reference wave ( point A), we observe that
the reference wave has travelled through a phase angle of 270º before zero phase is
reached on the variable wave (point B), hence the phase difference is 270º.

The relationship can also be found mathematically. At the origin the phase of the reference
wave is 0º (=360º) and the phase of the variable wave is 090º. Subtracting the
instantaneous phase of the variable wave from the instantaneous phase of the reference
wave gives the same result, note the result must always be positive.

Reference – variable = 360º - 90º = 270º

Note: The phase difference must be positive, so if the calculation yields a negative result
simply add 360º to get a positive answer.

Figures 5 (a), (b) and (c) depict examples of “in phase’ and ‘out phase’ signals.

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Figure 5(a) Two Waves ‘In-Phase’

Figure 5(b) Two Waves 90° Out of Phase

Figure 5(c) Two Waves 180° Out of Phase

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ALTENUATION

The term Attenuation means the loss in strength of a radio signal as range from the
transmitter increases. The signal strength received is inversely proportional to the distance
from the transmitter.

A wave becomes attenuated as range increases because:-

(a) The radio energy available is spread over a greater area.
(b) Radio energy is lost to the earth, the atmosphere, and sometimes to the ionised
layer s above the earth.

One factor on which the operational range of a radio emission depends is the transmitter
power. The range obtainable is proportional to the square root of the power; in other words
if the range is to be doubled, the transmitter power must be quadrupled.

Range (nm) = 3 x √ power in Watts over Sea

Range (nm) = 2 x √ power in Watts over Land

FACTORS AFFECTING PROPAGATION

Absorption. As the radio wave travels outward from a transmitter the energy is absorbed
and scattered by the molecules of air and water vapour, dust particles, water droplets,
vegetation, the surface of the earth and the ionosphere. The effect of this absorption,
(except ionospheric) increases as frequency increases and is very significant factor above
about 1000 MHz.

Inverse Square Law. The EM radiation from an aerial spreads out as the surface of a
sphere so the power available decreases with increasing distance from the transmitter. For
example, if, at a certain distance from a transmitter, the field intensity is 4 Wm-2 at double
the distance that energy will be spread over an area of 4 m2 and the field intensity will be 1
Wm-2. That is, power available is proportional to the inverse of the square of the range.

Figure 2.1 Inverse Square Law

The practical effect of this is that if it is required to double the effective range of a
transmitter then the power would have to be increased by a factor of 4.

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REFRACTION

As a general rule, radio signals travel in straight lines, that is, they follow great circle paths
over the surface of the earth. Under certain circumstances, however, the path of a signal
may change direction. This change of direction is known as Refraction. The amount of
refraction varies considerably, depending on conditions.

Well-known examples of refraction are:-

Coastal Refraction-where there is a change in direction when a signal crosses a coastline.

Atmosphere Refraction-where changes in direction occur due to variations in

temperature, pressure, and humidity-particularly at low altitude.

Ionospheric Refraction-where the wave changes direction as it passes through an ionised

layer.

PROPAGATION PATHS

The path of a radio wave from a transmitter to a receiver many miles away is not
necessarily direct. The following paragraphs describe the various paths a radio signal can
follow. In many cases, the signal may be reaching the receiver by more than one path at
the same time, and because of the different path lengths there will be phase differences
between the signals. Such phase differences affect the resultant signal strength. For
instance, if two waves from the same transmitter travel by different paths and arrive 180°
out of phase, as in Figure 5(c), they will cancel each other if their amplitudes are the same.
The resultant signal strength will be zero, so no signal will be received. Changes in phase
difference will cause changes in signal strength so producing the effect known as ‘fading’.

Direct and Ground-Reflected Waves. A signal which travels in a straight line between
transmitter and receiver is called the Direct Wave. In addition to this, there is normally a
signal arriving at the receiver after reflection at the earth’s surface. This is the Ground-
Reflected Wave. These two waves are jointly known as the Space Wave and are depicted in
Figure 6(a). (In this and other diagrams, the abbreviation Tx is used for transmitter and Rx
for Receiver).

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Figure 6(a) Space Wave

Since the direct and reflected waves follow different paths they may arrive at the receiver
with large phase differences. The situation is further complicated by a change in phase,
which occurs at the point of reflection of the ground-reflected wave. The net result is that,
for instance, an aircraft flying towards a ground station may suffer fading or temporary
loss of VHF communications with that station. The range at which this occurs depends on
ground aerial height above the surface, aircraft altitude, and frequency.

The curvature of the earth limits the use of the direct wave. It can be seen from Figure 6(b)
that the aircraft ‘below the horizon’ cannot use the direct wave for communications. The
lowest direct wave is just tangential to the surface and is known as the ‘horizon ray’. It
will be appreciated that direct wave communications for the aircraft in Figure 6(b) could
be restored by either raising the height of the ground aerial or increasing the aircraft’s
altitude.

Figure 6(b) Line of Sight

A formula used for calculating the maximum range of direct wave reception is:-

Range (nm) = 1. 25 (√h1 + √h2)

Where h1 = height of ground aerial (feet AMSL)

h2 = aircraft altitude (feet AMSL)

This formula allows for a small amount of refraction in the lower layers of the atmosphere,
which gives a slightly better range than would be obtained if the direct wave followed a
perfectly straight path without any downward refraction.

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Under normal conditions, the space wave provides the only propagation path for
frequencies above about 300 MHz. Therefore, except on fairly rare occasions,
communications in the VHF and higher bands suffer from Line of Sight transmission with
range limited by the curvature of the earth and any high ground which interrupts the line of
sight. Note that the range limitation imposed by Line of Sight transmission is useful when
there is a shortage of available frequencies. For instance, with VHF R/T, except in freak
conditions, the curvature of the earth gives protection from mutual interference between
stations using a common frequency provided they are well separated geographically.

Surface Wave. If the space wave were the only means of propagation, communications
could only be ‘line of sight’. However, the phenomenon of Diffraction can produce a
Surface Wave, a signal that follows the curvature of the earth as depicted in Figure 7.
Diffraction, which occurs for all types of wave motion, allows the wave to pass round an
obstacle. With the surface wave, the obstacle is the earth and the amount of diffraction
depends on the wavelength in relation to the radius of the earth. With longer wavelengths
(lower frequencies) the diffraction effect becomes more pronounced with consequently
improved surface wave range. The type of surface also influences the range-for two
reasons. Firstly, it affects the energy from the wave, so affecting the rate of attenuation.
The latter is always greater over land than over sea so surface range is better over sea than
over land. Frequency is also important, the lower frequencies suffering less attenuation
along the surface and therefore giving better surface wave range.

Figure 7 Surface Wave

Surface wave propagation is complex, but the following general rules can be stated:-

(a) Surface rave range is greatest at very low frequencies (most diffraction and least
attenuation).
(b) At frequencies above about 30 MHz, surface wave range is only a few miles (very
little diffraction but rapid attenuation).
(c) At very low frequencies, surface wave range is great, and is nearly as great over
land as over sea, but as frequency is increased the range over land (particularly dry
land) decreases far more rapidly than over the sea.

Ground Wave. The term Ground Wave is used to describe the combination of direct
wave, ground-reflected wave, and surface wave. Not all these are necessarily present
together. For instance, below the horizon the ground wave consists of the surface wave
alone-provided the frequency is low enough (below about 30 MHz) for there to be a
significant surface wave at all.

Sky Wave. Yet another mode of propagation is by sky waves. These are waves which
have been reflected or refracted down from ionised layers above the earth and are
sometimes known as ionospheric waves. More details of sky wave propagation are given
in the following paragraphs.
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THE IONOSPHERE

Ultra-violet light from the sun can cause electrons to become separated from their parent
atoms of the gases in the atmosphere. The atoms are left with resultant positive charges
and are then known as ions. The intensity of this ionisation depends on the strength of the
ultra-violet radiation and the density of the air. The part of the atmosphere in which this
process occurs is called the ionosphere, extending from about 50 km to as high as 500 km
above the earth’s surface. The therefore situated above the stratosphere (which lies above
the troposphere).

The electrons are continually attempting to reunite with the ions, so the highest levels of
ionisation will be found shortly after midday (about 1400) local time, when there is a
balance between the ionosation and the decay of the ionization with the electrons rejoining
the ions and the lowest just before sunrise (at the surface). In the summer the ionization
levels will be higher than in winter, and ionosation levels will increase as latitude
decreases, again because of the increased intensity of the solar radiation.

The ionisation is most intense at the centre of the layers decreasing towards the lower and
upper edges of the layers, The characteristics of these layers vary with the levels of
ionization. The lowest of these layers occurs at an average altitude of 75 km and is known
as the D-region or D-layer. This is a fairly diffuse area which, for practical purposes,
forms at sunrise and disappears at sunset. The next layer, at an average altitude of 125 km,
is present throughout the 24 hours and is known as the E-layer. The E-layer reduces in
altitude at sunrise and increases in altitude after sunset. The final layer of significance is
the F-layer at an average altitude of 225 km. The F-layer splits into two at sunrise and
rejoins at sunset, the F 1 -layer reducing in altitude at sunrise and increasing in altitude after
sunset. The behavior of the F 2 - layer is dependent on time of year, in summer it increase in
altitude and may reach altitudes in excess of 400 km and in winter it reduces in altitude.

Figure 8: Ionosphere Refraction

The precise structure of the ionosphere is still under investigation but it is known that
several definite ionized layers exist within it. When a radio wave enters such a layer,
refraction occurs causing the wave to be bent away from its straight path. The amount of
refraction depends on the frequency, the angle at which the wave enters the layer, and the
intensity of ionisation. Under certain circumstances the wave may be sent so much that it
is returned to earth as a Sky Wave as illustrated in Figure 8. Students of physics may notice
that the direction of the bending-away from the ‘normal’ (line perpendicular) to the
‘refractive index’ of an ionised layer to a radio wave is less than unity, whereas glass
presents an index greater than unity to light waves.

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IONISED LAYERS

During daytime hours there are four main ionisation layers designated D, E, F1 and F2 in
ascending order of height. At night, when the sun’s radiation is absent, ionisation still
persists but it is less intense, and fewer layers are found. Since the strength of the sun’s
radiation varies with latitude, the structure of the ionosphere varies widely over the surface
of the earth. Another factor affecting the layers is the state of the sun, since sunspots affect
the amount of ultra-violet radiation. Figures 9(a), 9(b), and 9(c) show the approximate
vertical distribution of the layers over the British Isles by day and night in summer and
winter.

D-Layer. This layer is only significant during daylight hours, dispersing soon after sunset.
It is the lowest layer and its intensity of ionisation is not great. VLF waves are reflected
from the base of the layer. LF and MF waves enter the layer and are severely attenuated,
without being appreciably refracted. Higher frequency signals pass through the layer with
less attenuation. The practical effect on LF or MF transmissions is that daytime up-going
waves are absorbed by the D-layer, so that LF/MF sky waves which would otherwise be
refracted back to earth from the higher layers are very weak or completely absent by day.

E-Layer. This layer, which used to be known as the Kennelly-Heaviside layer, is strongly
ionised by day remains weakly ionised by night. It produces strong sky waves in the LF
and MF band by night, but in daytime the D-layer causes so much attenuation, as
mentioned above, that sky waves are too weak to be usable in these bands by day. Usable
HF sky waves may be produced by the E-layer by night and day. VHF signals pass
through the E-layer with insufficient refraction to produce sky waves except under freak
conditions (described in later notes). Ionospheric UHF, SHF and EHF signals, so sky
waves so not occur in these bands.

Figure 9(a) Figure 9(b) Figure 9(c)

Winter Day Winter and Summer Night Summer Day

Ionised Layers

F-Layers. At night there is a single F-layer (originally known as the Appleton layer)
above the E-layer, but in daytime the F divides into two-the F1 and F2 layers. The F-layers
are the highest and most intensely ionised layers. Strong sky waves are produced in the
LF, MF and HF bands at night but, as in the case of the E-layer, only the HF band has
usable F-layer sky waves by day. As with the E-layer, signals in the VHF and higher bands
escape through the F-layer into space with, normally, no sky waves produced.

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IONOSPHERIC PROPAGATION

Propagation in the ionosphere depends largely on frequency. Below about 100 kHz an
ionized layer acts as an almost perfect reflecting surface and very long ranges are obtained
with signals which are reflected alternately between the base of the lowest ionised layer
present and the earth’s surface. The wave in effect travels as if between two concentric
conducting spheres-the earth and the base of the layer. Range is not unlimited because the
imperfect conductivity of the two surfaces causes attenuation, but this propagation mode
produces the exceptionally long-range reception of the VLF band.

Between about 100 kHz and 2 000 kHz (2MHz) the up-going waves enter the layer and
under normal conditions are refracted back to earth as sky waves. The LF waves tend to
return to earth from the E-layer whereas MF waves are more likely to return from the F-
layer. It should be remembered that these waves may be too attenuated, especially by the
daytime D-layer, to be usable.

HF Sky Waves. Sky wave propagation in the HF band (3-30 MHz) and the top portion of
the MF band that is sometimes called the ‘lower HF’ band (2-3 MHz) is complicated.
There are many variable factors that decide whether or not there is a propagation path open
between transmitter and receiver for long range-telephony. Some of the problems are
discussed below.

For a given frequency, and state of the ionosphere, the amount of refractive ‘bending’ of
the waves will depend on the angle at which the wave penetrates the layer. From Figure 10
it can be seen that waves travelling nearly vertically may escape through a layer (they may
be returned to earth from a higher, more intensely ionised layer).

Figure 10: Critical Angle (HF Band)

For waves ascending with an increased angle with the vertical the amount of bending is
greater, and when the angle with the vertical is increased to the Critical Angle, the path is
bent enough for the wave to return to earth as the “first sky wave’. Waves making an angle
with the vertical greater than the critical angle will also produce sky waves, coming down
to earth at greater ranges than that of the first sky wave. The range from the transmitter of
the first sky wave for a given frequency and set of conditions is called the Skip Distance.

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Note that the surface wave from a HF transmitter may become completely attenuated at a
shorter range than that at which the first sky wave returns to earth, this leaves an area in
which neither ground not sky waves are received and which is known as Dead Space.
Figure 11 illustrates.

Critical angle depends largely on frequency. The higher the frequency, the greater the
critical angle. Therefore, if skip distance is to be reduced, a lower frequency has to be
used. This is most significant when choosing the optimum frequencies for HF
communications and ensuring that the skip distance is less than the range of the distant
receiver. As frequency is reduced, the critical angle decreases and skip distance becomes
shorter. The frequency at which the critical angle reaches zero is called the Critical
Frequency. This is the highest frequency, which will give vertical reflections. (It is
convenient, though not quite correct, to refer to sky waves as ‘reflections’.) With any
higher frequency a wave travelling vertically would escape through the layer. At and
below the critical frequency the intensity of ionisation in the layer is great enough to
produce vertical reflections (this is the normal state of affairs at frequencies below about 2
MHz-in the MF and LF bands-where vertical reflections and zero skip distance can be
expected at night). Measurements of critical frequency for the E and F layers are made in
various parts of the world and these, together with past records, are used to predict the
optimum HF R/T working frequencies.

It should be noted that for frequencies above about 30 MHz, waves generally escape
through the layers into space-regardless of the angle the wave makes with the vertical.
Thus sky waves are relatively rare in the VHF and higher frequency bands.

Higher the frequency lesser will be the refraction and higher the frequency lesser will be
the attenuation in sky wave

Figure 11: Dead Space and Skip Distance

For good long-range HF R/T reception a frequency must be chosen which will not suffer
too much attenuation. If a relatively high frequency is used, for example 20 MHz, most of
the energy will pass through the E-layer and be reflected from the more intensely ionised
F-layer. (The higher the frequency, the greater the degree of ionisation required giving
reflections.) This has advantages. A single reflection from the F-layer can give about the
same range as a double reflection from the E-layer, as shown in Figure 12. The F-layer
reflection will be stronger because it has only one change in direction (with associated
energy-loss) instead of three with the double E-layer reflection. Furthermore, the signal
will not be confined below the E-layer, in a region where denser atmosphere and daytime
D-layer cause more attenuation. It is worth noting that as frequency is reduced and
attenuation of the E-layer reflections increases, a limit is reached called the ‘Lowest

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Usable High Frequency’. Below this frequency the attenuation is too great for the signal to
be usable. Yet another reason for using the higher frequencies is that natural radio noise
(static) is worst at low frequencies, becoming much less significant as the VHF band is
approached.

Thus for least attenuation (and so the highest received signal strength for a given power) a
frequency is chosen which is as high as possible without exceeding the MUF (Maximum
Usable Frequency) for the path between the transmitter and distant receiver. The MUF is
that frequency (for the prevailing conditions) which produces a skip zone extending just
short of the distant receiver. Any higher frequency would give a higher critical angle and a
greater skip distance extending beyond the receiver, which would then lose that sky wave
contact with the transmitter.

MUF at night is much less than by day because the intensity of ionisation in the layers is
less so that lower frequencies have to be used to produced the same amount of refractive
bending and give the same critical angle and skip distance as by day. However, the signal
attenuation in the ionosphere is also much less at night so the lower frequency needed is
still usable. Hence the night frequency for a given path is about half the day frequency. It
can be seen that shorter distances can be ‘worked’ at night than by day while still using a
single reflection from the F-layer.

Figure 12 Single and Double Reflections

Note that the MUF not only varies with path length and between day and night, but also
with season, meteor trails, sunspot state, and sudden ionospheric disturbances produced by
eruptions on the sun. Because of the variations of MUF, HF transmitting stations have to
use frequencies varying widely between about 2 and 22 MHz. The maximum usable
frequency (MUF) for a given will be that of the first returning skywave and this is the
ideal frequency for that range because it will have had the shortest path through the
ionosphere, and therefore, will have experienced less attenuation and contain less static
interference. However, since the ionization fluctuates, a decrease in ionization would
result in an increase in skip distance and hence loss of signal. So a compromise frequency
is used, known as the optimum working frequency (OWF), which by decades of
experimentation and experience has been determined to be 0.85 times the MUF.

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Fading. This is the term given to the repeated variations in received signal strength, which
are common with HF communications. Several signals arriving by different paths with
varying phase differences cause ‘interference’ fading. ‘Polarization’ fading is caused by
changes in polarization of the wave during refraction in a layer. ‘ Absorption’ fading is
caused by variations in the amount of attenuation, while ‘skip fading’ is caused by changes
in the ionisation of the layer varying the MUF and so the skip distance so that the receiver
may alternately lie inside and outside the skip zone.

Fade-outs. Complete loss of HF communications sometimes takes place and may last for
many hours. This caused by eruptions on the sun that produce a high level of radio noise,
increased attenuation in the lower levels, and a reduction in the reflecting efficiency of the
F-layer.

HF Sky Wave Rangers. It must be remembered that sky waves will not be received
within the skip distance-probably several hundred miles from the transmitter. The
theoretical maximum range obtainable by means of a single reflection from the E-layer is
about 1 300 nm; from the F-layer about 2 500 nm. This theoretical maximum range is
achieved with the transmitted signal leaving the earth’s surface tangentially. Ranges of 8
000 nm or more may be achieved by means of multiple reflections-mainly from the F-
layer-the signal being alternately refracted down from the layer and reflected up again
from the earth’s surface until it becomes too weak to use.

SKY WAVES-SUMMARY

Sky waves are sometime useful, sometime are nuisance. They provide long-range
communications in the HF band by the day and night. In the LF and MF bands, night sky
waves greatly increase the effective range Consol and Loran without serious reduction in
accuracy. On the other hand, ADF errors are immensely increased at night due to the
reception of sky waves (which are absorbed by the D-layer by day) LF/MF sky waves also
seriously increase the amount of mutual interference between NDBs and broadcasting
stations at night. It should be remembered that sky waves are rare in the VHF, UHF, SHF,
and EHF bands and performance of the aids in these bands is much the same at night as by
day.

It is worth tabulating the main factors that determine whether sky waves will be received
at a given point remote from a transmitter. They are:

(a). Frequency band in use (sky waves are rare in the VHF and higher frequency
bands)
(b). Range from transmitter. Sky waves suffer attenuation that varies with the state of
the ionosphere. Noise level also varies. Maximum range is unlikely to exceed 8
000 nm.
(c). Frequency-mainly in the HF band, where it affects skip distance.
(d). Power of transmitter, type of emission (see later notes), and sensitivity of the
receiver.
(e). State of the ionosphere-which varies with time of day, season of the year, and state
of the sun and affects t amount of refraction, attenuation, and radio noise level.

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FREQUENCY/PROPAGATION TABLE

The table opposite summaries the main features of the various frequency bands.

Type Frequency Type of Propagation Remarks

Ranges up to 4 000 nm by Surface and sky
waves. Subject to severe static interference.
Ground and sky
VLF (3-30 kHz) Very large transmitting aerials because of
waves
long wavelength, and very high transmitting
power required.
Ground wave range up to 1 500 nm. Night
Ground waves by
(30-300 sky waves can give greater range. Fairly
LF day, sky and ground
kHz) severe static. Large transmitting aerials and
waves at night
high-power transmitters required.
Ground wave up to 1 000 nm over sea, 300
(300-3 000
MF As for LF band nm over land. Greater night range by sky
kHz)
waves. Static less severe.
Ground wave less than 100 nm range. Sky
Mainly sky waves-
HF (3-30 MHz) waves provide long-range R/T by day and
day and night
night. Some static interference.
Surface wave range negligible. Sky waves
Space wave (line of
VHF not common. Range depends on heights
sight transmission)
(30 – 30 000 AMSL of transmitter and receiver, and high
UHF except for transmitter
MHz) ground between them. Static interference
(see paragraph70)
SHF negligible. Aerials can be small and mobile
freak propagation
with low-power transmitters.

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FREAK PROPAGATION

It has been stated that for frequencies above 30 MHz, transmission is normally ‘line of
sight’ so that propagation is by means of the space wave. Under certain conditions of freak
or ‘anomalous’ propagation, however, ranges much greater than line of sight ranges can be
achieved by means of ‘duct’ propagation and ‘scatter propagation’.

Duct Propagation. This effect (also called ‘super-refraction) is associated with a

temperature in-version and a rapid decrease in humidity with height. Such meteorological
conditions are most often found at the surface over land in high-pressure conditions at
night and in the early morning. A warm air mass over a cold sea can also produce the
effect. It can also occur at higher levels.

The way in which radio signals can be ‘trapped’ in a duct of cold air is shown in Figure
13. This process sometimes permits reception of signals at the surface hundreds of miles
beyond the horizon. The effect is most common in the SHF and UHF bands, but is also
encountered in the VHF band if the duct is sufficiently deep (say, 500 ft). Duct
propagation can cause annoying interference between control towers using the same R/T
frequency, and false range indications on ground radar screens.

SUB- REFRACTION

Much rarer than super-refraction, but still of significance in radio propagation, sub-
refraction causes a reduction in the normal refraction giving a decrease in line of sight
range by up to 20%. The conditions which give rise to sub-refraction are:

 An increase in relative humidity with increasing height

 Temperature decreasing with increasing height at a greater rate than standard

 Poor weather with low pressure systems

 Cold air flowing over a warm surface.

Figure 13 Duct Propagation Figure 14 CW Emission (A0)

Figure 15 Keyed CW (A1) Emission

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Scatter Propagation. The E-layer sometimes contains areas of very high ionisation
density that can produce weak sky waves (known as ‘Sporadic-E’ reflections) in the VHF
band. The effect is unpredictable and the sky waves are scattered at random in the forward
direction from the transmitter. With specially designed aerials, scatter propagation can
sometimes be used to provide intermittent extended range VHF R/T but it is not a reliable
means of communication. Scatter propagation can cause mutual interference between VHF
radio aids sharing a frequency and normally protected from interference by line of sight
transmission. Television programmes also suffer from interference due to this effect.

TYPES OF RADIO EMISSION

Radio stations produce different types of emission depending on the type of intelligence
that is required to be transmitted. The simplest emission is a continuous wave of constant
amplitude transmitted on a radio frequency of, say, 300 kHz. Such a signal is called ‘CW’,
standing for ‘continuous wave’ or ‘carrier wave’. It is also known as an ‘A0’ emission.
Figure 14 illustrates this type of emission, examples of which are Decca emissions and the
emissions of most NDBs between the Morse identifiers.

The simple CW emission carries no ‘intelligence’-this term meaning speech, music,

Morse, or other information. If the continuous wave is interrupted (keyed) in morse or
other arrangements of dots and/or dashes, intelligence is being transmitted in a very simple
manner. Such a keyed signal is known as an ‘A1’ emission, examples being the Morse
identifiers of A0 A1 NDBs and Consol dot and dash signals. Figure 15 illustrates.

When an A0 or A1 signal reaches a receiver, the radio frequency used is too high (say, 300
kHz) to produce an audible tone to the incoming radio frequency of an A0 or A1 signal.
More details of this system appear in later notes.

MODULATION

Intelligence in the form of speech, music, or signal audio frequencies cannot be

transmitted direct through space in the form of electro-magnetic waves, because the audio
frequencies involved are too low for efficient transmission. To overcome this difficulty the
audio frequency (from, say, a microphone) is combined with the radio frequency carrier
wave at the transmitter. this process is called Modulation. The resultant waveform
(Modulated Carrier Wave or MCW) is transmitted through space. The radio frequency
(RF) carrier wave can be considered to be ‘carrying’ the audio frequency (AF). The
receiver separates the audio frequency from the carrier frequency, feeding the amplified
audio frequency to the earphones or loudspeaker. Two main types of modulation are used-
‘Amplitude’ and ‘Frequency’ modulation.

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AMPLITUDE MODULATION (AM)

Figure 16(a) shows a constant-amplitude radio frequency (RF) carrier wave of say, 300
kHz. Figure 16(b) depicts a constant-amplitude audio frequency (AF) of, say, 2 kHz,
which is the ‘intelligence’, that is required to be transmitted. The latter frequency, keyed in
Morse, could provide the identification letters for an NDB. Figure 16(c) illustrates the
carrier wave modulated by the audio wave; this resultant waveform (MCW) is known as
an A2 emission, whether the signal is keyed or not. It can be seen that the carrier wave
amplitude is varied at a rate depending on the frequency of the audio wave. The amount of
variation of the carrier wave amplitude depends on the amplitude of the audio wave. It
should be noted that these and other diagrams are not to scale; for instance, with the
frequencies chosen for Figure 16, there should be 150 cycles of the carrier wave drawn for
each cycle of the audio wave.

Further study of Figure 16(c) shows that the peaks of the carrier wave trace out the shape
of the audio wave. This is indicated by the dotted line called the carrier wave envelope.
The amplitude of this envelope is a measure of the strength (or ‘loudness’) of the sound
transmitted. The extent to which the carrier is modulated is called the Depth of
Modulation. In Figure 17, the depth of modulation has been increased to 100%,
representing the maximum loudness obtainable without distortion.

Side Frequencies. It can be shown mathematically that the modulated signal depicted in
Figure 16(c) is the resultant of three frequencies. These are:-

(a) The carrier frequency (300kHz)

(b) The carrier plus the audio frequency (300 + 2 = 302 kHz)
(c) The carrier minus the audio frequency (300 – 2 = 298 kHz)

The frequencies (b) 302 and (c) 298 kHz is known as the Side Frequencies of the
modulated emission.

Sidebands and Bandwidth. The spread of side frequencies above and below the carrier
frequency are known respectively as the Upper and Lower Sidebands. The total spread of
frequencies in the modulated emission is known as the Bandwidth of the signal. In the case
illustrated in Figure 16(c), the bandwidth is 4 kHz (from 298 to 302 kHz). If the
modulating audio frequency were reduced to 1 kHz, the bandwidth would be only 2 kHz.

Figure 16(a) RF 300 kHz Figure 16(b) AF 2 kHz

Figure 16(c) MCW Emission (A2)

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A voice (or music) transmission consists of many different audio frequencies, up to at least
5 kHz, impressed on the carrier wave. Consequently many side frequencies exist in the
modulated signal, which may have a bandwidth of at least 10 kHz. Such signal is
classified as an A3 emission; examples are R/T or VHF R/T.

Single Sideband Transmission. The side frequencies of 298 kHz and 302 kHz in the
example above both perform the same function; they transmit the ‘intelligence’. One of
these can be suppressed at the transmitter. For example, if the upper side frequency of 302
kHz is suppressed, the frequencies transmitted would be the 300 kHz carrier and the lower
side frequency of 298 kHz, such a Single Sideband emission has certain advantages:-

(a) Narrower bandwidth-occupying less room in the frequency band.

(b) The available transmitting power is concentrated in two frequencies instead of
three.

The narrower bandwidth of the emission allows a narrower bandwidth (more selective)
receiver to be used. (An alternative terminology is that a receiver with a narrower ‘pass
band’ can be used.) The narrow pass band receiver allows a smaller band of frequencies to
pass to the earphones-so cutting down the amount of radio ‘noise’ and increasing the
effective range. A further development is the suppression of the carrier frequency in
addition to one of the side frequencies. This gives an even more efficient signal-a
‘suppressed-carrier single sideband’ emission. Such a transmission requires a modified
receiver that substitutes the carrier frequency (which was suppressed at the transmitter), in
order to extract the ‘intelligence’. Single sideband emissions (SSB) are much used with
modern HF R/T transmitter/receivers giving very long range sky wave voice
communications by making the best use of the available sky wave propagation paths.

Figure 17 MCW Emission-100% Modulation

FREQUENCY MODULATION (FM)

In this method of modulating a carrier wave, the amplitude remains unaltered but the
carrier frequency is made to vary about a mean value at a rate depending on the frequency
of the modulating audio wave. Figure 18 illustrates.

Figure 18: FM Emissions

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The amount of frequency deviation above and below the nominal carrier frequency
depends on the amplitude of the modulating audio wave. FM emissions have a greater
bandwidth than corresponding AM emissions because the spread of side frequencies is
greater and they are more numerous. Consequently FM is not used in the congested LF
and MF bands where bandwidths have to be restricted.

The main advantage of FM systems is that they are relatively noise-free, since noise
frequencies modulate the amplitude rather than the frequency of the carrier wave.
Applications include BBC VHF sound broadcasting, VOR, Radio Altimeters and some
airborne Doppler sensors.

PHASE MODULATION

In phase modulation the phase of the carrier wave is modified by the input signal. There
are two cases: the first is where the input is an analogue signal when the phase of the
carrier wave is modified by the amplitude of the signal; secondly, with a digital signal it is
known as phase shift keying, the phase change reflects a 0 or 1: eg 0º phase shift indicates
a zero and 180º phase shift represents a 1. (Note: this is the simplest case as multiple data
can be represented by using many degrees of phase shift.)

There are two cases used in navigation systems, MLS and GPS. GPS uses binary phase
shift keying, MLS uses differential phase shift keying.

Amplitude Modulation Modulation Phase Modulation

Figure 3.4 Comparison of Methods of Modulation

PULSE MODULATION

Pulse modulation is used extensively in radar systems and for data exchange in
communications systems.

EMISSION DESIGNATORS

In order to easily identify the characteristic and information provided by electronic signals,
a list of designators has been devised. They comprise 3 alphanumerics, where the first
letter defines the nature of the modulation, the second digit the nature of the signal used
for the modulation and the third letter the type of information carried.

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For example, VHF radio telephony communications have the designation A3E.
Reference to the table gives the following breakdown:

A – Amplitude modulation- Double sideband

3 – Single channel containing analogue information

E – Telephony, including sound broadcasting

This means an RF carrier wave is being amplitude modulated with speech

HF radio telephony communications have the designation J3E, this gives:

J – Amplitude modulation- Single sideband with suppressed carrier

3 – Single channel containing analogue information

E – Telephony, including sound broadcasting

This means an RF carrier wave is being amplitude modulated with speech then the RF carrier wave
is being removed along with one of the sidebands.

It is not necessary to know the details of the table.

Other designators relevant to the equipments discussed in phase 2 are:

ADF NONA1A or N0NA2A

VHF RTF A3E
HF RTF J3E
VOR A9W
ILS A8W
Marker Beacons A2A
DME PON
MLS N0XGID

With the exception of DF it is unlikely that knowledge of these designators will be examined.

AERIAL POLAR DIAGRAMS

Whilst it is not necessary to know precisely how an aerial succeeds in emitting electro-
magnetic radiation, it is useful to have some general knowledge of the distribution of radio
energy about a transmitting aerial. This distribution is commonly depicted by means of a
Polar Diagram, basically a line joining points of equal signals strength. For a receiving
aerial of similar design, the same polar diagram would apply-this time showing the
reception pattern.

Consider a single vertical aerial transmitting a signal of constant power. In theory at least,
a receiver carried round the horizontal circle with the transmitting aerial at its centre would
receive a constant strength signal from the transmitting aerial. The horizontal polar
diagram (radiation pattern) for a single vertical transmitting aerial is therefore a circle
drawn with the transmitting aerial at its centre as in Figure 19.

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The radius of the circle is not important in itself because the circle is simply a line joining
points receiving equal signal strength. Any radius could be chosen. Note that the vertical
radiation patternis more complicated and will not be dealt with a at this stage.

Figure 19 Horizontal Radiation Pattern

(Single Vertical Aerial)

The polar diagram in Figure 19(a) can also be used to show the reception pattern of a
single vertical aerial, the latter being at the centre of the circle. A transmitter (with
constant power output) could be moved in the horizontal plane round the receiving aerial
and providing the transmitter followed a circular path, the receiving aerial would pick up a
constant signal strength. So the polar diagram for a receiving aerial is a line joining the
positions of a constant output transmitter that produce a constant signal strength at the
receiver.

Aerial polar diagrams vary in shape depending on the complexity of the aerial system.
Well-known combinations of a single vertical receiving aerial and a vertical loop aerial
produces a Cardioid (heart-shaped) reception pattern that is mentioned in the section on
ADF. A more complex system of aerials is employed by VOR transmitters to produce the
rotating Limacon radiation pattern described in the section on VOR. Aerials of suitable
design for use can produce narrow ‘beams’ or ‘lobes’ of radiation by such installations as
ILS and PAR.

Figure 20 illustrates some different radiation patterns produced by directional aerials that
should be compared with the omni-directional pattern illustrated in Figure 19.

Figure 20 Directional Radiation Patterns

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ANTENNAE

Antennae or aerials are the means by which radio energy is radiated and received. The
type of antenna used will be determined by the function the radio system is required to
perform. This chapter will look at the principles which are common to all antennae and at
the specialities required for particular radio navigation systems.

BASIC PRINCIPLES

There are two basic types of aerial used for receiving and transmitting basic
communications, the half-wave dipole and the Marconi or quarter wave aerial.

Figure 4.1 Half-Wave Dipole

With the dipole aerial the power is fed to the centre of the aerial and radiates in all
directions perpendicular to the aerial. The Marconi aerial is set on, but insulated from, a
metal surface which acts as the second part of a dipole, with the radio energy radiating
perpendicular to the aerial. Because of the better aerodynamic qualities, Marconi aerials
are used on aircraft.

Figure 4.2 Marconi Aerial

For an aerial to operate with maximum efficiency it must be the correct length for the
wavelength of the frequency in use. As the names imply the ideal length for an aerial is
half or quarter of the wavelength of the frequency being transmitted. However, whilst we
regard the speed of propagation of electromagnetic energy as being constant, this is only
true in a specified medium. If the energy passes from one medium to another the speed
will change. In the case of electromagnetic energy, the denser the medium the slower the
speed. This needs to be taken into account in the length of aerials.

The speed of electromagnetic energy in metal is approximately 95% of the free space
speed, so our aerial needs to be 95% of half or quarter the wavelength.

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Example:
What is the optimum length for a Marconi aerial transmitting on a frequency of 125 MHz?

λ
The wavelength is 2.4 m, so 0.95 x = 57 cm
4

LOADED ANTENNAE

The wavelengths of aeronautical VHF radio telephony are 2.19 m to 2.54 m which means
that for maximum efficiency the aircraft (and ATC) aerial must be adjustable between
approximately 52 CM AND 60 CM. To achieve maximum efficiency aerials would have
to be adjustable in length, which would pose significant technical problems. Furthermore
aircraft aerials are about 20-30 cm long, so would operate very inefficiently.

To overcome these problems an aerial loading unit (ALU) is fitted in the circuit between
the radio equipment and the aerial. The ALU samples the signal, then through a series of
capacitors and resistors balances the signal travelling to/from the aerial to affect maximum
aerial efficiency.

AERIAL FEEDERS

The means by which energy is carried between the aerial and transmitter or receiver is
dependent on the frequency in use and the power levels. Al low and medium frequencies a
simple wire is adequate to carry the signal over reasonable distances with little energy
loss. As frequency increases the power losses increase and into HF and VHF a twin wire
feeder is more efficient. At UHF frequencies, the power losses in these simple feeders
becomes unacceptably high and a coaxial cable is required.

In the upper part of the UHF band and in the SHF and EHF bands the use of dipole or
Marconi aerials is precluded because of the high energy losses and the way the energy is
produced. At these frequencies a waveguide is used to carry the energy to or from the
aerial. The waveguide is a hollow, rectangular metal tube. The internal dimensions of the
tube are determined by the frequency in use, being half the wavelength.

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POLAR DIAGRAMS

A polar diagram is used to show the radiation or reception pattern of an aerial. It is simply
a line joining all points of equal signal strength and is generally a plan view perpendicular
to the plane of radiation or reception. From here on we will talk about radiation only, but
the same principle applies to reception.

A dipole aerial radiates most energy at right angles to the aerial with signal strength
decreasing towards the end of the aerial, where there is no radiation. A three dimensional
representation of radiation from such an aerial would be a torus, centred on the centre
point of the aerial:

Figure 4.3 3-D Polar Diagram

Clearly such diagrams would be cumbersome so a plan view of the plane of radiation
used:

Figure 4.4 Plan View Polar Diagram

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DIRECTIVITY

Many systems require the directional emission or reception of energy, for example; radar,
ILS, MLS and many more. How this directivity is achieved depends on the frequency and
application.

The simplest way to achieve directivity is to add parasitic elements to the aerial. If we place a
metal rod 5% longer than the aerial at a distance of quarter of a wave length from the aerial
and in the same plane as the aerial, it will act as a reflector.

Figure 4.5 Directivity Using Reflector

This reflector re-radiates the energy 180º out of phase, the resulting polar diagram is shown
above, with no signal behind the reflector and increased signal in front of the aerial.

This process can be taken further by adding other elements in front of the aerial. These
elements are known as directors and are smaller than the aerial itself.

Figure 4.6 Improved Directivity Using Reflector and Directors

All will recognize this as being the type of aerial array used for the reception of television
signals. The directors have the effect of focusing the signal into (or out of) the aerial, giving a
stronger signal than that which would be generated by a simple dipole.

However, directivity comes with its own price. As can be seen from the diagram, we have
produced a strong beam along the plane of the aerial, but have also produced many unwanted
sidelobes which would receive (and transmit) unwanted signals. Signals received in these
sidelobes produce characteristic ghosting on television pictures, usually caused by reflections
from buildings etc. These sidelobes give major problems have to be addressed in SSR and
ILS, and also produce problems in primary radars.

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OTHER SYSTEMS

The instrument landing system (ILS) uses an extension of this idea to produce the narrow
beams of energy required to guide aircraft along the runway centerline. The localiser aerial
array which produces this is an array of 16 or 24 aerial placed in line with half wavelength
spacing. There is some modification to the way the signal is fed to the aerials but the end
result is that two narrow beams of energy are produced which are symmetrical, close to the
centerline of the runway:

Figure 4.7 ILS Localiser Polar Diagram

In the automatic direction finder (ADF) a loop aerial is used.

Figure 4.8 Loop Aerial ‘Figure-f Eight’ Polar Diagram

When the loop is aligned with the incoming signal then there is a phase difference
between the signals in each of the vertical elements of the loop and there will be a net
flow of current from the loop. If the loop is placed at right angles to the incoming signal
then the induced currents will be equal and will cancel each other out giving a zero
output.

The resulting polar diagram will have two distinct nulls which can be used to determine
the direction from which the radio wave is coming. How this principle is utilised will be
discussed in detail in Chapter 7.

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RADAR AERIALS

Radar systems operate in the UHF and SHF bands where waveguides are used to carry the
radio energy, and the end of the waveguide is the aerial. Since radar systems are required
to be directional the aerial is placed at the focal point of a parabolic reflector and the
energy is then focused into a narrow beam.

Figure 4.9 Horn Feed to Parabolic Reflector

In principle a very narrow pencil beam should be produced as shown above. However, this
does not happen because the focal point is infinitesimally small compared to the opening
of the waveguide, so the energy actually diverges slightly.

Figure 4.10 Polar Diagraam of Parabolic Reflector

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Additionally, this uneven reflection produces sidelobes which contain sufficient energy
to give valid returns outside the main beam.

The width of the lobe is dependent on the cross-section of the waveguide and the of the
reflector. For a parabolic reflector, this relationship is:

70 x λ
Beamwidth = where D is the diameter of the reflector.
D

It follows from this formula that to achieve a narrow beam requires either a very large
reflector or a very short wavelength, or both. These problems will be discussed further
in Chapter 11. Another type of radar aerial is the phased array or slotted antenna.

Figure 4.11 Phased Array or Slotted Antenna

This is a flat plate with numerous waveguide size slots cut into it. These slots are fed
with the radio energy which forms a narrow beam similar to a parabolic reflector.

Figure 4.12 Polar Diagram of Phased Array/Slotted Antenna

As can be seen from the diagram the beam is much narrower than that from a
parabolic reflector, and with much smaller sidelobes. This means the power
requirements for phased arrays is less than that required for parabolic reflectors.
Hence the advantages of a slotted antenna over the parabolic reflector are:

 Narrow beam
 Reduced sidelobes
 Less power required for a given range
 Narrower pulse
 Improved resolution

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The following diagram illustrates some antennas in common use:

Polar Diagrams

A polar diagram is a representation of the radiation pattern of a transmitting aerial or reception

of receiving aerial. All point on the polar diagram represent the same values of either field
strength or power.

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Static

Static consists of amplitude-oriented spurious electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies

from a few hundred hertz to several thousand kilohertz. Atmospheric static is present in a
cumulonimbus cloud, thunderstorms and all kinds of precipitation. Lighting discharge is a
most common source of static.

Static also reaches us from interstellar space varying in frequency between 15 MHz and
100 MHz. It is high in field strength and fairly constant in amplitude. This is the very
substance on which radio astronomers thrive.

All kinds of precipitation (including falling snow) and thunderstorms, together with solid
particles such as dust in the atmosphere can cause static interference of varying intensity to
ADF system. Precipitation static reduces the effective range and accuracy of bearing
information. Thunderstorms can give rise to bearing errors of considerable magnitude, even
to the extent of indicating false station passage.

It is not all unusual for the pointer to point in the direction of a thundering cumulonimbus
cloud.

The extent to which a receiver will admit the noise depends on:

(a) the bandwidth of the receiver

(b) the level of the atmospheric noise
(c) the level of noise produced by other interference (e.g. other radio stations., industrial
noise.)

Radio noise

There are two sources of radio noise: avoidable and unavoidable.

Avoidable noise arises from use of poor quality components, bad contacts and similar
causes.

Unavoidable noise occurs both internally and externally. Internally, it is due to small
thermal motions in the components. These are always present to a varying degree when the
equipment operates at temperatures over absolute zero temperature. They show up as
‘grass’ on a radar screen or a hissing noise on a loudspeaker. The sight of grass on a radar
screen in a source of delight to the operator who is thereby assured that at least the thing
works up to that stage.

Externally, the source of noise is the electrical disturbance in the atmosphere and the outer
space, in the form of static. Atmospheric statics important up to 30 MHz (end of HF band),
extra-terrestrial noise may cause interference up to 100 MHz.

Seasonally, the effect of static is stronger in summer than in winter; geographically, it is

stronger in the tropics than in temperate zones; and diurnally, it is stronger at night due to
sky waves which travel a great distance picking up static en route.

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Radio interference

Interference in reception may be caused by a variety of reasons. Due to congestion of radio

frequencies, same and similar frequencies may be allotted to other stations which may
cause direct interference. The remedy is that the propagation ranges of such stations are
strictly regulated by the various States (protection range, altitude – see later chapters) and
they determine the use of the station within its promulgated range altitude.

Stations are also given a fixed tolerance on transmission frequency and they must maintain
the transmissions within these limits. Interference will be caused if the transmitter is
allowed to drift beyond the limit, and if this comes to your notice the remedy is to report the
matter to the authorites.

Man-mode interference may exist where there are heavy industries in the vicinity of an
aerodrome or a facility transmitter. Harmonics of 50 Hz ac. Can enter into instrument
landing system (ILS) localises radiation (150 Hz modulation), an overhead cable can affect
an NDB radiation and even small components such as switches, motors and ignition
systems can cause electrical noise resulting in interference. A moving vehicle can affect
category 2 ILS directional characteristics. The remedy for this type of interference is to
suppress it at the source. This type of interference does not affect high frequencies.

Signals/noise relationship

It will be apparent from the foregoing discussion that there is always some
interference/noise present in the reception of radio signals. A receiver must be able to admit
the selected frequency together with its sidebands. The bandwidth of a receiver may be too
large. On other receivers it may be possible to select the bandwidth by means of a switch on
the control box. If the interference is due to another more powerful transmitter on a nearby
frequency, it may be cured by excluding interfering signals by narrowing down the
reception bandwidth. Similarly, static interference may be minimized, but care must be
taken not to exclude the wanted signal. Generally, go not select a bandwidth any higher
than necessary.

The ultimate incoming signals (both wanted and unwanted) are expresses as signal/noise
ratio. This ratio is given in decibels. A decibel (dB)is a unit which is extensively used in
electronics to provide a measure of gain\loss in terms of power or voltage. In terms of
voltage (in which the field strength is measured), the relationship is

gain/loss in dB = 20 log (E1/E2)

Illustrating this: ICAO recommends that the States provide a protection to the NDB
transmissions by ensuring a signal/noise ratio of at least 3 to 1. By means of the above
formula we can work out what this means in terms of decibels

Gain = 20 x log 3
= 20 x 0.4771
= 9.542 dB or 10 db

Thus, the field strength of the wanted signal is 10 dB higher than the unwanted signal.

Spurious noise may be reduced by such devices as wick discharges and receiver filters.

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QUESTIONS

1. A radio wave is:

a) An energy wave comprising an electrical field in the same plane as a magnetic

field
b) An electrical field alternating with a magnetic field
c) An energy wave where there is an electrical field perpendicular to a magnetic
field
d) An energy field with an electrical component

2. The speed of radio wave is:

a) 300 km per second

b) 300 million metres per second
c) 162 nm per second
d) 162 million nm per second

3. The plane of polarisation of an electromagnetic wave is:

a) The plane of the magnetic field

b) The plane of the electrical field
c) The plane of the electrical or magnetic field dependent on the plane of the aerial
d) None of the above

4. If the wavelength of a radio wave is 3.75 metres, the frequency is:

a) 80 kHz
b) 8 MHz
c) 80 MHz
d) 800 kHZ

5) The wavelength corresponding to a frequency of 125 MHz is:

a) 2.4 m
b) 24 m
c) 24 cm
d) 24 mm

6) The frequency which corresponds to a wavelength of 6.98 cm is:

a) 4298 GHz
b) 4.298 GHz
c) 429.8 GHz
d) 42.98 GHz

7) The frequency band containing the frequency corresponding to 29.1 cm is:

a) HF
b) VHF
c) SHF
d) UHF

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Radio Navigation Chapter 1

8) To carry out a phase comparison between two electromagnetic waves:

a) both waves must have the same amplitude

b) both waves must have the same frequency
c) both waves must have the same amplitude and frequency
d) both waves must have the same phase

9) The phase of the reference wave is 110º as the phase of the variable wave is 315º.
What is the phase difference?

a) 205º
b) 025º
c) 155º
d) 335º

10) Determine the approximate phase difference between the reference wave and the
variable wave:
(The reference wave is the solid line and the variable wave is the dashed line)

a) 045º
b) 135º
c) 225º
d) 315º

11) The wavelength corresponding to a frequency of 15 625 MHz is:

a) 1.92 cm
b) 19.2 m
c) 1.92 cm
d) 19.2 cm

12) Which frequency band is a wavelength of 1200 m?

a) UHF
b) LF
c) HF
d) MF

13) The process which causes the reduction in signal strength as range from a
transmitter increases is known as:

a) absorption
b) diffraction
c) attenuation
d) ionisation

14) Which of the following will give the greatest surface wave range?

a) 243 MHz
b) 500 kHz
c) 2182 khz
d) 15 MHz

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15) It is intended to increase the range of a VHF transmitter from 50 nm to 100 nm.
This will be achieved by increasing the power output by a factor of:

a) 2
b) 8
c) 16
d) 4

16) A 300 kHz transmitter has an output of 1600 watts, the effective range over the sea
will be:

a) 52 nm
b) 80 nm
c) 35 nm
d) 120 nm

17) The maximum range an aircraft at 2500 ft can communicate with a VHF station at
196 ft is:

a) 80 nm
b) 64 nm
c) 52 nm
d) 65 nm

18) What is the minimum height for an aircraft at a range of 200 nm to be detected by a
radar at 1600 ft amsl?

a) 25,500 ft
b) 15,000 ft
c) 40, 000 ft
d) 57,500 ft

19) Determine which of the following statements concerning atmospheric ionization are
correct

1. The highest levels of ionization will be experienced in low latitudes

2. Ionisation levels increase linearly with increasing altitude
3. The lowest levels of ionization occur about midnight
4. The E-layer is higher by night than by day because the ionization levels are lower
at night.

a) Statements 1, 2 and 3 are correct

b) Statements 1, 3 and 4 are correct
c) Statement 2 and 4 are correct
d) Statements 1 and 4 are correct

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20) The average height if the E-layer is………and the maximum range for skywave will
be…………

a) 60 km, 1350 nm
b) 125 km, 2200 km
c) 225 km, 2200 km
d) 125 km, 1350 km

21) Concerning HF communications, which of the following is correct?

a) The frequency required in low latitudes is less than the frequency required in high
latitudes
b) At night a higher frequency is required than by day
c) The frequency required is dependent on time of day but not the season
d) The frequency required for short ranges will be less than the frequency required
for long ranges

22) The bandwidth produced when a radio frequency (RF) of 4716 kHz is amplitude
modulated with an audio frequency (AF) of 6 kHz is:

a) 6 kHz
b) 3 kHz
c) 12 kHz
d) 9 kHz

23) Which of the following statements concerning AM is correct?

a) The amplitude of the RF is modified by the frequency of the AF

b) The amplitude of the RF is modified by the amplitude of the AF
c) The frequency of the RF is modified by the frequency of the AF
d) The frequency of the RF is modified by the amplitude of the AF

24) Which of the following is an advantage of single sideband (SSB) emissions?

a) More frequencies available

b) Reduced power requirement
c) Better signal/noise ratio
d) All of the above

25) Which of the following statements concerning FM is correct?

a) The amplitude of the RF is modified by the frequency of the AF

b) The amplitude of the RF is modified by the amplitude of the AF
c) The frequency of the RF is modified by the frequency of the AF
d) The frequency of the RF is modified by the amplitude of the AF

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Radio Navigation Chapter 2

RADIO COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS

Airborne radio communications systems operate in the VHF band for short-range
communication and in the HF band for long-range. Aircraft communication systems are used
to communicate between in flight aircraft and air traffic controllers, between aircraft on
taxiways and airport ground controllers and between aircraft and airline personnel.

Recent developments have made possible automatic data transfer by VHF and or SATCOM.
SATCOM also offers an alternative to RT for telephone and fax for passenger.

LONG RANGE COMMUNICATION/HF COMMUNICATION

HF (2 to 22 MHz) is considered to be far superior to MF for long range communication due

to the following reasons:-

1. Aerials are shorter and less expensive to install

2. Static noise is less than in MF and is tolerable

3. By using sky waves day and night very long ranges are obtained for relatively less power

4. Higher frequencies suffer less attenuation in the atmosphere

Commercial aviation uses 2 to 22 MHz for HF communication. The airborne HF installation

comprises;

1. Trans-receiver

2. Control Unit

3. An Antenna with its tuning unit

4. Power unit/Power amplifier

Power output requirements are typically about 500 watts for standard (double side band) AM
transmissions and 300 watts for single side band (SSB) transmissions.

Long-range HF transmissions are subject to fading over narrow bandwidths so the antenna
should have efficient tuning systems particularly for SSB mode of operation. In high-speed
aircraft where a wire antenna would be aerodynamically unsuitable the airframe itself may
from the antenna, through what are known as the notch or probe systems, which electrically
excite the airframe so that it becomes the radiating element of the transmission system.

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MODES OF OPERATION FOR HF COMMUNICATION

CW. With CW mode the transmitter is keyed on and off by a MORSE KEY. This is not
normally used in civil aviation.

AMPLITUDE MODULATION (AM). AM is selected when receiving or sending either an AM

transmission or an SSB transmission which includes full carrier wave. An AM wave consists of a
carrier frequency and a pair of side band frequencies for each audio modulation frequency.

SINGLE SIDE BAND (SSB). It performs the same communication functions as AM but with
greater efficiency. A single sideband is transmitted and the carrier is suppressed to the point of
non-existence. The entire transmitted signal is useful and so a greater range can be achieved for
the same transmitter power.

TYPICAL HF CONTROL UNIT

Vertical polarization is used in HF communication system.

CHOICE OF HF FREQUENCY (2 TO 22 MHz) .If the frequency is too law, excessive

ionospheric attenuation weakens the signal. If frequency is too high, the skip distance will exceed
the distance between the aircraft and the transmitter and the signal will not be heard. The
Maximum usable frequency (MUF) is the highest frequency available for a given distance and
state of the ionosphere. At the MUF, skip distance is just short of the distance from the
transmitter to the aircraft

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At night, if the same frequency is used as in the day, skip distance will increase due to the
weakening of the ionosphere, The aircraft may than be in the dead space and so communication
would not be possible. To avoid this problem, night frequencies are about HALF THE DAY
FREQUENCIES.

Above diagram shows an aircraft is flying towards the east at dawn. The HF frequency for
communication with the station ‘B’ behind the aircraft would be about half the frequency for the
station ‘A’ ahead.

1. Factors affecting HF range are as follows.

(a) Transmitter power

(b) Time of day
(c) Season (summer/winter)
(d) Sudden ionospheric disturbances
(e) Geographical location
(f) Receiver sensitivity
(g) Frequency in use

2. Modulation designator for HF is J3E. It stands for amplitude modulated single side-band
radio telephony.

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VHF COMMUNICATION / SHORT RANGE COMMUNICATION

1. The frequencies used by aviation lie between 118.0 MHz and 137.00 MHz with adjacent
channels at 25 KHz OR 8.33 KHz spacing. The transmissions are classified as A3E and are
amplitude modulated and vertically polarized. Propagation is by direct wave and range is
therefore limited to “Line of sight”.

2. Factors affecting VHF range:-

(a) Transmitter power

(b) Height of the transmitter and receiver

(c) Obstacles between the transmitter and the receiver

(d) Receiver sensitivity

3. VHF is practically free from static but being vertically polarized, the signals do pick up some
background noise. Line-of-sight limitation effectively prevents interference from other
stations that are working on the same frequency. The short wavelengths of VHF allow small
aerodynamic aerials to be used.

4. If absolute clarity of reception is required the choice of frequency should be shifted to UHF
where FM sidebands can also be used. A transmitter of 20 watts power be considered quite
adequate for maximum range.

Line-of-sight formula for calculating range

Range in NM = 1.25 x √ HT + 1.25 x √ HR

Where; HT = Height of transmitter in feet AMSL

HR = Height of receiver in feet, AMSL

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SELECTIVE CALLING SYSTEM (SELCAL)

SELCAL is designed to alert flight crew when an ATS unit is trying to establish contact.
This is a system of communication that relieves the pilot from the tiresome task of
maintaining a continuous listening watch on RT while in flight and so the distraction of
hearing messages intended for other aircraft is avoided.

It is mostly used when long flights over desolate or lonely areas are undertaken e.g on a
longocean crossing when the only need for RT is to make periodic position reports. The
advantage of the facility is taken by installing a selcal receiver in the aircraft.

When SELCAL is in use, the ground unit selects the selcal 4-letter code (two coded tone
pulses group) of the desired aircraft and activates the ground transceiver. The code is received
by the aircraft and the onboard SELCAL equipment recognizes the proper time duration of
the code and then alerts the crew by means of visual and aural signals.

The visual/aural alert to the crew consists of a bell, chime, lamp or any combination. As per
the orders;

a) You must inform the ground station of your intention to use SELCAL.
b) The ground station must agree and must be capable of transmitting the aircraft’s
SELCAL code.

SELCAL should be checked before entry into any airspace in which it is to be used. It is also
prudent to check it before the flight. If unserviceable, “a listening watch” must be maintained.

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SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS (SATCOM)

SATCOM uses satellites as relay stations to transmit over long distances instead of HF
communication (HF frequencies) which are susceptible to atmospheric interference.

The use of satellites for air to ground communications is now possible via INMARSAT
geostationary satellites over the equator. There is a constellation of geostationary satellites
provided by the International Maritime Satellite Organization for the relaying word-wide of
telecommunication for aviation, shipping an land mobile users. Commercially, air operators
are now able to offer their passengers in flight telephone and fax facilities.

Currently INMARSAT operates the following four Inmarsat –II Satellites launched in 1990-
92.They cover the entire globe of all LONGITUDES between 80N and 80 S and they are
geostationary over the equator.

a) Atlantic Ocean Region – West (AOR-W) at 54ºW

b) Atlantic Ocean Region – East (AOR-E) at 15.5ºW
c) Indian Ocean Region (IOR) at 64ºE
d) Pacific Ocean Region (POR) at 178ºE

Each satellites’ global beam covers roughly one third of the earth’s surface.

The main advantage of SATCOM ‘s however is to provide ATC communication coverage in

areas which are entirely dependent on HF air to ground communications, such as the mid-
Atlantic and Pacific regions. It forms an essential part of the Future Air Navigation System
(FANS) concept, developed by ICAO.

Apart from ATC voice instructions, data links can be established to enable TCAS to be fully
integrated into the Air Traffic Network. Global Positioning System (GPS) ground-based
integrity monitoring and alerting systems also employ the INMARSAT network to give, e.g
prior warning of satellite unserviceability. Aircraft technical data and operational messages,
such as those currently handled by Aircraft Reporting and Addressing System (ACARS) and
GLOBAL LINK, may be relayed to aircraft anywhere in the world, which can be read on an
EFIS display.

To use SATCOM, aircraft have to have special antenna to receive / transmit the
communication beam to the appropriate satellite. The transmission is digital In ‘L’ band, so it
is virtually unaffected by Meteorological conditions or geographical position. As far as flight
crew and passengers are concerned, there is no difference from other aeronautical telephone
handsets on car phones.

On the ground, there is a network of ground earth stations (GES) which are positioned so that
they service each of the four satellites regions on segments and link into the conventional
public and private telephone network.

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Frequency in use:-

a. Between Aircraft and Satellite : UHF : 1500 to

1600 MHz

b. Between Satellite and Ground Station : SHF : 4000 to 6000 MHz

Satcom coverage and ground earth station networks

AIRCRAFT COMMUNICATION ADDRESING AND REPORTING SYSTEM

(ACARS)

ACARS is a communications data-link system (company channel) between the airlines

ground operations base and its aeroplanes. It can operate in conjunction with an aircraft’s
flight management system (FMS). It provides a means to transmitting or receiving

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information directly between the aircraft and ground station by DATALINK. It reduces the
requirement for voice communication by reporting automatically to the airline the arrival and
departure times of aircraft and other operational flight data, such as status and flight delay
information.

It uses the aircraft’s VHF communication system to send and receive information on pre-
selected frequencies, which include 131.55 MHz. The use of VHF limits ACARS to line of L
range but L sight satellite developments now permit the use of ACARS via SATCOM, so
extending its use to oceanic flights. The airborne sub-system consists of the ACARS
Management Unit and flight deck printer. It also uses the FMS, CDUs and one VHF receiver-
transmitter through the radio-tuning panel. ACARS ground facilities consists of VHHF radio
stations, a central computer processor, a switching system and airline computer systems.

On a Commercial flight, with several hundred passengers on board, messages on the

“Company Channel” are common concerning passenger services, maintenance services, fuel
state and so on. With ACARS the spoken messages, which would have had by the crew, are
replaced by a compressed format, which is transmitted in about a second in the downlink.
The message can be an automatically compiled report OR one prepared by the pilots on the
CDU of the FMS. Depending upon the company policy some ACARS equipment can
automatically transmit routine messages without involving the flight crew at all. Routine
message can be regarding aircraft and crew identification, flight plan and current flight
conditions, engine performance, fuel state, system performance maintenance items and
passenger services.

Flight crew can access the ACARS via one of the aircraft’s CDUs by selection from the basic
MENU. Flight crew can then send requests, reports and plain language text. Messages can be
received and either displayed on the CDU or printed on the flight deck printer. The hard copy
printout of data may include weather reports, dispatch messages and amended fuel plan. The
interface through the CDU also allows the crew to enter information into the data link system
by means of the alphanumeric keyboard.

The information is then transmitted from the aircraft to the ACARS ground radio station from
where it is relayed to the computer processor. Once converted into an airline operation
messages, it is then sent to the correct airlines by means of the automatic electronic switch
system. In this way ACARS is shared by many airlines operates.

A management unit (MU) in the aircraft ACARS will check that the channel is free before
starting its transmissions, but if two aircraft do transmit simultaneously the messages received
will be garbled. If this occurs repeatedly the FMS will display NO COMM to the crew.
Otherwise both downlink and uplink messages are automatically acknowledged within both
ACARS airborne and ground units. A very basic ACARS messages e.g. are the routine OUT,
OFF, ON &IN. 0001 is an abbreviation for OUT-OFF, ON and IN which are events
recorded by ACARS.

The ‘OUT’ event is recorded when the aircraft is clear of the stand, doors are shut and
parking brakes are released and aircraft is ready to taxi. ‘OFF’ event occur when the aircraft
has lifted off the runway. The ‘ON’ event occurs when the aircraft has landed. The ‘IN’ event
occurs when the aircraft has taxied to the ramp area.

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QUESTIONS

1. The ideal length for a Marconi aerial for a frequency of 406 MHz is:

a) 36.9 cm
b) 35.1 cm
c) 17.5 cm
d) 18.5 cm

2. A disadvantage of directivity is:

a) reduced range
b) sidelobes
c) phase distortion
d) ambiguity

3) Which of the following is not an advantage of a slotted antenna (phase array)?

a) reduced sidelobes
b) improved resolution
c) reduced power
d) directivity

4) The ideal length of a half wave dipole for a frequency of 75 MHz is:

a) 1.9 m
b) 95 cm
c) 3.8 m
d) 47.5 cm

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Radio Navigation Chapter 3

DOPPLER PRINCIPLE / DOPPLER EFFECT AND ITS APPLICATIONS

The difference between the received frequency and the transmitted frequency is known as
Doppler shift or Doppler effect. The difference between transmitted and received frequencies is
directly proportional to the relative velocity between the receiver and transmitter.

Whenever two objects are moving towards or away from each other and any periodic emission
produced by one source, e.g. of sound or light or radio waves will be received at the other object
at a different frequency; a higher frequency if they are moving towards and a lower frequency if
moving apart. The greater the relative motion between them, the greater will be the change in
frequency.

Knowing the change in frequency, the relative motion (speed) between them can be calculated.

Let us consider two simple examples;

(a) If you walk forward into the sea the waves will strike you with increased frequency because
the relative velocity between you (The receiver) and the sea (The transmitter) is positive i.e.
you are moving towards each other. The faster you move the greater the frequency with
which the waves will strike you, although their rate of transmission hasn’t changed.

(b) Take another example; if a train sounding its whistle is moving towards an observer, the pitch
of the whistle tone sounds high to the observer because there is positive relative motion
between the two, so the received frequency is higher than the transmitted frequency. As the
train passes the observer the apparent pitch of the whistle tone falls sharply as the relative
velocity becomes first zero and then negative.

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In the diagram, the stationary receiver would receive a frequency equal to that transmitted (FR =
FT) where as the moving receiver (in the aircraft) would receive a frequency equal to that
transmitted PLUS the extra number of waves traversed per second as its moves towards the
transmitter ( FR = FT +FD) The number of additional waves per second traversed by the aircraft
(i.e. FD) is solely due to the aircraft motion and is thus equal to = V
λ

FD = Doppler shift in HERTZ

V = Relative speed in Metres/sec

FD = V λ = Wave length of transmitted frequency in metres

λ

Note: To have more and workable Doppler frequency shift, the transmitter frequencies are in SHF
band.

Example 1

An aircraft is moving directly towards a transmitter at a speed. 100 metres / sec. The transmitter
frequency is 12 GHZ. What is the Doppler shift

V = 100 X 12 X 109
FD = λ 3 x 108

FD = 4000hz

FD = 4khz

Example 2

A stationary transmitter is producing a signal at a frequency of 5 GHz. A receiver is moving directly

towards the transmitter at 800 KM/HR find the Doppler shift.

Λ = 3 x 108 = 3 meters
5 x 109 50

v (speed) = 800 x 1000 = 222.222 meters / sec

60 x 60
=
FD =V 222.222 = 3700Hz
Λ 3/50

FD = 3.7 KHz

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Example 3

A transmitter on 8800 MHz moves directly towards a stationary receiver which receives 8800.005
MHz. What is the speed of the transmitter in Kts.

Example 4 (Practice)

A transmitter on 13300 MHz moves directly away from a stationary receiver at 450kt. What
Doppler shift is measured at the receiver?

Applications of DOOPLER Principle / Doppler Shift

(a) The Doppler frequency shift measured by the airborne Doppler system is used for calculating
the ground speed and drift experienced by the aircraft.

(b) Ground radar make use of the Doppler principle to eliminate radar returns from fixed objects.
This process is known as moving target indicator (MTI)

(c) Doppler techniques are employed in the ground DF stations for improving the accuracy of the
equipment and also for minimizing the sitting errors.

(d) Doppler shift is used in the Doppler VOR for minimizing the sitting error and to improve the
accuracy of the signals.

DOPPLER

Doppler is a self-contained airborne navigation aid that uses the Doppler principle to
measure the aircraft’s ground speed and drift. No ground transmitters are required. The
equipment can be used almost anywhere-the main exception being over very calm sea.

PRINCIPLE-DOOPLER EFFECT

If a source of sound, light, or radio waves is moving towards an observer, or the observer
is moving towards the source, the observer receives a frequency higher than the source is
transmitting. This phenomenon is called the ‘Doppler Effect’ (after the Austrian
mathematician who predicted it in 1845).

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DOOPLER SHIFT WITH REFLECTED WAVES

It is now necessary to establish the formula for Doppler shift when a

Transmitter/Receiver is moving towards a reflecting surface at V metres/second as in
Figure 1.

Figure 1: Reflected Bean

If the transmitter’s wavelength is 𝜆𝜆, frequency f, the reflecting surface will ‘receive’ a
frequency of f PLUS V/𝜆𝜆 Hz due to Doppler effect. This frequency of (f + V/𝜆𝜆) Hz is then
reflected back to the receiver, which still moving with transmitter at V metres/second towards
the reflecting surface, will experience a further Doppler increase in frequency. This further
shift can again be taken as V/𝜆𝜆 Hz with negligible error even at supersonic aircraft speeds.

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The frequency received will therefore be f + 2 V/𝜆𝜆 Hz, so that the Doppler shift for a reflected
beam is 2 V/𝜆𝜆 Hz

Figure 2: Depressed Beam

If the Doppler transmitter/receiver is mounted in an aircraft, the signal is directed down
towards the earth (the reflecting surface), as in Figure 3. The angle of depression ∅ is
between 60° and 70° and the Doppler shift, measured between transmitted frequency and
reflected frequency will be (2V/𝜆𝜆). cos ∅ Hz, where V is the ground speed of the aircraft
in metres/second and 𝜆𝜆is the wavelength in metres of the transmitted frequency.
(Alternatively V can be in cm/second and 𝜆𝜆in cm). Airborne Doppler equipment could
measure the shift (2V/𝜆𝜆). cos ∅ Hz and determine the aircraft’s ground speed from this
measurement.

To increase the value of the Doppler shift that is measured 𝜆𝜆 is made small in the region
of 3 cm. The radio frequencies used are either about 8800 MHz or about 13300 MHz
(both SHF Band).

The value of ∅ (the angle of depression) is a compromise. If ∅ is too near 90°, cos ∅ (and
consequently the Doppler shift to be measured) approaches zero. On the other hand, if
∅is made too small, the signals would strike the earth at too shallow an angle and the
reflections would be too weak to detect.

The types of emission used in Doppler equipments can be pulse or FM/CW. There is little
to choose between the two types, except that the later can be used right down to the
surface.

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JANUS BEAM SYSTEM

Ground Speed Measurement. The most-used Doppler aerial system, the Janus type,
transmits beams forward and to the rear of the aircraft as depicted in Figure 3. Reflections
from both beams are picked up by the Doppler sensor , those from the forward beam at a
higher frequency than transmitted those from the rear beam at a lower frequency than
transmitted.

Figure 3: ‘Janus’ System

The total Doppler Shift of (4V/λ).Cos θ Hz between front and rear reflected frequencies
is determined by superimposing the two reflected frequencies to produce one Doppler
Beat Frequency which will be the numerical difference between front and rear reflected
frequencies. This Doppler Beat Frequency is directly proportional to ground speed and
drives the ground speed meter (an instrument which employs the principle of the phonic
wheel).

The Janus fore/aft beam system has three main advantages over a single beam:-
(a) Transmitter frequency stability is less important since the Doppler shift is measured
between two reflected signals that left the transmitter together.
(b) The pitch errors caused by changes in cos 0 when the aircraft pitches are greatly
reduced, the error on forward beams almost exactly canceling the error on rear
beams.
(c) Both forward and rear beams sense vertical speed and the Doppler Beat Frequency
is unaffected. (For example, if the aircraft is descending, the frequencies of forward
and rear reflections should increase equally, but the difference between them should
remain unchanged.)

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(d) Conical Beam Pattern. With many Doppler installations each transmitted beam has
the shape of a portion of a hollow cone of radiation ahead of and behind the aircraft.
Where the hollow cones intercept the ground, hyperbolic reflecting patterns are
produced. Figures 4 and 5 illustrate this.

(e) All reflecting points on the cone of semi-angle 0 will produce a Doppler shift of the
same amount (for a given speed and transmission wavelength). Consequently the
Doppler shirt measured is accurate even though the conical beams ‘illuminate’
ground which lies to left and right of track and which may be uneven.

Figure 4: Conical Beam Plan View

Figure 5: Conical Beam Plan View

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Radio Navigation Chapter 3
It can be visualised that as the aircraft rolls, within limits, the cones also roll about the
longitudinal axis, still producing the hyperbolic patterns on the earth so that moderate
amounts of roll do not cause appreciable errors in the Doppler shift measured.

The sideways spread of the reflection pattern is important with pulsed Doppler in that
since some reflecting points are nearer than others, the reflected pulses have a
considerable time-spread. This means that the front and rear reflections are received
with sufficient overlap in time for the Doppler shift to be measured, even though the
ground is mountainous or the aircraft is pitching (within limits).

Drift Measurement-Rotating Four-beam System. In this widely used system, two

pairs of aerials are situated in a bay in the underside of the fuselage. The transmission
power is switched at half-second intervals so that one pair transmits left forward (LF)
and right rear (RR) simultaneously, followed by the other pair transmitting right
forward (RF) and left rear (LR) simultaneously as illustrated in Figures 6(a) and 6(b).

Figure 6(a): Patter at One Instant

Figure (b) Switched Pattern Half a Second Instant

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Let us suppose the aircraft has port drift, as in Figure 13. The speed towards the LF reflecting
area is greater than towards the RF area, and similarly the speed away from the RR area is
greater than that away from the LR area.

Figure 13: Drift Measurement

Consequently the Doppler Beat Frequency produced by mixing the LF/RR returning
frequencies is greater than the Beat Frequency produced by the RF/LR returns. The
difference between the two Beat Frequencies is used to generate an error signal
energising a servomotor that rotates the whole aerial system until the two Beat
Frequencies are equal. This can only occur when the aerials are aligned with track and
the beams are symmetrically disposed about track.

As the servomotor rotates the aerial system, it also moves the drift pointer. Once the
aerials have been aligned with track, the pointer indicates the drift (it is in fact
indicating the angular displacement of the aerial system from the fore/aft axis of the
aircraft). At this time, the accurate ground speed, derived from the single Beat
Frequency, will be displayed.

The conical beam Janus system described is only one of several types in use or under
development for fixed-wing aircraft and helicopters. A different system uses two
beams, at a fixed angle to each other, which are rotated until the shift sensed by each is
the same, that is, when they are symmetrically disposed about track. The shift measured
between transmitted and reflected frequencies for non-conical beams will be (2V/λ).Cos
θcos ϕ Hz where θ is the angle of depression of the beams in the vertical plane along
the aircraft’s track and 2ϕ is the azimuth angle between the beams. If a Janus system of
four beams, two ahead and two astern is used, the shift measured between forward and
rear returns will be (4V/λ). cos θcos ϕ Hz (for non-conical beams).

With some later equipment, the twelve-inch square aerial array is fixed and produces
three CW or FM/CW beams, using a klystron power source radiating each beam in turn.
The reflections are used to produce frequencies proportional to velocities along and
across heading. These signals are fed to a suitable computer that controls the position
display unit. A drift and ground speed meter is also installed. Components are
microminiaturised as far as possible, giving a compact and highly reliable installation
with a total equipment weight of about 30 pounds.

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DOPPLER LIMIATIONS

The Doppler sensor may ‘unlock’, that is, stop measuring drift and ground speed if the
aircraft is:-

(a) Over calm sea-when the radio energy is mostly reflected away from the aircraft so
that the reflected signals are too weak to use. Over land, the energy is scattered in all
directions and enough returns to the aircraft to operate the Doppler. This is depicted
in Figure 8(a) and 8(b).

(b) Neat heavy thunderstorms, when one or more of the beams may be reflected back
from the water drops in the cloud. This, combined with severe radio noise from the
storm, can cause unlocking.

Figure 8(a) Reflections from Calm Sea

Figure 8(b): Reflections from land

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(c) Exceeding pitch and roll limits-so that reflections from one or more of the beams are
too weak for use. Typical limits are ±20° in pitch and 30°either way in roll

(d) Below about 200 ft above the earth’s surface with those Dopplers, which use pulse
transmission. The receiver is automatically short-circuited while each pulse is
transmitted to prevent damage the high-power transmitted pulse to sensitive receiving
circuit. At very low altitude the reflected pulse returns almost immediately and has
passed the aircraft by the time the receiver is available again to measure Doppler shift
after being out of circuit during the transmissions of the pulse.

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QUESTIONS

The following questions illustrate the Doppler principle:

1. A transmitter is moving directly towards a receiver at 250m/sec. The wavelength of the

transmission is 5cm. Calculate the frequency shift in kHz at the receiver.
5000hz
2. A receiver is moving directly towards a transmitter at 900kph. The transmission frequency is
6 GHz. Calculate the frequency shift in kHz caused by the relative motion between the
transmitter and receiver. 5 Khz

3. A stationary transmitter is operating on a wavelength of 3cm. A receiver moving directly

away from the transmitter measures a Doppler shift of 6kHz. Calculate the speed of the
receiver away from the transmitter in m/sec and knots.
180mps, 350kt
4. An 8800MHz transmitter is moving directly away from a receiver at 291 kt. Calculate:

a) The speed of relative motion in m/sec 150

b) The frequency shift at the receiver in kHz 4.4
c) The frequency received in MHz 8799.9956

5. Complete the following Doppler shift table which relates to the relative motion
between a transmitter and a receiver:

TRANSMITTED FREQUENCY
WAVELENGTH SHIFT RELATIVE RELATIVE SPEED
(CM) (KHZ) SPEED (MS-1) (KT)
583
2 15 300

3.41 6.8 231.5 450

2.26 7.15 161.5 314

23 23 5290 10282

3.41 7.0 238.7 464

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Radio Navigation Chapter 4

GROUND D/F

Ground D/F (Direction Finding) equipment is usually situated on aerodromes where it is used to
determine the bearing of an aircraft. An R/T transmission by the pilot is utilised by the D/F
station to measure the bearing. The ground D/F operator (normally an Approach Controller)
subsequently passes the bearing to the pilot by R/T. since VHF is the commonly used frequency
band, the equipment is known as VHF D/F or VDF.

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

The basic principle is similar to that of ADF, the D/F aerials on the ground being H-type and
quite small. As with ADF, the equipment is null seeking. With ‘Manual Homer’ installations the
operator to determine the ‘null’ position rotates the aerial. With more modern equipment the
aerial rotates automatically and the bearing is displayed instantly on a Cathode Ray Tube in the
Control Tower as soon as the pilot transmit on R/T. This is known as Cathode Ray D/F (CRD/F)
or Automatic VHF D/F.

FREQUENCY BAND

The civil R/T section of the VHF band is used. This provides 360 channels at 50 kHz spacing
between 118.00 MHz and 135.95 MHz. Military aircraft use mainly UHF D/F (UDF) . Only a
few areas n the world still use HF D/F or MF D/F.

SERVICES PROVIDED

The bearings which can be passed to the pilot are as follows:-

1. QDM-The magnetic heading to steer with zero wind to reach the station.
2. QUJ-The true heading to steer with zero wind to reach the station.
3. QDR-The magnetic bearing of the aircraft from the station.
4. QTE-The true bearing of the aircraft from the station.

Only the QDM and QTE are in common use with D/F stations.

Where a centre exists for triangulating the simultaneous bearings from three D/F stations, a fix
QTF) may be passed to the pilot. There is no longer a VDF triangulation centre in the UK.

When an aircraft requires a series of bearings or headings to steer, the service should be requested
using the signal QDL or an appropriate phrase followed by other ‘Q’ signals or phrases.
e.g. – Request QDL-QTE / QDL -QDM

USE OF SERVICES

The common uses of VDF bearings are listed below:-

1. QDRs and QTEs-to check track away from an aerodrome equipped with VDF.
2. QDMs-to home to an aerodrome.
3. QDMs-for VDF let-downs.
4. QTEs and QDRs-for en route position lines (but see para. 16).

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OBTAINING BEARINGS

The procedure for obtaining a VDF bearing is detailed below.

1. Pilot calls the Homer and requests, say, a QDM.

2. Homer, if equipped with automatic VHF D/F, passes the bearing and its class. (A Manual
Homer may require a longer transmission lasting 10 seconds to measure the bearing.)
3. Pilot reads back the bearing and its class.
`
CLASSES OF BEARING

Bearings are classified according to accuracy as shown below.

1. Class A-are accurate within 2°

2. Class B-are accurate within 5°
3. Class C-are accurate within 10°

CAP 46 also lists Class D bearings-those with accuracy less than Class C.

RANGE OF VDF

Transmissions in the VHF band are ‘line of sight’. The range obtainable depends on the aircraft’s
altitude, the elevation of the D/F station, and the height of interviewing high ground. (This is
dealt with more fully in the notes on Radio Theory and VOR.)

Assuming line of sight, range will only be limited by the power outputs of the ground and
airborne transmitters, and the sensitivity of the receivers. Occasional fading or dead spaces may
occur due to mutual interference between the direct and ground-reflected waves, causing
temporary loss of communications. Maximum range is unlikely to exceed 200 nm.

ACCURACY OF VDF

The latest types of automatic VHF D/F equipment can measure bearings with an accuracy of plus
or minus 1°. Older types are less accurate.

Site errors, due to reflections from buildings, aircraft, and vehicles near the ground D/F site may
reduce the expected accuracy.

Propagation errors, due to uneven propagation over varying terrain, may reduce bearing accuracy
particularly if the aircraft is at long range.

AUTOMATIC VHF D/F

The Air Pilot states:-Automatic VHF D/F is provided at a number of locations in the UK, its
prime purpose is to assist in radar identifications. (As no other service is provided by these
installations, they are not promulgated.) Where, however, an automatic VHF D/F is providing
a Homer service, details are promulgated, and the class of bearings is not normally better than
Class B. Where this grade of service cannot be maintained in any specific sector, pilots will
be informed. Bearings from automatic VHF D/F installations are not to be used for en route
navigation except in emergency.

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VDF APPROACHES

There are two types of VDF procedures, QDM and QGH. In the QDM procedure, the pilot calls
for a series of QDM and use them to follow the published approach pattern, making his own
adjustment to heading and height. In the QGH procedure, the controller obtains bearing from the
aircraft transmissions, interprets this information and passes to the pilot headings and heights to
fly designed to keep the aircraft in the published pattern. Normally, at civil aerodromes, only
QDM procedure is available; however, in some cases, for specific operational reason, there will
be provision for QGH procedure. Those aerodromes that have been approved to carry out both
types of VDF procedures will have this provision shown against the procedure. Pilots are
reminded that it is their responsibility to ensure with ATC that the correct procedures is being
flown.

VHF EMERGENCY SERVICE

In the UK 16 outstations provide auto-triangulation position-fixing service on the VHF

emergency frequency (121.5 Mhz) and on the UHF emergency frequency (243.0 MHz) to pilots
who are:

 In distress

 In urgent need of assistance

 experiencing difficulties (i.e. lost)

On VHF this service is available at 3,000 ft and above in the London FIR (2,000 ft and above in
the London area). Elsewhere the auto-triangulation service is not available, however the D & D
cell at SCATCC can manually plot bearings from outstations to fix an aircraft’s position. The
UHF service is available on 243.0 MHz throughout the UK for the military.

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VDF SUMMARY

Bearings: QDM – Mag TO station

QDR – Mag FROM station
QTE – True FROM station

Uses: Check track, position line, Homing, Let-downs

Class: A = +2 B = +5 C = +10 D = > 10

Principle: Ground equipment – Adcock aerial, CRT

Range: Line of sight, power of transmitters, Intervening high ground,

Atmospheric conditions (ducting)

Accuracy: Propagation error, site error, Aircraft attitude, Overhead station, Fading
due to multi-path signals

Emergency service: Position fixing by auto-triangulation

Let-down service: QDM procedure – pilot interpreted

QGH procedure – controller interpreted

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QUESTIONS

1. An aircraft has to communicate with a VHF station at a range of 300 nm, if the ground
station is situated 2,500’ amsl which of the following is the lowest altitude at which contact is
likely to be made?

a) 190’
b) 1,378’
c) 36,100’
d) 84,100

2. Class ‘B’ VHF DF bearings are accurate to within:

a) + - 1º
b) + - 5º
c) + - 2º
d) + - 10º

3. A VDF QDM given without an accuracy classification may be assumed to be accurate to

within:

a) 2 degrees
b) 5 degrees
c) 7.5 degrees
d) 10 degrees

4) An aircraft at altitude 9,000 feet wishes to communicate with a VHF/DF station that is
situated at 400 feet amsl. What is the maximum range at which contact is likely to be made?

a) 115nm
b) 400nm
c) 143nm
d) 63.5nm

5) An aircraft is passed a true bearing from a VDF station of 353º. If variation is 8ºE and the
bearing is classified as ‘B’ then the:

a) QDM is 345º +-5º

b) QDR is 345º + 2º
c) QTE is 353º +-5º
d) QUJ is 353º +-2º

6) An aircraft at 19,000ft wishes to communicate with a VDF station at 1,4000ft amsl. What is
the maximum range at which contact is likely?

a) 175nm
b) 400.0nm
c) 62.5nm
d) 219nm

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Radio Navigation Chapter 5

NON DIRECTIONAL BEACON (NDB) ANDAUTOMATIC DIRECTION FINDER (ADF)

ADF is the abbreviation for Automatic Direction Finder, a long-established and widely used
airborne radio aid to navigation, designed to measure the bearing from an aircraft of any LF/MF
NDB (non-directional beacon) or LF/MF broadcasting station near enough to produce a strong
surface wave. The bearings obtained with this equipment are variously referred to as ADF
bearings, Radio Compass bearings, or loop bearings. The ADF receiver may be used to listen to
LF/MF broadcast programmes, or to obtain ‘counts’ from Consol transmissions.

OPERATING PRINCIPLES

In the following paragraphs, ADF theory has been simplified as far as possible.

Rotating Loop Type. In Figure 1, the rectangle represents a loop of wire connected to the
aircraft'’ ADF receiver. This loop can be rotated about a vertical axis. In position A, the NDB is
shown lying in the plane of the loop. The vertically polarized waves from the beacon will induce
alternating voltages in the vertical parts of the loop.

Position A Position B

Figure 1 Rotatable Loop

Because one loop ‘vertical’ is further away from the beacon than the other, the two voltages have
a phase difference that causes a current to flow in the loop. (The width of the loop is always
small-a little inches-in comparison with the wavelength in use.) With the loop in position A, the
phase difference is maximum, so maximum loop current flows and the loudest signal is heard in
the earphones. This loop current, suitably amplified, is used to energise a motor which rotates the
loop until it reaches position B. now the plane of the loop is at right angles to the incoming signal
and so there is zero phase difference between the voltages induced in the vertical portions of the
loop. These two in-phase voltages will be in opposition and cancel each other so that no current
flows in the loop. The motor stops and no signal is heard. This is called the ‘null’ position, and
ADF is an example of ‘null-seeking’ equipment.

It will be apparent that the loop could have turned clockwise or anticlockwise about its vertical
axis to reach the null position. This 180° bearing ambiguity is resolved by incorporating a fixed
‘sensing’ aerial in the equipment so that there is only one null position in 360° of rotation.

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The position of the loop is therefore a measure of the bearing of the beacon. An electrical
transmission system is used to reproduced loop movements on the pilot’s bearing indicator.

Fixed Loop Type. Most modern ADF installations have two loop coils at right angles wound on
ferrite cores. Both coils are fixed, one in the longitudinal axis and the other athwartships, and are
both embedded in one flat block of insulating material that fits flush with the fuselage skin. These
loops are connected to the ‘stator’ or ‘field’ coils of a radio ‘goniometer’ (a very sensitive meter)
whose search coil or ‘rotor’ takes up a position indicating a relative bearing of the NDB. The
sequence of event is, briefly, as follows. The currents in the two loops, fed to the goniometer
stator coils, produce a field about the goniometer rotor, the direction of the field being related to
the direction of the beacon. This field induces a current in the search coil and this current is used
to energise a motor which rotates the rotor coil (and the attached bearing pointer) until the null
(no current) position is reached. Here the motor stops with the bearing pointer giving the beacon’s
relative bearing. Bearing ambiguity is avoided by combining the rotor current with the current
from a fixed sensing aerial in such a way that only one null occurs.

AIRBORNE ADF EQUIPMENT

The actual control on the ADF depends on the age of the equipment and its cost. The control
panel shown in Figure 2 typifies a modern installation.

Figure 2: ADF Control Panel

Frequency Selection. With the more modern types of control panel the required NDB or
broadcast frequency is ‘dialed’ with digital selectors as depicted in Figure 2.

With earlier designs there is usually a selector switch with which one of three (or even four)
bands of frequency can be chosen. Typically this bands cover 150-350 kHz, 350-800 kHz, 800-1
700 kHz. The wanted station is then tuned using the tuning knob to move the tuning pointer to the
desired frequency on the appropriate scale on the tuning dial. The beacon is correctly tuned when
the tuning meter (a standard fitting) shows maximum deflection-confirmed by listening carefully
to the aural Morse station identifier.

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Beat Frequency Oscillator. Nearly all ADF receivers incorporate a BFO (Beat Frequency
Oscillator). With the BFO switch in the on position, unmodulated A0 and A1 emissions from
NDBs and Consol become audible. The principle used here is that of beat frequencies: if two
nearly equal frequency are mixed there will be a resultant frequency which is the numerical
differences between the two component frequencies. Foe example, if two radio frequencies of
400 and 401 kHz produced by the NDB and the oscillator were superimposed in a circuit they
would produce an audio beat frequency of 1 kHz.

With some equipment the BFO switch is labelled CW/Voice, CW being the on position for use
with A0 and A1 emissions. The BFO is off in the Voice position-used with the MCW (Modulated
Carrier Wave) emission of A2 NDBs, and broadcasting stations-where the BFO audio tone would
be superfluous.

EMISSION CHARACTERISTICS and BEAT FREQUENCY OSCILLATOR (BFO)

The NDBs have a 2 or 3 letter identification and there are two types of emission:

NONA1A NONA2A

The NON part of the emission is the transmission of an unmodulated carrier wave, which would
not be detectable on a normal receiver, so a BFO is provided on ADF equipment. When selected,
the BFO produces an offset frequency within the receiver which when combined with the
received frequency produces a tone of say 400 or 1,020 Hz.

The A1A part is the emission of an interrupted unmodulated carrier wave which requires the BFO
to be on for aural reception. A2A is the emission of an amplitude modulated signal which can be
heard on a normal receiver.

Hence, when using N0NA1A beacons, the BFO should be selected ON for (manual) tuning,
identification and monitoring. NONA2A beacons require the BFO ON for (manual) tuning but
OFF for identification and monitoring. (The BFO may be labeled TONE or TONE/VOICE on
some equipments).

Some ADF control panels do not have a separate BFO switch; instead, a position on the function
switch is labelled BFO.

Function Switch(Aerial Selector Switch). This is commonly a rotary switch with several
positions. In addition to the OFF position, the following selections can usually be made:-

a. REC or ANT. These abbreviations stand for Receive or Antenna, respectively.

Either may be found-it depends on the manufacturer, in this position, used for
tuning, identification, and listening to broadcast, there is no DF capability, only
the fixed sensing aerial being in circuit.
b. ADF or COMP. Again, either may be encountered, these abbreviations standing
for, respectively, Automatic Direction Finding or Radio Compass. In this
position, both the sensing and loop aerials are in use and the bearing of the tuned
station will automatically be shown on the pilot’s bearing indicator.
c. Loop. With the function switch in the position, only the loop aerial is use and
there is no automatic direction finding. It is used in conjunction with the loop
left/right control described opposite.

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Loop Left/Right Control. With the function switch to LOOP, this left/right control is used to
rotate the loop (and bearing pointer) clockwise or anticlockwise until an aural null is obtained
(that is when the tuned beacon signal strength falls to a minimum). This method of obtaining a
bearing (subject though it is to 180° ambiguity) is useful in weak signal or interference conditions
or when the sense aerial is not functioning.

Selectivity Switch. Broadcasting stations and other sources of modulated emissions (such as A2
NDBs) transmit not on a spot frequency but over a definite band of frequencies. In order to hear
the full transmission without significant distortion, the receiver must accept frequencies either
side of the tuned frequency. The receiver band width (or ‘pass band’) can be varied by means of a
two or three position selectively switch. The two positions may be labelled Broad/Sharp. In the
Broad position the receiver accepts frequencies between about 1.5 kHz either side of the tuned
frequency. This gives acceptable reception quality of speech and music. In the Sharp position, the
pass band is reduced to about 1 kHz (that is, 0.5 kHz above and below the tuned frequency),
which cuts down the level of radio noise in the earphones and reduces the amount of interference
from stations and beacons on adjacent frequencies.

Gain or Volume Control. This is used to vary the loudness of the signal in the operator’s
headphones. Sometimes labelled “Audio’.

NON-DIRECTIONAL BEACONS (NDBs)

These beacons are designed to emit vertically polarized radio waves on low or medium
frequencies producing a good surface wave range in all directions. They are specifically installed
for use in conjunction with ADF, and are found in most countless of the world. More details are
listed below:-

 Purpose To provides bearing in conjunction with ADF for en-route navigation,

homings, and letdowns.

 Locations depend on the main use be made of the beacon. They are found at
reporting points on airways, on islands and coastlines to serve as long-range
navigation aids, and at or near aerodromes for homings and let-down.

 Power Outputs Vary between about 25 watts and about 10 kilowatts.

 Maximum Range-at which reasonably reliable bearings (using surface waves)

can be obtained varies between about 10-25 nm for low power aerodrome
‘locators’ to more than 500 nm (over sea) for high-powered navigational
beacons.
Range = 3 x √ power in Watts - Sea
Range= 2 x √ power in Watts - Land

 Frequencies-most NDBs transmit on frequencies between 200 and 800 kHz in

the LF and MF bands. The allocated frequencies for NDB,s are 190-1,750 kHz in
the LF and MF bands. Since the mode of propagation used is surface wave, most
NDBs will be found between about 250 and 450 kHz. There are two types of
NDB in current use:

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 Locator (L). These are low powered NDBs used for airfield or runway approach
procedures or are co-located with, and supplement, the outer and middle markers
of an ILS system. They normally have ranges of 10 to 25nm and may only be
available during an aerodromes published hours of operation.

 En route NDBs. There have a range of 50nm or more, and where serving oceanic
areas may have ranges of several hundred miles. They are used for homing,
holding, en route and airways navigation.

 Station Identifiers-are usually two or three letter aural morse groups transmitted
at regular intervals.

 Types of Emission-three main types are used:-

i. A0 A1-consisting of about ten seconds of conditions, unmodulated
carrier wave (A0) followed by about five seconds of keyed unmodulated
carrier wave (A1) producing the Morse station identifier. The ADF BFO
must be switched on to make the Morse clearly audible. During
identification the bearing pointer may wander due to the gaps in the
carrier wave.
ii. A0 A2-comprising about ten seconds of continuous, unmodulated carrier
wave (A0) followed by about five seconds of amplitude-modulated
carrier wave (A2) with the modulating audio frequency keyed to give the
morse station identifier. With the BFO off only the identifier will be
audible.
iii. A2-being an amplitude-modulated carrier wave with the modulating
audio frequency keyed in Morse at regular intervals to provide
identification. The BFO is not required

ADF BEARING DISPLAYS

ADF bearing information is presented on either a Relative Bearing Indicator (RBI) or the more
complex Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI)

Relative Bearing indicator. This, the simpler type of display, shows the pilot the bearing of the
tuned transmitter, relative to the fore and aft axis of the aircraft. The relative bearing indicated is
measured clockwise in degrees (0-360) from the nose of the aircraft. Two examples illustrating
this appear in Figure 3.

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Figure 3 Relative Bearings

Radio Magnetic Indicator. This instrument in effect adds the magnetic heading of the aircraft
to the relative bearing determined by the ADF loop and so displays the magnetic bearing of the
beacon (QDM). This is achieved by using a remote-reading magnetic compass to rotate the card
behind the bearing pointer so that the aircraft’s magnetic heading always appears against a fixed
heading-index at the top of the dial. Figure 4 shows the face of a single-needle RMI displaying
an ADF bearing.

Figure 4 The Radio Magnetic Indicator

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The diagram and tables shown in Figure 5 gives a comparison between RBI and RMI indications
during an ADF aerodrome approach.

It is common for the RMI to have two needles, a single Number One and a double Number Two
(as illustrated in Figure 6), which may also be painted red, and green respectively. It can be
arranged that with aircraft equipped with twin ADF and twin VOR, two ADF bearings, or two
VOR bearings, or one of each can be displayed simultaneously on the one RMI. The RMI drawn
in Figure 6 is displaying the QDMs to two NDBs, the No. 1 ADF equipment being tuned to
NDB ‘A’ and activating No. 1 needle. No. 2 ADF is activating No. 2 needle and is tuned to NDB
‘B’.

Figure 5: ADF Displays

Figure 6: Two-needle Display

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OBTAINING AN ADF BEARING

The general procedure for tuning ADF and obtaining a bearing is detailed below, but the
manufacturer’s operating instructions for the particular installation should always be consulted:

 Check that the aircraft’s estimated position is within the beacon’s ‘promulgated
range’ (explained in paragraphs 38 and 39 ).

 Turn up the gain and set the function switch to REC (or ANT), so selecting the
fixed aerial. Switch BFO on if NDB emission is A0 A1.

 Tuned the desired NDB frequency, adjust the gain to a comfortable level, and
carefully check the morse identifier.

 Move function switch to ADF (or COMP), so selecting the loop and fixed aerials.
the bearing pointer should swing round and settle on the bearing of the beacon.

 Check the validity of the bearing by rotating the loop a little more than 90° using
the loop left/right control with the function switch set to LOOP. (If this control is
not incorporate in the equipment, there may be a test button, which can be used
similarly to deflect the loop about 100°.) After deflection, the original bearing
should be regained with the function switch to ADF. This procedure ensures that
the pointer is not sticking and that the sensing aerial is functioning correctly.

 Note the bearing and time, and also the heading if the bearing is a relative one.

DETERMINING ADF POSITION LINES

RMI Position Line. The bearing indicated on the RMI is a magnetic one, based on magnetic
north as defined by the aircraft’s remote-reading magnetic compass. Magnetic variation at the
aircraft’s position must therefore be applied to convert the bearing to true. The reciprocal of this
is plotted from the position of the NDB as illustrated in Figure 7. (The rules for applying
conversion angle or convergency to ADF bearings are detailed in the notes on Navigation.)

Figure 7:Determining a Position Line from a Magnetic Bearing

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RBI Position Line. When a Relative Bearing Indicator is in use, a position line is determined as
follows:-

 Add the true heading of the aircraft to the indicated relative bearing to obtain the true
bearing of the NDB from the aircraft.

 From the position of the NDB, plot the reciprocal of this true bearing, as shown in Figure
8. (The notes on Navigation should be consulted for the rules for applying conversion
angles or convergency.)

Figure 8:Determining a Position Line from a Relative Bearing

TRACK MAINTENANCE INBOUND

When carrying out an NDB aerodrome approach or when flying airways it is often necessary to
maintain a prescribed track to an NDB. In still air conditions it is only necessary to position the
aircraft on the required track and then maintain the beacon bearing 360° relative until overhead
(indicated by the needle swinging 180°left or right on to a bearing of 180°relative). In crosswind
conditions, however, this procedure would cause the aircraft to deviate from the required track.
In fact by holding the beacon in the 360° relative position the aircraft would follow a curved
path by continually changing heading and ending up by flying over the beacon, heading into
wind (Figure 9).

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Figure 9: Homing making no allowance for Drift

In order to maintain the required track to the beacon in crosswind conditions it is obviously
necessary to adjust heading to allow for drift. This adjustment to the aircraft heading will cause
an alteration in the required relative bearing when homing. For an aircraft on its required track
pointing directly towards the beacon, the relative bearing will be 360°. If 10° port drift is now
allowed for, the aircraft will alter heading 10° starboard, making the relative bearing 350°. An
aircraft maintaining 350° relative with the drift constant at 10° port will track directly towards
the beacon. (See Figure 10). Station passage will be indicated by the needle swinging left or
right by 180° on to 170° relative.

Figure 10: Aircraft Homing with Port Drift

It can be shown that when homing, an increase of heading to compensate for port drift will result
in the ‘ideal’ (that is, expected) relative bearing being less than 360° by the amount of drift
allowed for, and conversely when starboard drift is allowed for the ideal relative bearing will be
greater than 360°.

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Examples:-

Drift Ideal RB
8 STBD 008
9 PORT 351
12 PORT 348
17 STBD 017

Rule of Thumb Relative bearing LESS than 360° LEFT (port) drift

In the previous paragraph it was assumed that drift was known. When this is not the case,
the following procedure is recommended:-

 Put the aircraft on the required track with the beacon dead ahead (000° rel).

 Maintain heading and watch the Relative Bearing Indicator. If the relative
bearing increases the aircraft is experiencing port drift.

 Alter heading, say, 30° starboard to regain track. The relative bearing will
become 330° when track is regained.

 Assume a likely drift (for instance, 10° port) and calculate a new heading to
maintain track. When this heading has been taken up, the relative bearing will
become 350°.

 If the drift has been correctly assessed, this relative bearing will be maintained
until overhead. If the relative bearing changes however, further heading
alterations and a new assessment of drift will be necessary.

Figure 11: Assessing Drift Inbound

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DRIFT ESTIMATION AND TRACK MAINTENANCE OUTBOUND

After overflying a beacon in still air (so no drift) and maintaining a fixed heading and airspeed,
ADF tuned to the beacon overflown should indicate 180° relative. When the aircraft is
experiencing starboard drift, however, the ‘back’ relative bearing of the beacon overflown will
be greater than 180° by the amount of the drift. With port drift the ‘back’ relative bearing will be
less than 180° by the amount of the drift. Figure 12 refers. It is important that the aircraft should
maintain a steady heading since passing directly overhead the beacon if this method of drift
finding is to be accurate.

Figure 12: Drift Assessment Outbound

Rule of Thumb: Relative bearings less than 180, Left (port) Drift.

After determining the drift in the manner described above, an aircraft requiring to maintain a
specific track away from a beacon would probably proceed as follows:-

 Make a marked alteration (typically 30°) of heading to regain required track

quickly.

 When back on required track, steer a heading to maintain this track, making due
allowance for the drift.

A steady relative bearing would now be expected, the value being 180° plus the amount of
starboard drift allowed for, or 180° minus the port drift allowed for. Figure 13 illustrates the
whole procedure.

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Figure 13: Determining Drift and Maintaining Track away from an NDB

TRACKIN BETWEEN NDBs

Consider an aircraft flying an airway the centre line of which passes through two reporting
points marked by NDBs. If the relative bearing of the beacon ahead is 000° and the one astern
180°, the aircraft is on the centre line. This is illustrated in Figure 14(a) where the ADF bearing
pointers are shown considerably enlarged and flying in the horizontal plane. Since they are 180°
apart in this case, the aircraft must be on the straight line drawn between the two beacons that
the needles are pointing.

Suppose now the relative bearing of the NDB ahead is 010° and the one astern 190° as depicted
by Figure 14(b). The two needles are again (190 - 010) = 180° apart and point directly to their
respective beacons, so they must lie in the straight line between those beacons. The aircraft is
‘on track’.

Consider another situation with the relative bearing ahead 015° and astern 175°. The bearing
pointers are not in line (175 – 015 = 160°) and Figure 14(c) shows that the aircraft must be to
port of the airway centre line. Figure 14(d) is a little more complicated, the forward relative
bearing being 355°, the ‘back’ relative bearing being 160°. The diagram shows that the aircraft
is again port of track, the angle between the pointers being 355° to 160° = 165° (measured on the
right hand side).

The final Figure 14 (c) shows an aircraft to starboard of the centre line with relative bearings
340° and 165°. The smaller angle (340 – 165 = 175°) between the pointers is now on the left
hand side. If a rule is required-the centre line is on the side where the angle between the pointers
is less than 180°. If the angle between the relative bearings is exactly 180°, then the aircraft is on
the centre line. In practice, a two-needle RMI displays these situations with great clarity.

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Figure 14: Tracking between Beacons

OPERATIONAL RANGE OF ADF

Reasonably accurate bearings can be obtained with ADF in good reception conditions provided
surface waves are in use. Any bearings obtained using sky waves are completely unreliable. For
example, a bearing obtained at night from a powerful NDB approximately 1 000 nm distant
would be highly suspect because at that long range the signal must have followed the sky wave
path. The main factors which affect the range at which usable ADF bearings can be obtained are
listed below:-

• Power Output of NDB. Range obtain is proportional to the square root of the
power output-for example it is necessary to quadruple the power in order to
double the range.
• Frequency. The lower the frequency of the transmitter, the greater the surface
wave ranges.
• Surface. Medium frequency and, to a lesser extent, low frequency signals are
attenuated more quickly by land surface than by sea. Range obtained over sea
may be as much as three times that obtained over land.
• Precipitation Static. Static electrical discharges associated with precipitation or
atmosphere dust particles may increase the ambient radio noise level sufficiently
to obscure (‘blanket’) the NDB transmissions. Wick discharges on trailing edges
and suppressed aerials (mounted under the skin of the airframe) are used to
minimize this effect.
• Type of Emission. Unmodulated A0 and A1 emissions have greater effective
range than A2 emissions for NDBs having the same power output.
• ADF Receiver Quality. A sensitive receiver is able to detect very weak signals.
If the receiver is also highly selective, these long-range signals may be usable
even under conditions of interference from other transmitters on adjacent
frequencies.
• Interference. Beyond the ‘Promulgated Range’ of a beacon, as explained in
paragraphs 38 and 39, interference from other facilities may cause unacceptable
errors; accordingly an NDB should not be used beyond its promulgated range
(typically 50 nm).

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ACCURACY OF ADF

Under ideal conditions, the bearing accuracy of ADF may be as good as ±12° but the various
factors which in practice may reduce the accuracy are listed below in approximately order of
severity:

Thunderstorm Effect. When flying in areas of thunderstorm activity the ADF needle may point
in the direction of nearby Cb clouds or be deflected away from the tuned beacon, giving very
large errors in the indicated bearing. The error may approach 180°, for instance there may be a
false indication of station passage during an ADF/NDB let-down. If Cb are forecast the ADF
operator should listen out and check the level of radio noise on the tuned frequency. If the noise
becomes severe, bearings should not be relied on and should be checked by some UHF or VHF
aid.

Night Effect. At night, when the attenuating D-layer is insignificant, strong sky waves are
returned to earth from the E and F layers. Phase differences between surface and sky waves
produce fading, loss of signal, a wandering needle. In addition, the sky waves induce unwanted
voltages in the loop that can cause large bearing errors of up to 90°. (A more detailed discussion
of night effect appears in ADF Annex B appended to the notes for professional pilots.) The
following operating precautions are recommended:

• Avoid only use of ADF within one hour of sunrise or sunset (when changing
ionosphere conditions give worst reception).
• Only use bearings taken well within the known daytime surface wave range of a
beacon.
• Treat bearing with suspicion if the signal is fading or the bearing needle wanders.
• Use VHF or UHF aids if available, to check ADF bearings.

Interference. Errors caused by interference from other transmitters on the same or closely
adjacent frequency can be very large if an NDB is used outside its promulgated range by day,
and furthermore, such errors may occur within the promulgated range circle by night. (More
details of this aspect appear in paragraphs 38 and 39).

Mountain Effect. Hills and mountain effectively re-radiate LF and MF waves from an NDB
so that the ADF aerials may receive simultaneously a direct transmission and one or more
reflections. The different path lengths involved produce phase differences in the signals with
consequent received signal strength fluctuations, but the main effect is for the bearing pointer
to indicate a direction somewhere between the direct and the reflected signals. Errors are
unlikely to exceed 10° and flying higher reduces them.

Coastal Refraction. Because the effective speed of radio waves is less when travelling over
land than over sea, signals are refracted when crossing a coastline at any angle other than 90°.
The errors (which though not accurately predictable, are unlikely to exceed 10°) can be
minimized by taking bearings with the signal crossing the coast at or near 90°, by using
beacons on or near the coast, or by flying higher. Figure 15 illustrates the rule for coastal
refraction that a signal crossing from land to sea in bent away from the normal (the line
perpendicular to the coast at the crossing point), and that error decrease for bearings near the
normal.

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Figure 15: Coastal Refraction

Figure 16 demonstrates that for a given amount of refraction, a plotted ADF position line will
have a much greater error if the beacon is well inland than if it is the coast.

Angle of Bank (dip). A loop aerial is designed to use vertically polarized waves for direction
finding. If the incoming wave has any horizontal component of polarization it will induce
currents in the top and bottom horizontal members of the loop resulting in a circulating
current. This would destroy the nulls of polar diagram (similar to night effect) and reduce the
accuracy of the bearings. The angle of bank during a turn causes emfs to be induced in the
horizontal elements of the loop thereby leading to a bearing error which is referred to as dip
error. This error is only present when the aircraft is not in level flight.

Lack of Failure Warning System. False indications due to a failure in the system are not
readily detectable because of the absence of failure warning on most ADF instruments.
Particular care should therefore be exercised in identifying and monitoring the NDB and
independent cross checks made with other navigational aids where possible. It is essential
that when using the ADF as the primary navigation aid, for example for a runway approach
procedure, that it is continuously monitored to detect any failure.

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Figure 16: Position Like Refraction Errors

Quadrantal Error. The theoretical reception pattern (polar diagram) of the loop aerial is
distorted by the presence of the airframe. The incoming radio waves are re-radiated from the
beacon parts of the aircraft. The loop aerial is therefore receiving waves direct from the beacon
together with a march weaker signal from the airframe itself. The better effect of this is as though
the incoming signal were being refracted towards the fore and aft axis. A signal arriving from
ahead or astern (that is, parallel to the axis) is therefore not normally affected. A signal arriving
from the beam, that is, at right angles to the fore and aft axis, is also not subject to this error, the
tendency to bend left being equal and opposite to the tendency to turn right. The maximum errors
will occur for signals arriving from the quadrantal directions ( relative to the nose) of 045°, 135°,
225°, and 315° (see Figure 17).

Figure 17: Quadrantal Error

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The foregoing sentences attempt to explain simply what is in fact a very complex interference
situation, the effects of which will depend on the plan form of the aircraft and the positioning of
the loop aerial. Uncorrected, the errors on quadrantal points could exceed 20°, but manufacturers
build in to the equipment a large degree of correction and also incorporate a compensating device.
This device is used to correct the errors found by comparing indicated with known bearings
during a ‘loop swing’-an operation similar in principle to a compass swing. If desired, a
quadrantal correction (QC) card can be carried in the aircraft to correct for any small residual
errors.

INTERFERENCE

In Europe, the LF and MF frequency bands are congested, with the result that some facilities have
to share a frequency. Where this occurs the facilities are normally well separated geographically,
and the power outputs of the transmitters are restricted. Each NDB in the UK (and some other
parts of Europe) has a service range promulgated in the Air Pilot and flight guides. Within this
range by day, interference from other transmitters will not be severe enough to produce
significant errors in ADF bearings. By limiting the power outputs of NDBs, a Protection Radio of
at least 3 to 1 is established for NDBs by day in the UK. (Protection Radio is the ratio of Wanted
to Un-wanted received signal strengths.)

By night the protection ratio cannot be guaranteed within the promulgated range because sky
waves from distant stations increase the strength of unwanted signal, so reducing the ratio of
wanted to unwanted signal strengths received. When the ADF is receiving signals from two
stations, as may happen in interference conditions, the ADF bearing needle will point somewhere
between the two transmitters. To reduce the risk of obtaining inaccurate bearings due to
interference, the following precautions should be taken:
a. No attempt should be made to use an NDB beyond its promulgated range.
b. The operator should listen out, especially at night, for background morse, speech or
music, switching the BFO on in case the interference is unmodulated.
c. If an interfering signal is audible, it may be possible to off-tune the receiver slightly away
from the unwanted frequency. Alternatively, with some ADF receivers, the interference
can be reduced by choosing a narrower pass band setting on the selectively switch.
d. Any VHF or UHF aids available should be used to check the ADF bearings.

NDB is monitored for;

1. Radiated power it is not allowed to fall below 50% level.
2. Failure of identification signal
3. Failure of monitor itself
4. Other malfunctions

Accuracy

± 5° in the protected range during DAY only.

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ADF SUMMARY

NDB Ground transmitter in LF or MF band (190 – 1750 kHz)

Types of NDB: Locator (L) - airfield let-down (10 – 25 nm)

En Route - Nav- aid (50 nm or more)

Range (nm) 3 x√ P (W) over water

2 x √ p (W) over land

ADF Airborne equipment – aerials, receiver, control unit, indicator (RBI / RMI)

Principle of operation (Relative) Bearing by switched cardioids

Frequencies 190 – 1750 kHz (LF & MF)

Emission characteristics N0NA1A – BFO ON for tuning, identification and monitoring

NONA2A – BFO ON for tuning, OFF otherwise

Presentation RBI or RMI

Uses of NDB Homing, Holding, Approach, En route nav-aid

Errors Static interference (precipitation and thunderstorm)

Station interference
Night effect
Mountain effect
Coastal refraction
Quadrantal error
Bank angle (dip)
Lack of failure warning

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QUESTIONS

1). The phenomena of coastal refraction which affects the accuracy of ADF bearings:

a) is most marked at night

b) can be minimised by using beacons situated well inland
c) can be minimised by taking bearings where the signal crosses the coastline at right
angles.
d) is most marked one hour before to one hour after sunrise and sunset

2). An aircraft is intending to track from NDB ‘A’ to ‘NDB ‘B’ on a track of 050º (T), heading
060º (T). If the RBI shows the relative bearing of ‘A’ to be 180º and the relative bearing of
‘B’ to be 330º then the aircraft is:

a) Port of track and nearer ‘A’

b) Port of track and nearer ‘B’
c) Starboard of track and nearer ‘A’
d) Starboard of track and nearer ‘B’

3). ADF Quadrantal Error is caused by:

a) static build up on the airframe and St. Elmo’s Fire

b) The aircraft’s major electrical axis, the fuselage, reflecting and re-radiating the
incoming NDB transmissions
c) Station interference and/ or night effect
d) NDB signals speeding up and bending as they cross from a land to water propagation
path.

4). The overall accuracy of ADF bearings by day within the Promulgated Range (DOC) is:

a) ± 3º
b) ± 5º
c) ± 6º
d) ± 10º

5). In order to Tune, Identify and Monitor NON A1A NDB emissions the BFO should be used
as follows:

Tune Identify Monitor

a) On On Off
b) On On On
c) On Off Off
d) Off Off Off

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6). The magnitude of the error in position lines derived from ADF bearings that are affected by
coastal refraction may be reduced by:

a) Selecting beacons situated well inland

b) Only using beacons within the designated operational coverage
c) Choosing NIN A2A beacons
d) Choosing beacons on or near the coast

7). An aircraft is tracking away from an NDB on a track of 023º(T). If the drift is 8º port and
variation 10º west, which of the RMIs illustrated below shows the correct indications?

d correct

8). The BFO facility on ADF equipment should be used as follows when a NDB having NON
AIA type emission is to be used:

a) BFO on for tuning and identification but may be turned off for monitoring
b) BFO on for tuning but can be turned off for monitoring and identification purpose
c) BFO off during tuning, identification and monitoring because this type of emission is
not modulated
d) BFO should be switched on for tuning, ident and monitoring

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9). The Protection Ratio of 3.1 that is provided within the Promulgated range/ Designated
Operational Coverage of an NDB by day cannot be guaranteed at night because of:

a) Long range skywave interference from other transmitters

b) Skywave signals from the NDB to which you are tuned
c) The increased skip distance that occurs at night
d) The possibility of sporadic E return occurring at night

10). An aircraft has an RMI with two needles. Assume that:

i) The aircraft is outbound from NDBY on a track of 126º (M) drift is 140º Port.
ii) A position report is required when crossing a QDR of 022 from NDB Z.

a correct

11). Each NDB has a range promulgated in the COMM section of the Air Pilot. Within this
range interference from other NDBs should not cause bearing errors in excess of:

a) day ±5
b) night ± 10
c) day ±6
d) night ±5

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12). The range promulgated in the Air Pilot and flight guides for all NDBs in the UK is the
range:

a) Within which a protection ratio of 3.1 is guaranteed by day and night

b) Up to which bearings can be obtained on 95% of occasions
c) Within which bearings obtained by day should be accurate to within 5º
d) Within which protection from skywave protection is guaranteed.

13). In order to resolve that 180º directional ambiguity of a directional LOOP aerial its polar
diagram is combined with that of a SENSE aerial……………to produce a …………
whose single null ensures the ADF needle moves the shortest distance to indicate the
correct…………….

a) at the aircraft, cardioids, radial

b) at the transmitter, limacon, bearing
c) at the aircraft, limacon, bearing
d) at the aircraft, cardioids, bearing

14). The protection ratio afforded to NDBs in the UK within the Promulgated range (DOC)
applies:-

a) by day only
b) by night only
c) both day and night
d) at dawn and dusk

15). The phenomena of coastal refraction affecting ADF bearings is caused by the
signal_____ when it reaches the coastline and bending_____ the normal to the coast:

a) accelerating towards
b) decelerating towards
c) accelerating away from
d) decelerating away from

16). In an ADF system, night effect is most pronounced:

a) during long winter nights

b) when the aircraft is at low altitude
c) when the aircraft is at high altitude
d) at dusk and dawn

17). When the induced signals from the loop and the sense antenna are combined in an ADF
receiver, resultant polar diagram is:

a) a limacon
b) a cardioids
c) figure of eight shaped
d) circular

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18). When flying over the sea and using an inland NDB to fix position with a series of position
lines, the plotted position in relation to the aircraft’s actual position will be:

a) further from the coast

b) closer to the coast
c) co-incident
d) inaccurate due to the transmitted wave front decelerating

19) An aircraft on a heading of 235º (M) shows an RMI reading of 090º with respect to an
NDB. Any quadrantal error which is affecting the accuracy of this bearings is likely to
be:

a) a maximum value
b) a very small value
c) zero, since quadrantal error affects only the RBI
d) zero, since quadrantal error affects only the VOR

20). The principal propagation path employed in an NDB/ADF system is:

a) skywave
b) surface wave
c) direct wave
d) ducted wave

21). The ADF of an aircraft on a heading of 189º (T) will experience the greatest effect due to
Quadrantal Error if the NDB bears:

a) 234º (T)
b) 279º (T)
c) 225º (T)
d) 145º (T)

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VHF OMNIDIRECTIONAL RADIO RANGE (VOR)

VOR is the abbreviations for Very High Frequency Omni directional Radio Range, a
source of position lines, which is also widely known as ‘Omni’. The VOR ground beacon
in conjunction with suitable airborne VOR receiving and display equipment constitutes the
standard ICAO short range navigation aid, the ‘short range’ implying up to 200 nm from
the VOR. Ideally the VOR station is associated with a DME facility (another ‘point
source’ aid) so that an aircraft can fix its position by means of a VOR bearing and DME
range from the point. This aspect is further discussed in the section on DME.

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

The beacon emits a reference signal with a circular (omni-directional) horizontal radiation
pattern. On the same carrier frequency (typically 116.4 MHz) it emits a ‘limacon’
(directional) radiation pattern (shaped much like the cardioid illustrated in ADF theory)
that is made to rotate in the horizontal plane. At any given time and range from the beacon
the phrase of a modulation on the reference signal is the same on all bearings, but at the
same instant and range the phase of a modulation of the rotating pattern depends on the
bearing from the transmitter, as explained later.

It is arranged that an observer due North (Magnetic) of the beacon receives the two
modulations ‘in phase’. Moving clockwise from North, the phase difference increases on a
1:1 basis with the bearing. So on a bearing of 010 (M) from the transmitter the phase
difference is 10°, while due East (Magnetic) the phase difference is 90° as depicted in
Figure 1.

The airborne VOR receiver measures the phase difference, so establishing the bearing of
the aircraft from the transmitter.

Figure 1 Phase Difference and Bearing

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Further Details. The rotating signal completes 30 revolutions per second. This means that
to an observer on a particular bearing the rotating signal strength (amplitude) reaches a
peak 30 times per second. Another way of describing this is to say that the radio frequency
carrier wave has been amplitude-modulated at a frequency of 30 Hz, the phase of this
modulation will depend on the bearing from the transmitter, since a second observer on a
different bearing from the first will receive the peak signal strength at a different instant in
time. (This rotating pattern is commonly called the vary-phase signal.)

Phase differences can only be measured on the same frequency for each signal. The non-
rotating reference signal is therefore frequency-modulated at 30Hz, the phase of this
modulation being independent of bearing. The two 30 Hz modulations are arranged to be
‘in phase’ on the 360° radial, that is, due to North (Magnetic) of the VOR. Thus airborne
phase difference measurement between the 30 Hz modulations gives the magnetic bearing.

VOR TERMINOLOGY

Radial. This term is used for the magnetic bearing from a VOR station, and so is similar in
meaning to QDR.

Figure 2 is intended to show that the position of an aircraft relative to a VOR may be
described in more than one manner. This is undesirable and the first method, ‘inbound or
outbound’ on a radial is recommended.

Figure 2: Radials

This aircraft can be described as:- This aircraft can be described as:-

Inbound on the 270 radial. Outbound on the 090 radial.

Flying 090 To the VOR. Flying 090 From the VOR.
Approaching the VOR on Leaving the VOR on a radial
a radial (QDM 090). (QDR 090).

TRANSMISSION DETAILS

Frequencies. VOR beacons operate in the VHF band between 108.0 and 117.9 MHz. The
frequencies allocated to VOR within this band are:-

108.0, 108.2, 108.4 MHz spacing up to 111.8 MHz, giving 20 channels.

112.0, 112.1, 112.2 MHz at 0.1 MHz spacing up to 117.9 MHz, giving another 60 channels.

Station Identification. The beacon usually identifies with a three-letter aural Morse group at
least six times per minute in UK. Some VOR emissions are modulated to carry voice
identification, and some beacons broadcast weather information.

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Monitoring. In the event of a VOR transmitter developing a fault or if the bearing error at the
transmitter site exceeds 1° an automatic monitoring device brings in a reserve transmitter. This
process may take several minutes, during which time erroneous bearing information may be
transmitted. With some VORs, as a warning to users, the station identification is removed from
the transmission during the changeover. Pilots using a VOR should therefore monitor the
identification particularly when using the beacon to make an approach. This is also applicable
when:

a) Reduction 15% Signal strength, of both or either of the 30Hz modulations, or of the RF
carrier frequency.

b) A failure of the monitor

IDENTIFICATION

UK VORs use 3 letter aural morse sent at approximately 7 groups/minute, at least every 10
seconds. The ident’ may also be in voice form e.g. “This is Miami etc” immediately followed
by the morse ident. The voice channel is used to pass airfield information via ATIS. This
information uses AM (amplitude modulation) and is transmitted at the same time as the
bearing information. A continuous tone or a series of dots identifies a TEST VOR (VOT).

MONITORING

All VOR beacons are monitored by an automatic site monitor. The monitor will warn the
control point and remove either the identification and the navigational signals or switch off the
beacon in the event of the following:

 Bearing information change exceeding 1º.

 A reduction of > 15% in signal strength, of both or either of the 30Hz modulations, or of
the RF carrier frequency

 A failure of the monitor.

PROTECTION RANGE AND PROTECTIONAL ALTITUDE

Only eighty spot frequencies are allocated for use by thousands of VOR stations operating in
various parts of the world. VORs which have to share a frequency are widely separated
geographically and since the transmissions are ‘line of sight’ the curvature of the earth
normally gives protection from mutual interference, provided the aircraft is not ‘too high or
too far’.

To minimize the risk of interference errors, each VOR in the UK has a protection range and
protection altitude published in the UK Air Pilot. Typical figures are 80 nm, 25 000 feet.
Within the protection range and protection altitude limits, no significant interference from
other VORs on the same frequency should occur. Beyond these published limits the curvature
of the earth no longer gives protection from interference and consequently VOR bearing
information ceases to be reliable.

With some VORs there may be a sector where interference is significantly more or less than in
the rest of the service area of the beacon. In such a case a separate protection range and/or
protection altitude may be published for the sector concerned.

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Unlike the ‘promulgated range’ of an NDB, the protection limits for a VOR are still valid at
night. This is because the VHF band used by VOR is almost completely free of sky wave
activity and so is not subject to the ‘night effect’ of the lower frequency bands caused by
diurnal changes in the ionized layers.

OPERATIONAL RANGE OF VOR

The main factors which affect the range at which usable VOR bearings can be obtained are
listed below:

a. Power Output of VOR. Airways VOR stations have a power output of 200 watts
giving a maximum range with standard receiving equipment of about 200 nm. Lower
powered TVORs (Terminal VORs) with a power output of 50 watts have a maximum
range which should not exceed 100 nm. In both cases the ranges quoted assume line
of sight, transmitter to receiver.

b. VHF Line of sight Transmission. VOR transmissions are ‘line of sight’ so the
maximum range of reception will depend on aircraft altitude, elevation of the
transmitting aerials above sea level and the height of high ground between beacon
and aircraft. The approximate maximum ranges of line of sight aids such as VOR,
VDF, and DME can be calculated from the formula:-

Range (nm) = 1.23 (√h1 + √h2)

Where h1 is VOR elevation (feet AMSL), h2 is the aircraft altitude (feet AMSL)

Use of the formula is tedious, so as a rough guide the table opposite has been included.

It lists approximate reception ranges to be expected for a line of sight facility (such as
VOR) situated at sea level. Note that even at altitudes well above 25 000 ft, satisfactory
reception is unlikely to extend much above 200 nm.

Aircraft Altitude Maximum Reception Range

(feet) (nm)
1 000 40
3 000 70
5 000 90
10,000 125
15,000 150
20,000 175
25,000 200

Protection Limits. The published protection range and protection altitude impose limits on the use
of a VOR in that significant or beyond its protection range.

TYPES OF VOR

BVOR A broadcast VOR which gives weather and airfield information between beacon
identification.

DVOR A Doppler VOR – this overcomes sitting errors

TVOR Terminal VOR which has only low power; and is used at major airfields.

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VOT This is found at certain airfields and broadcast a fixed omni-directional signal
for a 360° test radial. This is not for navigational use but is used to test an
aircraft’s equipment accuracy before IFR flight. More than +/-4° indicates that
equipment needs servicing.

VORTAC Co-located VOR and TACAN (DME) beacons

DBVORTAC Combination

DESIGNATED OPERATIONAL COVERAGE – (DOC)

To guarantee no co-frequency interference between the 160 frequencies available worldwide,

it would be necessary to separate co-frequency beacons by at least twice their anticipated line
of sight range. E.g. an aircraft at a height of 25,000’ and the VOR situated at MSL.

Reception range (nm) = 1.25 x √25,000

= 198 nm
Separation = 396 nm

Transmitter power, propagation paths and the degree of co-frequency interference protection
required, necessitate co-frequency beacons to be separated for planning purposes by an extra
100nm to about 500nm. In practice, a beacon is protected as far as is deemed necessary and
this is not always the anticipated line of sight reception range.

ACCURACY OF VOR

As stated earlier, the bearing accuracy at the VOR transmitter is maintained at ±1° in the
UK by automatic monitoring. An aircraft in flight is unlikely to obtain such high quality
bearings but the overall accuracy of VOR should not be worse than ±7½°. Some factors
which affect accuracy are listed below:

Site Errors. Figure 3shows that transmitted energy may reach the aircraft not only via the
direct path but also in the form of reflected (re-radiated) energy. The composite signal
received by the aircraft in this manner will have an electrical phase that differs from the
phase of the desired direct signal; and since the aircraft receiver can only detect the
composite energy that reaches it along all paths, an appreciable error in bearing will result.
To minimize such effects the ground beacon should be, ideally, sited on flat terrain with
no large buildings, hills, or other prominences in the immediate vicinity. In practice, such
ideal locations cannot often be found. Sectors of a VOR beacon service area, which are
known to suffer from this form of error, are promulgated in the Air Pilot.

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Figure 3: Site Errors

Propagation Errors. Bearing errors known as ‘bends’ or ‘scalloping’ may occur at

considerable distances from the beacon and are produced by uneven propagation over
irregular terrain. Where these errors are known, they are promulgated in the Air Pilot.

Airborne Equipment Errors. It is difficult to measure the phase difference with the
desired accuracy, each degree of phase difference equating to one degree of bearing.
However, receiver/indicator errors should not exceed ±3°.

Interference Errors. Significant errors caused by interference from other VORs can
affect bearing information obtained beyond the protection limits. Consequently, to
quote the Air Pilot, ‘no attempt should be made to obtain navigational guidance from a
VOR facility when an aircraft is outside the prescribed protection altitude or range, or
below the line of sight of the facility’. (Below line of sight, the desired signal strength
could be very much reduced, so that the effect of any slight interference would
become more significant. Additionally, propagation errors tend to be more severe near
the surface.)

PRESENTATION OF INFORMATION

Information derived from the VOR signal received at the aircraft may be fed to a flight
director system or to the more simple displays described below.

VOR/ILS Deviation Indicator. As the name implies, this instrument displays VOR or ILS
information, and is widely used in light aircraft. It may be known as a VOR/LOC indicator
particularly if it is a simplified version having a localiser needle but no glide path needle for
use with ILS.

In the VOR role the instrument indicates the displacement of the aircraft with respect to a
bearing (to or from the VOR station) which the pilot has selected on his Omni Bearing
Selector (OBS). This displacement (or deviation) is presented by a Left/ Right needle which,
because of the dual role (VOR/ILS) of the indicator, is sometimes known as the localiser
needle even when the instrument is being used in the VOR role. This can be confusing to the
newcomer to this type of indicator; further confusion may arise when this instrument, while
being used in the VOR role, is referred to as ‘the ILS indicator’.

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Figure 4 is designed to show that the displacement of the needle depends on the angular
position of the aircraft relative to the selected bearing and is independent of the way the
aircraft is pointing. In other words, for a given position and bearing selection, the heading of
the aircraft does not affect the display on a deviation indicator.

Inspection of Figure 4 shows that aircraft at positions 1 and 3 receive a Fly Right indication.
(It is best to consider the aeroplane as being at the centre of the instrument display with the
selected bearing ‘to and through’ the station, represented by the needle, over to the right.) If
the aircraft lay exactly on the selected bearing either to or from the station, the needle would
be central. Aircraft at positions 2 and 4 both receive a Fly Left indication (needle to the left of
centre) but note that the aircraft at position 4 must turn to the right to reduce its displacement
from the selected line

Figure 4: Left/Right Indications

Fig 5: VOR/ILS Deviation Indicator

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With further reference to Figure 4, we can say that the needle ‘sense’ is wrong for the
aircraft at position 4, and this is generally undesirable. To keep the needle sense correct
when flying a track to or from a VOR station, the aircraft’s heading should be about the
same as the track selected on the Omni Bearing Selector (plus or minus any drift
allowance). As the equipment normally includes an automatic To/From flag (see Figure 5)
a differently –worded rule can be stated to keep the needle sense correct:-
When inbound to a VOR, select the inbound track on the OBS, so that a To
indication appears.
When outbound from a VOR, select the outbound track on the OBS so that a From
indication is seen.

In Figure 5, the bearing of 080°, which the pilot has selected by tuning the OBS knob, is
showing in the OBS window and the To/From flag has automatically flicked to Form.
These indications would be obtained by an aircraft in the region of position 4 in Figure 4,
meaning that the aircraft (regardless of its heading) is displaced to the right of a magnetic
track of 080° from the VOR station. However, for this aircraft the needle sense is ‘wrong’
because its heading is near enough the reciprocal of the selected track of 080°. To put it
another way, the aircraft is inbound but an outbound track has been selected on the OBS.
We are going To the beacon (near enough) but we have a From flag showing. The pilot
had not studied the rules in paragraph 23!

The indicator drawn in Figure 5 is typical, but there are many variations depending on the
vintage and manufacturer. The azimuth scale shown is the most common type and has four
dots on each side of the aircraft is 10°, or more, displaced from the selected VOR bearing,
the needle will show full scale deflection, that is ‘five dot’ deflection, the centre circle
counting as the first dot. It should be noted that when the instrument is being used in the
ILS role, each dot represents only ½° displacement from the ILS localiser centre line.

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As stated earlier, in addition to the Left/Right display the deviation indicator shows a To
or a From flag depending on whether:-
• The aircraft’s QDM is within about 80° of the bearing selected, in which case To
appears.
• The aircraft’s QDR is within about 80° of the bearing selected, in which case From
appears.
This leaves two sectors about 20° wide in, which an indeterminate To/From indication is
obtained. Figure 6 depicts the deviation indicator in the various sectors about the VOR
beacon. It should be remembered that the six indications in Figure 6 are completely
independent of the aircraft’s heading. They depend on the aircraft’s bearing from the
beacon and on the bearing that has been selected on the OBS.

If the VOR transmissions are faulty or the aircraft is out of range or the airborne power
supply is inadequate, an OFF-flag appears in a slot in the face of the indicator close to the
Left/Right needle.

In an aircraft equipped with VOR displaying bearings on a deviation indicator, the

procedure below should be followed in order to obtain a bearing.

• Check that aircraft altitude and DR position are not outside the published protection
limits for the VOR station concerned.
• Select the beacon frequency and carefully check the Morse station identifier.
• Turn the OBS knob until, if a QDM is required, the To/From indicator shows To and
the Left/Right (Localiser) needle is central. If the QDR (Radial) is required, the knob
can be rotated another 180° so that From is showing, with the needle central.
• Note the bearing indicated and the time the needle centered, checking that the station
identifier is still ‘on the air’.
• To plot the bearing as a true one, apply the variation that exists at the beacon. This is
because the bearing obtained in the aircraft is received in the form of a phase
difference directly proportional to the bearing reckoned from the magnetic meridian
through the VOR station. Subtract variation West, add variation East. Conversion
angle may need to be applied for Mercator plotting, depending on latitude and range
from the beacon.

There are a few other aspects of deviation indicators that are worth mentioning. Firstly, if
the instrument has an ILS glide path needle, this needle will be inoperative, centralised,
and flagged OFF when the indicator is being used to display VOR information.
Conversely, when ILS information is being displayed, the OBS is inoperative and the
To/From indication is meaningless.

Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI). The RMI provides an alternative means of presenting
VOR bearing information and it has been described at some length in the ADF notes.
Briefly, it has a remote-reading compass repeater card which indicates the aircraft’s
magnetic heading against a fixed heading index at the top of the instrument. A pointer
indicates on the compass card the aircraft’s QDM to the beacon. (Two needles are
common so that two bearings can be simultaneously displayed).

Students for professional licences should note that before display on the RMI, VOR
information must be processed differently from ADF information. This is because the
aircraft receives a magnetic bearing from the VOR ‘dispensed’ in the form of phase
difference, whereas the ADF equipment gives a direct indication of relative bearing. The
VOR QDM derived from the measured phase difference between the reference and vari-

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phase signals is converted to a relative bearing for display on the RMI. (This is achieved
by means of a ‘differential synchro’ that automatically subtracts the aircraft’s magnetic
heading from the VOR QDM.) The resulting relative bearing positions the RMI needle,
the

point of which, however, indicates the original QDM to the VOR because the magnetic
heading that was subtracted is in effect re-applied by the compass repeater card. If the
QDM to the VOR shown on the RMI is to be converted to a True bearing for plotting, the
variation at the VOR station must be applied.

As an example of the foregoing, and with reference to Figure 7, suppose the aircraft
heading is 040° (M) and the measured phase difference is 270°. The equipment derives
from the latter a QDM of 090 and subtracts the heading of 040° to give a relative bearing
of 050° which positions the RMI needle 50° clockwise from the heading index. (If there
were a difference in variation between the positions of the aircraft and VOR station, this
derived relative bearing would have a corresponding error but the QDM indicated by the
needle would still be correct.)

Continuing with the example, the RMI heading index reads 040 and the needle indicates
040 + 050 = 090, which is the correct QDM to the VOR based on the magnetic meridian at
the beacon. Compare this with the case of an ADF bearing displayed by RMI, the
magnetic bearing indicated being on the magnetic meridian at the aircraft.

Figure 7: VOR QDM on the RMI

One useful aspect of RMI presentation deserves mention. The arrowhead of the needle
shows the QDM of the beacon, so consequently the ‘tail’ end of this full-diameter pointer
indicates the reciprocal the QDM, that is, the radial on which the aircraft is positioned.
Thus both the bearing to and the bearing from the station are clearly displayed.

It is worthwhile making a comparison between the RMI and the OBS-type deviation
indicator. The RMI has certain disadvantages in that it is a more complex instrument
requiring additional hardware, including a remote-reading magnetic compass and the
appropriate power supplies. It is therefore heavier, occupies more space and is more
costly. In large aircraft these disadvantages are outweighed by the following advantages:-

• The RMI provides continuous indication of the QDM to a VOR (and the reciprocal of
the QDM, the radial, at the tail of the pointer).

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• Magnetic heading is also displayed, on the same instrument; a considerable asset when
homing to VOR or maintaining a track outbound.
• The approximate relative bearing of a beacon is immediately apparent, a ‘plan view’
of the local navigation situation being presented; most useful when flying a holding
procedure.
• As the pointer gives, automatically, a continuous indication of the VOR bearing, the
rate of crossing radials during interception of a radial is easily assessed.

• With two-needle RMIs, the bearings of two beacons can be simultaneously displayed-
particularly useful when flying along an airway using one beacon ahead (or astern) for
track-keeping, and a second off the airway for reporting abeam.
• ADF bearings can be displayed on an RMI.

IN-FLIGHT PROCEDURES

Typical use of VOR by an aircraft equipped with both an OBS-type deviation indicator
and an RMI is illustrated in Figure 8.

Figure 8: In-Flight Procedures

Radial Interceptions. In Figure 8 the aircraft is shown intercepting the 280 radial by
flying a heading of about 045° (M), commencing the turn shortly before making good the
radial so as not to overshoot it. In order to decide where to start turning, the pilot has to
assess his rate of crossing radials and then relate this to the number of degrees of turn
required. In this example let us suppose that by watching the RMI the pilot finds he is
crossing about 20° of radials per minute. He intends to turn on to a heading of 090° (M)
allowing for starboard drift inbound. So the turn is through 45° at say, rate one, taking 15
seconds. In 15 seconds, he should cross 3° of radials, so he would institute the turn on
reaching the 277 radial (or perhaps a little later since the precious rate of crossing radials
will decrease during the turn on to the inbound heading). Arrival at the 277 radial should
be announced by the Left/Right indicator showing about 1½ dot ‘fly left’ and the RMI
needle pointing a QDM of 097. In practice, such theoretical precision is unlikely to be
achieved, owing to system errors and changes in the rate of crossing radials.

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There are several factors affecting the rate of crossing VOR radials when flying the
intercepting track. These are:-

• Ground speed
• Angle of interception
• Range from the beacon

Almost inevitably, all these factors will to some extent change during the interception so
that any calculations can only be approximate.

Inbound Track-keeping. Having intercepted the inbound radial, the pilot maintains his
heading (of 090°M in the Figure 8 example) and watches the Left/Right needle. Suppose
the needle shows a progressively increasing displacement left; then the aircraft is moving
to the right of the desired inbound track. The drift allowance is insufficient and a heading
of 085° would perhaps be more suitable. The pilot would probably alter heading 30° port
on to 060°(M) until the needle centred, indicating the aircraft to be back on track, before
trying the new heading of 085°(M) and again watching the needle. Further alterations of
heading may be necessary before the aircraft is settled down on a good inbound heading
with the needle reasonably steady in the central position.

It is worth visualising how the RMI would behave during the homing just described. After
the interception, the heading of 090° would show against the heading index, the RMI
needle indicating 100° (the QDM to the VOR). As the starboard track-error developed,
this reading would progressively decrease while the Left/Right needle was moving left.
When the pilot turned left to regain track the RMI heading would move round to
060d°against the top index while the needle on to 085°(M). this value would again until it
reached 100° as track was regained and the pilot turned on to 085°(M). This value would
move round to the heading index, the RMI needle being 15° to the right of the index,
indicating 100°.

Station Passage. Overhead a VOR there is a ‘cone (or zone) of confusion’ with a vertical
angle of about 80°. This leads to indeterminate indications over the beacon which at high
level extend over a considerable area, for instance out to about 4 nm radius at 300 000 feet.
On the VOR/ILS indicator, the needle swings between hard left and hard right, the OFF
flag may appear temporarily, and the To/From indicator changes to From. The RMI needle
fluctuates and then rotates through 180° to indicate the QDM back to the beacon. At low
altitude these station passage indications are rapid, at high altitude they are slow.

Outbound Flight. The aircraft is shown outbound on the 150 radial on the right-hand side
of Figure 8. The indications are ideal, the To/From flag showing From, and the centralised
L/R needle showing the aircraft to be on the selected track of 150°. The RMI needle
showing a QDM of 330 back to the beacon confirms the information on the deviation
indicator. If these indications changed, showing a track error developing, the pilot would
normally make a firm heading alteration (typically 30°) to regain track before steering a
revised outbound heading appropriate to his revised assessment of drift.

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DOPPLER VORs

Doppler VORs (DVORs) are the second generation VORs, the main aim being to improve
the accuracy of the signals

Conventional transmitter suffer from reflections from objects in the vicinity of the site. It
was found that the errors due to this could be reduced if the horizontal dimensions of the
aerial system were increased. However, this could not be achieved with the conventional
method of transmission and a new approach was necessary.

In the DVOR system the reference (or constant phase) signal is transmitted from a central
aerial and is amplitude-modulated. The variable signal is transmitted from system of about
50 aerial encircling the central aerial and it is frequency-modulated. Thus the modulations
are employed in reverse roles. The circle of aerials is 44ft in diameter to give the necessary
Doppler shift, compared with the 10 ft high 6ft diameter dustbin-like structure of earlier
conventional VORs. The resultant propagation is much less sensitive to obstructions in the
vicinity, i.e. site error is less.

The rotation of the aerial is anti clockwise.

However, the transmission frequencies are the same, airborne equipment can receive and
process the signals and, as far as the operation on the flight deck is concerned, there is no
difference between VORs and DVORs. Accuracy of DVOR and of conventional VOR is
same.

Doppler VOR station

Test VORs

These are installed at certain aerodromes to enable the pilots to test the airborne VOR
equipment during the pre-flight checks. The transmitter are called VOTs and the
frequencies are published in the State’s AIPs. To test the airborne equipment from any
position on the aerodrome, just tune in to the channel and centralise the needle. OBS
counters should indicate 000 FROM or 180 TO. If they do not indicate within ± 4º, the
equipment requires servicing. A continuous tone or a series of dots identifies a test VOR.

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Cone of Silence / Cone of Confusion

VOR station does not transmit a usable signal vertically upwards. The inverted cone above
the transmitter is known as cone of silence or cone of confusion. The ICAO requirement is
that the cone subtends an angle of not more than 50º from the vertical as shown in the
figure below. The period during which an aircraft will not receive usable signal will
increase as the altitude is increased. During this period, the alarm flag will be visible
indicating station passage. The minimum radius of the cone of silence can be easily
calculated for a given altitude.

Question

What will be the distance (spacing) between two VORs defining the centre line of airway
which would ensure no aircraft could be out side the airway assuming an accuracy of VOR
± 5.5º. Airway width is 10nm.

(Answer 109 nm)

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VOR SUMMARY

Characteristics: Magnetic bearings, valid day and night

Frequency: 108 to 117.95 MHz; 160 channels

Uses: Airways; Airfield let-downs; Holding points; En-route

navigation

Principle of Op: Phase comparison of two 30 Hz signals

Identification: 3 letter aural Morse or Voice every 10 s, continuous tone

for VOT (also ATIS using AM on voice)

Monitoring: Automatic site monitor +-1º

Ident suppressed when standby transmitter initially
switched on

Types: CVOR – reference signal is FM; variphase signal is AM

-Limacon polar diagram rotating clockwise

DVOR – more accurate than CVOR due to less site error

-reference signal is AM, variphase signal is FM
- simulated anticlockwise rotation of aerial

TVOR – low power TX at airfields

VOT – Test VOR giving 180 radial

-aircraft should have < +/-4º

Operational range: Transmitter power

Line of sight
DOC valid day and night

Accuracy affected by: Site error (less with DVOR)

Propagation error
Scalloping (bending due to reflections from terrain)
Airborne equipment error (+/-3º)

Cone of confusion: OFF flag may appear; TO/FROM display and bearings
fluctuate
Airborne equip: Aerial, Receiver, Display (CDI / RMI)
CDI: 2ºper dot; max 10º; relationship between
indication and aircraft position
RMI: arrowhead gives QDM; tail gives QDR; Use
magnetic variation at station
In Flight procedures: Radial interceptions; Track keeping; Station passage

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QUESTIONS

1). Assuming the maximum likely error in VOR to be 5.5º, what is the maximum distance
apart that beacons can be situated on the centre line of a UK airway in order that an
aircraft can guarantee remaining within the airway boundary?

a) 54.5 nm
b) 109 nm
c) 66 nm
d) 132 nm

2). The Designated Operational Coverage quoted for VOR beacons in the COMM
section of the Air Pilot:

a) Is only applicable by day

b) Guarantees a Protection Ratio of at least 3 to 1 by day and night
c) Defines the airspace within which an aircraft is assured of protection from
interference from other VORs on the same channel
d) Is determined by the type of surface over which the signal will have to travel

3). An aircraft is tracking away from a VOR on the 050 radial with 10º starboard drift.
An NDB lies to the east of the VOR. Which of the RMIs illustrated below shows the
aircraft when it is obtaining a relative bearing of 100º from the NDB?

4). What is the theoretical maximum range that an aircraft at flight level 360 will obtain
from a VOR beacon situated at 900 feet above mean sea level?

a) 274 nms
b) 255 nms
c) 112 nms
d) 224 nms

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5). A Conventional VOR:

a) has a FM reference signal and an AM variable signal

b) has a 150Hz reference signal and a 90Hz variable signal
c) has a AM reference signal and a 150 Hz variable signal
d) has a AM reference signal and a FM variable signal

6). The OBS on a deviation indicator is set to 330º and gives a 3 dots fly right demand
with FROM indicated. What is the QDM of the aircraft to the station?

a) 144
b) 324
c) 336
d) 156

7). An aircraft is homing towards a VOR which marks the centre line of an airway. The
beacon is 100 nms distant. If the pilot had the airway QDM set on the OBS what
deflection of the deviation indicator would be given if the aircraft was on the
boundary of the airway? Assume that one dot equals 2 degrees.

a) 3 dots
b) 2 dots
c) 2.5 dots
d) 1.5 dots

8). What is the theoretical maximum range that an aircraft at flight level 420 will
obtain from a VOR beacon situated at 400 feet above mean sea level?

a) 225 nm
b) 256 nm
c) 281 nm
d) 287 nm

9). Concerning conventional and Doppler VORs (DVOR), which of the following is
correct?

a) There is no way of knowing from the instrumentation display which type is

being used
b) The DVOR will always have a “D” in the ident
c) The DVOR has a higher pitch ident than the standard VOR
d) The conventional VOR has less site error

10). In a Doppler VOR (DVOR) the reference signal is_____, the bearing signal is
______ and the direction of rotation of the bearing signal is______.

a) AM, FM, anti-clockwise

b) AM, FM, clockwise
c) FM, AM anti-clockwise
d) FM, AM, clockwise

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11). An aircraft is attempting to home to a VOR on the 064 radial. The CDI shows 4
dots fly right with a TO indication. At the same time co-located DME shows a
range of 45 nm. Where is the aircraft in relation to the required track?

a) 6 nm right of track
b) 3 nm right of track
c) 6 nm left of track
d) 3 nm left of track

12). A VOR beacon ceases to transmit its normal identification which is substituted by
‘TST’. This means that:

a) The beacon may be used providing that extreme caution is used

b) The beacon is undergoing maintenance or calibration and should not be used
c) This is a temporary short range transmission and will have approximately
half is normal range
d) The beacon is under test and pilots using it should report its accuracy to air
traffic control

13) What is the approximate maximum range that an aircraft flying at 25000’ would
expect to obtain from a VOR beacon situated 900’ above mean sea level?

a) 220 nm
b) 100nm
c) 235nm
d) 198nm

14) An aircraft is on the airway boundary range 100 nm from a VOR marking the
airway centre line. Assuming that each dot equates to 2º how many dots deviation
will be shown on the deviation indicator?

a) 3.0 dots
b) 2.5 dots
c) 2.0 dots
d) 1.5 dots

15). An aircraft is required to intercept and home to a VOR along the 064 Radial. The
OBS should be set to:

a) 064 to get correct needle sense and a TO indication

b) 244 to get correct needle sense and a TO indication
c) 064 to get correct needle sense and a FROM indication
d) 244 to get correct needle sense and a FROM indication

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16). An aircraft is tracking away from a VOR on the 150 radial with 10º starboard
drift. An NDB lies to the South of the VOR. Which of the RMIs illustrated below
shows the aircraft when it is obtaining a relative bearing of 100º from the NDB?

17). Assuming the maximum likely error in VOR to be 5º, what is the maximum
distance apart that beacons can be situated on the centre line of a UK airway in
order that an aircraft can guarantee remaining within the airway boundary?

a) 60nm
b) 100nm
c) 120nm
d) 150nm

18). An aircraft, heading 150º, is 100 nm north of a VOR, the pilot intends to home to
the VOR on the 030 radial. The pilot should set....on the OBS and on reaching the
030 radial should turn ...onto a heading of...., assuming zero wind.

a) 210 left 030

b) 030 right 210
c) 210 right 210
d) 150 left 210

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19). The type of emission radiated by a VOR beacon is:

a) A double channel VHF carrier with one channel being amplitude modulated
and the second channel being frequency modulated
b) A single channel VHF carrier wave amplitude modulated at 30 Hz with a sub
carrier being frequency modulated at 30 Hz
c) A VHF carrier wave with a 90 Hz frequency modulation and a 150 Hz
amplitude modulation
d) A VHF pulse modulated emission with a pulse repetition frequency of 30 pps.

20). An aircraft wishes to track towards a VOR along the 274 radial. If variation is 10º
W what should be set on the OBS?

a) 274
b) 264
c) 094
d) 084

21). An aircraft is tracking away from a VOR on a heading of 287ºM with 14º
starboard drift. If the variation is 6ºW what is the phase different between the
reference and variable phase components of the VOR transmission?

a) 121º
b) 295º
c) 301º
d) 315º d
22). What is the theoretical maximum range that a pilot would obtain from a VOR
situated 900 feet above mean sea level in an aircraft flying at 18,000 feet?

a) 168nm
b) 188nm
c) 205nm
d) 250nm

23). An aircraft is attempting to home to a VOR beacon. The pilot has a set 329 on the
OBS of the deviation indicator. If the aircraft is situated on the 152 radial then the
deviation indicator will show:

a) one and a half dots fly right

b) one and a half dots fly left
c) three dots fly right
d) three dots fly left

24). A VOR receiver in an aircraft measures the phase different from a DVOR as 220º.
which radial is the aircraft on?

a) 140
b) 040
c) 320
d) 220

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25). The RMI indicates the aircraft magnetic heading. To convert the RMI bearings of
NDBs and VORs to true bearings, the correct combination for the application of
magnetic variation is:

NDB VOR

a) beacon position aircraft position

b) beacon position beacon position
c) aircraft position beacon position
d) aircraft position aircraft position

26). Both the VOR and the ADF in an aircraft are correctly tuned and identified. The
indications from both are shown on the RMI illustrated. Use the information to
answer the following. The information given on the RMI indicates:

a) that the aircraft is heading 033º (M), is on the 310º radial from the VOR, and
bears 050º(M) from the NDB
b) that the aircraft is heading 330º (M), is on the 310º radial from the VOR, and
bears 050º(M) from the NDB
c) that the aircraft is heading 330º (M), is on the 130º radial from the VOR, and
bears 050º(M) from the NDB
d) that the aircraft is heading 330º (M), is on the 130º radial from the VOR, and
bears 230º(M) from the NDB

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27). The VOR in an aircraft is correctly tuned and set to define the centre line of an
airway within UK airspace which you intend to fly. The indication received on the
VOR/ILS deviation indicator is shown below. At the same time the DME gave a
range of 90nm from the facility. At the time of the observation, the aircraft’s
radial and distance from the airway centre-line were:

a) 062 radial 9 nm
b) 074 radial 6 nm
c) 242 radial 6 nm
d) 254 radial 9 nm

28). The normal maximum error which might be expected with a VOR bearing
obtained within the DOC is:

a. plus or minus 1º
b. plus or minus 2º
c. plus or minus 5º
d. plus or minus 10º

29) An aircraft is tracking away from VOR “A” on the 310º radial with 8º starboard
drift; NDB “X” is north of “A”. Which diagram below illustrates the RMI when
the aircraft is on its present track with a QDR from “X” of 270º?

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30). The VOR indications on an RMI whose deviation is not zero:

a) are magnetic
b) are compass
c) are relative
d) must have deviation applied before being used

31). An aircraft bears 175º (M) from a VOR. If the aircraft OBS is set to 002 and its
heading is 359º (M) which diagram below represents the aircraft VOR/ILS
deviation indicator? (assume 1 dot = 2º)

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INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM (ILS)

The Instrument landing System (ILS) is a runaway approach aid rather than a complete
landing system. It comprises ground beacons close to the runaway, and suitable airborne
receivers. Together they provide the pilot with very accurate guidance in azimuth and
elevation down to his critical/decision height. The guidance information is presented
visually to the pilot on an ILS ‘meter’ or on a combined VOR/ILS indicator or on a more
complex Flight Director display. The radio signals from the ILS ground beacons are
suitable for auto-coupling, that is to say they can be fed to the automatic pilot so that
automatic approaches can be made.

Note that a ‘precision instrument runaway’ is one served by ILS or Precision Approach
Radar. Internationally, ILS is the primary precision instrument runaway approach aid,
there being far fewer Precision Approach Radar installations.

ILS TRANSMITTERS

The ILS ground installation consists of:-

i) The ‘localiser’ transmitter that provides the azimuth guidance along the extended
centre-line if the ILS precision instrument runaway.
ii) The ‘glide path’ (or ‘glide slope’) transmitter that defines the approach path in the
vertical plane.
iii) Normally two marker beacon transmitters on the approach to provide range check
points.

LOCALISER

A typical localiser aerial array is about 80 feet wide and 12 feet high, radiating energy in
the direction of the approach, and positioned typically 300 metres beyond the upwind
(stop) end of the runway, as indicated in Figure 1. With some runaways it is impossible to
site the localiser aerial in the normal position, in which case it is situated to one side of the
runway near the upwind end and is known as an ‘offset localiser’. In such a case the QDM
of the localiser centre line might be a few degrees different from the runway QDM.

Figure 1: Localiser and Glide Path Transmitters

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The localiser transmissions provide azimuth guidance via the localiser needle of the
airborne ILS meter (or similar ILS display) as depicted in Figure 2. If the needle deflects
left on the final approach, then the on-course line is on the pilot’s left and a correction to
the left is necessary. If the needle is vertical the aircraft is on the centre line. If during final
approach the needle swings to the right, the centre of the ILS pilot’s right and an alteration
of heading to the right are necessary. To summaries, the centre of the ILS meter can be
considered to represent the aircraft’s position and if, during the final approach, the needle
is displaced to the right, then the extended centre line of the runway (or ‘on course’ line) is
on the pilot’s right, this means that to regain the centre line a heading alteration to the right
must be made so that the aircraft starts tracking towards the centre line and the needle
moves progressively towards the vertical position as the aircraft’s lateral displacement
from the on-course line is reduced.

Figure 2: Plan View of Approach

Localiser Range and Accuracy. In the UK the localiser transmissions are air-checked
(calibrated) for accuracy out to 10 nm from the runway on the centre line and protected
from interference out to a range of 25 nm at an altitude of 6250 feet along the centre line.
These limitations should be taken into account by pilots intending to use ILS localisers to
provide single navigational position lines.

GLIDE PATH

The glide path aerials are mounted on a mast about 30 feet tall positioned typically 300
metres upwind from threshold and offset in the region of 150 metres to one side of the
runway centre line (see Figure 1).

The glide path transmissions provide vertical guidance via the glide path needle of the
airborne ILS meter as shown in Figure 3. If the needle is horizontal, the aircraft is on the
centre line of the glide path. If the needle is below the horizontal, the pilot is ‘high on the
glide path’ and needs to increase his rate of decent. If the needle moves above the
horizontal, the aircraft is below the glide path centre line and the rate descent must be
reduced.

There is no identifier modulated on the glide path carrier wave. The glide path is calibrated
for accuracy on the centre line out to 10 nm from the runway.

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Figure 3 Side View of Approach

FREQUENCIES

Localiser. Localisers transmit in the VHF band on one of twenty spot frequencies between
108 and 112 MHz. Odd decimals are used; 108.1, 108.3, 108.5 MHz etc., at 200 kHz
spacing up to 111.9 MHz. Note that in the UK some military localisers utilise the even
decimals, for example 108.6 MHz. These even decimals are internationally allocated as
VOR frequencies but are not at present required in the UK for use by VOR stations.

Glide Path. Glide path transmissions are UHF with 20 spot frequencies allocated so:-
329.3, 329.6, 329.9 MHz, etc., at 300 kHz spacing up to 335 MHz.

Frequency Pairing. Localiser and glide path transmissions are ‘frequency-paired’. The
means that each localiser frequency has a specific glide path frequency allocated to it. For
instance, the localiser frequency 110.3 MHz would have its glide path frequency 335 MHz
whether the installation was in UK, USA, or elsewhere. The pilot does not have to
remember the pairings-on the contrary, he has only to select the desired localiser
frequency on his ILS tuner, the appropriate paired glide path transmission to carry
identifier.

The objects of frequency pairing are listed below:-

2. To reduce cockpit workload by making frequency selection quicker and easier.

3. To prevent the pilot from selecting the wrong glide path frequency for a given
localiser frequency.

DME PAIRED WITH ILS CHANNELS

A DME that is frequency paired with an ILS supplements or replaces the range
information from markers/locators.

The DME ranges are zero referenced to the ILS runway threshold

The DME is protected only within the ILS localiser service area up to 25,000 feet.
When necessary and notified, the DME is also used for published ‘SIDs’ and’
STARS’. In such cases the DME coverage is increased. The use of a DME outside the
stated limits may give rise to errors.

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ILS IDENTIFICATION

Separate identification is unnecessary for ILS localiser and glidepath transmissions as the
localiser and glidepath frequencies are paired. The selection of the localiser VHF frequency
automatically energises the glide path receiver circuits.

The Ident on the localiser transmission is a 2 or 3 letter more signal at 7 groups/min. The first
letter is usually “I”

The Identification is automatically suppressed if the ILS becomes unserviceable or is

withdrawn. When an ILS is undergoing maintenance, or is radiating for test purposes only, the
identification coding will either be removed completely or replaced by a continuous tone.
Under these conditions no attempt should be made to use the ILS as completely erroneous
indications may be received.

Additionally, in some instances, because of an unserviceable Glide Path, the ILS may be
radiating for localiser approaches only, in which case the identification coding will be
radiating. In this case ATC will warn all users of this fact and no attempt should be made to
use the Glide Path.

GLIDE PATH ANGLE

The angle which the centre of the glide path makes with the horizontal is normally about
3° though occasionally, especially at military aerodromes, it may be lower, perhaps 2½°.
Angles greater than 3° are sometimes found where there is high ground on the line of the
approach.

It is useful to be able to calculate the approximate rates of descent for different ground
speeds for a given glide path angle. The 1 in 60 rule can be used. A one degree slope
would be equivalent to 1 foot down in 60 along, for a 3° glide path involves a descent of
about 300 feet per nautical mile along the approach (taking 1 nm as roughly 6 000 feet).
Figure 4 illustrates this. (A descent of 350 feet per nautical mile along the approach would
be appropriate for a 3½° glide path.)

Figure 4: Three-degree Glide Path

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Following on from this, the approximate height of an aircraft above aerodrome level when
fling a 3° glide path can be determined by multiplying range from touchdown in nm by
300 feet. For example, height at 3½ nm would be approximately 1050 feet.

To determine the appropriate rate of descent in feet per minute for a3° glide path the
number of nautical miles travelled in a minute must be multiplied by 300 feet, so:-

Thumb Rules are as under:-

Rate of descent = Glide path angle x Ground speed per minute in feet
(ROD) 60

Or
ROD (ft per minute) = Glide path angle x GS kt per minute x100

The following thumb rules can be used for aircraft height above touch down.

Aircraft Height = glide path angle x distance of aircraft from touch down in feet
above touch down 60

Or

Aircraft Height = Glide path angle x (distance of aircraft from threshold in feet + 1000 feet)
above touch down 60

3° Glide Path

Approach GS Rate of Descent

60 kt = 1 nm/min x 300 = 300 feet/min

120 kt = 2 nm/min x 300 = 600 feet/min
150 kt = 2½nm/min x 300 = 750 feet/min

Similarly for a 3½° Glide Path:-

Approach GS Rate of Descent

60 kt = 1 nm/min x 350 = 350 feet/min

120 kt = 2 nm/min x 350 = 700 feet/min
150 kt = 3 nm/min x 350 = 875 feet/min

MARKER BEACONS

Marker beacon radiate a fan-shaped energy pattern that can be received in a limited sector
above the transmitting aerial. Since the radiation pattern is mainly vertical, it is impossible
to home to a marker beacon. For the same reason, there is very little mutual interference
between beacons (except at high levels) even though they operate on the same VHF band
frequency of 75 MHz (amplitude-modulated to provide identification).

Marker Receivers. These are designed to present aural and visual indications of passage
over the beacon and beacon identification. With modern installations the visual indications
utilise differently coloured lights for different types of marker. The receiver may also have
high/low or high/medium/low sensitivity switch positions.

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ILS Markers. Most IILS installations have an Outer and a Middle marker on the approach
centre line to establish range check points. Only rarely is an Inner (or boundary) marker
still found in UK or USA. Inner markers have little value in that the pilot will normally
have reached his critical/decision height near the Middle marker and will be making a
visual flare-out or overshooting by the time he passes the Inner marker,

Outer Markers. These are normally established between 3 and 6 nm from threshold
(average range 4½ nm). They are identified aurally by a series of low-pitched (400 Hz
modulation) dashes, emitted at a rate of two per second, and a blue light flashing in
synchronism with the audible dashes (assuming the multi-light system is fitted in the
aircraft).

Middle Markers. With these, the characters, alternate dot/dash, are more rapid (three per
second) and have a medium aural pitch (1300 Hz) with an amber light flashing in
synchronism with the audible dots and dashes. Range from threshold is normally between
½ and 1 nm (listed in metres, say 1500, in the Air Pilot).

Inner Markers. Rarely installed, these may be close to threshold and are identified by a
series of high-pitched (3000 Hz) dots at a rate of six per second, accompanied by a white
light flashing in synchronism on the marker beacon lights panel.

Airways Fan Markers and Z Markers. Marker beacons are also to be found along
airways, marking reporting points and intersections, and also on the old Low Frequency
Radio Range sites. On airways the markers are known simply as Fan Markers whereas the
marker with a vertical radiation pattern filling the Radio Range ‘cone of silence’ is known
as a Z Marker. Airways fan markers are usually identified by a single ‘high-pitched (3000
Hz modulation) morse letter which, in addition to being audible, activates the white light.
Z Marker emissions are usually modulated with a steady high-pitched audible tone (3000
Hz modulation) again activating the white light.

Marker Beacon Vertical Extent. Marker beacons have different power outputs
depending on their purpose. This influences the height at which they can be received. In
addition, most marker beacon receivers have a high/low sensitivity switch which also
affects the height of reception. Typical vertical reception limits quoted are :-

Low power l LS marker with aircraft receiver set to low sensitivity gives indications up to
about 3000 feet.
High power airways fan marker with aircraft receiver at high sensitivity can give
indications above 50 000 feet.

Marker Beacon Horizontal Extent. Since the marker beacon radiation pattern is directed
vertically, the horizontal extent of reception is limited. Th UK Air Pilot gives the
following figures for the duration of visual indications when the aircraft is flying the lLS
glide path at a ground speed of 96 kt :-

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Inner Marker ( when installed ) 2 to 7 seconds

Middle Marker 4 to 16 seconds
Outer Marker 8 to 32 seconds
The marked variations in the time taken to pass through, say the outer radiation pattern are
due to:-
a. Marker ranges from runway varying from one installation to another.
b. Individual beacon power outputs varying
c. Shape of radiation patterns being variable
d. Sensitivity of airborne receivers being variable

The spread of the marker beacon radiation pattern is much greater at high altitude,
indication being obtained for several miles near the marker site. A more accurate “on top”
position may be obtained by switching the airborne receiver to a lower sensitivity.

GROUND MONITORING OF ILS TRANSMISSIONS

Both the localiser and glide path are automatically monitored by equipment located in an
area of guaranteed reception. This equipment will act when:

 the loacaliser at the reference datum shifts from the runway centre-line by more than 35’
for Cat I, 25’ for cat II or 20’ for cat III.
 the Glide path angle changes more than 0.075 x basic glide path angle;
 there is a power reduction in output of more than 50% from any transmitter.

The monitoring unit will provide warning to a control point and cause any of the following
to occur before a stand-by transmitter is activated:

 Cessation of all radiation

 Removal of identification and navigational components of the carrier
 Cat II or III ILS may permit operation to the lower categories I or II.

TYPES OF EMISSION

Localiser, glide path and marker beacon emissions at present in use are all A2 ( amplitude-
modulated carrier waves )

AIRBORNE LLS EQUIPMENT

The aircraft radio equipment required to carry out an lLS approach comprises: -

(i) VHF localiser receiver

(ii) UHF glide path receiver
(iii) 75 MHz marker beacon receiver
(iv) Aerials, cabling, power supplies
(v) Marker beacon lights panel
(vi) LLS meter or other lLS display

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lLS METER

The lLS meter is cross-needle deviation indicator, which shows the aircraft’s horizontal
displacement form the localiser on-course line and vertical displacement from the centre
line of the glide path. The instrument is illustrated in Figure 5. If throughout the approach
the needles remain crosses within he centre circle, then the aircraft is flying on, or very
nearly on, the glide path centre line and the localiser on –course line.

Figures 5: lLS Meter

From Figure 5 it can be seen that the deflection scales extend five dots out from the centre,
the inner dot of each scale being joined together by a circle which therefore counts as "
“one dot" ”deflection. If a needle swings out so that it lies over the outer dot of the
appropriate scale, then the deviation is known as “ 5 dot deflection”, that is, full scale
deflection.

Flag Alarms. The needle moves to the centre and a flag alarm showing “ OFF” appears in
the appropriate window ( or across the appropriate needle with some types of indicator )
when :-

• the aircraft is outside the lLS “ service area” that is outside the radiation pattern of
either the localiser or glide path

• there is any significant fault in the transmission

• the ground or airborne equipment is switched off, or a failure has occurred

Localiser Indications. On the lLS meter localiser deflection scale, each dot represents ½º
displacement from the localiser centre line, so that full scale (full dot ) deflection left or
right implies that the aircraft is 2 2/1º ,or more, displaced from the localiser centre line.
This is depicted in Figure 6, which also shows that the localiser signal would probably be
lost at a point nearly abeam the aerials. The actual localiser service areas vary in extent
with the type of localiser installed.

It is worth comparing the localiser scale of ½ º per dot when used with lLS with the 2º per
dot with VOR (if the installation is such that VOR information can be fed to the needle as
an alternative to lLS localiser information)

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Figure 6: Localiser Service Area

Glide Path Indications. Until quite recently the glide path needle deflections were non-
linear due to the difficulties in producing a symmetrical radiation pattern of overlapping
lobes in the vertical plane. However, with current standard lLS installations in the United
Kingdom, it is safe to assume linearity of glide path needle deflection, above or below the
glide path, all the way to full scale deflection (that is, five dot deflection on most
indicators). This full-scale deflection corresponds to displacements on the aircraft or 0.7
ºabove or below the glide path. In other words, if we visualise the glide path needle
deflection progressively increasing from zero (when the aircraft is on the glide path) to full
scale deflection “ fly down” or “fly up”, these limits are reached as the aircraft attains a
displacement (or “deviation”) of 0.7º above or 0.7º below the glide path respectively. (It
should be borne in mind that any further deviation, greater than 0.7º can cause no further
deflection of the already fully deflected needle. Thus even if the aircraft is, say, 2º above
the glide path the pilot can only be certain, from the full scale “ fly down” indication, that
he is at least 0.7º above the glide path).

The UK Air Pilot advises that on lLS final approach ½ of full-scale “fly up” indication (2
½dots when full scale is 5 dots) represents the maximum safe deviation below the centre
line of the glide path.

Figure 7: Glide Path Service Area

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PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

Localiser Radiation Pattern. The localiser aerial radiates two overlapping “lobes” of radio
energy on the same radio carrier frequency (for example 110.3 MHz) but carrying
different modulations, 150 Hz (cps) and 90 Hz (cps) as shown in the polar diagram
(radiation pattern) sketched in Figure 8

Figure 8: Localiser Radiation Pattern

The airborne localiser receiver compares the strengths of the two modulations or more
technically speaking, the depth of modulation of the two lobes. This comparison of the
strengths of the modulations is used to produce a voltage that energizes the localiser
needle. If the aircraft is on the localiser centre line (equisignal) the strengths of the
modulations are equal, and zero voltage is fed to the localiser needle that is consequently
control in the vertical position.

IF on the final approach the localiser centre line is on the pilot’s left, the 150 Hz
modulation is received more strongly than the 90 Hz modulation and a suitable voltage is
fed to the localiser needle to deflect it to the left, giving a “ fly left” indication. Similarly,
if on final approach the centre line is on the pilot’s right, the 90 Hz modulations
predominate and the needle is made to deflect to the right.

Glide Path Radiation Pattern. The same principle is used to provide the glide path
indications, but in this case the lobes overlap in the vertical plane and are radiated on a
UHF carrier wave ( for example 335 MHz ). As with the localiser, these lobes are
modulated at 150 Hz and 90 Hz.

Figure 9 shows that a glide path polar diagram may be more complex than the localiser
pattern, with two series of overlapping lobes. This is due to interference between the direct
and ground reflected waves. The desired glide path angle (usually 3º) is achieved by
adjusting the amplitude of the carrier modulated at 150 Hz.

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Figure 9 Glide Path Radiation Pattern

False Glide Paths. It can be seen from figure 9 that “ false glide path “ equisignals may be
encounter, but they will always be above the true glide path and therefore could not, by
their accidental use bring the aircraft dangerously low. In any case, the slope of any false
glide path should not be less than 10º, requiring an extremely high rate of descent that
would rapidly prove that a false equisignal was in use. In the normal lLS pattern, however,
the pilot intercepts the true glide path from below and should therefore never find he
trying to follow a false glide path.

BLACK COURSE

The localiser transmitter is primarily designed to provide azimuth guidance on the final
approach that is, it produces the “ front course “ or “ front beam” on what may be termed
the “ approach side”. Some localisers are designed to radiate a “back beam” (or “back
course”) in the opposite direction, as shown in Figure 10. This can be used to provide
azimuth guidance when overshooting the precision instrument runway or for providing a “
back course approach “ to the reciprocal runway. In some parts of the world, back course
approaches are quite common but in the UK, even if a back course is radiated, it is
regarded as unreliable and is not air-calibrated for accuracy.

The disadvantages of back course approaches are:

1. No glide path
2. Less accurate than localiser front course
3. In the UK no markers on the back course and no ground monitoring or in-flight inspections
4. Needle sense is reversed (see later paragraph)

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COLOUR SECTORS AND NEEDLE SENSE

Colour Sectors. In Figure 10, the precision instrument runway is 27 and the localiser is
radiating front and back courses. When on a normal front beam approach the area to the
right of the centre line can be thought of, as the “blue sector” while the area to the left is
the “yellow sector”.

Figure 10 also shows that when the lLS meter localiser needle deflects left, it swings over
a blue painted sector, indicating that the aircraft is “ in the blue sector” . If the needle
swings right, over the yellow paint, it shows the aircraft to be in the yellow sector. Some
pilots prefer to think in terms of blue and yellow sectors rather than right or left of the
centre line- the latter being a somewhat ambiguous way of describing the aircraft’s
position in the lLS pattern.

Figure 10: Colour Sectors

Needle Sense. It should be clear form the exchange given in Figure 10 that whether on the
“ approach side” or “ overshoot side” of the precision runway 27: -

1. When flying the localiser QDM (270 in this case ) fly towards the needle, that is “
obey” it- to regain the centre line.
2. When flying the localiser QDR (090 in this case ) fly away from the needle, that is “
disobey “ it

It can be seen, then, that localiser needle sense is reversed on the simple lLS meter when
flying the QDR of the precision instrument runway.

It is worth emphasizing that: -

1. The glide path aerials do not radiate a back beam

2. The glide path needle sense is the same for an aircraft flying QDM or QDR, that is
the indication remain correct whether on normal approach or on the rare occasions
when the glide path is used to provide climb out guidance when tracking out on
the QDR.

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LOCATOR NDB

Low power NDBs often established at the Outer or Middle marker sites so that ADF can
be used to assist the pilot to fly and lLS approach pattern. On the approach chart the joint
NDB/marker site would be designated LOM or LMM and the frequency and identifier of
the locater stated.

ILS PATTERNS

Surveillance radar is commonly used at busy airports to vector aircraft on to the localiser
centre line at about 8nm from the runway. Where however there is no radar sequencing,
the aircraft would normally home to the aerodrome, then fly an outbound track, execute a
procedure turn, and carry out the final approach.

Figure 11: Typical lLS Flight Pattern

A typical procedure is illustrated in Figure 11. In this example the pilot would probably
position himself on the outbound track of 100 º (M) with the aid of his ADF tuned to the
outer marker locator, descending to some specified height as directed. On reaching the
outer marker, a level procedure turn would be made – initial track 145º(M) followed by an
180º left turn to intercept the localiser centre line. Clearance would normally be give to
descend inbound from the outer marker, following the localiser and glide path centre lines,
to the pilot’s critical/decision height.

At the critical/ decision height the pilot would normally continue visually to the runway,
or carry out missed approach procedure that in the example given, is shown as a departure
climbing on track of 140ºM from the localiser.

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ILS CATEGORIES

ILS Facility Performance CATEGORIES (Ground Installation)

Category I A Category ILS is one which provides guidance information from the
coverage limit of the ILS to the point at which the localiser course line intersects the ILS
glidepath at a height of 200 ft (60 m) or less above the horizontal plane containing the
threshold.

Category II ILS which provides guidance information from the coverage limit of the ILS
to the point at which the localiser course line intersects the ILS g/path at a height of 50ft
(15 m) or less above the horizontal plane containing the threshold.

Category III An ILS, which with the aid of ancillary equipment where necessary,
provides guidance information from coverage limit of the facility to, and along, the
runway surface.

Operational Performance Categories

The improvement in the ground installations allows guidance down to the surface of a
runway and requires a corresponding improvement in the airborne equipment. An aircraft
may be certified to operate to one of the following classifications:

Category 1 An Instrument Approach and landing with:

 a DH not lower than 60m (200’) and

 a Runway Visual Range (RVR) not less than 550m.

Category 2 A precision Instrument Approach and landing with

 a DH lower than 60m (200’) but not lower than 30m (100’) and
 a RVR not less than 300m.

Category 3A A precision instrument approach and landing with:

 a DH lower than 30m (100’), or no DH; and

 a RVR not less than 200m

Category 3B A precision instrument approach and landing with:

 a DH lower than 15m (50’), or no DH; and

 a RVR less than 200m but no less than 75m

Category 3C No DH and no RVR limitations.

The acceptance of Category 2 or 3 operations will depend on whether the following

criteria are met:

 the aeroplane has suitable flight characteristics

 the aeroplane will be operated by a qualified crew in conformity with laid down
procedures
 the aerodrome is suitably equipped and maintained
 it can be shown that the required safety level can be maintained.

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ERRORS AND ACCURACY

The instrument Landing System has several limitations inthat indications can be
affected by:

 beam bends caused by atmospheric conditions

>scalloping caused by reflections which results in rapid fluctuations of the needles

on theCDI/HIS which are impossible to follow; and

 beam noise generated by the transmitter or due to interference.

The pilot must be alert to the existence of potential problems and constantly cross
check the Information which is being received.

 To minimize interference to the ILS transmissions, the rate of landings has to be

kept relatively low, and also vehicle and aircraft movement must be restricted on
the ground, especially during low visibility procedures.

 Pilot’s serviceability checks of the localiser and glide path may be checked by:

• Ensuring the warning flags are not visible

• The pilot monitoring the identification signals. Cessation of the Ident

means that the ILS is unserviceable and the procedure must be
discontinued immediately.

FACTORS AFFECTING RANGE AND ACCURACY

ILS Multipath interference Due to Large Reflecting Objects

Multi-path interference to ILS signals is dependent upon antenna characteristics plus
any large reflecting objects, vehicles and fixed structures within the radiated signal
coverage. Moving objects can degrade the directional signals to an unacceptable
extent.

In order to protect the ILS signals from interference, protected areas are defined:

 ILS Critical Area. This is an area of defined dimensions about the localiser and
glide path antennas where vehicles and aircraft are excluded during all ILS
operations. It is protected because the presence of vehicle and/or aircraft inside its
boundaries will cause unacceptable disturbance to the ILS SIGNAL-IN-SPACE.

 ILS Sensitive Area. This extends beyond the critical area and is where parking or
movement of vehicles and aircraft is controlled to prevent the possibility f
unacceptable interference to the ILS signal during low visibility ILS operations.
The dimensions of this area depend upon the object creating the disturbance.

 Holding points. Protection of ILS signals during Category II and III operations
may dictate that pre-take-off holding points are more distant from the runway than
holding positions used in good weather. Such holding positions will be
appropriately marked and will display signs ‘Category II/III Hold; there may also
be a bar of red stop lights.

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Weather. Snow and heavy rain attenuates the ILS signals thereby reducing the
range and degrading the accuracy.

FM Broadcasts. FM transmitter have wide bandwidths and it is possible for such

stations transmitting on frequencies just below 108 MHz to produce frequencies
that overspill into the radio navigation band (108 to 117.975 MHz) thereby
causing interference with the ILS signals.

ILS Reference Point

It is a point at around 50 feet located vertically above the intersection of the runway centre
line and threshold through which the downward extended portion of ILS glide path
extends. All measurements are made from this reference point which is the point in space
above the runway threshold where aircraft wheels are intended to pass.

System Limitations

ICAO lays down a volume of airspace within which the system must provide accurate
indications. Although, correct indications will be received in other places, aircraft should
not use the system out side that volume, as detailed below:-

Localizer

The localizer beam must be accurate from airfield level up to a vertical angle of 7º, within
10º of the centre line out to 25 nm from the intended point of touch down. It must be
accurate within 35º of the centre line out to 17 nm as shown in the plan view in figure
below. This may not always be practical; in which case, the systems are designated a
steep. For these systems, the horizontal angle must be 10º out to 18 nm and 35º out to 10
nm.

Note: Pilots are warned that the use of localiser outside the service areas, even on the
approach side, can lead to false course and reverse sense indications being received.

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Glide Path

The glide path signal must be accurate over a vertical angle of between 45% and 175%
of the ideal approach slope (for a 3º slope, that means from 1.35º up to 5.25º) out to 10 nm
and within a horizontal angle of 8º of the centre line as shown in the figure.

Glidepath beam ‘footprint’

Markers

Markers must retain their emission pattern shape up to a height of 3000 feet above the
airfield level. In fact, all measurements are made from the reference point, which is the
point in space above the runway threshold where an aircraft wheels are intended to pass.

DMEs

DMEs paired with ILS installations are protected from interference from other DMEs only
within the footprint or area of accurate localizer signals up to a height of 25000 feet.

Operating Limitations

Pilots must not rely on an ILS system outside the ICAO cleared volumes, not should they
use the system outside aerodrome operating hours. I addition, they must not commence
descent on the glide slope unless they are within 2.5º of localizer and established on it. If,
having commenced descent on the glide slope, the indication reaches half of the full FLY
UP indication; the regulations require that the crew carry out a go-round immediately.

If the ILS is unserviceable or undergoing maintenance, the identification modulation will

be removed or replaced by a continuous tone. In these circumstances, the ILS must not be
used. For that reason, it is advisable to continuously monitor the identification signal
during the approach.

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Enroute Markers

Marker beacons are sometimes used along the airways. These transmit an uninterrupted
horizontally polarized 3000 Hz signal on 75 MHz, and are received on ILS equipment as a
constant audio note and a steady white light. This is often the same light that provides
indication of the inner marker on an ILS approach. Enroute markers may be modulated
with dots and dashes for station identification.

FUTURE DEVELOPMENT

Steady progress is being made towards regular Category 2 and subsequently Category 3
operations. However, it seems that interference (“beam noise”) due to re-radiation
(reflections) from other airborne aircraft and obstacles on the ground any set a limit to the
use of VHF/UHF lLS installations. Development of a “microwave” system using a carrier
frequency of around 5 GHz (5000 MHz) radiated in short pulses, is well advanced and is
known as CPILS (Correlation Protected lLS). Such a system is likely to solve the noise
problem and could well make regular Category 3 operations feasible, meeting the
automatic-landing accident criterion of no more than one accident per ten million landings.

In the longer term, radio emissions may be replaced by gamma rays. Precisely defined
beams from radioactive sources on the approach and aerodrome would be used to produce
the necessary guidance information that would be interpreted by an airborne computer.

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ILS SUMMARY

Components and frequencies:

Localiser VHF - 108 TO 111.975 MHz (40 channels). Aerial at upwind end

Glide path UHF - frequency paired. Aerial abeam touchdowb

Marker VHF – 75 MHz. Fan shaped vertical radiation. OM, MM and IM

Back beam From localiser. Non-precision approach

Locator Low power NDB at OM

DME Freq paired. Possibly in place of markers. Zero-referenced to

threshold

Ident: 2 or 3 letters, 7 groups/min. Suppressed when ILS u/s. continuous

tone during maintenance

Markers OM: blue 2 dashes/s 400Hz 6.5 – 11.1 km

MM orange 3 characters per second, alternate dots and dashes
1300 Hz 1050m
IM white 6 dots/s 3000Hz 75-450m

Ground monitoring Localiser within 35’ (Cat I) at ref datum. GP within 0.075 O
Power within 50%
Otherwise: Cease radiation, remove ident or lower category

ILS Coverage LLZ: 25nm ± 10º, 17 nm ± 35º

GP : 10nm ±8º, 0.45 to 1.75 x glidepath angle

Principle of Operation:

Localiser LH lobe – 90 Hz, RH lobe – 150 Hz; DoM increases away from c/
I DDM is zero on c/I

Back course If approved use for non-precision approach. Reverse readings on

CDI. HIS can operate in correct sense if front course QDM set

Glide path Upper lobe – 90 Hz, lower lobe – 150 Hz. DoM increases away
from O

False GP at multiples of glidepath angle. Be aware

Ref datum height of GP over threshold

PAPIs same angle as O but meht is higher than ref datum

Indicator CDI: 0.5%dot; max 2.5º. Reverse indication on back course

HIS: set course selector to front QDM for correct indications
GP: 0.14%dot: max 0.7º. max safe dev – 2.5 dots fly up
(0.35º)

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ILS Categories:

I II III/IIIA IIIB IIIC

Ground: < 200’ <50’ 0’

Operational: DH 200’ 100’ <100’ (if any) <50’ (if any) 0

RVR 550m 300m 200m 75m 0

Errors: beam bends, scalloping, beam noise;

restricted vehicle movements during low vis ops;
check failure flags;
monitor ident

Range and Accuracy: Critical area – aircraft and vehicles excluded for all ILS ops;
Sensitive area – excluded area during low vis ops;
Cat II / III holds;
Weather; FM broadcasts

Approach segments: Initial, intermediate and final;

SSAs;
Landing minima – DH and RVR

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QUESTIONS

1). The coverage of an ILS localiser extends to ______ either side of the on course line
out to a range of……..nm

a) 10º, 35
b) 35º, 10
c) 35º, 17
d) 25º, 25

2). The upper and lower limit of an ILS glide path transmitter having a 3.5º glide slope
are:

a) 6.125º - 1.575º
b) 7.700º - 1.225°
c) 5.250º - 1.350º
d) 3.850º - 3.150º

3). The minimum angle at which a false glide path is likely to be encountered on a 3º
glidepath is:

a) 6 degrees
b) 5.35 degrees
c) normal glide slope times 1.75
d) normal glide slope times 0.70

4). The visual and aural indications obtained when overflying an ILS middle marker are:

a) continuous low pitched dashes with synchronised blue light

b) Continuous high pitched dots with synchronised amber light
c) alternating medium pitch dots and dashes with amber light
d) one letter in Morse with synchronized white light

5). An aircraft carrying out an ILS approach is receiving stronger 150 Hz signals than
90 Hz signals. The correct actions to be taken to place the aircraft on the centerline
and on the glidepath are to fly:

a) DOWN and LEFT

b) UP and LEFT
c) UP and RIGHT
d) DOWN and RIGHT

6). In elevation the upper and lower limits of an ILS glide path transmitter having a 3.0
degree glide slope are:

a) 0.35º 0.70º
b) 3.000 at least 6º
c) 5.25º 1.35º
d) 10.0º 35.0º

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7). A category 2 ILS installation encountered in the UK:

a) provides accurate guidance down to 50’ above the horizontal plane containing
the runway threshold
b) has a sleep glide path, normally 7.5º
c) provides accurate guidance down to the runway and along the runway after
landing
d) has a false glide path that is exactly twice the true glide path angle

8). Which of these ILS indicators shows an aircraft on final approach left of the centre
line and at maximum safe deviation below the glide path?

9). An aircraft tracking to intercept the ILS localiser inbound on the approach side
but outside the published coverage angle:

a) will receive false on-course or reverse sense signals

b) will not normally receive signals
c) will receive signals without coding
d) can expect signals to give correct indications

10). The outer marker of an ILS installation has a visual identification of:

a) alternating dots and dashes on a blue light

b) continuous dots at a rate of 3 per second, blue light
c) continuous dashes at a rate of 2 per second, amber light
d) continuous dashes at a rate of 2 per second, blue light

11) The specified maximum safe fly up indication on a 5 dot CDI is:

a) half full scale needle deflection above the centre line

b) 2.5 dots fly up
c) Just before full scale deflection
d) 1.3 dots fly up

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12) An aircraft is attempting to use an ILS approach outside the coverage sectors of
an ICAO standard system:

a) From the glideslope needle to captain may be receiving false course and
reverse sense indications and from the localiser needle intermittent and
incorrect indications.
b) The aircraft’s receiver is not detecting any transmissions and the ILS needle
OFF flags are visible
c) From the localiser needle the captain may be receiving false course and
reverse sense indications and from the glideslope needle intermittent and
incorrect indications.

13) The coverage of the ILS glideslope in azimuth is:

a) ± 8º out to 10nm
b) ± 10º out to8nm
c) ±12º out to 17 nm
d) ± 35º out to 25 nm

14) An aircraft’s Instrument Landing System glideslope and localiser receivers are
receiving predominant 90Hz modulated signals. If the aircraft is within the
coverage of the ILS, QDM of 264º, it is:

a) north of the localiser and below the glideslope

b) south of the localiser and above the glideslope
c) north of the localiser and above the glideslope
d) south of the localiser and below the glideslope

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MICRO WAVE LANDING SYSTEM (MLS)

INTRODUCTION

In 1978 ICAO adopted the MLS as the international standard precision approach and landing guidance
system to replace ILS. Time reference scanning beam MLS was chosen and the transition date was then
fixed to be 1995. Meanwhile advances in Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) led to the
expectation in many countries that the life of ILS could be extended until GNSS would provide accurate
guidance and that this was a more economical option than MLS.

The requirement for a replacement of the ILS was justified when the following shortfalls of ILS were
considered.

1. ILS has a narrow and single approach path

2. Only 40 channels are available in ILS

3. Glide slope signals are sensitive to the site and terrain around

4. ILS is inflexible for helicopter and STOL a/c operations as it has a single glide slope angle at
any given installation.

Facilities offered by MLS

1. Multiple approach paths to the same runway – horizontally and vertically

2. Large number of cannels

3. Curved and zigzag as well as straight in approaches

4. Improved Range information

5. Automatic data transfer (ground to air)

In contrast to the ILS principle which embodies a localizer and glide slope providing a clearly
defined approach path above the runway extended centre line, MLS allows approach any where
within its horizontal and vertical fan – shaped coverage area.

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Coverage in Azimuth

Azimuth (AZ) coverage extends 40° on either side of the runway center line and out to a range of
20 nm. There is a provision for a back Azimuth Station (BAZ) where required. It can be put on
when runway direction is reversed.

What is true of MLS

1. It provides a curved and steeper approach

2. Number of channels available is more than ILS
3. A back course is available
4. It has less sitting errors
5. Guidance is more accurate with MLS
6. It allows varied glide slope angles
7. It allows a variety of approached from many direction
8. It has large number aircraft handling capacity
9. PDME is used to provide a function of marker beacons employed in MLS
10. MLS expedites traffic flow in terminal areas

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THE MLS SYSTEM

The Microwave Landing System (MLS) has the following features:

a) There are 200 channels available worldwide

b) The azimuth coverage is at least ± 40º of the runway on-course line (QDM) and
glideslope from .9º to 20º can be selected. The usable range is 20-30 nm from the MLS
site; 20nm in the UK.

c) There is no problem with back-course transmissions; a secondary system is provided to

give overshoot and departure guidance ± 20º of runway direction up to 15º in
elevation to a range of 10 nm and a height of 10,000 ft.

d) It operates in the SHF band, 5031 – 5090 MHZ. This enables it to be sited in hilly
areas without having to level the site. Course deviation errors (bending) of the
localiser and glidepath caused by aircraft, vehicles and buildings are no longer a
problem because the MLS scanning beam can be interrupted and therefore avoids
the reflections

e) Because of its increased azimuth and elevation coverage aircraft can choose their own
approaches. This will increase runway utilisation and be beneficial o helicopters and
STOL aircraft.

f) The MLS has a built-in DME.

g) MLS is compatible with conventional localiser and glidepath instruments, EFIS, auto-
pilot systems and area navigation equipment.

h) MLS gives positive automatic landing indications plus define and continuous on/off flag
indications for the localiser and glideslope needles.

i) The identification prefix for the MLS is an ‘M’ followed by two letters.

j) The aim is for all MLS equipped aircraft to operate to CAT III criteria.

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Coverage in Elevation

In MLS, elevation transmitter (EL) produces a fan-shaped vertical approach zone usually from
0.9° TO 20° and up to 20,000 feet in height. It is possible to provide even steeper approach
angles but because of a/c handling problems it is not envisaged that even the upper part of the 20°
sectors would be used. The glide path angle which is required for approach by a specific a/c in
selectable by the pilot.

EL signals extends through the AZ coverage, and so provides precision glide path guidance at all
point where azimuth guidance is available.

COVERAGE IN ELEVATION

Precision DME

MLS incorporate precision DME co-located and frequency paired. So effectively providing
accurate distance to go continuously during the approach. Accuracy is ± 100 feet. Range is 22nm
omni directionally.

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Location of position of aircraft by MLS

With MLS, a time reference scan beam system (TRSB) is used to determine the aircraft position.
The timed cycle is extremely precise. Seen from the approach side, beam starts at the left and
sweeps at a uniform rate to the right. This is a TO scan after a short period (guard time) beam
sweeps back to the starting point and is called FRO scan. As soon s TO sweep is detected at the
a/c aerial, the receiver begins a timing cycle. When the a/c receiver detects the passing FRO
SCAN, the circuit in the a/c RX notes the tine difference between the TO and FRO SCANS. This
time difference determines where on the azimuth scan the aircraft in located and so finds its
angular position and therefore displacement from the centre line of the Runway. This information
is supplied to a CDI or such similar MLS display.

Figure 7.4

Emision Designators NOX (The unmodulated carrier and G1D (The data Transmissions
component)

Time Multiplex Technique

Basic technique is that of Time multiplexing (see diagram). All functions and basic data
transmission can take place on a single channel for Azimuth and elevation transmissions.

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With MLS helicopter can make an approach from say 35° to the runway on a 15° elevation,
STOL a/c at 10° elevation, piston engine a/c at 3.5/4° glide path and a big jet aircraft along
standard 0° Azimuth and 2.5 to 3° elevation approach.

MLS requires less space for ground equipment and does not suffer from ground effect.

Sources of Error

Critical areas are regions around MLS transmissions where vehicle and a/c may cause signal
errors as a result of shadowing and multi path transmissions,

1. Shadowing; When offending a/c or vehicle interrupts the signal path; it is called
shadowing.

2. Multiple Transmissions. When the signal in reflected by the offending a/c or

Vehicle, it is called Multi path transmission.

AIRBORNE EQUIPMENT

The airborne equipment is designed to continuously display the position of the aircraft in relation
to the preselected course and glide path along with distance information during approach as well
as during departure.

Display
The display consists of two cross bars similar to an ILS display except that the indications are
given relative to the selective course. It is possible to program the computer to give segmented
approaches and curved approaches for which a DME-P must be installed on the ground.

Control Unit
In order to receive ILS, MLS and GPS transmissions, aircraft are equipped with multi-mode
receivers and a combined control unit for ease of use by the flight crew. An example of such a
control unit is shown at Figure 10.6

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Radio Navigation Chapter 8

Figure 10.6 MMR Control Panel

COMPARISON OF MLS WITH ILS

ILS
MLS

1. It can provide multiple approach paths, It is limited to a single localizer center line
by allowing a/c to make simultaneous approach at a given time
approaches along different paths. Also
it is possible for MLS to vector a/c to
multiple runways using a single MLS
transmitter site.

2. It can provide multiple glide paths. It allows ILS installation has a single glide slope angle
the selection of Glide path angle from 0.9° e.g. 3°
to 20° as per the wish of the pilot and a/c
characteristics.

3. MLS has precision DME co-located and ILS provides range information 2 or 3 times
frequency paired. So providing distance in a approach as per the number of marker
to go continuously during the approach Beacon (MB)

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4. MLS provides guidance across the entire ILS provides Left/Right indication only
Azimuth coverage of 40º either side of the within º0 of the localizer centre line at 25nm
extended centre line. and within 35º of the localiser centre line at
17 nm

5. MLS provides vertical guidance to 20° all Vertical coverage of ILS is limited to 5.25° for
the way to 20,000 feet. 3° glide path angle

6. MLS has 200 channels ILS has only 40 channels

7. Frequency: - 5031 to 5090.7 MHz in 108 to 112 MHz (all ODD first decimals)
SHF band. (VHF band) for localizer and 329.3 to 335
MHz (UHF band) for Glide path

8. MLS is simple to install. Not critical in terms ILS in very sensitive to leveling of the site
of terrain.: It is virtually immune to interference and is also affected by weather induced
from vehicles and weather induced errors. MLS errors. E.g. by snow covered surfaces. If a
does not suffer from false glide paths. vehicle passes in front of the LOC. AE, the
ILS, needle in the A/C may deflect. It can be
affected by false glide paths due to Lobe
energy getting reflected from the ground.

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Radio Navigation Chapter 8

MICROWAVE LANDING SYSTEM

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QUESTIONS

1). The coverage of Micro-wave Landing System in the UK extends to _____nm up to a height
of ________and______ degrees either side of the on course line.

a) 20nm; 20,000ft; 40 degrees

b) 35nm; 5,000ft; 40 degrees
c) 35nm; 5,000ft; 20 degrees
d) 17nm; 2,000ft; 35 degrees

2). What is the cover of the azimuth / elevation beams of MLS?

a) +/-20º from the centerline, out to 20 nm, 1º to 20º in elev up to 20,000 ft

b) +/-10º from the centerline, out to 10 nm, 1º to 20º in elev up to 20,000 ft
c) +/-40º from the centerline, out to 10 nm, 1º to 20º in elev up to 10,000 ft
d) +/-40º from the centerline, out to 20 nm, 1º to 20º in elev up to 20,000 ft

3). What frequency band does the MLS use?

a) UHF for azimuth and elevation

b) UHF for azimuth and SHF for elevation
c) SHF for azimuth and UHF for elevation
d) SHF for azimuth and elevation

4). What is the principle of operation of an MLS receiver?

a) Comparing the strengths of 2 signals in each plane

b) Comparing the phases of 2 signals in each plane
c) Comparing the times of 2 signals in each plane
d) Comparing the frequencies of 2 signals in each plane

5). What frequency is most appropriate for an MLS station?

a) 50.59 MHz
b) 505.9 MHz
c) 5059 MHz
d) 50.59 GHz

6). What wavelength is most appropriate for an MLS station?

a) 6 mm
b) 60 mm
c) 60 cm
d) 6m

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7). Which of the following is not an advantage of MLS over ILS?

a) It expedites flow in terminal areas and has a large capacity

b) The beam does not suffer from problem of interference from other aircraft and
vehicles
c) Guidance is more accurate with no siting errors
d) It allows curved approaches with varied glide path angles

8). Which of the following is an error of MLS?

a) Interference from other aircraft and vehicle

b) Siting errors
c) False glide path
d) Scalloping

9). If the frequency of the azimuth beam is 5.05 GHz, which would be the frequency of the
vertical beam?

a) 2.05 GHz
b) 5.05 GHz
c) 10.08 GHz
d) 50.40 GHz

10) . How many times the MLS beam scan horizontally compared with vertically?

a) Three times vertically to once horizontally

b) Three times horizontally to once vertically
c) Once vertically to once horizontally
d) Twice horizontally to once vertically

11). How is range measured in the MLS system?

a) DME ranges are found from normal installations

b) A separate precision DME gives ranges from the center of the airfield
c) A precision DME gives ranges from touchdown
d) Marker beacon are provided

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Radio Navigation Chapter 09

HYPERBOLIC NAVIGATION SYSTEMS - PRINCIPLES

A hyperbola is defined as the LOCUS of a point having a fixed difference in range from
two other fixed points. Hyperbolic navigation systems cover wide areas. They consist of
a “GRID” of position lines superimposed upon a geographical area and position is
established with reference to the grid. Hyperbolic principles are used in LORAN, Decca
and OMEGA radio navigation aids.

Hyperbolic Lattice
Two fixed points C and D are 120 nm apart. Zero nm hyperbola is shown in the diagram
below and is the right bisector of the base line joining C and D.

In the diagram below two hyperbola of +20 and -20nm are shown +20nm hyperbola in
closer to C than to D. Minus 20nm hyperbola in closer to D than to C, hence the
designation -20

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Diagram below shows all the hyperbola drawn at 20 nm difference of distance

Accuracy in a hyperbolic lattice

(a) The system is most accurate along the base line. Maximum base line length is
about 1000 nm.

(b) The errorincreases away from the right bisector ie. Left and Right of the right
bisector.

(c) The error increases away from the base line ie up and down of the base line.

(d) Risk of ambiguity of the position exists adjacent to the base line extensions.

SHADED AREA SHOWS POSSIBLE ERROR

IN DISTANCE FOR 10% LATTICE ERROR

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Ambiguities exist adjacent into base line extension

Range in a hyperbolic LATTICE

The Range will depend upon the following factors:

(a) frequency .
The lower the frequency the greater the range

(b) power of transmitted signal.

The more the power of the transmitted signal, more will be the range.

(c) System geometry

It effects the “useful” range of hyperbolic system. This is a problem which occurs
when two hyperbola which are being used to fix the aircraft position cross at an acute
angle, thereby degrading the accuracy of the fix.

Example 1:
An aircraft situated on a hyperbola constructed from two stations 100nm apart. The
aircraft is 60nm from station C and 80nm from station D. How far is the hyperbola
passing through the aircraft from station C at the point where the hyperbola crosses
the base line?

Hint: The distance along the baseline from the right bi-sector to any hyperbola is
always half the value of the hyperbola in question.

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Radio Navigation Chapter 10

RADAR PRINCIPLES
INTRODUCTION

Radar – short for Radio Detection and Ranging- is a term used to classify various systems
using radio waves, usually transmitted in short pulses, for the control and safe navigation
of aircraft. This main difference between primary, secondary and hyperbolic radar systems
is explained later in these notes.

RADAR RANGING

A radio signal may be reflected from an object to produce a weak “ echo”, the
strength of which depends on many factors including: -

1. Power of the transmitted signal

2. Range of the reflecting object
3. Shape and material of the reflecting object
4. Dimensions of the effective reflecting surface in relation to the wavelength
of the transmitted signal.

A sensitive receiver, commonly co-located with the transmitter, may detect the
weak echo. Since the speed of propagation is known, the range of a “target” can be
determined by measuring accurately the time interval between transmission of a
signal and reception of the echo. Half this time interval multiplied by the speed of
propagation gives the target’s range. This summarizes the basic principle of
Primary radar range- finding.

BEARING MEASUREMENT

The signal transmitted in Primary Radar is usually directed in a narrow beam

which is made to “scan” (search) the airspace in azimuth and/ or elevation, the
echoes received then giving the direction as well as the range of the reflecting
objects.

TIME UNIT

The time intervals measured by radar are small and the convenient unit of time
used is the microsecond.

1 Millisecond = 1/1,000 second or 10-3 second

1 Microsecond = 1/100,000 second or 10-6 second,
So 1 Second = 1,000,000 microseconds

Shorter time intervals are also considered in the design of modern radar. These are :

The nanosecond which is 10 -9 second, and

The Pico second which is 10 –12 second.

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RADAR APPLICATIONS

Radar has a wide range of applications as follows:

Air Traffic Control uses radar to:

 monitor aircraft in relation to each other whilst they are flying on airways, in
control zones or in the airfield vicinity, and to vector the aircraft if necessary

 provide radar talk-down to a given runway: (Surveillance Radar Approach

(SRA) or a military Precision Approach Radar (PAR)

 control and monitor aircraft on ILS let-downs, or during airfield instrument

approaches

 provide information regarding weather e.g. storm clouds.

Air/Ground navigational systems use radar:

 Secondary Surveillance Radar provides ATC with information regarding an

aircraft’s call sign, altitude, speed, track history, destination and type of
emergency when appropriate

 Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) provides a pilot with very accurate

slant ranges from a ground based receiver/transmitter known as a transponder

 Doppler Radar. This is a self-contained airborne system, needing no ground

based equipment, which provides a pilot with a continuous indication of the
aircraft’s drift and groundspeed.

Airborne Weather Radar (AWR) is used to:

 depict the range and bearing of clouds

 indicate areas of the heaviest precipitation and associated turbulence
 calculate the height of cloud
 ground map

RADAR FREQUENCIES

Radar systems are in the VHF and above frequency bands because:

 these frequencies are free from external noise/static and ionosphere scatter

 the shorter wavelengths produce narrow, efficient beams for target

discrimination and bearing measurement

 the shorter wavelengths can produce shorter pulses

 efficient reflection from an object depends upon its size in relation to the
wavelength; shorter wavelengths are reflected more efficiently.
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SPECIMEN QUESTION
How many microseconds does it take a radio signal to travel 81 nm?

81 nm = 150 km (by computer)

TIME = Distance = 150 km = 1 second

Speed 300 000 km/sec 2000

= 1 X 1 000 000 = 500 microseconds

2 000

PULSE TECHNIQUE

If the radar transmitter emitted an unmodulated continuous wave (CW) signal, it

would be possible to measure a time interval between transmitted signal and echo
because there would be no identifiable reference point on the wave from which to
start time interval measurement. The emission is therefore usually “ pulse-
modulated “, in other words the radar transmitter “ fires” very short bursts of radio
energy called “ pulses”.

Very accurate time interval measurements can be made from the start of a
transmitted pulse to the start of a corresponding echo pulse.

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PULSE LENGTH

Pulse length, alternatively known as pulse width; mean the duration in time of the
pulse, normally expressed in microseconds. Pulse length is usually short, one
reason for this being to prevent the end of the transmitted pulse obscuring the start
of the much weaker echo pulse from a target at short range. Even through the pulse
length is short is usually comprises many RF cycles.

SPECIMEN QUESTION

A radar pulse is transmitted on a carrier frequency of 10 000 MHz. If the pulse

length is 3.5 microseconds how many cycles of the carrier frequency occur during
transmission of a pulse ?

ANSWER
Number of cycles occurring in 1 second = 10 000 000 000
So number of cycles in 1 microsecond = 10 000

And number of cycles in a pulse lasting

3.5 microseconds = 3.5 X 10 000 = 35 000

RADAR MINIMUM RANGE

The minimum range which can be measured by a pulsed radar transmitter/receiver

depends on the pulse length, since the transmission of a pulse must be completed
before the start of the echo is received in order that the start of the echo is not “
swamped” by the transmitter pulse. In any case, it is usual for the receiver to be
automatically short-circuited (disconnected) during transmission of a pulse, to
prevent the high transmission power damaging the sensitive receiver.

Suppose a radar installation is required to detect reflecting objects down to a

minimum range of one kilometer.

Time taken for a pulse to travel 1 km = Distance

Propagation speed
= 1 km
300 000 km/sec
= 1 sec
300 000
1 sec = 1 000 000 microseconds = 3.333 microseconds
300 000 300 000

Therefore time taken for pulse to travel to the “target” and back again will be 2 X
3.33 = 6.66

It can be seen, therefore, that for this example, the pulse-length must be less than
6.66 microseconds in order to prevent the end of the transmitter pulse obscuring
the start of the echo.

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PICTURE DEFINITION

Pulse length also affects the definition of the picture on a radar screen. Figure 2 (a)
a very simple type of radar display on the screen of a Cathode Ray Tube on which
two aircraft appear as separate echoes, a short pulse length being used. Figure 2 (b)
shows that with a longer pulse length the echoes would overlap to give only one
merged echo as depicted in Figure 2 (c).

Fig 2 (a) Fig 2(b) Fig 2(c)

Short Pulse Length Pulse Length Two Long

DISCRIMITATION ACROSS THE RADAR BEAM

The direction of a reflecting object can be determined by transmitting the pulses in

a narrow beam that rotates or “scans” in azimuth as in Approach Surveillance
Radar (abbreviated to RAD in the UK Air Pilot).

If two aircraft are at the same range and on only slightly different bearings, a
narrow beam will be required to “ paint” separate echoes on the radar screen. If the
beam is wide enough to “illuminate” both reflecting objects simultaneously, only
one large merged echo will be produced.

PULSE REPETITON

The more pulses transmitted per second, the better the quality of the echo.
However, there is an upper limit depending upon the maximum range of the Radar.
This s because all echoes from objects as far distant as the maximum range of the
equipment should have returned to the receiver before the following pulse is
transmitted. Otherwise ambiguity would exist in determining to which transmitted
pulse an echo corresponded.

As an example of this, suppose the design maximum range of a radar

transmitter/receiver is 150 km. This represents a pulse travel distance of 300 km.
The time taken for the “round trip” would be :-

300 km = 1 second = 1 000 000 microseconds

300 000 km/sec 1000 1000

= 1 000 microseconds

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Consequently the interval between pulse transmissions (that is, from the start of
one transmitted pulse to the start of next transmitted pulse) must be at least 1/1 000
second (1000 microseconds). The number of pulses per second, therefore, in this
example, must not exceed 1 000. It is worth emphasizing that if 1 000 pulses are
transmitted per second at equally spaced interval, these intervals will be 1/ 1000
second long, from the start of one transmitted pulse to the start of the next
transmitted pulse. This interval is knows as the Pulse Recurrence period and is the
reciprocal of the number of pulses emitted per second (known as the Pulse
Repetition Rate or Pulse Repetition Frequency)

SPECIMEN QUESTION

A radar transmitter emits 50 000 pulses per second. Calculate the interval between
pulse transmissions in microseconds.

ANSWER
If there are 50 000 pulses per second emitted then, assuming they are emitted at
regular intervals, one pulse must be emitted every 1/50 000 second, that is to say
the interval between the start of one pulse and the start of the next is 1/50 000
second, or 1/50 000 X 1 000 000 = 20 microseconds

PULSE REPETITION FREQUENCY (PRF) OR PULSE REPETITION RATE

(PRR)

Alternatively known as Pulse Recurrence Rate (PRR) or Pulse Recurrence

Frequency (PRF), this term simply means the NUMBER OF PULSES EMITTED
PER SECOND by a radar transmitter. This abbreviation pps for pulses per second
is normally used. For example, a Loran transmitter might emit 25 pulses per
second (pps) while a Doppler transmitter might produce 60 000 pps.

It is most important not to confuse the PRF with the carrier wave frequency ( the
radio frequency of the cycles within the pulse of radio energy ). For example, the
25 Loran Pulses per second referred to above might be transmitted on a carrier
frequency of 1 900 KHz, whole a typical Doppler carrier frequency if 8 800 MHz.

It can be confusing when one sees a PRF of 60 000 pps written as 60 Kp/s, that is
60 Kilo pulses per second, or even more confusing if it is given as 60 Kc/s. It is
best to “rethink” this as 60 000 pps for the PRF, before making any further
calculations.

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Practical Range

The practical range for the radar is less than the maximum theoretical range
because the trace on the CRT (cathode ray tube) needs a period of time to return to
the point of origin. This period is called the fly-back or dead time. During this
period returning echoes cannot be displayed thereby reducing the range achievable
for a given PRF.

THE RANGE OF PRIMARY RADAR

Maximum Range
The Range of a primary radar depends upon the strength of the returning pulses
that determines the quality of the target depiction on the PPI. The range is affected
by several factors:

 Transmission power. A radar signal attenuates with increasing distance from

the transmitter. As the signal has to travel out and back the power/range
relationship is:

Power available is proportional to the fourth power of range which means that
the power has increased by a factor of 16 to double the range

 Characteristics of reflecting objects. Metals are more efficient than wood at

reflecting the transmitted signal and the size and shape of the detected object
make a considerable difference to the effective range. The aspect of the object
also affects the range; for instance, a manoeuvring aircraft presents various
aspects which can affect the polarization of reflected waves, The side of the
fuselage has a better aspect than the nose of the aircraft.

 Aircraft height and the height of the radar head. Radar transmissions,
because of their frequency bands, travel in straight lines and give line of sight
ranges, plus a little extra due to atmospheric refraction. Thus the curvature of
the earth causes much of the surface to be in shadow. Therefore, higher flying
aircraft are more likely to be detected because they are above that shadow.
Intervening high ground also will screen low flying aircraft from detection. The
higher the radar head can be positioned, the greater that radar’s range and the
less effect intervening high ground will have on stopping signals and reducing
its range. The following formula can be used to calculate the maximum
theoretical radar range:

Max. Theoretical range (nm) = 1.25 x (√ H TX + √ H RX )

H TX = Height of radar station in feet amsl; H RX = height of target in feet amsl

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 Wavelength and Attenuation by Raindrops

Figure 11.6 Attenuation by Raindrops

It can be seen from Figure 11.6 that energy is absorbed and scattered by
raindrops; the total effect depends upon the size of the water droplets and the
transmitted wavelength. At wavelengths longer than 10cm the attenuation is
negligible. If the wavelength is between 10cm and 4cm the attenuation is
significant only in tropical rain. However, with wavelengths less than 4cm,
attenuation is significant in rain in the temperate latitudes. One conclusion is
that wavelength less than 3cm should not be used for long range systems.
Airfield Surface Movement Indicator (ASMI) radars operate at 1.75 to 2cm
wavelength. Airborne Weather Radar (AWR) and Precision Approach Radar
(PAR) use 3cm wavelengths. Surveillance radars (ground) use 10,23 or 50cm
wavelengths.

 Atmospheric conditions. Certain atmospheric conditions can actually increase

the range of radar pulses by refracting the waves which would normally travel
in straight lines. This is called super refraction and it gives radar ranges
beyond normal line of sight i.e. it gives over the horizon radar capability by
causing the radio waves to refract downwards towards the Earth’s surface.
Such conditions occur when there is a temperature inversion and a decrease in
humidity with height. On the other hand, atmospheric conditions can also cause
sub-refraction in which the theoretical range of the radar is reduced by
causing the waves to refract upwards away from the surface.

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Figure 11.7 Pulse Width Decides Minimum Range

Restoration Time is a design factor that affects the time taken for a receiver to
recover to normal after transmission has occurred

Pulse width determines the minimum range. With reference to Figure 11.7., it can
be shown that a pulse 1 μ sec wide would extend 300 metres. Thus an object at 150
metres reflecting this pulse would cause it to arrive back at the receiver as its tail
was leaving the transmitter

Any object closer than 150 metres would reflect a pulse that could not be received
as the transmitter would still be transmitting. Furthermore, two objects in line 150
metres or less apart would appear as a single return. As a result, if short range
operation is required for target resolution and accuracy, short pulses are used. e.g.
0.1 μs.

Note: 1 or 2𝜇𝜇s are used for medium range radars and about 5 𝜇𝜇s for long
range radar.

Question A surface movement radar is required to measure down to 500m.

Calculate the maximum pulse width in micro-seconds.

Answer 3.3 μs

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RADAR MEASUREMENTS

Bearing. Bearing measurement is obtained by using the search light principle.

Radio pulses are concentrated into very narrow beams which are produced by
shortening the wavelength or increasing the aerial size and in advanced systems
this is done electronically. The beam is rotated at a constant speed. The PPI display
is synchronised with the antenna rotation. The direction of an object is the
direction of the beam, measured from a fixed datum, at the time when the echo is
received.

Range. This has already been discussed earlier.

Harmonisation. In order that bearing and range information can be determined

from the radar system it is necessary to harmonise the rotary speed of the antenna,
the pulse duration or width, the pulse repetition frequency, focusing and
transmission power.

RADAR RESOLUTION

The image painted on a PPI display from a point target will not be a single point
but will appear as rectangle, known as the radar resolution rectangle i.e. the target
appears to be stretched both radially and in azimuth. The dimensions of the
rectangle depend upon the pulse length, the beam width and the spot size.

The radial resolution is dependent upon half the pulse length. For example, a
pulse length of 1 𝜇𝜇s would stretch the target by 150 metres (distance that an
electromagnetic wave travels in 0.5 𝜇𝜇s). If two targets happen to be within the 150
m they will be illuminated simultaneously by the pulse and return only a single
echo to the receiver.

The azimuth resolution is dependent upon the full beam width. Therefore a 3 beam
width at a range of 120 km would stretch the target in azimuth by 6 km (using the
1 in 60 rule).

It follows therefore that in order to resolve adjacent targets the radar should have
short pulse lengths and narrow beam width. However shortening the pulse length
reduces the time the target is illuminated by the pulse and reduces the chance of a
good return being received. Beam widths can only be narrowed by increasing the
size of the antenna.

The spot size and the target size also increase the size of the echo displayed on the
PPI screen.

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MOVING TARGET INDICATION (MTI)

Surveillance radar equipment incorporates circuitry designed to eliminate returns

from stationary objects such as hills or buildings which would give returns that
would mask the weaker returns from aircraft. By erasing the permanent echoes the
radar is able to display only the moving targets such as aircraft.

It is possible for a radar receiver on MTI to produce false targets as result of

second trace returns. i.e. a return of the preceding pulse from a target beyond the
maximum range selected, appearing during the period of the next pulse as a
moving target within the selected range. In order to overcome this problem, MTI
radars remove second trace returns by changing the PRI between consecutive
pulses, a technique known as ‘jittering the PRF’.

RADAR ANTENNAE

The microwave horn, parabolic reflector and slotted planar array (or flat plate
antenna) shown in Figure 11.8 and 11.9 are popular antennae which are used
extensively in radar and satellite systems. Microwave horns are very often used as
feeds for large parabolic reflectors. Both the parabolic reflector and the flat plate
antennae generate main lobes as well as side lobes. Most radars will incorporate
circuits for side lobe suppression so that echoes from the side lobes do not interfere
with the main pulse returns. Figure 11.10 shows a radiation pattern with the main
and side lobes of a parabolic reflector. The slotted planar array procedures a
narrower beam with much smaller side lobes hence reducing the power required
and improving the resolution.

DIPOLE FEED HORN FEED CASSEGRAIN FEED

Figure 11.8 Radar Antennae

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Figure 11.9 Airborne Weather Radar Antenna

Figure 11.10 Typical Radiation Pattern

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CATHODE RAY TUBE

The only moving parts in this instrument are electrons-concentrated into a beam,
which a bright spot of light on the wide end (or “screen”) of the CRT.

Because of the negligible mass of the electrons, the beam and therefore the spot of
light can be made to move at very high speeds so that radar pulses of only a few
microseconds’ duration can be “ painted” on to screen. The picture painted can be
made persistent (lasting many seconds) or non-persistent (fading immediately) by
varying the chemical composition of the screen coating.

The spot of light can be made to cross the screen rapidly and repeatedly at a steady
speed in a known time so producing a Time Base, which can be likened to an
electronic ruler, used to measure very small time intervals.

CONSTRUCTION OF ELECTROSTATIC CRT

The tube is an evacuated glass flask, one end that forms the screen as depicted in
Figure-3

Figure3: Electrostatic CRT

Within the tube, a cloud of electrons, emitted by the cathode, is accelerated by the
anode system to strike the inside of the screen. The grid concentrates the electrons
into a beam, and regulates its intensity, whole the anode system – in addition to
accelerating the electrons- focuses the beam on the screen. Further details of the
different components of the CRT are given on the following page.

Cathode. A barium salt on this heated electrode emits a cloud of electrons

(negatively charged particles) that are attracted towards the highly positive anode
system. The cathode may be considered to be at zero (earth) potential

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Grid. This cylindrical electrode has an aperture through which the electron bean
passes. The grid is always negative (say, minus 50 volts) with respect to the
cathode, so repelling the negatively charged electrons away from its walls towards
the centre and thereby concentrating the beam. The negative grid voltage is
variable, so providing a Brilliance Control; note that if the grid is made too
negative with respect to the cathode, the accelerating effect of the anodes is
completely overcome, the electrons stay close to the cathode, the beam is cut off,
and the spot of light is blacked out.

Anode System. Three anodes are used, the first and third being metal discs with
central apertures to allow the beam to pass through, the second being an open-
ended metal cylinder. All three are highly positive with respect to the cathode so
that the electrons are accelerated to high speeds, passing right through the central
apertures to strike the screen.

Typical anode voltages are shown in Figure 3; note that the central anode is less
positive than the first and third. This arrangement produces an electrostatic force
field between the anodes that acts as an electronic lens, focusing the beam on the
screen. The central anode voltage can be varied, so providing the Focus Control.

Deflector Plates. These two pairs of electrodes are known as the Y-plates and X-
plates since they are used to produce, respectively, vertical and horizontal
movement of the spot of light on the screen (in algebraic terms, along the Y and X
axes). This is achieved by applying suitable voltages to the plates to set up
electrostatic fields between them.

For instance, if the top Y-plate is made positive with respect to the bottom plate,
the electrons will experience an upward attraction as they pass between the Y-
pates, producing upward deflection of the beam so that the spot moves up the
screen.

The same effect would be achieved by making the bottom Y-pate negative with
respect to the top-plate, the electron beam being repelled upwards away from the
bottom plate. Downward movement of the spot would be achieved by reversing the
applied voltages.

Similarly, movement of the spot of light to left or right is achieved by applying

suitable voltages to the X-plates. Combinations of varying X-plate and Y-plate
voltages can be used to make the spot trace any desired pattern on the screen.

Graphic Coating. The bombardment of the screen by the beam produces low-
velocity secondary electrons that are conducted away from the screen to the third
anode via the graphite coating inside the tube. This prevents the build-up of a cloud
of electrons behind the screen that could eventually repel the beam. The coating
also helps to screen the beam from stay electrostatic fields.

Magnetic Screening. Deflection of the beam by stray magnetic fields is

minimized by sheathing the tube with high-permeability metal (Mu-metal).

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CRT Voltages. It should be realized that there is no basic difference between (a)
having the anodes highly positive with respect to the cathode, and (b) having the
cathode highly negative with respect to the anodes. The relative difference in
voltage still gives the required electron acceleration towards the screen. In practice
less picture distortion occurs if the third anode and the associated graphite coating
are at earth potential and so at approximately the same potential as the deflector
plates, whereas the cathode is highly negative (and the grid even more so).

ELECTROMAGNETIC CRT

Another type of cathode ray tube commonly in use has only one anode- the
graphite coating serving this purpose. Focusing and deflection are obtained by
using magnetic fields generated by currents flowing in coils suitably disposed
about the neck of the tube.

SIMPLE TIME BASE

The simple “A”-scope (or “linear”) time base is a straight line traced on the screen
either vertically or horizontally according to requirements. The spot of light is
made to cross the screen at constant speed in a known time.

Time Base Transmission Pulse

If the spot takes 1/1000 second, or 1000 microseconds, to move across a

convenient distance on the screen, the length of the time base will be 1 000. Figure
4 (a) illustrates this with a horizontal trace.

With simple primary range-finding radar, transmission of a pulse is started at the

same instant as the spot of light starts its movement form left to right. A position
voltage applied to the top Y-plate while the pulse is being transmitted pulls the
spot up to produce the transmitter “blip” as shown in Figure 4 (b). When the echo
pulse return, another positive voltage can be fed to the top Y-plate producing the
echo blip as shown in Figure 4(c).

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Figure 4(c) Figure 4 (d)

Transmission Pulse and Echo Range Measurement

The time base can be calibrated as follows:

In 1 000 microseconds (1/1 000 second) a pulse travels 300 km, or about 162 nm.
With a reflecting object, this is equivalent to a range of 150 km or 81 nm, so that
the time base can be calibrated 0-81 nm, as shown in Figure 4 (d). The graduations
can be etched on the screen or may be shown more accurately by electronic range
markers generated by “ divider” circuits, which in this case would produce very
short-lived positive potentials fed to the top Y-plate at very accurately timed
interval. Note that in Figure 4(d) the range reading point is the left hand edge (the
leading edge) of the echo blip.

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PRODUCTION OF A HIROZONTAL TIME BASE

Figure 5(a) shows the face of the CRT while Figure 5(b) shows the corresponding
deflector plate and grid potentials required to produce the simple time base.

Figure 5(a) Figure 5(b) Saw Tooth Voltage

Face of CRT

A “saw-tooth” voltage is applied to the X-plates. When the right hand X-plate
(viewed from the screen) is made negative to the left hand X-plate, the spot of light
moves to the left (Position 1). The right hand X-plate is then made steadily less
negative and then steadily more positive with respect to the left hand plate, so that
the spot moves at constant speed from left to right from Position 1 through 2 to
Position 3.

The right hand X-plate is made rapidly negative again, causing the spot to fly back
to the left (Position 1 again). During “fly-back”, the grid is made more negative
than usual with respect to the cathode, so cutting off the beam and blacking out the
fly-back. This prevents late echoes (from objects further away than the calibrated
maximum range) from appearing at false ranges on the fly-back race. Note that
under conditions of anomalous (freak) propagation, echoes form far-distant objects
may appear at entirely false ranges on the second, third, or subsequent time bases.

A time base trace is started each time the transmitter fires a pulse, so that the blips
remain stationary on the trace (unless the “target” is moving). In other words, pulse
production is synchronised with time base production and the Pulse Repetition
Rate (PRR) is equal to the number of time bases “ painted” per second. The pulse
Recurrence Period equals the Time Base Recurrence Period (which is the time
interval between the start of one time base and the start of the next).

If a vertical time base is required, the “saw-tooth” voltage is applied to the Y-

plates. When pulses are transmitted, or echoes received, voltage impulses are
passed to one of the X-plates to produce horizontal blips.

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GRASS

“Grass” is the term given to the display of radio “noise” or “clutter” on an “ A”-
scope. Lightning, natural static and man-made interference combine to form grass.
Figure 6 illustrates.

Figure 6 Grass

GAIN CONTROL

A gain control is provided which increases, the amplitude of, normally, the echo
blip as required. An increase in amplitude of the blip in this manner is achieved by
passing a greater positive voltage to the top “Y-pate” when the echo is received (in
the case of the horizontal time base).

EXPANDED TIME BASES

For very exact time interval measurements or for closer examination of radar
pulses, a more accurate scale than that provided by the main time base may be
necessary. With many types of radar receiver, the scale can be electronically “
expanded” (magnified).

Only a section of the main time base can be magnified at one time to give what is
known as a “strobe” time base having the same length on the screen as the main
time base. The time interval represented by the strobe time base will of course be
less than the main time base and the spot of light will have a greater “sweep speed
“.

With some types of indicator the operator is able to select the section of the main
time abase that he wishes to magnify by means of “ strobe-markers” or “strobes”
or “steps” or “pedestals” which he can position anywhere on the time base by
means of a control knob.

The indicator is then switched to “strobe time base” and the magnified section then
replaces the main time base on the screen. Time bases with even greater
expansions- “expanded strobe time bases”-may be selected on some types of
indicator. Figures 7 (a) and 7 (b) show a typical time base expansion used with one
type of LORAN indicator.
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Figure 7 (a) Main Time Base

Figure 7(b) Strobe Time Base

P-scope (Plan Position Indicator). This indicator, commonly known as a “PPI” is

used mainly in conjunction with a rotating radar beam as in surveillance radar.
The time base moves out from the centre of the screen along a radius, the direction
of which is synchronized with the centre of the radar beam, as illustrated in Figure
9(a) an 9(b).

The brightness of the time base is adjusted so that it is barely visible. When the
rotating beam “illuminates” a reflecting object so that an echo comes back, the
CRT grid is made momentarily less negative allowing a momentary increase in
electron flow, “brightening-up” a small part of the screen in the shape of a small
arc at the appropriate range and bearing. A “persistent” screen is used, so that a
series of arcs will continue to glow for a time and thereby display the track of an
aircraft across the screen.

The magnetic bearing of centre of the target is given by the bearing scale round the
perimeter of the screen. Range of the echo is measured form the centre of the tube
to the inside edge of the arc, using electronic range marker rings as shown in
Figure 9(a)

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Figure 9 (a) PPI Figure 9 (b) Plan Vies of Rotating Beam

It should be noted that even a small object remains in the beam for the whole of its
passage so that if the beam width is 3°, the object will appear as a 3° arc. Large
reflecting objects such as thunder clouds, subtending bigger angles, will give larger
echoes; for instance, a 3° beam sweeping across a cumulonimbus with an effective
reflecting surface subtending 10° would produce an echo about 13° wide.

CLASSIFICATION OF RADAR SYSTEMS

The principles of Primary radar have already been mentioned; it relies on the
reception of very weak echoes for the determination of range and/or bearing,
examples being Airborne Weather Radar, Radar Altimeter, Precision Approach
Radar, and Primary Ground Surveillance Radar.

With Secondary radar, an interrogatory pulse reaches the receiver of a Transponder

beacon, the transmitter of which is almost immediately triggered off to transmit a
response pulse that is picked up by the receiver at the interrogating transmitter. The
time interval between transmission of an interrogating pulse and reception of the
response pulse is measured. Half this time interval multiplied by the speed of
propagation gives the transponder’s range. Examples of the system are Airborne
DME Interrogator/ Ground DME Facility, and Ground Secondary Surveillance
Radar/Airborne Transponder. Some advantages of the system are: -

1. The returning signal is strong compared with the weak Primary echo (if there
is a Primary echo at all).
2. Coded information can be carried by the transponder’s responses
3. Permanent Echoes and “clutter” from storms do not appear on ground radar
screens because the air-to-ground frequency is different from the ground-to-
air frequency, so eliminating primary echoes from the display screen.

With Hyperbolic radar, comparison of the times of reception of corresponding pulses

form Master and Slave transmitters establishes lines of constant time difference,
equivalent to constant range difference. These lines are, consequently, hyperbolic
position lines. LORAN is an example of this type of radar system.

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Advantages of Primary Radar

• It is a self-contained system requiring no external assistance.

• Peak power of the transmitter can be made very high owing to the relatively
short time of the actual transmission, but more power is required
• A common aerial may be used for both the transmission and the reception.
• For a ground installation, increasing the aerial size can produce sharp, accurate
and narrow beams.

Secondary Radar

In this system, a transmitter (called interrogator) transmits a group of pulses on a

given carrier frequency. The transmission is either omni-directional (DME) or
directed towards an object (Scanner sweep of SSR). An aerial in the path of these
pulses receives the signals and passes them on to the receiver. If the signals are
recognized at the receiver, it instructs its transmitter (called transponder) to give a
reply. The reply, then goes out on a different carrier frequency.

The differences between the primary and the secondary radars are as follow:-

• Unlike primary radar, the operation of the secondary radar depends on the
active cooperation of the other object

• In secondary radar, the information is exchanged in the form of group of pulses

and not by individual pulses.

• As secondary radar system requires a transmitter ad a receiver on different

frequencies, both in the aircraft and on the ground.

Advantages of Secondary Radar

There are various advantages of using secondary radar over primary radar

1. An important advantages is the power requirement. With the type radar, it

is possible to work with much lower power. There are two reasons (a) the
signals are doing only one way journey, and (bo there is no double
scattering to come back, as in primary radar.

2. Because of the use of different frequency, the ground transmitter will not
pick up ground reflections on transmitting frequency. Similarly, the
airborne transmitter will not pick up its on ground reflections.

3. Interference through weather is reduced

4. The system is independent of such considerations as reflecting area, shape,

material, etc

5. In addition to range and bearing, additional information can be transmitted in

the form of coded pulses

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Continuous Wave Radar

As the title suggests, in this type of radar, both the transmission and the reception
take place continuously. Consequently, two aerials are used: one for transmission
and one for reception. These aerials must be suitably screened from each other;
otherwise the receiving aerial will receive signals direct from the neighboring
transmitting aerial.

Unmodulated CW may be used in the Doppler role. In this case, the transmitted
and reflected signals with differing frequency due to Doppler effect and will
produce the airborne transmitters velocity. For range measurement, the transmitter
carrier is progressively frequency modulated. The received frequency is then
compared with the frequency actually being transmitted at the instant of reception,
and knowing the rate of change of frequency, the range is worked out. The radio
altimeter uses this principle.

The CW technique is eminently suitable for short-range work. Unlike pulse radar,
where the minimum range is controlled by the pulse width, CW radar can work
from zero range upwards. Speed detecting radar used by the police work on CW.

Advantages of CW Radar

• Because of modulated or un-modulated form, the receiver operates on a

frequency different from the transmission frequency; it is fairly free from the
ground clutter and permanent echo.

• It has no minimum range limitation in altitude

• The system is less complex than the pulse radar system.

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QUESTIONS

1. The factor which determines the maximum range of a radar is:

a. pulse repetition rate

b. pulse width
c. power
d. beam width

2. The main advantage of continuous wave radars is:

a. No maximum range limitation

b. Better range resolution
c. No minimum range limitation
d. Better range resolution

3. If the PRF of a primary radar is 500 pulses per second, the maximum range will
be:

a. 324 nm
b. 300 nm
c. 162 nm
d. 600 nm

4. To double the range of a primary radar would require the power to be increased
by a factor of:

a. 2
b. 4
c. 8
d. 16

5. The time between the transmission of a pulse and the reception of the echo from a
target is 1720 microseconds. What is the range of the target?

a. 139 km
b. 258 km
c. 278 km
d. 516 km

6. A radar is required to have a maximum range of 100 nm. What is the maximum
PRF that will achieve this?

a. 1620 pulses per second (pps)

b. 1234 pps
c. 617 pps
d. 810 pps

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7. If the PRI of a radar is 2100 microseconds, the maximum range of the radar is:

a. 170 nm
b. 315 nm
c. 340 nm
d. 630 nm

8. To improve he resolution of a radar display requires:

a. a narrow pulse width and a narrow beam width

b. a high frequency and large reflector
c. a wide beam width and a wide pulse width
d. a low frequency and a narrow pulse width

9. An advantage of phased array (slotted antenna. Is:

a. better resolution
b. less power required
c. reduced side lobes and clutter
d. all of the above

10. An echo is received from a target 900 microseconds after the pulse was
transmitted. The range to the target is:

a. 73 nm
b. 270 nm
c. 135 nm
d. 146 nm

11. The factor which limits the minimum detection range of a radar is:

a. pulse repetition interval

b. transmitter power
c. pulse width
d. pulse repetition frequency

12. The use the Doppler techniques to discriminate between aircraft and fixed objects
results in second trace returns being generated. These are removed by:

a. Using a different frequency for transmission and reception

b. Jittering the PRF
c. making regular changes in pulse width
d. limiting the power output of the radar

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13. A radar is designed to have a maximum range of 12 km. The maximum PRF that
would permit this is:

a. 25000 pps
b. 6700 pps

c. 12500 pps
d. 13400 pps

14. The bearing of a primary radar is measured by:

a. phase comparison
b. searchlight principle
c. lobe comparison
d. DF techniques

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Radio Navigation Chapter 11

DISTANCE MEASURING EQUIPMENT (DME)

The purpose of airborne Distance Measuring Equipment is to give the pilot his
range form a special type of ground beacon known as a Transponder (not to be
confused with the airborne Transponder often carried and used in conjunction with
ground Secondary Surveillance Radar).

Ideally, this ground “DME facility” is co-located with a VOR; that is to say the
two beacons should be erected on precisely the same geographical site so that the
pilot can fix his position in terms of range and bearing from one points- the
combined VOR/DME station. This is a “polar co-ordinate” or p0 (rho-theta)
system, the Greek letter referring to range and bearing respectively. (The bearing is
determined by the aircraft’s VOR equipment).

The military TACAN system is also a rho-theta a radio aid but civil airborne
equipment is not designed to obtain a bearing from a TACAN beacon, only a
range. In other words, the military ground TACAN facility includes a DME
transponder, the range of which can be measured by civil airborne DME.

Where a VOR station is co-located with a TACAN beacon or is very close to it, the
combined installation is designated VORTAC. The VOR/DME and VORTAC
installations are the basic ground navigation aids in the Europe/Mediterranean
region (EUM) until at least 1975. The UK Airways VOR/DME plan is outlined in
Civil Aviation circular 113/1968 and shows nearly 50 VOR stations of which
about 30 are associated with or are reasonably near to civil DME transponders or
military TACAN beacons.

Where a TACAN beacon is many miles from a VOR station, the civil pilot can still
use his airborne DME to measure the range of the TACAN and plot this as a
circular position line. The intersections of this with a radial from the VOR give two
possible fixes, A and B, as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1 DME Position Line

The ambiguity could be resolved by reference to the aircraft’s DR position or by

drawing a third position line from another aid or by plotting a series of fixes. It is
obvious, however, that the quick-fixing advantages of the VOR/DME system are
lost if the VOR station and DME transponder are not very close together.

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DME ranges may be displayed by a digital readout up to, typically, 150 nm (see
Figure 2). An alternative presentation is by means of a pointer moving over a
calibrated scale. It is usual for the latter type to have high and low range positions
on the function switch, the high range covering say 0-100 nm, the low range giving
more accurate reading up to say 35 nm. The figures in the “ windows” or “boxes”
change as the Figure 2 Digital Read-out function switch is moved from one
position to another.

PRESENTATION OF INFORMATION

Figure 2 Digital Read-out

In Figure 3 (A) the range indicated is 20 nm on the 0-35 nm low range display.

Figure 3 (A) Range Indication Figure 3 (B) Speed Indication

Digital and pointer indicators incorporate a computer which, from the rate of
change of range, automatically calculates the component of the aircraft’s
groundspeed towards or away from the transponder ( 150 kt indicated in Figure 3
(b) with KNOTS selected on the function switch ). Note that the aircraft has to be
tracking directly towards or away from the transponder for this indicated speed to
be the true ground speed to or from the station. Moreover, as with range
indications, height error becomes significant at short range. This is discussed in a
later paragraph.

Some DME computers calculate time to the station (TTS selected in Figure 2). Yet
another indicator is designed to assist in the accurate flying of orbital (circular)
holding patterns. The desired radius from the DME facility and the direction of
orbit (left or right) are selected by the pilot who then flies the circular hold with the
aid of a left/right needle (similar to the lLS localiser needle).

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PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

DME is an example of “ secondary” radar. The airborne “ interrogating”

transmitter sends out a stream of pulses of radio energy in all directions on the
UHF radio frequency channel of the ground transponder the pilot wishes to use.
When these pulses reach the receiver of the transponder operating on the selected
channel, they trigger off the transponder’s transmitter so that it emits a
corresponding stream of response pulses which are picked up the airborne DME
receiver.
The airborne DME measures electronically the time interval between transmission
of an interrogating pulse and reception of the response from the transponder. This
measurement is extremely accurate, and since the speed of propagation of radio
signals is known, the range of the beacon can be automatically computed and
displayed. The triggering delay at the transponder is 50 microsecond.

RANGE SEARCH

When the airborne DME transmitter is switched on, it emits interrogatory pulses
and the airborne DME receiver then carries out a “range search” for a ground
transponder replying on the selected channel. The pilot can observe this range
search. The indicated range increases steadily from zero until the equipment
suddenly “lock-on” and gives a steady indication of the beacon’s range. If “lock-
on” is not achieved during the first range search, the indicated reading increases to
the maximum value on the scale, returns rapidly to zero, and then another search
begins. The time taken for a complete range search depends on the maximum
range calibration (100 or 150 nm for most DME) and the “vintage” of the
equipment. Values vary between 20 seconds for older types searching out to 200
nm down to 0.3 seconds for a search out to about 400 nm with the latest types
being tested.

Once “locked-on” to a transponder a memory device prevents the receiver from

starting another range search for about ten seconds in the event of signal loss. This
is useful during a temporary break in normal reception - for example during beacon
coding, or when the aircraft aerials are “ screened” in turns (the line of sight being
interrupted by, usually, a wing).

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FREQUENCIES

DME operates in the UHF (ultra high frequency band). The carrier frequencies
used are from 962.1213 MHz at 1 MHz spacing, giving 252 spot frequencies. At
present, these 252 frequencies are use to provide 126 channels, numbered 1 to 126.

Each channel consists of two frequencies, spaced 63 MHz apart, one for air-to-
ground interrogation, the other for ground-to-air response, for example: -

Channel 1 ( Air-to-ground 1025 MHz )

( Ground-to-air 962 MHz )

Channel 64 ( Air- to ground 1088 MHz )

( Ground-to-air 1151 MHz )

This “pairing” of interrogatin and response frequencies is arranged as follows :-

Channels 1 – 63: Interrogation frequency is 63 MHz higher than response

frequency.

Channels 64-126: Interrogation frequency is 63 MHz lower than response

frequency.

This arrangement of frequencies is sometimes known as the “X” allocation and the
channel numbers may have the letter X printed after them, eg. Channel 20X,
Channel 81X, Channel 124X. There may be a future requirement for a further one
hundred and twenty-six “ Y” channels in which the interrogation frequencies for
channels 1Y-63Y are 63 MHz higher than the paired response frequencies.

The use of different carier frequencies for interrogation and response pulses is
common to all secondary radar systems. With DME this practice overcomes two
major problems.

a. The pulses transmitted by the airborne interrogator produce “primary

echoes” (reflections) from the ground below, but the airborne receiver will
not “lock-on” to them. The receiver will not detect them at all because it is
tuned to a carrier frequency 63 MHz different from that of the reflections.

b. If the ground transponder’s transmitter operated on the same frequency as

its receiver, strong local reflections could cause too high a radio noise level
for the system to operate satisfactorily. The transponder could be purely
self-triggering and might not respond at all to aiborne interrogations.

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VOR/DME FREQUENCY PAIRING

VOR frequencies are “paired” with DME channels, that is to say each VOR
frequency has a specific DME channel assigned to it. Since there are more DME
channels than VOR frequencies, ILS localiser frequencies and some VHF R/T
frequencies are also paired with DME channels. Example (taken frm the table in a
Flight Guide Supplement) are :-

VHF Frequency TACAN or civil

Aid DME “X”
( MHz) channel
VHR R/T 134.4 1
VOR 108.0 17
ILS
108.1 18
Localiser
lLS
111.9 56
Localiser
VOR 112.0 57
VOR 117.8 125

The object of frequency pairing is to reduce cockpit work-load and lessen the risk
of making a wrong frequency selection. With some airborne installation only one
frequency selection (that of the VOR has to be made, this action selecting not only
the VOR frequency but also the appropriate paired DME channel frequencies.
More commonly the DME is tuned separately from the VOR, but the DME
frequency selector shows the paired VOR frequency, not the acutual DME channel
number. See Figures 3 (a) and 3(b).

DME Paired with ILS Localisert Transmitter

DME is also frequency paired with the ILS localiser frequencies. These DME
supplement or replace the range information provided by the Marker Beacons.
The range information is zero referenced to the ILS runway threshold. DME is
obtained by selecting the ILS frequency.

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VOR AND DME IDENTIFIERS

Ideally, only co-located VOR and DME facilities should be frequency-paired, so
that the pilot makes one frequency selection and is then presented with his range
and bearing from one point. Unfortunately, in some parts of the world, including
the United Kingdom, confusion can arise becaue a VOR is many miles from a
military TACAN beacon which is frequency-paired with it. The pilot would be
presented with a range from one point (the TACAN beacon) and a bearing from
another (the VOR station) perhaps 50 nm or more apart.

To reduce the risk of confusion, the three letter morse identifiers of the DME
facility and VOR are used not only to identify the beacons but also to establish
their geographical relatioinship as shown in the following table.

Relationship of Aids Frequency Relationship Identifiers

Same identifiers
VOR and DME associated Paired
transmitted in synchronism
VOR and DME at entirely Entirely different
May be paired or non-paired
different locations identifiers
VOR and DME not
associated but serving the First two letters of
same location and which identifiers are the same.
Paired
may be used in conjunction Last letter of identifiers
with each other (for normal different. One will be a Z.
airways navigation)

N.B. “ Associated” VOR and DME facilities are either co-located or situated as closely as
possible subject to a maximum aerial separation of: -

• 100 feet for those facilities used in terminal areas for approach purposes or
other procedures where the highest fixing accuracy is required.
• 2 000 feet where used for purposes other than those indicated in (i) above.

To summarise: -
• “ Associated” VOR and DME facilities have the same identifies, are
frequency-paired, and for high accuracy procedures in TMAs are within 100
feet of each other but in any case cannot be more than 2 000 feet apart. The
VOR identifier is transmitted at least six times per minute, the DME less
frequently and with a higher tone.

• VOR and DME facilities “ at different locations” (in practice more than about 6
nm apart) have entirely different identifiers. They may be frequency-paired.

• Facilities serving the same location but too far apart to be classed as “
associated” will have the first two letters the same in both identifiers. The last
letter of one identifier will be a Z. They will be frequency-paired.

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The table opposite shows various examples of frequency-paired VOR and civil
DME or DME facilities in the UK. It shows that the dividing line between
“different location” and “serving the same location” appears drawn at about 6 nm.
The table also emphasises that co-located facilities are “associated” but
“associated’ facilities are not necessarily co-located.

STATIONS IDENTIFICATION

A 3-letter call sign is transmitted every 30 seconds, usually in conjunction with an

associated VOR. During the ident period the random pulses are replaced by
regularly spaced pulses keyed with the station identification letters. This means
that range information is not available during the ident period. However the aircraft
equipment has a 10 second memory circuit to continue displaying the range
obtained. The DME identification is distinguished from the VOR identification by
having a different tone (usually higher than the VOR).

TACAN
Ch
VOR Ident MHz (DME) or Civil Ident Spacing Relationship
(X)
DME
SCULTHORP “Different
BERRY HEAD BHD 114.8 SKT 95 216 nm
E locations”
“Different
STRUMBLE STU 113.1 BRAWDY BYS 78 7 nm
locations”
“Serving
STORNOWA
STORNOWAY STN 115.1 STZ 98 5.2 nm same
Y
location”
“Serving
WALLASEY WAL 114.1 WALLASEY WAZ 88 1.74 nm same
location”
402
metres
CLACTON CLN 115.7 CLACTON CLN 104 “Associated”
(1319
feet)
LONDON Co-
LON 113.6 LONDON LON 83 “Associated”
HEATHROW located

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Figure 16.4 DME, VOR and Tacan Presentation – Topographical Chart

RANGE OF DME

DME transmissions, like those of its complementary aid VOR, are “ line of sight”.
The pulses travel in straight lines, so that range at low altitude is limited by the
curvature of the earth. An aircraft below the horizon will not obtain responses form
a DME facility except under freak conditions. As aircraft altitude is increased, so
the range obtainable increases approximately in accordance with “ line of sight”
formula: -

Range = 1.25 ( √h1 + √h2 ) nm where h1 is transponder elevation

(Feet AMSL) and h2 is the aircraft altitude (feet AMSL)

High ground between interrogator and transponder can also “ block” the “line of
sight”.

As with VOR, the maximum range to be expected form DME is about 200 nm
(obtainable at altitudes above about 285 000 feet). It should be noted that many
airborne DME installations only “ range search” up to 100 or 150 nm, but more
modern, high quality interrogators in high altitude aircraft are reported to have
used existing transponders up to 375 nm.

In order to overcome range errors which may be caused by mutual interference

between two or more facilities sharing the same frequencies, a Designated
Operational Coverage is published foe each DME; this protects a DME from co-
channel interference under normal propagation conditions. The DOC is specified
as a range and height. The use of a DME beyond its DOC limitations may result
in range errors.

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ACCURACY OR DME

DME is extremely accurate. It does not suffer from night effect, static,
thunderstorm effect, refraction, site errors or propagation errors. The only
appreciable error is due to the height of the aircraft in relation to the transponder.
DME measure “ slant” range, that is “line of sight” range, which will be greater
than the range along the ground (sometimes called “plan” range). The error will be
maximum for an aircraft overhead the transponder. With the aircraft at 30 000 feet
over the beacon, the range indicated would be about 5 nm (assuming 6 000 feet to
1 nm). At the same height with a range of 50 nm, the error would be less than ½
nm. Figure 4 illustrates height error.

ACCURACY

System Accuracy
Based on a 95% probability the system accuracy for DME used for navigation
(DME/N) should give a total system error not exceeding +/-0.25 nm +/-1.25 of
range. Precision systems (DME/P) should have errors not exceeding +/0.2 nm.

The total system limits include errors from causes such as those arising from
airborne equipment, ground equipment, propagation and random pulse interference
effects.

Slant Range / Ground Range Accuracy

The different between computed slant range and actual ground distance increases
the higher and closer an aircraft gets in relation to the DME. As a general rule the
difference becomes significant when the aircraft is at a range which is less than 3 x
height. When the aircraft is directly over the DME (0 nm ground distance), it will
indicate the aircraft’s height in nautical miles. There is a small cone of confusion
over a DME, plus range indications continue to be computed as the equipment has
a 10 second memory circuit.

Aircraft at 36,840 ft:

36840 = 6nm
6080

102 = 62 + x2

X = √100-36 = 8nm ground range

Applying the ICAO system accuracy limitations, the ground range is 7.625nm to
8.375nm

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Figure 16.10

Accuracy of Groundspeed Computation

The equipment’s indicated groundspeed, which is computed from the rate of
change of slant range, becomes more inaccurate and under-reads the actual
groundspeed, the closer and higher an aircraft is in relation to the DME beacon.

An aircraft circling a DME beacon at a constant range will have an indicated

computed groundspeed of zero knots. A groundspeed is only valid when an aircraft
is homing to, or flying directly away from, a VOR/DME – TACAN.

Figure 4: Slant Range

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BEACON SATURATION

If more than 100 aircraft interrogate a beacon simultaneously, only the strongest
(usually the nearest) 100 interrogations will receive response.

PROTECTION FROM INTERFERENCE

There is no risk of the interrogating pulses of one aircraft producing range

indications on the indicator in another aircraft. Each aircraft’s transmitter sending
out its pulses at random interval eliminates this possibility. The aircraft’s receiver
rejects all pulses received except those whose spacing corresponds exactly to the
spacing of the pulses from its own transmitter.

In addition to this, all pulses transmitted are “twin pulses”, two pulses twelve
millionths of a second apart. the aircraft and transponder receivers will only accept
these twin pulses, and reject single pulses such as might be produced by other radar
equipment or lightening or ignition system.

Transponders using the same radio frequency channel have different identifiers.
However, it two beacons use the same channel, they are sited may hundreds of
miles apart and, for the present at least, there is negligible risk of the aircraft’s
DME “ locking-on” to the “wrong” beacon. Nevertheless, beacon identification
should always be checked.

GENERAL APPLICATION OF DME

The main use of DME ranges (usually in conjunction with VOR bearings) is to
improve the accuracy of airways navigation, so expediting traffic flow whilst
maintaining safe separation between aircraft.

DME accuracy is comparable with that of ground surveillance radar so that the
pilot’s DME derived position report positively assists radar identification, often
making identification turns unnecessary.

Accuracy of flying a holding pattern based on a point source aid such as VOR or
NDB (with their cones of uncertainty) is to some extent improved by installing
DME transponders at the sites. However, the accuracy of DME is used to greater
advantage in orbital holding patterns, or patterns flown between two designated
ranges from the DME facility.

The VOR/DME navigation system is becoming more flexible with the

development by several manufacturers of airborne computer-controlled displays
which use VOR/DME information to show the position of the aircraft without it
having to fly along radials form one VOR station to another. In other words, any
desired track within the area of coverage can be flown with reasonable accuracy
and the computed position displayed to the pilot continuously. It has to be
remembered however that the aircraft must be within “ line of sight” of the VOR
and DME and DME stations in use. The Decca Omnitrac computer controlled
flight log is a very advanced example of this type of display providing area
navigation based on point source aids.

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USE OF DME-SUMMARY

The obvious applications of DME are: -

 Quick fixing-usually in conjunction with VOR
 More accurate position reporting on airways.
 ETA checks
 Accurate indication of the point to start a planned descent
 Improved holding pattern accuracy
 Better approach and letdown procedures. (One possible application is to site a
DME transponder alongside an ILS glide path transmitter, so providing
continuous indication of range from touchdown on outbound and inbound legs
of an ILS letdown. The ILS localiser frequency would be “ paired” with the
DME channel in this application).

DME RANGE MEASUREMENT FOR ILS

When DME is paired with ILS, the transponder is adjusted to give range to the
threshold in UK systems, since clearly the ground installation cannot be placed at
the threshold. This is achieved by reducing the time delay at the transponder, SO
that the time taken for the interrogation signal to travel from the runway threshold
to the transponder, plus the delay at the transponder, plus the time taken for the
reply to travel from the transponder to the runway threshold is 50 microseconds.

For example: if the transponder is 1500m from the runway threshold, the time for
the interrogation and reply pulses to travel between the threshold and transponder
will be 5 microseconds each way, so the delay at the transponder must be reduced
to 40 microseconds to give a range to the threshold.

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION-DETAILS

AIRBORNE EQUIPMENT
It is assumed that 95% of the aircraft will be in the tracking mode. When the
airborne interrogator is switched on, it operates initially in the “search” mode,
emitting about 150 pulses per second. An automatic “ stroboscopic” or “ strobe”
range search is carried out by the aircraft’s DME receiver to determine the exact
time interval between transmission of an interrogating pulse and reception of the
corresponding response pulse. During this search operation, the receiver tries out
different time intervals, each being slightly longer than the previous one. An
electronic “ range gate” or “time slot” is used. The receiver checks the number of
successive transponder response pulses received in a given fraction of a second (
ie. the number of response pulses passing through the “ time slot” or “gate”) for
each selected time interval. If no significant succession of response pulses passes
through the “gate”, the chosen delay is increased slightly ( that is, the “ gate” is
moved slightly) and a further check made. This process continues until a
succession of response pulses is received at a particular time interval after the
transmission of corresponding interrogatory pulses. The stroboscopic range search
then stops – the range is indicated on the display unit- the airborne equipment is
said to be “ locked-on” and it changes to “ tracking” operation. From then on, the
time interval setting of the range “ gate” changes only slowly as the aircraft’s range
changes.

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After “locking-on”, the number of interrogatory pulses transmitted drops

immediately to about 25 per second in the “ tracking” role to economise in the
number of transponder response pulses used.

The range search is complicated by the fact that many aircraft may be interrogating
the same beacon. The receiver in one aircraft must be prevented from “ locking-
on” to the transponder responses triggered off by another aircraft’s interrogator.
This possibility is eliminated by having each aircraft’s interrogator transmitting
pulses at random spacing – the pulse recurrence rate is said to be “ jittered” – even
though the average number of pulses per second from each interrogator remains at
150 during “search” and 25 when “locked-on”. Each aircraft’s receiver rejects all
pulses received except those whose spacing corresponds exactly to the spacing of
the pulses from its own interrogator.

DME transmitters are designed to produce “pulse pairs”, that is, two pulses each of
three microseconds duration and twelve microseconds apart. The use of this double
pulse increases the power output of a DME transmitter. Furthermore, the DME
receivers will only accept these twin pulses and reject other pulses produced by
ignition systems, lightning or different sorts of radar equipment.

The strobe “ tracking” circuits have a memory provision which prevents the system
from reverting to the search mode in the event of loss of response signals for a
period of up to about 10 seconds.

DME GROUND TRANSPONDER BEACONS

It is technically advantageous for several reasons that the transponder should

transmit an almost constant number of pulse pairs per second. To achieve this aim,
the transponder’s receiver has an automatic gain control that maintains the number
of pulse pairs available to feed the transmitter trigger circuits at 2700 per second. If
the beacon is not being interrogated, these will all be “ filler” pulse pairs, generated
by random receiver noise. If an aircraft then starts interrogating the transponder
with 150 pulse pair per second, the receiver gain is automatically reduced, cutting
down the amount of noise until only 2700-150 = 2550 noise-generated “ filler”
pulse pairs are transmitted together with 150 response pulse pairs. If more aircraft
start interrogating, producing more response pulse pairs, the receiver gain is
automatically reduced again as fewer noise-generated “filler” pulse pairs are
required to maintain the 2700 per second total. If more than 100 aircraft interrogate
simultaneously only the strongest 100 will receive replies. (The beacon is said to
be “saturated”)

This type of radar system operation is known as “Constant Duty Cycle” operation
and has considerable technical advantages in cost, simplicity, reliability and
efficiency. It is perhaps best summarised by saying that the system operates as
though 100 aircraft were using it all the time whether in fact there are more or less
than 100 aircraft interrogating simultaneously.

The figure of 100 aircraft mentioned above can be deduced by assuming that most
of the interrogators will be in the tracking role with only a small percentage
searching. Assuming an average of 27 pulse pairs per second for each of the 100

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aircraft, we have a total of 2700 pulse pairs per second – which equates to the
transponder output.

(The statistics quoted have been deliberately simplified for the sake of brevity)

It is of academic interest to consider the consequences of a temporary failure of the

beacon (lasting longer than the ten seconds memory hold of the airborne receivers).
Each interrogator would revert to the search role, producing 150 pulse pairs per
second. With 100 aircraft, the ground receiver would be bombarded with 15000
pulse pairs per second. The transponder’s receiver gain would automatically drop
until the 2700 strongest interrogating pulse pairs were answered. This means that
2700/150 = 18 aircraft would “ lock on” and cut their interrogation rates to 25, so
reducing the total number of interrogations and allowing the transponder receiver
sensitivity to be automatically increased and enabling its transmitter to reply to
aircraft further away. After a minute or two, the previous state where most of the
interrogators were “tracking” (“locked-on”) would be re-established.

DME SUMMARY

Frequency UHF band; 962 to 1213 Mhz; 1 MHz spacing; 252

channels +/-63 Mhz difference between transmitted and
received frequencies Selection by paired VHF frequency
(VOR or ILS)
DME paired with ILS gives range zero referenced to ILS
runway threshold

Uses Circular position line; groundspeed and time to/from

station DME arcs
range and height checks during let-downs
accurate ranges to threshold
RNAV

Principle of Op Aircraft interrogator and receiver: transmits pairs of pulses

at random intervals, omni-directionally
Ground station transponder: re-transmits all pulses at +/-63
MHz after a delay of 50 𝜇𝜇s

Slant Range Aircraft receiver identifies own pulses and determines

range from time interval between transmitted and received
pulses (minus 50 𝜇𝜇)

Pulse characteristics Twin pulse used to avoid interference

Jittered pulses are used to identify own pulses
frequency change prevents aircraft locking on to
reflections

Range Search Pulse rate - initially 150 pps

- reduced to 60 pps after 15,000 pps
- Further reduced to about 25 pps at lock-on

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Beacon saturation Occurs at, 2,700 pps (approx 100 aircraft interrogating)
receiver gain reduced to respond only to strong pulses

Station Ident 3 letter identifier; range info not available during ident
period.

VOR / DME Frequency Pairing:

Associated - if co-located or within 100’ in TMA or 2000’ outside TMA

- call signs are the same; frequencies paired

Not associated - if serving same location then call sign of DME third letter
is
‘Z’
- frequencies paired

Separated - if > 6 nm apart; callsign different

Coverage: Line of sight range; reduced by intervening high ground and

bank angle DOC gives protected range; echo protection
circuit eliminates reflections

Accuracy: +/-0.25 nm +/-1.25% of range (+/0.2 nm for precision systems)

Slant range error significant when aircraft range <3 x height;
Groundspeed error increases as aircraft goes higher and
closer to station.

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QUESTIONS

1. Airborne DME equipment is able to discriminate between pulses intended for itself
and pulses intended for other aircraft because:

a. aircraft transmit and receive on different frequencies

b. aircraft will only accept unique twin pulses
c. aircraft reject pulses not synchronised with its own random pulse
recurrence rate
d. each aircraft has its own frequency allocation

2. A DME beacon having a transmit frequency of 962 MHz would have a receive
frequency of:

a. 1030 MHz
b. 902 MHz
c. 1025 Mhz
d. 962 Mhz

3. A VOR/DME share the same first two letters of their respective identifiers; the
last identifying letter of the DME is a Z. This means that:

a. they are co-located

b. they are more than 600m apart but serve the same location
c. they are widely separated and do not serve the same location
d. they are a maximum distance of 30m apart

4. Distance Measuring Equipment is an example of ______radar operating on a

frequency of _____in the______band.

a. primary 8800 MHz SHF

b. secondary 1030 MHz UHF
c. secondary 962 MHz UHF
d. primary 9375 MHz SHF

5. A DME transponder does not respond to pulses received from radars other than
DME because:

a. each aircraft transmits pulses at a random rate

b. DME transmits and receives on different frequencies
c. it will only accept the unique twin DME pulses
d. DME only responds to the strongest 100 interrogators.

6. The range indicated by DME is considered to be accurate to within:

a. 3% of range
b. 1.25% of range
c. 0.5 nm
d. +/-0.25 nm +/-1.25% of range

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7. A DME receiver is able to distinguish between replies to its own interrogations and
replies to other aircraft because:

a. DME is secondary radar and each aircraft transmits and receives on a different
frequency.
b. DME transponders reply to interrogations with twin pulses and the airborne
equipment ejects all other pulses
c. Each aircraft transmit pulses at a random rate and will only accept
synchronised replies
d. When DME is in the search mode it will only accept pulses giving the correct
range

8. When a DME transponder becomes saturated:

a. it reverts to standby
b. it increases the number of pulses pairs to meet the demand
c. it increases the receiver threshold to remove weaker signals
d. it goes into a selective response mode of operation

9. An aircraft flying at FL250 wishes to interrogate a DME beacon situated 400ft amsl.
What is the maximum range likely to be achieved?

a. 210 nm
b. 198 nm
c. 175 nm
d. 222 nm

10. For a DME and a VOR to be said to be associated it is necessary for:

a. the DME to transmit on the same VHF frequency as the VOR

b. the aerial separation not to exceed 100 feet in a TMA or 2000 feet outside a
TMA
c. the aerial separation not to exceed 100 metres in a TMA or 2000m outside a
TMA
d. both beacons to have the same first two letters for their ident’ but the last letter
of the DME to be a ‘Z’

11. The transmission frequency of a DME beacon is 63MHz removed from the aircraft
interrogator frequency to prevent:

a. interference from other radars

b. the airborne receiver locking on to primary returns from its own transmissions
c. static interference
d. receiver accepting replies intended for other interrogators

12. The accuracy associated with DME is:

a. +or -3% of range, or 0.5nm, whichever is greater

b. +or – 1.25% of range
c. = or -3% or range
d. +/-0.25 nm +/-1.25% of range

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13. For a VOR and a DME beacon to be said to be associated the aerial separation must
not exceed _______in a terminal area and ___________outside a terminal area.

a. 100 m 2000 m
b. 50 feet 200 feet
c. 30m 600 m
d. 50 m 200 m

14. DME is a ____radar operating in the__ band and uses _____in order to obtain range
information. The correct words to complete the above statement are:

a. primary SHF CW signals

b. secondary UHF twin pulses
c. secondary SHF “jittered pulses”
d. primary UHF pulses pairs

15. The receiver of airborne DME equipment is able to “look on” to its own “reply
pulses” because:

a. each aircraft has its own unique transmitter frequency and the receiver only
accepts reply pulses having this frequency
b. the reply pulses from the ground transmitter have the same frequency as the
incoming interrogation pulses from the aircraft
c. the aircraft receiver only accepts reply pulses which have the same time
interval between successive pulses as the pulses being transmitted by its own
transmitter
d. the aircraft receiver only accepts reply pulses which arrive at a constant time
arrival.

The VOR in an aircraft is correctly tuned and set to define the centre line of an airway
within UK airspace which you intend to fly. The indication received on the VOR/ILS
deviation indicator is shown in the diagram alongside. At the same time the DME gave
a range of 40 nm from the facility. Use the above information to answer the next two
questions.

Use the 1 in 60 rule and assume 1 dot equals 2°

16. At the time of the observation, the aircraft was on the:

a. 042° radial
b. 048° radial
c. 222° radial
d. 228° radial

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17. Assuming still air conditions, on regaining the centreline, it will be necessary to
make the following alteration of heading:

a. left onto 045°

b. right onto 048°
c. left onto 225°
d. right onto 225°

18. DME operates in the _____frequency band, it transmits _____which give it the
emission designator of______.

a. SHF double size pulses P01

b. UHF twin pulses PON
c. EHF twin pulses A9F
d. UHF double pulses J3E

19. Referring to DME during the initial stage of the “search” pattern before “lock-on”.

a. the airborne receiver checks 150 pulses each second

b. the airborne transmitter transmits 150 pulses each second
c. the ground receiver maintains the ground transmitter pulse transmission rate
at no more than 150 per second
d. right onto 225°the aircraft transmits 24 pulses per second and the receiver
check a maximum of 150 pulses per second

20. DME and VOR are “frequency paired” because:

a. the same receiver can be used for both aids

b. the VOR transmitter is easily converted to the required DME frequency
c. cockpit workload is reduced
d. both ground transmitter aerials can be placed on the same site if required

21. A DME receiver is able to distinguish between replies to its own interrogation
pulses and those intended for other aircraft using the same transponder because:

a. DME is a secondary radar and each aircraft transmits and receives on a

different frequency
b. DME transponders reply to interrogations by means of twin pulses and the
airborne equipment rejects all single pulses
c. each aircraft transmits pulses at a random rate (‘jittering”) and will only
accept replies that match this randomisation
d. when DME is in the range search mode it will accept only pulses separated by
+or -63 MHz from the interrogation frequency

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SECONDARY SURVEILLANCE RADAR (SSR)

INTRODUCTION

It is used for positive identification of each aircraft for adequate safe control by ATC. It is used in
conjunction with the primary radar but uses secondary radar principle.

Interrogator is the name for the ground equipment and the transponder for that in the aircraft. The
ground transmitter’s signal triggers a reply from each aircraft to supply ATC with information for
aircraft identification and tracking (refer diagram). Aircraft can transmit its height also. On the
ground range and bearing are displayed on the screen. Aircraft height, destination or point of
leaving airspace and call sign are shown on the screen as computer generated symbols. The
ground interrogator aerial is directional while the aircraft transponder is non – directional.

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ADVANTAGES OF SSR

SSR has the following advantages over primary radar:

• Requires much less transmitting power to provide coverage up to 200 to 250nm.

• Is not dependent on an aircraft’s echoing area or aspect
• Gives clutter free responses as it is does not rely on returning reflected pulses
• Positively identifies an aircraft’s primary response by displaying its code and call sign
alongside.
• Indicates an aircraft’s track history, speed, altitude and destination
• Can indicate on a controller’s screen that an aircraft has an emergency, has lost radio
communications or is being hi-jacked

Thus when SSR is used in conjunction with primary radar, the advantages of both systems are
realized. The two radars are therefore usually co-located as shown in Figure 14.1 and 14.2

Figure 14.1 SSR aerial mounted on top of a 23cm Primary Radar aerial

Figure 14.2 Primary and secondary Radar used for ATC

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Frequency and PRF

SSR operates within the UHF band. Ground Station transmits on 1030 MHz and receives on 1090 MHz.
Aircraft receives on 1030 MHz and transmits on 1090 MHz.

PRF 250 PPs

Range:

The range of the equipment is subject to the same limitations as any direct wave systems ie Line-
of-Sight range.

SSR Modes:
All signals are coded; the code of the interrogation signal is called the mode. SSR has five modes
A,B,C,D and S. Currently only these modes A,C and S are in general use in civil aviation.

(a) Mode A: It has pulses of 0.85 Micro Second Wide and are 8 Micro second apart.
It provides normal identification of aircraft or information on specific
emergencies.

(b) Mode C: It has pulses spacing of 21 Micro second apart. It provides automatic
pressure altitude information.

(c) Mode S: It has overcome the problems and limitations of Mode A and C. It is used
with TCAS also. It will be dealt later in detail.

Interrogation

In order to avoid triggering of the aircraft transponder by spurious transmissions and to

differentiate between the four modes (A, B, C and D) two pulses of Known width and spacing are
sent from the ground station. Pulse spacing varies with the mode selected.

Reply (Mode A)

The aircraft responder replies by sending back train of twelve information bits of information (a
bit is either a pulse or non pulse) between two framing pulses. Thus any one of 4096 codes can be
selected by the pilot on Mode ‘A’. A further “ident” pulse can also be selected after the second
framing pulse by pushing an “ident” or “squawk” button on the equipment only when requested
by ATC. The transmission will last for 20 seconds.

Normal operation Mode A and C

Unless special purpose codes, pilots are required to operate transponders and select modes/codes
only as directed by an ATS unit and to acknowledge by reading back the code setting instruction.
Mode ‘C’ is selected simultaneously with mode A unless otherwise instructed. Codes are
numbered 0000 to 7777 using all numbers except those containing 8 or 9. If any emergency
setting is transmitted, it activates an alarm system at the ground station and automatically
initiates the emergency procedures having made the required code setting, the function switch is
then set at ON or at Alt requested by ATC to squawk Charlie.

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A further pulse called the Special Position Identification (SPI) pulse may be transmitted together
with the information pulses when the “Ident” button on the pilot’s transponder is pressed, usually
at ATC’s request. This pulse is after the last framing pulse and will be automatically and
continuously transmitted for about 20 seconds. It procedures a distinctive display so that a
controller can pick out a particular aircraft by asking the pilot to “Squawk Ident”

Mode C
On getting Mode C interrogations, the transponder will produce one of 4096 codes “no matter
What code is selected in the window” and automatically aircraft altitude with reference to 1013.2
hPa will be sent to ground station. Before Mode C is used for ATS purposes they are verified.
The ATS unit checks the read out of Mode “C” transmission against the altimeter reading
reported by the pilot at the same time. It should be within feet of the pilot’s reported flight
level/altitude. If the ATS unit is unable to verify the pilots reported altitude information, then the
pilot be asked to switch off mode C.

Mode C interrogations follow Mode A in the same sweep of radar. Mode C replies are also in
terms of 12 information pulses, similar to Mode A. As with Mode A there are 4096 codes
available in Mode C encode a/c altitude.

The mode C code is determined by an encoder which is mechanically actuated by the altimeter’s
aneroid capsule and is thus totally independent of the altimeter’s pressure setting.

The system provides Automatic Altitude Telemetering up to 128,000ft, with an output change
(based upon 50ft increments or decrements) every 100ft and provides the controller with the
aircraft’s Flight Level or Altitude e.g. If an aircraft is flying at an allocated level of FL65, then
065 will be displayed on the screen. If the aircraft now drifts downwards, as it passes from 6450ft
to 6455ft the coded transmission changes and results in 064 being indicated at the controller’s
consol.

SSR OPERATING PROCEDURE

Pilots shall:
 If proceeding from an area where a specific code has been assigned to the aircraft by an ATS
Unit, maintain that code setting unless otherwise instructed

 Select or reselect codes, or switch off the equipment when airborne only when instructed by
an ATS unit

 Acknowledge code setting instructions by reading back the code to be set

 Select Mode C simultaneously with Mode A unless otherwise instructed by an ATS unit

 When reporting vertical levels under routine procedures or when requested by ATC, read the
current altimeter reading to the nearest 100ft. This is to assist in the verification of Mode
C data transmitted by the aircraft.

Note 1: If, on verification, there is a difference of more than 300ft between the level readout
and the reported level, the pilot will normally be instructed to switch off Mode C. If
independent switching of Mode C is not possible the pilot will be instructed to select Code
0000 to indicate transponder malfunction. (Note: this is the ICAO specification)

Note 2: A standard of ± 200ft is applied in the UK and other countries.

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Unwanted Echoes

To avoid the unwanted echoes from the side lobes which could produce a transponder response,
an omni-directional transmission (P2) is introduced from the ground, whose signal strength in
greater than the strongest side lobe but less than the main beam. (P1 & PM). Transponder will
only reply if the interrogation pulses (P1/P3) of Mode A and C are greater than the amplitude of
the omni directional pulses (P2).

P2 Pulse = Additional pulse transmitted as an Omni-Directional Signal with an amplitude at least

as large as the maximum amplitude of the side lobes. It is transmitted 2 microsecond
after P1 pulse transmissions.

P1 and P3 = These pulses are carried by the directional antenna lobe and also by the unwanted
Pulses side lobes. P1 and P3 are spaced 8 micro sec or 21 micro sec. apart depending
upon whether they represent Mode ‘A’ or Mode ‘C’ interrogations. P1 is Mode A
interrogations. P1 is Mode A interrogation and is 8 micros sec apart P3 is mode C
interrogation and in 21 micro second apart.

Mode A/C/A All-Call

The classic Mode A/C/S all-call interrogation starts off looking very much like a Mode A or C
interrogation but has an extra pulse P4 after the P3. An aircraft Mode S transponder will start to
reply to the Mode A/C interrogation as it receives P3 but on receipt of P4 it cancels this
transmission and replies with just a short Mode S transmission of its Aircraft Address and call
sign.

Any mode A/C transponder receiving the all-call will reply to the interrogation as normal, not
recognizing the P4 pulse.

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Figure 11.8

Mode A/C/A All-Call

An all-call can be sent to only Mode A/C transponders by shortening the P4 pulse so that Mode S
enabled transponders send only the Mode A/C reply, see above. Once again, any Mode A/C
transponder receiving this all-call will reply to the interrogation as normal, again not recognizing
the P4 pulse.

Fruiting
If an aircraft is within the range of two or more SSR ground stations it may cause
nonsynchronous interference to one of the stations by responding synchronously to another
station which is called fruiting (false replies, un synchronous in time).

Garbling
If two or more aircraft are close enough, such as when in holding pattern or overtaking, so that
they are in the aerial bean at the same time and produce over lapping replies. This is called
synchronous garbling.

List of codes of Mode A

(a) A 7500 Hi-Jack / Unlawful interference
(b) A 7600 Radio Communication failure
(c) A 7700 Aircraft Emergency/distress
(d) A 2000 For entering airspace from an area where SSR has not been required
(e) A 7000 Conspicuity code. Outside of airspace requiring the use of transponders, aircraft
Should use 7000 and Mode C.
(f) A 7004 Aircraft practicing or displaying aerobatic manouvres
(g) A 7007 Aircraft engaged on airborne observation flight under “open skies Treaty”
(h) A 0000 Transponder Malfunction
(i) A 0030 ‘Lost aircraft’
(j) A 0033 Parachute dropping

Mode S

SSR Mode A and C system has problems with ‘fruiting and Garbling’ and also difficulties caused by
shielding of aerial, depending on the altitude of the aircraft. It has also become apparent that 4096 mode
A codes are not sufficient. To overcome these problems and to allow further development of the SSR

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system, Mode ‘S’ (Selective addressing) has been introduced. It enables aircraft to response only when
addressed and not each time the secondary radar beam sweeps past.

The response code is set in the transponder when installed in the aircraft, not as the squawk code set by
the pilot in Mode A operation. ATC can then identify a response by the call sign or aircraft registration.

The system in designed to be integrated with FMS/CDU and altitude can be given to the nearest 25ft
rather than the present 100ft. In addition heading and ground speed and angle of bank can be displayed
automatically to the controller.

Mode ‘S’ transponder will operate conventionally in Mode A or C if, the response code is set on the
control head by the pilot.

Mode ‘S’ is esigned to serve two main functions – COMMUNICATIONS AND SURVEILLANCE. It
has up and down data link facility, enabling messages to be relayed between ground and aircraft. It is also
used in ADS (Automatic Dependent Surveillance) ADS will allow ATC computers to track aircraft from
their Mode ‘S’ Data messages.

It can handle more than 5 x 1033 different up and down data link messages. Over 16 million aircraft
addresses may be allocated as compared with 4096 codes in Mode A transponder.

Mode S aerial are mounted on top and bottom of the aircraft to prevent shielding. Automatic selection of
aerial occurs depending on interrogation strength.

TCAS equipped aircraft can co-ordinate evasive manouvres via their Mode ‘S’ air to air capacity-
Note that all TCAS equipped aircraft have Mode S capability. Other aircraft may carry mode S but will
not have TCAS capability.

Aircraft Interrogation and replies are individually scheduled so problems with overlapping replies
(GARBLING) ARE ELIMENATED.

Single interrogation and reply sequences significantly reduce fruiting.

What is true of Mode-S

1. Unambiguous aircraft identification
2. Improved surveillance (eliminates garble, resolves over interrogations and reflections).
3. Improved situation awareness for radar controllers
4. No code shortage

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5. Reduced RT
6. Messages up-down data link is used
7. Improved short term conflict alert
8. Tracking of the aircraft with Mode-S data message possible.

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SSR SUMMARY

SSR Requires Transponder in aircraft and Interrogator at ground station.

Advantages of primary radar
Aerial on top of primary radar
Displays callsign, pressure altitude or FL, groundspeed, destination.

Frequencies Ground station transmits narrow beam at 1030 MHz and receives at 1090
MHz
Aircraft receives at 1030 MHz and transmits omni-directionally at 1090
MHz. (in the UHF band).

Modes/Replies

Mode A For identify (8s interrogation pulse spacing) 12 reply pulses give
4096 (20.6 s spacing between framing pulses). Extra pulse (SPI)
for squawk Ident (for 20 s)

Mode C For automatic pressure-altitude (21 s interrogation spacing).

Transmitted and displayed every 100ft (±50ft from given level)
Switch off if difference 300ft (200ft UK)

Special codes 7700 – emergency

7600- radio failure,
7500- hijacking
2000- when no instructions given,
7000 – conspicuity code in UK

Disadvantages Garbling – overlapping replies if aircraft 1.7nm apart of SSR

Fruiting – interference caused by replies to other interrogation.
Limited codes (4096), Ghosts, Shielding.

Mode S features Selective addressing. Nearly 17 million codes from 24-bit address.
Data link air-to-ground, ground-to-air, air-to air
Height readout in increments of 25ft

Interrogation modes All Call – mode S

Broadcast (no reply)
Selective calling (unique aircraft address)
Intermode – A/C/S All call

Benefits of mode S Unambiguous aircraft identification

Improved surveillance (eliminates garble, resolves over-interrogation
and reflections)
Improved situation awareness for radar controller
No code shortage
Reduced R/T
Improved short term conflict alert

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QUESTIONS
1. The special SSR codes are as follows; emergency _____, radio failure_____, entering UK
airspace____, unlawful interference with the conduct of the flight_______.

a. 7700; 7600; 2000; 7500

b. 7700; 7600; 7500; 2000
c. 7600; 7500; 2000; 7700
d. 7500; 7600; 2000; 7700

2. Secondary Surveillance Radar is a form of______radar with _____type emission

operating in the______band.

a. primary pulse SHF

b. primary pulse UHF
c. secondary FM SHF
d. secondary pulse UHF

3. If the SSR transponder IDENT button is pressed

a. it causes a momentary distinctive display to appear on the controller’s screen

b. an identification pulse is automatically and continuously transmitted for 20
seconds, 4.35 sec before the last framing pulse
c. an identification pulse is automatically and continuously transmitted for 10
seconds, 4.35 sec after the last framing pulse
d. an identification pulse is automatically and continuously transmitted for 20
seconds, 4.35 sec after the last framing pulse

4. When using SSR the ground controller will ask the pilot to cancel C if there is a
discrepancy of more than _____feet between the altitude detected by the radar from the
reply pulses and the altitude reported by the pilot read from an altitude with the
subscale set to_____.

a. 100 ft Regional QNH

b. 300 ft 1013 HPa
c. 50 ft 1013 HPa
d. 300 ft Regional QNH

5. The SSR code which is appropriate for a UK FIR (inbound. crossing, where no other
“squawk” has been allocated is:

a. 7500 c. 7700
b. 7600 d. 2000

6. Secondary radars require:

a. a target which will respond to the interrogation, and this target will always be
an aircraft
b. a target which will respond to the interrogation, and this target will always be
ground based
c. a target which will respond to the interrogation, and this target may be either an
aircraft or a ground based transponder
d. a quiescent target

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GROUND CONTROLLED APPROACH (GCA)

Ground Controlled Approach (GCA) is the name which for many years has been used to
describe the ground radar service in which a ground controller ‘talks an aircraft down’ a
very accurately defined final approach path in conditions of low cloud base and/or poor
visibility. In addition to this final talk-down, a GCA controller identifies the aircraft in the
initial approach stage and directs it during the intermediate approach to a position suitable
for commencing the final approach.

At major airports ILS is the primary runway approach aid. If the airport also has GCA
installed, its role will normally be that of monitoring ILS approaches.

The term ‘radar approach’ is now more commonly used than Ground Controlled Approach.
Radar approaches can be ‘surveillance’ radar approaches or ‘precision’ radar approaches,
the differences being detailed later in these notes.

GROUND EQUIPMENT

Radar Principle. GCA uses ‘primary’ radar in which pulses of radio energy are emitted
from the system’s radar aerials on the aerodrome and reflected back by the aircraft. The
time taken for a pulse to travel from transmitter to aircraft and back again is measured
electronically and from this measurement the range of the aircraft can be automatically
determined. The pulses are transmitted in narrow beams that ‘scan’ the airspace
horizontally and vertically. By this method the position of the aircraft in azimuth and
elevation can be displayed on the controller’s radar screens.

There are two types of ground installation that are used to provide radar approaches. There
is Precision Approach Radar (abbreviated to PAR in the Air Pilot) that provides the very
high accuracy guidance in azimuth and elevation for a ‘Precision’ talk-down, and Approach
Surveillance Radar (abbreviation RAD) that provides radar approaches giving azimuth
guidance only. The surveillance radar is also used to identify and position the aircraft for
handover to the precision controller when a precision radar approach is to be made. Perhaps
the most common use of surveillance radar is for sequencing traffic into the ILS pattern.

Precision Radar. This provides azimuth and elevation ranging and tracking during final
approach employing two separate radar beams: -

(a) A typical azimuth beam is 0.5° wide and 2° deep ‘scanning’ or ‘sweeping’ 10° either
side of the extended runway centre line. The radar echo from the aircraft on final
approach is displayed as a bright spot on a 17-inch rectangular cathode ray tube that
also shows the approach centre line and range markers and a line representing the
approach glide path.

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(b) A typical elevation beam is 0.5° deep and 2° wide scanning through 7° in the vertical
plane from 1° below to 6° above the horizontal. Echoes are displayed on another
cathode ray tube together with range markers and a line representing the approach glide
path.

The precision controller has, therefore, on two radar screens in front of him, a complete
presentation of the aircraft’s position in relation to the extended centre line (on-course line)
and glide path (normally 3°). Using this display he is able to pass a continuous flow of
information and instructions to the pilot to enable him to fly the aircraft down to a point
from which a visual landing can be made. The pilot, of course, must not descend below his
decision height/critical height (usually in the region of 300 feet above touchdown point)
without establishing visual contact with the ground.

Surveillance Radar. Various surveillance radar installations produced by different

manufacturers are in service. A single beam scans through 360° in azimuth and is produced
by a ‘dish’-shaped aerial perhaps 15 feet wide rotating several times per minute. A
horizontal beam-width of about 1° is common, while typical vertical coverage extends from
the horizon up to about 40°. The echo from an aircraft within the ‘scan’ of the surveillance
radar appears on a circular PPI (Plan Position Indicator) display – another cathode ray tube.
This gives the aircraft’s position in azimuth (but not elevation) by means of circular range
markers and a bearing scale round the edge of the screen.

Frequencies. PAR operates in the X-band using frequencies around 9000 or 10 000 MHz
(3.3 to 3 cm wavelengths). This short wavelength gives the very high definition required for
precision approaches but is extremely subject to ‘clutter’ (reflection from precipitation).
Surveillance radar operates in the L-band using wavelengths of 50 or 23 cm (frequencies
about 600 or 13000 MHz), or the S-band with wavelength 10 cm (3000 MHz0. The longer
the wavelength, the weaker the rain echoes, and so the less the suppression of clutter
required.

OPERATIONAL LIMITATIONS

Range. The maximum detection range of surveillance radar depends mainly on its power
output. It may exceed 200 nm for high-flying aircraft though a figure of 75 nm is more
common. Range for low-flying aircraft is usually much less, typically only 30 nm for an
aircraft at 4000 feet, because the attenuation of the weak echoes is more rapid near the
surface. The maximum range of the precision system is about 12 nm.

Accuracy. Accuracy depends largely on the proficiency of the precision controller. Much
practice and skill is needed to anticipate the changes in drift that frequently occur during the
latter stages of the final approach. Errors attributable to the PAR are negligible.

Weather. Heavy precipitation produces clutter, particularly with the 3 cm radar. Most of
this clutter, together with that produced by ground echoes, can be suppressed on modern
radar equipment, so that the aircraft echo is not often obscured by weather reflections

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Flexibility. The surveillance radar gives all-round coverage. The modern precision radar
‘head’ is mounted in a small wooden building adjacent to the runways. This building can be
rotated (by remote control) to give multiple runway coverage. Up to six pre-determined
runway directions can be remotely selected from the control tower.

AIRCRAFT EQUIPMENT

Excluding pilot/aircraft instrument-flying capability, the only equipment required in the

aircraft is a two-way R/T set with the correct frequencies. Those normally used lie between
118.00 MHz and 135.95 MHz at 50 kHz intervals in the VHF band. HF R/T can be used if
VHF contact cannot be made.

RADAR APPROACH PROCEDURES

Identification. An aircraft requiring a radar approach normally contacts the aerodrome on

an approach R/T frequency at least 10 minutes before ETA. The approach controller will
hand over the aircraft to the GCA ‘Director’ when ready. The Director mush positively
identify the aircraft’s echo on the surveillance radar screen by one or more of the following
methods listed in the Air Pilot: -
• By pilot report over a designated reporting point.
• By pilot obtaining a VOR/DMI fix and reporting it in terms of the VOR radial combined
with a distance obtained from a DME facility serving the same location.
• By observing on the radar screen a turn or turns carried out by the pilot (‘Identification
turns’).
• By observation on a ground radar display of coded responses from the aircraft’s
transponder (if installed) to SSR (secondary surveillance radar) interrogation.
• By radar handover (from one surveillance radar to another).

Director’s Functions. In addition to identification of the aircraft (detailed above), the

Director passes vectors for the aircraft to steer so that it fits into the traffic pattern and is
suitably positioned for the final approach. Additionally the Director passes: -

• Heights/altitudes to fly.
• Position of the aircraft as it proceeds round the basic radar circuit (see Figure 1).
• Aerodrome information including pressure settings, aerodrome elevation, circuit
direction, weather information.
• Type of radar approach (precision or surveillance) and OCL (Pilot is told to check his
minima).
• Radio failure procedure (if not published).

Termination of Radar Surveillance Radar Approach from the Touchdown:

Surveillance radar approach using a normal resolution radar normally terminates at

2NM from touch down

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High-resolution surveillance radar approach normally terminates at

0.5 NM from touchdown.

GROUND RADARS

Ground radars are used extensively in civil aviation, particularly by the ATC services, for which
they now form an essential part of their equipment. The main types of ground radars may be
summarized as:

1) Long range surveillance radar.

Used for airway surveillance, etc, up to 200-300nm. Primary radar provides range and
bearing. i.e. positional information, which in some areas may be supplemented by a
height finding surveillance radar. Additional information is also provided by SSR.

2) TMA Surveillance radars.

Medium range radars, up to 75 nm, used for controlling traffic in terminal areas, etc.
Primary radar provides positional information which is normally supplemented by SSR.

3) Aerodrome Surveillance (approach radar

A short range, approximately 25 nm, primary radar providing positional information.
Used for the control of aircraft in the vicinity of an aerodrome and for limited
approaches.

4) Precision approach radar (PAR).

Gives very accurate azimuth and elevation guidance relative to the approach path to an
aerodrome runway. Used originally by a ground controller to ‘talk down’ a pilot to the
runway; in the UK this procedure has now been withdrawn from most civil aerodromes.

5) Surface movement radar

Installed at major airports to provide a very precise radar picture of the aerodrome
surface. It is used in poor visibility to control the movement of traffic on the aprons,
taxiways and runways. Maximum range approximately 2.5 nm.

6) Weather radar.
A primary radar used by the meteorological service to supplement their knowledge of
current weather conditions, varying from thunderstorm location to finding upper winds.

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Note: Short-range radars, e.g. surface movement radar, employ very short wavelength (e.g. 1 to
3cm) to achieve short rectangular pulses which give superior resolution and accuracy. Long-
wave radars, e.g. surveillance radars, employ longer wavelengths (e.g. 10 cm) with larger pulses
to achieve greater ranges with less attenuation.

To enlarge upon (3) and (4) above, an approach surveillance radar (RAD) and PAR may be
utilised for approach and landing down to zero conditions.

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AIRBORNE WEATHER RADAR

This equipment is also known as Airborne Search Radar or Cloud Warning Radar.
Its main uses are: -
a. For locating clouds ahead of the aircraft,
b. For distinguishing between safe and potentially turbulent clouds (by means
of the Contour system),
c. For determining the approximate height of cloud tops relative to the
aircraft,
d. For ‘mapping’, that is, radar map-reading on a plane view display of the
terrain ahead.
The radar information can be displayed on a dedicated unit or shown (on modern
aircraft) in combination with the aircraft route on the EFIS navigation display
(ND).

Information on cloud formations or terrain features id displayed on the indicator’s

screen as a range from the aircraft and a bearing relative to its heading. The
presentation can be monochrome or, on modern systems, in the colours green,
yellow, red and/or magenta. In the weather mode the colours represent the
increasing variations in rainfall rate from light to very strong returns; magenta
usually indicates the presence of turbulence associated with intense rainfall. For
ground mapping green indicates light ground return, yellow medium ground
returns and red heavy ground returns.

COMPONENT PARTS

The airborne equipment comprises:

 Transmitter/receiver
 Antenna, which is stabilised in pitch and roll (Figure 13.1)
 Indicator. (Figures 13.1, 13.2, 13.3 and 13.4)
 Control unit. (Figure 13.1 and 13.5)

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

The range of a cloud ahead is determined by the normal Primary radar pulse
technique. A very short wavelength of about 3 cm is used, the most effective for
producing good echoes from large droplets of water or rain or hail in clouds.

The bearing of a cloud is determined by transmitting the radar pulses in a narrow

beam that ‘scans’ the airspace ahead of the aircraft.

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RADAR FREQUENCY

The optimum radar frequency is one that has a wavelength comparable to the size f
the objects which we wish to detect, namely the large water droplets and wet hail
which in turn are associated with severe turbulence; these droplets are about 3 cm
across.
The typical frequency adopted by most commercial systems is 9375 MHz, +/-30
MHz as it produces the best return from the large water droplets and wet hail found
in convective clouds. With this frequency it is also possible to produce narrow
efficient beams. The wavelength, λ is:

300
Λ = m = 3.2 cm
9375

A frequency higher than 9375 MHz would produce returns from smaller droplets
and cause unnecessary clutter whereas a lower frequency would fail to produce
sufficient return to highlight the area of turbulence.

AERIAL SCANNER UNIT

The radar aerial, mounted in the nose of the aircraft, is the dish type, typically 18
inches in diameter. It automatically scans the airspace ahead, sweeping up to 90°
each side of the fore/aft axis. Larger aerial diameters are available giving narrower,
more concentrated beams and consequently greater range. A manual tilt control
allows the transmitted beam to be tilted ±15°.

Stabilization. To compensate for variations in aircraft attitude, the angle of tilt of

the scanner is automatically varied to keep the scan horizontal. A gyro provides
the vertical reference for this system, which is effective up to ±20° of combined
roll, pitch and tilt. With the stabilization system switched off, the beam scans in
the yawing plane with the manual tilt control (±15°) still operative.

DISPLAY UNIT
The cloud echoes are shown on a PPI display on the face of a rectangular CRT
(5¼” X 3¼”). The face of the CRT is etched with bearing lines at 15° intervals out
to 90° starboard of the fore/aft axis.

Electronic range markers are superimposed on the display. The number and
spacing of these electronic semi-circular rings depend on which range scale the
pilot has selected, as listed below.
a. 20 nm range - markers every 5 nm
b. 50 nm range - markers every 10 nm
c. 150 nm range - markers every 50 nm

On all three ranges, zero range corresponds to a small arc and not to the point of
origin of the bearing lines. Figure 1 illustrates the screen with the 150 nm range
scale selected.

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Figure 1: Display on 150 nm Range

BEAM DIMENSIONS
The pilot can select either the ‘Weather’ beam or the ‘Mapping’ (cosecant) beam,
illustrated in Figures 2 and 3.

Weather Beam. This is a conical pencil beam with a width of 5° (for an 18 inch
dish aerial). This beam is used for detecting clouds. It has a radiation overspill
vertically downward, which is reflected, from the ground to produce the ‘height
ring’ on the display. The height ring indicates that the radar is functioning, and
appears at the approximate height of the aircraft above the ground. (For example,
the range of the height ring would be around 3 nm if the aircraft were 18 000 feet
above the surface). With large aircraft, a second (fainter) height ring may appear
at a range equivalent to twice the aircraft’s height, due to double reflection.

RADAR BEAM
The pencil beam used foe weather depiction has a width of between 3º and 5º. The
width of the radar beam can be calculated using the formula:

Beam width (degrees) = 70 x wavelength / antenna diameter.

Example: Calculate the beam width of a 3 cm radar using a 45 cm diameter

antenna.

Answer: Beam width = 70 x 3 / 45 = 4.7º

The beam width must be as narrow as possible for efficient target resolution. For
example, two clouds at say 100nm might appear as one large return until, at a
closer range, they are shown correctly in Figure 13.6 as separate entities.
A narrower beam would give better definition but would require a large antenna
which becomes impractical in an aircraft. Therefore, in order to produce the
narrower beams it is essential to use shorter wavelengths.

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Water and Ice in the Radome

Some of the energy of the radar waves is absorbed by water and ice as happens in a
microwave oven. If there is water in the antenna radome or ice on the outside of it,
the energy absorbed will cause the water to evaporate and ice to melt. This means
that less energy is transmitted in the forward direction resulting in weaker returns
and a degradation of performance.

The vertical extent of this 5° beam can be roughly calculated using the 1 in 60 rule.
For example, at 100 nm range, the thickness of the beam will be: -

5 x 100 nm = 8 1/3 nm = approximately 50 000 feet

60

Figure 2: Weather Beam

Figure 3: Mapping Beam

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Mapping Beam. The dimensions of this beam are 85° deep (in the vertical plane),
and 3½ wide (in azimuth). The power available is the same as for the weather
beam, so that the mapping beam, so that the mapping beam is less concentrated
since it spreads over a greater area. Consequently, ground returns from the
mapping beam are very weak at ranges above 70 nm and the weather beam has to
be used for radar map reading above this range.

ISO-ECHO CONTOUR DISPLAY

The object of the iso-echo contour system is to indicate the areas in a cloud where
severe turbulence is likely. The larger the water drops in a cloud and the greater
the concentration of them, the stronger will be the echo. When the function switch
is set to CONTOUR, echoes above certain strength are cancelled and thereby
produce no display on the screen. The resultant ‘paint’ is a cloud with a hollow
centre.

There is evidence to show that the degree of turbulence experienced in a cloud is

directly related to the rainfall gradient. This gradient is usually steepest at the
cloud edges. The steeper the gradient, the narrower will be the width of ‘paint’
surrounding the hollow cloud centre. These areas should be avoided.

Figure 4: 20 nm Range Contour ‘OFF’

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Figure 5: 20 nm Range Contour ‘ON’

The Contour System is, effective up to about 50 nm. Figures 4 and 5 illustrate
Contour and non-Contour displays.

SENSITIVITY TIME CONTROL (STC)

This automatic device progressively reduces the gain as the aircraft approaches a
cloud. This ensures that a particular cloud gives a constant display regardless of
range up to a maximum of about 25 nm. Without STC, a small cloud at 5 nm
would give as brilliant a display as a much larger cloud at, say, 20 nm. It enables
the pilot to compare all clouds displayed within 25 nm on equal terms and pick a
track to avoid the worst. At longer range, the displayed echo from a particular
cloud would increase in intensity as the aircraft approached it, until the 25 nm
point after which STC would maintain constant display intensity.

Figure 6: Relative Cloud Height (Not drawn to scale)

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DETERMINATION OF CLOUD HEIGHT

The weather beam is raised by turning the tilt knob slowly until the cloud just
disappears from the screen. Suppose that at this point, the tilt setting reads 4½° UP
and the cloud range was 45 nm; with reference to Figure 6, it can be seen that the
centre of the beam is 4½° above the aircraft’s flight path so that with a 5° beam the
elevation of the cloud top is 2°. By the 1 in 60 rule, the cloud top is: -

2 x 4 = 1½ nm = 9 210 feet above the aircraft’s flight path

60

Alternatively a simple formula can be used:

Relative Height = 100 x range (nm) x elevation

= 100 x 45 x 2
= 9 000 feet above flight path

The Ekco handbook provides a graph that can be used to give relative cloud
height.

OTHER GRAPHS

The range of ground features on the screen is slant range. This can be converted to
true ground range by using the appropriate graph in the handbook.

When searching for cloud, reflections may be obtained from the surface. A graph
is provided which gives the lowest tile angle which can be set for a given scanner
diameter and height above the surface to avoid reflections from the surface. For
example, to avoid sea-level returns with an 18 inch scanner: -

At 10 000 feet, set 2½° UP

At 20 000 feet, set 1½° UP
At 35 000 feet, set 0° TILT
At 40 000 feet, set ½° DOWN

When mapping at long range, using the weather beam, the upper edge of the beam
will not reach out to maximum range if the beam is tilted too far down. The
handbook gives the maximum downward tilt angles for various aircraft heights and
scanner diameters (the later affecting beam width and maximum range).

OPERATING PRECAUTIONS

When the aircraft is on the ground, the range switch must be left in the STANDBY
position until the aircraft is well clear of hangars or other aircraft. Unless this
precaution is observed, very strong reflections from objects within 100 feet of the
aircraft could damage the receiver crystals. For the same reason, the downward-
pointing mapping beam should not be selected when the aircraft is on the ground.

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GENERAL INFORMATION

The strength of the reflection from a cloud depends chiefly on the size of the drops
in the cloud – the larger the drops, the stronger the echo. The strength of the return
also depends on the concentration of the drops and the horizontal extent of the
cloud.

The effect of intervening cloud or precipitation between the aircraft and a given
cloud target is to reduce the range at which that cloud can be detected. The
reduction in effective range will depend on the size and concentration of the
intervening drops and their horizontal extent.

Snow generally gives weak radar echoes that will not be visible on the screen. An
exception to this is a shallow reflecting layer just below the 0° isotherm, where the
snow is actually melting and behaves like large water drops.

Hail can give a strong echo. Any sudden growth from a cloud echo should be
avoided as it may be produced by hail falling from the fringes of a cumulonimbus.

Clear Air Turbulence is not associated with cloud formation and cannot be
detected by radar.

Coastlines and islands show up very well on the screen when radar map-reading
because they scatter significant amounts of radar energy back to the aircraft,
whereas water reflects most of the energy away from the aircraft giving very weak
reflections.

Over land, the map-reading display is very difficult to interpret. Lakes show up
well as gaps in the display because of their non-reflecting surfaces but they can
easily be confused with ‘shadow’ effects in mountainous terrain (caused by
mountains obstructing the line-of-sight beam and therefore casting ‘radar
shadows’).

A small object such as a ship at sea remains ‘illuminated’ by the beam while the
latter sweeps through 5° (if it is a 5° beam). Consequently the ship appears on the
screen as an arc approximately 5° in azimuth.

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CONTROL UNIT

Typical control unit is shown in Fig.7. Of a basic, stand-alone, monochrome

weather radar.

The control are usually:

Fig 7: Typical Monocrome Control Unit

Power switch. A three-position switch, it controls the power supply. In ON

position the aerial is automatically stabilized, in STAB OFF
position it is locked to the pitch and roll axes of the aircraft

Time base range switch. This is a four-position rotary switch; in STBY position it
maintains the equipment in readiness for instant use. Use
this position when AWR is not required during short
intervals.

Range Switch
The STANDBY position is to hold the equipment in readiness during periods when the
AWR is not required. Selection of a range position energises the transmitter. Whilst on the
ground the STANDBY position must be maintained until it is certain that personnel and
any reflecting objects, such as hangars, are not in the radar’s transmitting sector. The
radiation can damage health and the reflections from adjacent structures can damage the
equipment. Selection of the MAPPING beam produces the same hazards. In poor weather
conditions switch from STANDBY to the 0-20nm scale as soon as the aircraft is clear of
personnel and buildings and check the weather conditions in the take-off direction. The
maximum practical range for weather and for navigation is in the region of 150 nm.

Tilt control. Permits an aerial tilt from 0° to 15° UP or 15° DOWN. The aerial
is normally tilted downward when ground mapping or it is raised up to estimate the
heights of cloud base/op.

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Function Switch

MAP
In this position, ground mapping is done by use of the cosecant beam. Manual gain
control is used in conjunction with this position. This is because a signal can vary
with altitude and type of terrain over which the flight is being made.

MAN
This is the next position after MAP and again, is used for map painting. But the beam
in used is the conical pencil beam and because of the concentration of energy inside a
narrow beam width., the ranges obtained are greater than operating in MAP position.
And because ground mapping is being done, manual gain control is still operated in
this position.

WEA
This is the normal position for observing the weather. Manual gain control is
inoperative; instead, sensitivity time control (STC) id brought in operation. It
automatically reduces gain at short ranges so that with decreasing ranges, the same
target continues to produce the same contour separation, or all clouds at short ranges
may be compared on equal terms.

CONTOUR
This position is used to examine the cloud structure foe severity, and it shows up the
turbulent areas in an iso-encho display. Refer Fig 5.

MARKER BRILLIANCE
It varies the brightness of the range rings and azimuth lines, which may be shown
either at a 135° forward segment or as a 360° display around a central aircraft
position.

Other controls in Fig 7 are self-explanatory. On the latest models, the controls are often
position around the colour CRT and include the following push-on / push-off switches.

TEST
This enables the test patterns of various bands of colour to be displayed for checking,
after the system has been warmed up (after approx 60 seconds).

HOLD / FREEZE
This allows the display to be frozen so that the storm movement can be assessed.

From basic meteorological principle, cumulonimbus clouds and thunderstorm move in the
direction of the 700 mb flow (approx 10,000 feet winds). Self-propagating storms usually
generate on the forward side of the storm. When fitted, the HOLD facility enables the
storm movement to be assessed by the flight crew. The procedure when, say a storm is
detected on a 100 mile range, is to select the push/push-HOLD switch while maintaining
constant heading. HOLD and WEATHER then appear alternately on the screen. After a
couple of minutes, select the push/push-HOLD switch again. This bring back the current
display and the storm echo moves from its previous held position to the current position
thus showing its movement relative to the aircraft.

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TGT ALERT
This operates in conjunction with WEATHER or WEA to notify the pilot of a
thunderstorm return of a contour strength. When TGT ALERT is selected and there is
no relative contouring weather ahead, the screen shows a yellow “T” in a red square in
the top right corner. If a contouring target is detected ahead of the aircraft, typically
within 60nm and 160 nm and within ± 15° of dead ahead regardless of the range
selected, the yellow letter “TGT” enclosed in a red rectangle flashing on/off once a
second replace the “T”.

AZ
This switch selects whether or not the five azimuth (or bearing) lines are displayed.

STAB
This is to stabilise the antenna in pitch and roll, and is usually kept on the ON position.

There will be a fault monitoring circuit with a priority on any mode that has been selected.
If there is power interruption or the transmitter fails, the word FAULT flashes on the
screen. The system is reset by momentarily selecting STBY and then the required mode.

OPERATING ON WEATHER
Select max range to detect the presence of cloud in good time. When the clouds close
up to 50 – 60 nm, select lower scale and operate on CONTOUR function. Ensure from
the beginning that no grounds return are being received – the aerial tilt may be
adjusted to exclude them. Any storms detected at very long ranges are potentially
dangerous. Take avoiding action when the ranges get below 20 nm. If possible, avoid
all response areas; if this cannot be done, then at least avoid responses with black
holes or red/magenta areas.

Apart from the point already made under iso-echo display, there are other
characteristics of the returns of which the pilots’ should be aware. Hail associated with
thunderstorm may well produce “Fingers” or stubs out from the main echo up to 5 nm
long. Other shapes can be in the form of hooks, scalloped edges ands U shapes that
even if there is no hail, can usually be relied upon as good indicators of areas of severe
turbulence. The extreme case of a thunderstorm is a tornado associated with
cumulonimbus mammatus. In the same way as the actual tornado cloud has a writhing
funnel cloud beneath it, the tornado cloud echo often shown a narrow finger like
extension from its main outline, which quickly curls into a hook and then closes on
itself. Fortunately, tornados are infrequent in Europe and indeed most of the world, but
they are common in USA.

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PLOTTING A NAVIGATION FIX

The range of a ground feature will be its slant range. For example a feature almost
immediately below the aircraft (i.e. ground range approximately 0nm) will appear on
the screen at a range approximately equivalent to the aircraft’s height. The Pythagoras
theorem is therefore needed to convert slant ranges to approximate ground distances. A
fix may be obtained by plotting a QTE and range from a prominent terrain feature.
(figure 13.16).

Figure 13.16 0-25 Scale

An aircraft at 42,560ft is heading 216º (M); variation is 17ºE

Calculate the QTE and range to be plotted from the centre of the island as shown on
the AWR screen.

True heading = 216º - 17º = 199º

True bearing TO island = 199º - 30º = 169º
QTE to plot = 169º + 180º = 349º
Ground Range (nm) = √ (S2 –H2) = √169 – 49 = √120
= 11 nm

[S = slant range (nm) and H = height (nm)]

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Figure 13.8 Reflective Levels

In colour weather radar systems the weather targets are colour-coded according to the
intensity of the rainfall as follows:

BLANK Very light or no returns Less than 0.7mm/hr

GREEN Light returns 0.7 – 4mm/hr
YELLOW Medium returns 4 – 12mm/hr
RED Strong returns Greater than 12mm/hr
MAGENTA Turbulence Due to rainfall intensity

On colour systems without Magenta the RED areas may have a CYCLIC function, which
causes them to alternate RED/BLACK in order to draw the pilot’s attention

The areas of greatest potential turbulence occur where the colour zones are closest
together i.e. the steepest rainfall gradient. Also turbulence is associated with the
following shapes on the display as shown in Figure 13.9: U-shapes, Fingers, Scalloped
edges and Hooks. These are areas to avoid.

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AWR SUMMARY

Components Tx / Rx, antenna, indicator, control unit

Functions Turbulence, navigation

Principle of Echo for range, sweep for relative bearing.

Operation Pencil beam for weather and long range (>60nm) mapping.
Cosecant beam for short range. Antenna attitude stabilised.
Beam width dependent on antenna size
Beam width = 70 x λ / diameter.
Effect of beam width on resolution
Frequency of 9375 MHz best for large water droplets / hail

Weather Turbulence where rainfall gradient in steepest

Few returns from wavelength of > 10cm
Colours in order; black, green, yellow, red, magenta
Beware U’s, Fingers, scallops and hooks

Mono Control Unit Power/Stab On - antenna attitude stabilised in pitch and roll
Stab Off - antenna locked to aircraft axes
Range - Standby, selections up to about 150 nm
Tilt - ± 15º. Tilt up for increased range or lower
altitude.
MAP - fan shaped beam. Use up to 60 nm
MAN - Manual gain with pencil beam to map .
>60nm.

WEA - Pencil beam with AGC

CONT - Black holes indicate turbulence.

Mapping Tilt down for best target presentation. Beware hill shadows.

Navigation QTE from prominent feature. Use slant range when near
(<3 x Ht)

Weather Operation Adjust tilt for best weather picture

Too high tilt will miss TS
Beware shadow area

Colour AWR Use of controls – Wx, Wx+T, W x (Var), WxA, Hold, tgt
Alert

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QUESTIONS

1. A frequency used y airborne weather radar is:

a. 8800 MHz
b. 9.375 GHz
c. 93.75 Ghz
d. 1213 Mhz

2. An airborne weather radar is required to detect targets up to a maximum range of

200 nm. Ignoring pulse length and flyback in the CRT calculate the maximum
PRR.

a. 405 pps
b. 810 pps
c. 1500 pps
d. 750 pps

3. Using airbone weather radar the weather beam should be used in preference to the
fan shaped beam for mapping in excess of ______nm.

a. 20 to 25
b. 60 to 70
c. 100 to 150
d. 150 to 200

4. Airborne Weather Radar is an example ______of radar operating on a frequency

of _______in the band.

a. primary 8800 MHz SHF

b. secondary 9.375MHz UHF
c. secondary 9375MHz UHF
d. primary 9375 MHz SHF

5. A prominent island is identified on the 30º right bearing line and the 10nm range
marker of an airborne weather radar. If the heading is 045º (T) and the aircraft is
at FL360 what range and bearing should be plotted in order to obtain a fix?

a. 10nm 030º (T)

b. 10nm 075º (T)
c. 8nm 075 (T)
d. 8nm 255º (T)

6. The correct sequence of colours of a colour Airborne Weather Radar as returns

get strongers is:

a. red yellow green

b. yellow green red
c. green yellow red
d. red green yellow

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7. A false indication of water may be given by the AWR display when:

a. flying over land with the Land/ Sea switch in the Sea position
b. flying over mountainous terrain
c. there is cloud and precipitation between the aircraft and a cloud
target
d. attempting to use the mapping beam for mapping in excess of 50 nm

8. An aircraft heading 017º (T) has a small island showing on the AWR at
45nm range on the 60º left azimuth line. To obtain a fix from this information you
should plot:

a. range 45nm and QTE 060 from the centre of the island
b. range 45nm and QTE 240 from the centre of the island
c. range 45nm and QTE 317 from the centre of the island
d. range 45nm and QTE 137 from the centre of the island

9. An aircraft heading 137º (M) has a small island showing on the AWR at 45nm
range on the 30º left Azimuth line. Local variation is 12ºW. To obtain a fix from
this information you should plot:

a. Range 45 nm and QTE 095 from the centre of the island

b. Range 45 nm and QTE 275 from the centre of the island
c. Range 45 nm and QTE 107 from the centre of the island
d. Range 45 nm and QTE 287 from the centre of the island

10. Airborne weather radar operates on a frequency of:

a. 8800 MHz because gives the best returns from all types of
Precipitation
b. 13300 MHz
c. 9375 MHz because it gives the best return from rainfall associated
with Cb
d. 9.375 GHz because this frequency is best for detecting aircraft in
flight.

11. The mapping mode of Airborne Weather Radar utilises:

a. a pencil/weather beam from 70 nm to 150 nm

b. a cosecant/fan shaped beam which is effective to 150 nm
c. a pencil/weather beam with a maximum range of 70 nm
d. a cosecant / fan shaped beam effective 50 nm to 70 nm

12. An Airborne Weather Radar system uses a frequency of 9 GHz because:

a. it has a short wavelength so producing higher frequency returns

b. the short wavelength allows signals to be reflected from cloud water
droplets of all sizes
c. the wavelength is such that reflections are obtained only from the
larger water droplets
d. the frequency penetrates clouds quite easily enabling good mapping
of ground features in the mapping mode.

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13. The antenna of an Airborne Weather Radar is stabilised:

a. in pitch, roll and yaw

b. in pitch and roll
c. in pitch and roll whether the stabilisation is on or off
d. in pitch and roll but only when 0º tilt has been selected

14. The centre of a small island is identified at the intersection of the 60º left
bearing line and 15nm range arc of an airborne weather radar. If the aircraft’s
heading and height are 035º (M) and 42,500ft what QTE and range should be
plotted in order to obtain a fix from the island?(variation is 20ºW)

a. 175 15nm
b. 135 15nm
c. 135 13nm
d. 155 14nm

15. The colours used to denote variations in rainfall rate on an Airborne Weather
Radar screen are........for very light or no returns, ...........for light
returns,...........for medium returns and ........strong returns.

a. black, yellow, green, magenta

b. blank, green, yellow, magenta
c. grey, green, yellow, red
d. black, green, yellow, red

16. The radar in an aircraft at FL370 detects a cloud at 60 nm. The cloud disappears
when the tilt is selected to 2º UP. If the beam width of the radar is 6º, at what
altitude are the tops of the clouds?

a. 6,000 ft
b. 31,000 ft
c. 43,000 ft
d. 49,000 ft

Airborne Weather Radar (AWR) Page 17 of 17

Radio Navigation Chapter 15

SATELLITE NAVIGATION SYTEMS

GPS/GLONASS

 Satellite navigation systems, which have been developed in recent years offer global,
all weather, continuous and highly accurate navigation information. Satellite
navigation has the potential to supersede all other navigation aids for approach as well
as en-route phases of flight.

Two satellite assisted navigation systems are available for civil aviation use Currently
operating are:-

(a) Global Positioning System (GPS)

(b) Global Orbiting Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS)

They are also referred to as Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS). GPS is
operated by the US department of defense (DOD) and GLONASS is operated by
Commonwealth of Independent states (CIS), the former Soviet Union (USSR)

GALILEO

Galileo is the European Space Agency’s equivalent of Navstar GPS. Unlike

GLONASS, EASA approve the use of Galileo together with GPS in multi-
constellation GNSS aviation receivers.

Galileo also works in broadly the same way as GPS. The notional constellation is
again 24 satellites, this time with 6 active spares.

Figure 12.9

There are three orbital planes inclined at an angle of 56 degrees to the equator. The
altitude of the orbit is 23 222 km. higher than GPS and therefore the orbital period is
longer than GPS at 14 hours.

Galileo satellites orbit slower and

slightly higher than GPS

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 Frequencies

Like GPS, GALILEO satellites all use the same frequencies and carry an identifier as
part of the navigation message. The satellite navigation signals are transmitted in
three bands: 1164-1215 MHz; 1260 - 1300 MHz and 1559 - 1591 MHz. The last of
these bands is shared with GPS because it contains the GPS L1 frequency.

GALILEO signals are transmitted over a wider range of frequencies than required
using a technique called spread spectrum modulation which reduces interference
generally and also allows GALILEO to use the same L1 frequency as GPS without
interfering with the GPS signal.

Figure 12.10

 System Operation

Galileo works on the same ranging principle as GPS and GLONASS. Three service
levels are provided.

 The open service (OS) will provide an accuracy comparable to the GPS C/A
signal.

 The commercial service (CS) – available for a fee – will use an additional third
frequency band (E6) to provide a higher level of accuracy than OS fixing, down
to 1 m.

 The public regulated service (PRS) will provide an accuracy comparable to OS

but more securely for use by security forces and Air Traffic Control.

The GALILEO satellites is also able to pick up and report signals from search and
rescue beacons operating on 406 MHz.

The hardware and software in the GALILEO satellites has three specific functions –
timing, signal generation and transmission.

Satellite time is provided by four clocks in each satellite, two rubidium frequency
standard clocks and two more precise passive hydrogen maser clocks.

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The navigation signals generated consist of a ranging code identifier plus the
navigation message. In general terms, the navigation message contains information
concerning the satellite orbit (ephemeris) and the clock references.

The navigation message is uploaded onto four navigation signal carrier waves, the
outputs being combined in a multiplexer before transmission.

 Navigation Aerials

Galileo navigation aerials have been designed to minimize interference between

satellites by having equal power level propagation paths independent of satellite
elevation angle.

 System Monitoring and Control

The Galileo space segment is monitored both by the satellites themselves and by a
control segment based in Europe.

 The Principle of Satellite Ranging

The basic principle used in GPS/GLONASS/GNSS is that of determining range from

the timed travel of radio energy. With accurate timing the range of the receiver (the
aircraft) from the transmitter (the satellite) can be established with minimal error.

Satellite navigation receivers fix the position of the aircraft by obtaining a number of
range position lines. The intersection of the position lines is the three dimensional
(3D) position of the aircraft. The receiver is required to simultaneously measure
ranges from several satellites, the position of which are known from data broadcast by
the satellite. At least 4 satellites with good geometry are required to obtain a 3D fix. If
only 3 satellite are in view, a 2D, fix can be obtained if the system is provided with
altitude.

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Precise timing in obtained by using an ATOMIC CLOCK to control the satellite’s

transmissions while an Electronic Clock (CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR) in the aircraft
receiver controls receiver timing. Both atomic clock and Electronic clock are
synchronized accurately.

 Satellite ranging is similar to the principle of DME in that time and the known speed
of radio waves are used to measure distance. However, unlike DME, GPS/GNSS
receivers are passive and measure time for the one-way journey of the Satellite’s
transmissions to the aircraft. To do so, the receiver must know the time of
transmission on the basic of a clock exactly synchronized with that of the satellite. In
practice, there is an unknown time difference between receiver and satellite clocks
which GNSS resolves mathematically provided sufficient satellite are in view.

Local area differential GNSS (LADGNSS) to provide improved accuracy and

integrity to aircraft making airfield approaches.

Wide area differential GNSS (WADGNSS) of which the European Geostationary

Navigation Overlay System (EGNOS) currently under development is the European
contribution to a global augmentation system providing integrity and improved
accuracy.

The European Galileo, which is under development and intended to become

operational in 2008, but this will probably slip to 2010.The principal reason the
Europeans are developing their own system is one of internal security, since access to
the full GPS or GLONASS facilities is outside European control. It can be anticipated
that other countries or regions may develop their own systems for the same reason.

This chapter will study GPS, LADGNSS and EGNOS in detail, but it should be borne
in mind that GLONASS operates on the same principles as GPS, although there are
differences in implementation.

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SATELLITE ORBITS

Johannes Kepler’s three laws quantified the mathematics of planetry orbits which
apply equally to the orbits of satellites:

First Law: a satellite’s orbit describes an ellipse with the earth at one of the foci.

Figure 19.1

Second Law: a satellite sweeps out equal areas in equal

time

Figure 19.2

Third Law: The square of the satellite’s orbital period is proportional to the
cube of its average distance.

Using these laws, and given a starting point, the satellite – space vehicles (SVs)
calculate their positions at all points in their orbits. The SVs, orbital position is
known as ephemeris.

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 Satellite Constellations – GPS constellation no available for civil aviation use

consists of 21 active satellites and 3 as standby/operational spares in six circular
orbital planes around the earth inclined at 55º to the equator as shown in the diagram.
Each satellite weighs about one ton, has life of 7 to 8 years, and orbits at an altitude of
approximately 10,900 NM (20,200 km) taking 12 hours to complete each orbit. GPS
constellation is so arranged that at least 4 satellites are available to the user at any
position on the earth at any time.
GLONASS the CIS launched Satellite also available for civil aviation use consists of
21 active and 3 standby satellite in THREE orbital planes, inclined at an angle of 60º
to equator, orbiting in 12 hours around the earth at a height of 10,250 NM (19,000
km)

Note: WGS-84 is the co-ordinate reference system used in GPS

GPS constellation

GLONASS constellation

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THE OPERATION OF GPS

 GPS satellite transmit on two L band frequencies (within the UHF

band) (a) 1575.42 MHz (L1)

(b) 1227.6 MHz (L2)

L1 (1575.42 MHz) frequency signal is modulated with the two following PSEUDO-
RANDOM CODES:-

(a) P (Precise) CODE. It is available for military aircraft use.

(b) C/A (Coarse acquisition) code. It is available for CIVIL aircraft use. Its
accuracy is within 30 metres. It is intentionally degraded to an accuracy of
100 metres for protecting USA’s “National Security”

L2 (1227.6 MHz) SIGNAL IS MODULATED WITH p (Precise) code only. It is

available for only military aircraft use. It has claimed accuracy within 1 to 3
metres. It can be accessed only by means of special user code.

 The C/A code is repeated continuously, a sequence being completed every

millisecond. This period is called EPOCH. The pattern of the digital bits that make
the C/A code is large and appears to be RANDOM, hence referred as a Pseudo-
Random Code.

 GPS receiver and the satellite have to generate exactly the same radio signal at exactly
the sane time and to have identical coding to enable the two signals to be compared.
The GPS receiver produces an internal code, which is identical to the C/A code
transmitted by each satellite. The timing of the satellite transmission and the GPS
receiver codes are perfectly synchronized. Therefore the GPS receiver would
recognize which part of the Pseudo random code it had just received and would than
compare it with the same part of the internally produced reference code, and find out
when this part of the received code could have been transmitted by the satellite. The
time difference (Time delay) between the transmitted signal and same received at the
GPS receiver in the aircraft is found out and range of the satellite is calculated.

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 The GPS receiver in the aircraft has a clock, which is not as precise as the satellite
clock, and therefore its internal code is not likely to be perfectly synchronized with
the satellite C/A code. As a result of this de-synchronisation, which is known as
Clock-Bias, the range calculation will be in error, and is therefore referred as a
PSEUDO-RANGE.
As the timing error or Clock Bias at the receiver is the same for all pseudo-ranges
measured at that time, it can be eliminated by using a number of (three simultaneous
equations (one for each range) to solve for the 3 unknowns of clock error. The
pseudo- range is corrected to give TRUE RANGE by applying a correction for the
clock-bias and very accurate 3D fix is produced (refer diagram).

GPS time is measured in weeks and second from 00:00:00 on 06 January 1980 UTC.
An epoch is 1,024 weeks after which the time restarts at zero. GPS time is referenced
to UTC but does not run in direct synchronization, so time correlations information is
included in the SV broadcast (see page 343). In July 2000 the difference was about 13
seconds.

Continuous out put of position is maintained by combining the pseudo-ranges and

rate of change of ranges with the last calculated position. An input of Pressure
Altimeter altitude can be used to compare with GPS vertical position calculations.

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The GPS satellite transmission includes the following;

1. Precise time of the transmission

2. Satellite orbital position

3. Atmospheric propagation data

4. Navigation C/A Code

5. Satellite clock-bias information

6. Almanac (planned) and ephemeris (Actual Position of the satellite at the time of
Transmission) Data

Accuracy : ±100 meters on a 95% probability basis

Errors

1. Clock Bias:- As explained in Para 8

2. Satellite Clock error:- Satellite clock errors are corrected by the master control
ground station (MCS) to ensure that the stated error due to this cause is up to
0.5 metres in range.

3. Satellite Ephemeris Error. The actual orbit parameters of the satellite are
referred to as ephemeris. This error occurs if the satellite is not precisely where
it is believed to be in its orbit. Errors in the satellite position directly induce the
fixing errors. MCS monitors it and error in the range due to this cause is also
kept within
0.5 metres.

4. Ionospheric error/Atmospheric propagation Error. The signals passing

down through the ionosphere are slowed by the amount of refraction caused by
the density of the ionization and the angular path the satellite signals follow to
the receiver. This error is predictable and varies with time of day, year and
elevation of the satellite. The error due this cause should not be more than 4
metres.

5. Instrument/receiver error. Error can arise in the aircraft’s GPS receiver due
to ELECTRICAL NOISE, also errors in matching the pseudo” random
signals and computational errors. Error due to this cause is up to one metre.

6. Satellite Geometry Error. This is also called GDOP (geometric dilution of

precision if the angle of cut of two position lines is very shallow the error due
to this cause is more. This error occurs when two satellite are close together. If
the ankle of cut of two position lines is at right angle or nearly so then satellite
geometry error is less.

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GDOP is sub-divided into (a) TDOP (Time dilution of precision) the error in range is
equivalent of clock bias and (b) PDOP (Position dilution of Precision) The error in
range is based on the Satellite geometry less the clock bias, PDOP is further sub-
divided into VDOP (Vertical dilution of precision) and HDOP (Horizontal dilution of
precision).

To minimize or avoid these error GPS constellations has its orbits inclined at 55º to
the equator. GNSS receiver which can use both GPS and GLONASS satellites data
simultaneously will suffer LEAST from the satellite geometry errors because more
number of satellites will be available for use.

Coarse Acquisition code Selective Availability: - An artificially induced error

designed to limit accuracy in a non-military role. This error is ±100M on 95% of the
occasions. Selective availability uses two methods known as DITHER (Changing the
clock time) and EPSILON setting false position of the satellite in its orbit.

GPS receiver

Single Channel Receivers

The GPS receivers collect data through a single channel, which moves from one
satellite to the next and the process of moving between the satellite can interrupt
position calculations and so the accuracy is less.

Three Channel Receivers

Satellite Position is monitored by one channel and other two are used for tracking and
locking on to the satellites. This type of receiver performs better than the single
channel receivers and are the type most likely to be used in the aircraft.

Continuous Receivers
Continuous receivers have 4 to 12 channels. Aircraft position is found
instantaneously. GDOP error is eliminated by tracking more than 4 satellites. Such
receivers are used is specialized situations such as SURVEY and scientific work. The
size, coast and power consumption of the continuous receiver are the highest of any
GPS system.

Integrated Systems
Integrated navigation system will be available in future which combine the output of
GPS/LORAN C, GPS/INS, GPS/MLS and GPS/IRS.

Receiver Autonomous Integrity monitoring (RAIM)

The purpose of the RAIM function is to “monitor system integrity” and to do so it is
necessary that 6 satellites be in view. The sequence is as follows:-

 Fifth satellite enables the GPS receiver to find out that one of the four satellite
Signals, which are being used for determining the aircraft position, is in ERROR.

 Sixth satellite (if in view) will identify the faulty satellite and will remove it from
the navigation solution system

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Some of the GPS receivers use barometric altitudes as an augmentation to RAIM Pressure
altimeter out put or Mode C output can be compared with the altitude calculated by the GPS
Receiver. In such cases number of satellites required to perform full RAIM function reduces
from Six to Five.

For STAND ALONE GPS receiver, the RAIM must work fully before the GPS can be used
as the PRIMARY navigation aid for IFR flights.

The use of GPS is permitted as non-precision approach aid, and is not permitted as precision
approach aid.

Present system cannot guarantee the pilot with immediate indication of satellite malfunction
or GNSS degradation; this makes it currently unsuitable as an approach aid for high category
landings.

USA has agreed to provide GPS to CIVIL users free to charge until 2002 AD and similarly
CIS is providing GLONASS free until AD 2007.

Because of its advantages like; entirely space based, capability of high accuracy, unrestricted
range, 24 hours availability, providing 3D fix, available at all operating speeds and altitudes,
reduced separation of aircraft possible it will prove to be a reliable navigation aid. And also is
coupled with INS, it can make terrestrial based aid s like NDBs, DMEs and VORs etc
redundant.

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The main disadvantage is that, as a military system GPS may be interrupted if a serious
military need develops.

 Shown below in the MAGNA VOX GPS receiver designed to meet navigation
requirement at sea and on land as well as in the AIR. This receiver requires3 minutes
to obtain a first fix but subsequently position is updated every 1.2 seconds.

Typical GPS Receiver

ADJUSTMENT FOR CLOCK BIAS

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POSITIONS REFERENCE SYSTEM

GNSS use an Earth referenced three dimensional Cartesian coordinate system

with its origin at the centre of the earth.

Figure 19.3

Because the systems are global, a common model of the Earth was required. The
World Geodetic Survey of 1984 (WGS84) was selected as the appropriate model for
GPS and all GPS terrestrial positions are defined on this model and referenced to the
Cartesian coordinate system. Where other models are required, for instance for the
UK’s Ordnance Survey maps, a mathematical transformation is available between the
models (note this is incorporated as a feature of GPS receivers available in the UK).
Galileo uses the European Terrestrial Reference System 1989 (ETRS89) and the
Russian model for GLONASS is known as Parameters of the Earth 1990 (PZ90).
WGS84 is the ICAO standard for aeronautical positions, however, since all these
systems are mathematical models transposition from ETRS89 to WGS84, for
example, is a relatively simple mathematical process. Mathematically all these models
are regular shapes, known as ellipsoids.

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Figure 19.4

The ellipsoids cannot be a perfect representation, nor can they represent geographical
features, e.g. mountains and land depressions. The distance of mean sea level from the
centre of the earth depends on gravitational forces which vary both locally and
globally. Hence mean sea level will not necessarily coincide with the surface of the
ellipsoid. The maximum variation between mean sea level and the surface of the
ellipsoid for WGS84 is approximately 50 m. Hence the vertical information provided
by any system referenced to this model cannot be used in isolation for vertical
positioning, except when in medium/high level cruise with all aircraft using the
GNSS reference and in LADGNSS applications – (where the vertical error is
removed).

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The GPS receiver provides the following facilities:-

(a) Current position is Lat and Long

(b) Way point navigation

(c) Parallel track navigation

(d) TAS, Ground Speed, TMG, Desired track, Hdg to steer and Time to waypoint, ETAs

(e) Time, upper winds and variation

(f) Alerts when approaching pre-set positions

(g) Current and future satellite coverage

(h) Range, distance and bearings

(i) Evaluation and selections of best satellites

(j) Satellites status

(k) Fail/warning signals

(l) Self test facility

(m) Dead reckoning during coverage gaps

SYSTEM ACCURACY

The ICAO specification requires an accuracy (95%) of the SPS to be:

 Vertical: +/-13m
 Horizontal +/-22n
 Time 40 nanoseconds (10-9)

INTEGRITY MONITORING

The ICAO specification for radio navigation systems requires a 2 second warning of
failure for precision systems (e.g. ILS) and 8 second warning for non-precision systems.
With 4 SVs being used to provide a 3D positions, there is no means of detecting the
degradation of information in any of the SV data and an operator could potentially
experience errors of hundreds of miles unless he was able to cross check the GNSS
positions with another system, Therefore differential system are under development
which will determine any degradation in accuracy and allow a timely warning of the
failure or degradations of the information provided.

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DIFFERENTIAL GPS (DGPS)

If the SV information degrades, the GPS receiver has no means of determining the
degradation. Consequentially the safety of flight may be seriously endangered. DGPS
is a means of improving the accuracy of GPS by monitoring the integrity of the SV
data and warning the user for any errors which occur. DGPS systems will provide
warning of failure in the SV data and prevent or minimize the effect of such errors, or
provide failure warning and improve the accuracy of the deduced position. There are
three kinds of DGPS currently in use or under development:-

 Air based augmentation systems (ABAS)

 Ground based augmentation system (GBAS)
 Satellite based augmentations systems (SBAS)

Air Based Augmentation System (ABAS)

To determine, at the receive, if any of the data from any of the SVs is in error requires
the use of a fifth SV. By comparing positions generated by the combinations of the
five SVs it is possible to detect errors in the data, and hence which SV is in error. The
rogue SV can then be deselected. However, once the system is back to 4 SVs the
facility is lost. The CAA recommend that a maximum of 6 SVs are available, so that
if a SV is deselected the integrity monitoring continues to be available. The GPS term
for this is “receiver autonomous integrity monitoring” (RAIM). RAIM has only
limited availability at present and would require at least 30 operational SVs to achieve
continuous global availability. RAIM will only provide failure warning and either
prevent or minimize errors in computed position arising from erroneous SV data.

Ground Based Augmentation Systems (GBAS)

GBAS is a local area DGPS (LADGPS) implemented through a local area
augmentation system (LAAS). This system is used in aviation to provide both failure
warning and enhancement of the GPS receiver position by removing ephemeris and
SV clock errors and minimising ionospheric and tropospheric errors. It will not
remove errors arising from receiver noise and multi-path reception as these errors are
particular to the receiver. It is specifically established to provide precision runway
approaches.

The implementation of a LAAS requires a precisely surveyed site on the aerodrome

and a means of transmitting the corrections to aircraft operating close to the
aerodrome. On the site is a GPS receiver which determines the GPS positions and
compares it with the known position of the site. The error in the X, Y and Z
coordinates is determined and specially formatted to be transmitted to approaching
aircraft. The system will detect any errors in the SV data and either correct the error
or give a failure warning indication.

The data is transmitted from an aerial close to the runway threshold and is formatted
in such a way that the GPS receiver in the aircraft reads the transmissions as being
from a SV situated on the aerodrome. This pseudo-SV is known as a pseudolite
(pseudo- satellite.

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Figure 19.18 LAAS

When the aircraft is close to the DGPS site, the ionosphere and tropospheric
transmissions paths will be virtually identical so these errors are effectively
eliminated. The LAAS has the potential to provide the necessary accuracy to achieve
category 3C type operations.

Satellite Based Augmentation Systems (SBAS)

SBAS utilise a wide area DGPS (WADGPS) implemented through a wide area
augmentations system (WAAS). There are these systems currently under
development which will cover a large area of the northern hemisphere, these are:

The European Geostationary Navigation Overlay System (EGNOS), declared

operational in July 2004.

The USA WAAS, declared operational in July 2003.

The Japanese Multi-functional Transport Satellite Augmentation System, (MSAS)

expected to become operational in 2010.

The Indian Geo and GPS Augmented Navigation (GAGAN), expected to

become operational in 2014.

The objectives of these systems are more or less identical, to provide an integrity
monitoring and position enhancement to aircraft operating over a large area. The
methods of implementation differ slightly between systems, but the end result to the
user will be the same (i.e. there will be full compatability between the systems). The
discussion of WADGPS will centre on EGNOS, but the same principles apply to all
SBAS.

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These are 3 segments making up SBAS:

The space segment which comprises the GPS and GLONASS constellations and
geo- stationary SVs.

Note: geostationary SVs have an orbital period of 24 hours and are found
only in Equatorial orbits at an altitude of 35,800 km

The ground segment comprising reference stations (RS), regional control stations
(RCS) and a master control station (MCS) (or navigation earth station (NES)).

The user segment comprised all who use the service.

RS are established within a region to measure the accuracy of the SV data and the
ionospheric and tropospheric effects on the SV transmissions. As with LAAS the RS
are precisely surveyed sites containing a GPS receiver and an accurate atomic clock.
Each RS is linked to a RCS. The RCS will be linked in turn to MCS (or NES)

Figure 19.19 EGNOS Segments

The RS determine their GPS position from the SV data. The RS now, since it knows
its own positions an receives the SV ephemeris, clock time and any clock error
corrections, back calculates the true position and time at the SV and determines the
range error for each SV. It also determines if there are significant errors which render
any of the SVs’ information unusable, hence providing an integrity check on the
system. This range error will not deviate significantly over a considerable range
(400+km), neither will relative effects of the ionospheric and tropospheric
propagation.

The data (SV errors and integrity assessment) is sent via the RCS to the MCS (located
at the MATS at Gatwick) where it is formatted for use by suitable equipped GPS
receivers. The data is then sent to Goonhilly Down to be uplinked for broadcast on the
East Atlantic and Indian Ocean INMARSAT geo-stationary SVs navigation broadcast
channels. The GPS receivers incorporate the data into the calculations and achieve
both enhancement of position and failure warning.

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Whilst the accuracy of GPS will be greatly enhanced by WADGPS, it cannot and is
unlikely to achieve the accuracy required for category 1 type operations. These will
continue for the foreseeable future to require the provision of LAAS. (The best
decision height achieved to date is about 300 ft, and this is unlikely to be improved
upon in the near future.

COMBINED GPS AND GLONASS SYSTEMS

Receiver systems combining GPS and GLONASS are under development. The ability
to combine positional information from the two systems will provide improved
accuracy and enhanced integrity monitoring. However, since the SV systems use
different models of the earth, the GLONASS PZ90 generated information will need to
be converted to the GPS WGS84 model, or vice versa, to provide the final position.

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QUESTIONS

1. NAVSTAR/GPS operates in the band the receiver determines positions by:-

a. UHF, range positions lines

b. UHF, secondary radar principles
c. SHF, secondary radar principles
d. SHF, range position lines

2. The NAVSTAR/GPS control segment comprises:

a. the space segment, the user segment and the ground segment
b. a ground segment and the INMARSAT geostationary satellites
c. a master control station, a back-up control station and five monitoring stations
d. a master control station, a back-up control station, five monitoring stations
and the INMARSAT geostationary satellites

3. The orbital height and inclination of the NAVSTAR/GPS constellation are:

a. 20180 km, 65º

b. 20180 km, 55º
c. 19099 km, 65º
d. 19099 km, 55º

4. The model of the earth used for NAVSTAR/GPS is:

a. WGS90
b. PZ90
c. WGS84
d. PZ84

5. The minimum number of satellites required for a 3D fix is:

a.3
b.4
c.5
d.6

6. The NAVSTAR/GPS operational constellation comprises how many satellites

a. 12
b. 21
c. 24
d. 30

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7. The most accurate fixing information will be obtained from:

a. four satellite spaces 90°apart at 30º above the visual horizon

b. one satellite close to the horizon and 3 equally at 60º above the horizon
c. one satellite directly overhead and 3 equally spaced at 60º above the horizon
d. one satellite directly overhead and 3 spaced 120º apart close to the horizon

8. The most significant error of GNSS is:

a. GDOP
b. Receiver clock
c. Ionosphere propagation
d. Ephemeris

9. The frequency available to non-authorised users of NAVSTAR/GPS is:

a. 1227.6 MHz
b. 1575.42 MHz
c. 1602 MHz
d. 1246 MHz

10. The purpose of the pseudo-random noise codes in NAVSTAR/GPS is to:

a. identify the satellites

b. pass the almanac data
c. pass the navigation and system data
d. pass the ephemeris and time information

11. The minimum number of satellites required for receiver autonomous integrity
monitoring is:

a.3
b.4
c.5
d.6

12. If a receiver has to download the almanac, the time to do this will be:

a. 2.5 minutes
b. 12.5 minutes
c. 25 minutes
d. 15 minutes

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13. The use of LAAS and WAAS remove the errors caused by:

a. propagation, selective availability, satellite ephemeris and clock

b. elective availability, satellite ephemeris and clock
c. GDOP, selective availability and propagation
d. receiver clock, GDOP, satellite ephemeris and clock

14. The most accurate satellite fixing information will be obtained from:

a. NAVSTAR/GPS & GLONASS

b. TRANSIT & NAVSTAR/GPS
c. COSPAS/SARSAT & GLONASS
d. NAVSTAR/GPS & COSPAS/SARSAT

15. A LAAS requires:

a. an accurately surveyed site on the aerodrome and a link through the

INMARSAT geostationary satellites to pass corrections to X, Y & Z co-
ordinates to aircraft
b. an accurately surveyed site on the aerodrome and a link through the
INMARSAT geostationary satellites to pass satellite range corrections to
aircraft
c. an accurately surveyed site on the aerodrome and a system known
as a pseudolite to pass satellite range corrections to aircraft
d. an accurately surveyed site on the aerodrome and system known as a
pseudolite to pass corrections to X, Y & Z co-ordinates to aircraft

16. The position derived from NAVSTAR/GPS satellites may be subject to the
following errors:

a. selective availability, skywave interference, GDOP

b. propagation, selective availability, ephemeris
c. GDOP, static interference, instrument
d. ephemeris, GDOP, siting

17. EGNOS is:

a. the proposed European satellite navigation system

b. a LAAS
c. a WAAS
d. a system to remove errors caused by the difference between the model
of the earth and the actual shape of the earth

18. The PRN codes are used to:

a. determine the time interval between the satellite transmissions and receipt of
the signal at the receiver
b. pass ephemeris and clock data to the receivers
c. synchronise the receiver clocks with the satellite clocks
d. determine the range of the satellites from the receiver

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19. The availability of two frequencies in GNSS:

a. removes SV ephemeris and clock errors

b. reduces propagation errors
c. reduces errors caused by GDOP
d. removes receiver clock errors

20. The NAVSTAR/GPS reference system is:

a. A geo-centred 3D Cartesian co-ordinate system fixed with reference to the sun

b. A geo-centred 3D Cartesian co-ordinate system fixed with reference to the
prime meridian, equator and pole
c. A geo-centred 3D Cartesian co-ordinate system fixed with reference to space
d. A geo-centred 3D system based on latitude, longitude and altitude

21. The initial range calculation at the receiver is known as a pseudo-range,

because it is not yet corrected for:

a. receiver clock errors

b. receiver and satellite clock errors
c. receiver and satellite clock errors and propagation errors
d. receiver and satellite clock errors and ephemeris errors

22. The navigation and system data message is transmitted through the:

a. 50 Hz modulation
b. The C/A and P PRN codes
c. The C/A code
d. The P code

23. An all in view receiver:

a. informs the operator that all the satellites required for fixing and RAIM
are in available
b. checks all the satellites in view and selects the 4 with the best geometry for
fixing
c. requires 5 satellites to produce a 4D fix
d. uses all the satellites in view for fixing

24. When using GNSS to carry out a non-precision approach the MDA will be
determined using:

a. barometric altitude
b. GPS altitude
c. Radio altimeter height
d. Either barometric or radio altimeter altitude

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25. If an aircraft manoeuvre puts a satellite being used for fixing into the wing
shadow then:

a. the accuracy will be unaffected

b. the accuracy will be temporarily downgraded
c. the receiver will automatically select another satellite with no degradation in
positional accuracy
d. the receiver will maintain lock using signals reflected from other parts
of the aircraft with a small degrading of positional accuracy

26. Which of the following statements concerning NAVSTAR/GPS time is correct

a. satellite time is the same as UTC

b. the satellite runs its own time based on second s and weeks which is
independent of UTC
c. the satellite runs its own time based on second s and weeks which is
correlated with UTC
d. satellite time is based on sidereal time

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INTRODUCTION

(JAR25) AMJ 25-11, contains the advisory material for manufacturers to observe when designing
electronic horizontal situation indicator (EHSI) displays. It specifies the colour coding to be used
(see 14.12), and the requirement of manufacturers to ensure there can be no confusion between
colours or symbols. It also defines the probabilities that essential information (eg attitude,
altitude, heading etc) will not be lost or inaccurately displayed.

Detailed knowledge of the JAR25 specifications is not required for the examination. Such
knowledge as is needed has been reproduced in this chapter.

EHSI CONTROLLER

The EHSI displays navigational information, radar information and TCAS information. For the
Radio Navigation examination a knowledge of and the ability to interpret the navigational
information is essential.

The inputs to the EHSI are from:

IRS
FMC
VOR, DME, ILS, and ADF
TCAS
AWR

The information from all of the sources is fed to the port and starboard EHSI through the
respective symbol generator, which are the heart of the EFIS. They process the various inputs to
generate the correct symbology for the EHSI.

The EHSI controller has a function switch to select the mode of the displays, a range selection
switch and 6 switches to control the display of data.

Figure 14.01

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The display modes available are:

Full rose Navigation (FULL NAV)

Full rose VOR/ILS

Expanded rose Navigation (EXP NAV)

Expanded rose VOR/ILS

MAP

Centre Map (CTR MAP)

PLAN

Weather radar and TCAS information can only be displayed on the expanded NAV, expanded /ILS and
MAP displays. The selectable map background options are enabled in the Map, Centre Map and Plan
modes. The information available for display is:

Tuned VOR/ADF radials (VOR/ADF)

Navigation Aids (NAV AID)

Airports (ARPT)

Route Data (RTE DATA)

Waypoints (WPT)

Weather (WXR)

The traffic switch in the centre of the range selection knob when pressed will either:

Display TCAS information, if not already displayed

Remove TCAS information from the display

When TCAS FAIL is displayed; remove the message

With the exception of the PLAN mode which is orientated to true north, all the displays are orientated
to aircraft heading which may be either magnetic or true. Range arcs (white) are displayed in the
expanded rose VOR, ILS and NAV modes when the WXR switch is on, and in the MAP mode at all
times

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DISPLAYS MODES

EXPANDED NAVIGATION MODE

The expanded navigation mode displays lateral and vertical guidance information. Weather data
is displayed when the WXR switch is on.

Figure 14.02 Expanded Navigation Mode

The mode of the display is shown in the bottom left hand corner. The aircraft’s position is at the
tip of the triangle (bottom centre) and the aircraft’s present track is depicted by the straight line
(133ºM) and the aircraft heading is 130ºM. The active waypoint and distance to go are at top left
of display, with the ETA at top right. The required track shown by the deviation indicator is
165ºM, and the actual bearing to the waypoint is 146ºM. The aircraft is just over 2 nm right of the
required track. The heading bug is selected to 104ºM, the 20 nm range scale is selected. WXR is
selected and the radar is operating in the weather and turbulence (WX +T) mode with 12º uptilt
and is showing a contouring cloud centred on 105 ºM at 8 to 16 nm. The wind is 100ºM/20 kt.

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FULL NAVIGATION MODE

Figure 14.03 Full Navigation Mode

The full navigation mode is displaying the same data as the expanded navigation mode
(at 14.02), except that some of the symbology is different (aircraft symbol and track) and
there is no WXR facility. The vertical scale shows that the aircraft is 2380ft above the
computed descent profile.

EXPANDED VOR MODE

The expanded VOR mode displays VOR information with a VOR selected and either a
manual or database generated input of track.

Figure 14.04 Expanded VOR Mode

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The display shows that VOR2 is in use on a frequency of 116.80 MHz, the aircraft is outbound
from the beacon at a range of 13.3 nm (DME) And is 7.5º right of the required track (165ºM).
The heading is 130º M and the present track 133ºM. The pilot has selected the heading bug to
104ºM. WXR is selected and the radar is in WX+T mode with 12º uptilt and the display is
showing a contouring cloud centred on 105ºM between 8 and 17 nm. The selected scale is 20nm
and the wind is 126ºM/20 kt.

FULL ROSE VOR MODE

Figure 14.05 Full Rose VOR Mode

The full rose VOR mode is showing the same information as diagram 14.04, with the differences
from the expanded VOR mode being the same as in the NAV modes, except that a to/from
pointer is displayed (below the aircraft symbol).

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EXPANDED ILS MODE

Figure 14.06 Expanded ILS Mode

The expanded ILS mode shows the appropriate ILS information when an ILS localiser frequency
is selected. The glideslope indications are suppressed when the aircraft track is more than 90º
removed from the ILS localiser course.

FULL ROSE ILS MODE

Figure 14.07 Full Rose ILS Mode

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The full rose ILS mode shows the same information as the expanded ILS mode and has the same
differences from the expanded ILS mode as noted for the nav modes, except that the localiser
deviation scale is doubled.

MAP MODE

Figure 14.08 Map Mode

The MAP mode shows the navigational information selected on the control panel and is heading
orientated.

CENTRE MAP MODE

Figure 14.09 Centre Map Mode

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The centre map mode is displays the same information as the map mode, except the aircraft is in
the centre of the screen, no range circles are displayed and the navigational information behind
the aircraft is displayed

PLAN MODE

Figure 14.10 Plan Mode

The plan mode is orientated to true north and the information displayed at the top of the screen is
the same as in the map mode. The plan mode allows the pilot to review the planned route using
the FMC/CDU LEGS page. The display will be centred using the page.

EHSI COLOUR CODING

The colour coding is used on the EHSI is to the ICAO standard, which is also the standard
adopted by the JAA. The JAR25 recommended colour presentation is:

Display features should be colour coded as follows:

Warnings Red
Flight envelopes and system limits Red
Cautions, abnormal sources Amber/Yellow
Earth Tan/Brown
Engaged modes Green
Sky Cyan/Blue
ILS deviation pointer Magenta
Flight director bar Magenta/Green

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Specified display features should be allocated colours from one of the following colour sets:

Colour Set 1 Colour Set 2

Fixed reference symbols White Yellow*

Current data, values White Green
Armed modes White Cyan
Selected data, values Green Cyan
Selected heading Magenta** Cyan
Active route/flight plan Magenta White

* The extensive use of yellow for other than caution or abnormal information is
discouraged

** In colour set 1, magenta is intended to be associated with those analogue parameters that
constitute ‘fly to’ or ‘keep centred’ type information

Precipitation and turbulence areas should be coded as follows:

Precipitation 0-1 mm/hr Black

1-4 mm/hr Green
4-12 mm/hr Amber/Yellow
12-50 mm/hr Red
Above 50 mm/hr Magenta

Turbulence White or Magenta

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EHSI SYMBOLOGY

The symbology used in the B737-800 is depicted in the following table, which should be used in
conjunction with the display diagrams at 14.3 to 14.11:

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The Electronic Horizontal Situation Indicator (EHSI)

The lower of the two EFIS screens, the EHSI, presents a display of flight navigational
information and progress in one of nine possible modes, selected from the HIS section of the
EFIS control panel. The modes available are as follows:

• MAP. The display used for en-route navigational information and the one most
commonly selected in cruise flight. The display shows features ahead of the aircraft,
with the aircraft symbol appearing at the bottom of the display. This is illustrated in
Figure 4.4.

• CTR MAP. Essentially the same as MAP, but the display is centred upon the aircraft
current position, with an aircraft symbol in the centre of the display.

• PLAN. This display shows the planned route with waypoints and is principally used
when entering waypoints into the flight management.

Figure 4.3 Typical EADI display

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System (FMS) computer before flight or when making changes to the planned route. It is illustrated
in Figure 4.5.

• FULL VOR/FULL ILS. These displays are basically identical and show compass
rose with heading and deviation indications that follow conventional formats. They
are used when checking aircraft track against a VOR bearing or ILS localiser. The
display with ILS selected is shown in Figure 4.6. With VOR selected the display
would be essentially the same, except that the in-use VOR would be indicated in the
lower left corner, where ILS appears in the diagram.

• EXP VOR/ILS. In the expanded mode the information displayed is the same as in
the full mode, but is in semi-map format. Only the relevant segment of the compass
rose is displayed at the top of the screen, with a heading pointer. The aircraft’s
current (instantaneous) track is shown as a solid line extending from the aircraft
symbol to the compass arc. The bearing of the selected radio aid, ILS or VOR, is
shown as a solid line extending from the centre of the deviation scale to the compass
arc. The display with ILS selected is shown in Figure 4.7. Again, the display with
VOR selected is essentially the same. In either case the weather radar picture can be
superimposed upon the display, if required.

• EXP NAV/ FULL NAV. These two modes display lateral and vertical navigational
information in much the same format as a conventional HSI.

Figure 4.4 EHSI MAP mode display.

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Expanded NAV mode shows a compass arc, whereas full NAV mode displays a full compass rose
and does not permit the weather radar display to be superimposed, exactly as with the expanded and
full VOR/ILS modes.

Map mode display

Between latitudes 65ºS and 73ºN the expanded compass rose may be referenced to either magnetic
or true north as required, above those latitudes it may only be referenced to true north. Heading
information is provided by the aircraft inertial reference systems, the heading and track pointers will,
of course, only be aligned when there is no drift.

The vertical deviation scale and pointer indicates whether the aircraft is above or below the planned
flight path and the lateral deviation scale and pointer whether it is to right or left of the planned flight
path. Wind speed is indicated digitally in the lower left corner of the display, with an arrow
indicating wind direction. The arrow is orientated to the map display, which is orientated to the
aircraft track, so the wind direction is displayed relative to track.

The instantaneous track appears as a solid line extending from the apex of the triangular aircraft
symbol to the compass rose. The selected range scale is superimposed and, when a planned change
of latitude is taking place, an arc indicating range to the next altitude (at present rate of change of
latitude) appears against this scale.

During change of heading a curved, dashed trend vector appears, showing predicted heading at the
end of 30, 6 and 90 seconds from the present time. The planned flight path appears as a solid line
from the apex of the aircraft symbol to the next, and subsequent, waypoints.

Navigational ground features, such as radio navigational aids and airports, are positioned on the
display by the flight management system (FMS) from data obtained from VOR/DME stations and
aircraft position is based upon these inputs together with those from the aircraft INS/IRS. When out
of range of VOR/DME coverage the aircraft position is updated from INS/IRS only, but can be
manually updated if required.

The weather radar display may be superimposed upon the MAP display, with intensity of radar
returns indicated by green, yellow and red in order of intensity. Some displays will also indicate
predicted turbulence, based upon very high intensity returns, in white or magenta.

PLAN mode display

The PLAN mode display, illustrated in Figure 4.5, is principally for use when entering or amending
the lateral flight plan with the insertion of waypoints. The active route, from waypoint to waypoint,
is displayed on the lower part of the screen, with significant navigational features such as airports
and radio beacons included in their locations relative to the planned route. It should be noted that, in
this mode, the display is orientated to true north. Wind speed and direction and the weather radar
display cannot be superimposed whilst in PLAN mode. At the top of the display the expanded
compass rose with track and headings as in the MAP displays is maintained, together with distance
and time to the next waypoint.

This display is particularly useful as a checking medium when inserting waypoint co-ordinates,
before entering them into the flight management computer.

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ILS mode displays

In ILS mode there are two possible screen displays, full and extended. These displays are primarily
for use during landing approach. In the full ILS mode a complete compass rose fills the central part
of the screen, with an aircraft symbol, deviation scale and deviation pointer indicating aircraft
position relative to the ILS localiser beam superimposed, as illustrated in Figure 4.6.

The compass rose, driven by input from the inertial reference system, rotates against a fixed heading
pointer as aircraft heading changes. The heading, magnetic or true, appears digitally within the
pointer. Selected DME range is displayed in the top left corner of the screen, with wind speed and
direction in the lower left corner. The selected type of radio beacon, in this case ILS, is also shown
here, with the beacon frequency shown in the lower right corner. A vertical deviation scale and
pointer, to indicate aircraft position relative to the glide path, is on the right side of the display.

With expanded (EXP) ILS mode selected, an expanded compass arc is displayed at the top of the
screen, as in MAP and PLAN modes, with aircraft heading displayed in digital and analogue from as
before. Selected DME range appears in the top left-0hand corner of the screen, whilst wind speed
and direction, and a reminder that the display is based upon ILS transmissions, appear in the lower
left-hand corner.

A semi-map display fills the lower part of the screen, with the triangular aircraft symbol positioned
near the bottom the display. A lateral deviation scale with deviation pointer intersects the apex of the
aircraft symbol and a solid line extends from the central bar of the lateral, deviation scale to the
compass arc, indicating the bearing of the localiser transmitter. A second solid line, with a range
scale, extends from the apex of the aircraft symbol to the compass arc, indicating the current
(instantaneous) aircraft track. When a new set heading is selected, a dotted line appears briefly from
the apex of the aircraft symbol to the heading bug. In ILS mode a vertical deviation scale, with a
pointer indicating aircraft position relative to the glide path, is on the right-hand side of the screen.
Weather radar returns may be superimposed upon the display if required. The expanded ILS display
is illustrated in Figure 4.7.

VOR mode displays

Full and expanded VOR mode displays are essentially the same as the ILS displays described above.
These display are useful when checking the aircraft track and heading relative to a selected
VOR/DME and the principal differences in display features are that they will identify the selected
beacon and indicate whether the aircraft is tracking toward (TO) or away from (FROM) the beacon.
In VOR modes there is, of course, no vertical deviation indication.

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EXAMPLE QUESTIONS

1. Refer to appendix A. Which displays shows the expanded ILS mode?

a. A
b. B
c. D
d. E

2. Refer to appendix A. Which mode is display C?

a. Centre map
b. Map
c. Plan
d. Expanded nav

3. Refer to appendix A. Which mode is display A?

a. full ILS
b. full VOR
c. full nav
d. full map

4. On display E, what is the approximate deviation from the required track?

a. 3 nm
b. 8º
c. 3º
d. 1.5º

5. On display A, what is the aircraft’s track?

a. 130º
b. 165º
c. 146º
d. 135º

6. The JAR25 colour code for ILS deviation pointer is:

a. magenta
b. cyan
c. green
d. amber

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7. The JAR25 colour code for selected heading is:

a. green
b. magenta
c. amber
d. white

8. The JAR25 colour code for precipitation rate in excess of 50 mm/hr is:

a. red
b. amber
c. magenta
d. white or magenta

9. The JAR25 colour code for the active route is:

a. yellow
b. magenta
c. green
d. cyan

10. The JAR25 colour code for a downpath waypoint is:

a. white
b. magenta
c. green
d. cyan

11. The horizontal deviation on the expanded ILS display represented by one dot is
approximately:

a. 1º
b. 2º
c. 0.5º
d. 5º

12. On which displays will the range markers be displayed regardless of the weather selection?

a. MAP & CTR MAP

b. EXP ILS/VOR, MAP & CTR MAP
c. PLAN, MAP & CTR MAP
d. PLAN, EXP ILS/VOR, MAP & CTR MAP

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13. The heading inputs to the EHSI are from:

a. The IRS
b. The FMC
c. The IRS through the symbol generator
d. The FMC through the symbol generator

14. Refer to Appendix A. The track direction from BANTU to ZAPPO on display F is:

a. 360º(M)
b. 130º(M)
c. 360º(T)
d. 130º(T)

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APPENDIX A

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INTRODUCTION

An area navigation (RNAV) system is any system that allows the aircraft to be navigated to the
required level of accuracy without the requirement to fly directly over ground based facilities.

The required accuracy is achieved by using some, or all, of the following inputs of information:

VOR/DME INS/IRS
ILS/MLS ADC
LORAN Time
GNSS

The information is processed within the system to give the most accurate and continuously
updated position and the necessary outputs to provide the pilot with course, ETA erc

BENEFITS OF RNAV

RNAV allows aircraft to take a more direct flight path appropriate to the route they are flying
thereby improving the operating efficiency and helping in relieving congestion on the
overcrowded airway system. To facilitate this, air traffic control centres have established RNAV
routes which are more direct than the traditional airways system allows and do not require aircraft
to regulary fly to the overhead of beacons. Hence the benefits are:

A reduction in distance, flight time and fuel (and hence costs) by giving airlines and pilots grater
flexibility and choice of routes.

An increase in the present route capacity by making full use of the available airspace by
providing more direct routes, parallel or dual routes and bypass routes for overflying aircraft in
high density terminal areas.

A reduction in vertical and horizontal separation criteria.

TYPES AND LEVELS OF RNAV

There are two types of RNAV:

Basic RNAV (B-RNAV) which is required to give a position accuracy to within 5 nm on 95% od
occasions. It is now mandatory for all aircraft carrying 30 passengers or more to have B-RNAV
capability within Euro-control airspace.

Precision RNAV (P-RNAV) must be accurate to within 1.0 nm on 95% of occasions. P-RNAV
routes are now being established in terminal airspace.

There are three levels of RNAV capability:

 2D RNAV which relates to the capabilities in the horizontal plane only

 3D RNAV indicates the addition of a guidance capability in the vertical plane
 4D RNAV indicates the addition to 3D RNAV of a timing function.

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A SIMPLE 2D RNAV SYSTEM

The flight deck of a simple 2D RNAV system includes the following components:

 Navigation Computer Unit

 Control Display Unit (CDU)
 Indicator in the form of a :

• Course Deviation Indicator (CDI) or

• Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI)

Figure 17.1 VOR/DME RNAV Integrated Nav SYSTEM

OPERATION OF A SIMPLE 2D RNAV SYSTEM

A simple RNAV system uses rho/theta(range/bearing) to define position, which is derived from
and bearing information from VOR/DME stations. The pilot defines waypoints along the route to
be flown as range and bearing from suitably located VOR/DME. Then the equipment, using the
VOR/DME bearing and range, computes the QDM and distance to the waypoint and presents the
information to the pilot on a CDI or HIS as if the waypoint itself is a VOR/DME station, hence
these waypoints are known as phantom stations.

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Figure 17.2 An RNAV Route and Waypoints

In the diagram the pilot has defined waypoints along the planned route from SND to NEW using
available and sensibly placed VOR/DME.

Waypoints may be selected and programmed for:

 En-route navigation
 Initial approach fixes
 Locator Outer Markers
 ILS frequencies (when selected the instrumentation automatically reverts to ILS mode).

The following table shows the inputs that would be required for the above RNAV route.

WAYPOINT STATION FREQUENCY RADIAL DISTANCE APPLICATION

1 DTY 116.4 MHz 067 42 En-route Nav

2 POL 112.1 MHz 066 29 En-route Nav

3 NEW 114.25 MHz 218 26 En-route Nav

4 NEW 114.25 MHz 251 4 Holding LOM

5 I-NC 111.5 MHz N/A N/A ILS

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PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF A SIMPLE 2D RNAV SYSTEM

Refer to Figure 17.3. The aircraft is flying from waypoint 1 (WPI) defined by DTY VOR/DME to
waypoint 2 (WP2) defined by POL VOR/DME. As the aircraft arrives at WPI, POL is selected
and the range and bearing measured (145(R)/104 nm). The RNAV knows its position with respect
to POL and the pilot has already input waypoint 2 with respect to POL. The computer can now
compute the track and distance from WPI to WP2 (340(M)/102 nm) since it has two sides, the
included angle and the orientation of magnetic north. The RNAV now continually computes the
aircraft position with respect to POL and compares this position with the computed track to
determine the cross track error and the distance to go. Steering demands are fed to a CDI or HSI
for the pilot to keep the aircraft on track and give continuous range readout to WP2. It should be
noted that on such a system the indications of deviation from the track are in nms.

Figure 17.3

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LIMITATIONS AND ACCURACY OF SIMPLE RNAV SYSTEMS

The beacons are selected by the pilot during the pre-flight planning and the pilot must ensure that
each waypoint is within DOC of the VOR/DME designating that waypoint and of the VOR/DME
designating the next waypoint.

Slant range error in DME must be considered in selecting facilities close to track.

The pilot must ensure that the information is correctly input into the CDU because the computer
cannot recognise or rectify mistakes.

To avoid positional errors the aircraft must at all times be within the DOC of the in use facility.
The accuracy of the fixing information is dependent on range and weather the VOR or DME
element is predominant. If the VOR/DME is close to the planned track to/from the waypoint, the
along track element will be most accurate. If the VOR/DME designating the way point is
perpendicular to the track, the across track will be most accurate.

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LEVEL 4 RNAV SYSTEMS

The area navigation function in modern passenger aircraft is carried out by a flight management
computer (FMC) which also provides guidance and performance functions. The system outlined
below is specific to the BOEING 737-800, but the principle is true for all aircraft.

Figure 17.4 FMS Schematic

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The 737-800 FMS comprises:

 Flight Management Computer System (FMCS)

 Autopilot/ Flight Director System (AFDS)
 Auto throttle (A/T)
 2 Inertial Reference Systems (IRS)

Each component is an independent system which may be used individually or in various

combinations. The term FMS implies the joining of all these systems into one integrated system
which provides automatic navigation, guidance and performance management. The FMS provides
4D are navigation (latitude, longitude, altitude and time) and optimizes performance to achieve
the most economical flight possible. It provides centralized cockpit control of the aircraft’s flight
path and performance parameters.

The Flight Management Computer (FMC) is the heart of the system, performing all the
navigational and performance calculations and providing control and guidance commands. A
control display unit (CDU) allows the crew to input the flight details and performance parameters
into the FMC. The navigation and performance computations are displayed on the CDU for
reference and monitoring. The related FMC commands for lateral (LNAV) and vertical (VNAV)
navigation may be coupled to the AFDS and A/T.

In the navigation functions the FMC receives inputs of position and heading from the IRS and
fixing information using twin DME. The FMC compares these inputs and by a process known as
Kalman filtering (see page 17) produces a system position. In the operation with radio position
updating, the FMC is combining the short term accuracy of the IRS with the long term accuracy
of the external reference (see paragraph 13.16). If the FMS is using just the IRS information to
derive position a warning is displayed to the crew indicating that the positional information is
downgraded.

The crew may select the level of automation required, from simply using the data displays to fly
the aircraft manually, e.g. for heading or TAS/Mach No., to fully automatic flight path guidance
and performance control (see Figure 17.5).

Even with full FMS operation, the crew have absolute control of the management and operation
of the aircraft. Furthermore, certain functions can only be implemented by the crew, e.g. thrust
initiation, take-off, altitude selection, ILS tuning, aircraft configuration and landing rollout. The
crew should always monitor the FMC navigation throughout the flight to ensure the flight plan is
being accurately followed by the automatic systems.

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CONDITION: L NAV AND V NAV ENGAGED

Figure 17.5 B737 – 400 FMS

The FMC contains a performance database and a navigation database. The performance database
contains all parameters of the aircraft performance and the company’s cost index strategy. The
navigation database contains aeronautical information for the planned area of operations of the
aircraft, comprising:

 Aerodrome details, positions, elevations, runways and lengths etc

 Navigation facilities, including location, altitude, frequency, identification and DOC

 Airways routes, including reporting points

 SIDs and STARs and runway approaches

 Company routes

The navigation data is updated every 28 days and the FMC contains the current and next 28 days
database (this coincides with the ICAO navigation data cycle). The data may be customised for
the specific airline operations.

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CONTROL DISPLAY UNIT (CDU)

The CDU is the means of communication with the FMC. It used before flight to initialise
performance and navigation requirements for the flight.

Figure 17.6 Control Display Unit

In addition to the alphanumeric keypad and the specific function keys, alongside the display are
line select keys (LSK) which are used for inserting or selecting data into the FMC and moving
through the various function pages. The format of the display is; in the top field the title of the
selected page and, where the selected function has more than one page, the page number (e.g. 1 of
3). In the centre of the display are up to 10 data field, 5 on the left and right respectively which
are accessed using the LSKs. At the bottom of the screen are two or page select fields and below
them the scratchpad. The scratchpad is used to input or modify data for insertion into the
appropriate data field.

Pre-Flight
The pre-flight initialization of the FMC I the navigation mode requires the pilot to check the
validity of the database and input:

 the aircraft position

 departure and destination aerodromes

 intended SID and STAR procedures

 the planned route

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If the aircraft is flying a standard company route then the route designator is inserted, otherwise
the pilot will have to input the route manually. Data is initially typed into the scratchpad at the
bottom of the screen then inserted in the appropriate position using the line selection keys. Once a
valid position has been input it is passed to the IRS.

IDENT Page

Figure 17.7

When power is applied, the FMS executes an internal test sequence. When the test is successfully
completed, it presents the IDENT Page on the CDU. This page contains information o the aircraft
model and engine thrust from the performance database at 1L and IR, the identification of the
permanent navigation database at 2L with 2R and 3R showing the currency periods of the
navigation data in the database. At 4L is the identification of the operating programme and at 5R
is the data of the supplementary data. The only information that can be changed on this display is
the current nav data at 2R. If this is out of date a prompt will appear in the scratchpad. To change
the data, select LSK 3R to down select the next period of data to the scratchpad, then 2R to insert
the data into the active data line. Note that at 6R is the prompt for the next page in the
initialisation sequence and at 6L is the prompt for the page index. Where any input data is used
on other CDU pages the data will automatically ‘propagate’ to those pages.

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POS INIT Page

Figure 17.8

The position initialisation (POS INIT) page allows initialisation of heading and position for the
IRS. On all displays the dashed lines, as at 5R, indicate where optical data may be inserted to
assist the FMC operation. The boxed areas at 4R indicate where data essential to the operation of
the FMC must be inserted. The last position recorded before shutdown is displayed at 1R. The
departure airport is inserted at 2L and the gate at 3L.The FMC extracts the airfield reference and
gate positions from the database and inserts them at 2R and 3R respectively. At 4R the FMC is
asking for the aircraft position to initialise the IRS. The position could be input manually in the
scratchpad then inserted by selecting LSK 4R. However, the database has already inserted the
position into 3R, so this can be copied by selecting 3R to draw the data down to the scratchpad
and the 4R to insert into the field. To speed up alignment, particularly if the aircraft has been
moved, the heading from the standby compass can be input at 5R. Having completed this, the
alignment of the IRS will now proceed. The prompt at 6R now directs the pilot to the route (RTE)
page.

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RTE page
The route pages are used to insert, check and/or modify a company route, or to insert a route not
held in the database.

Figure 17.9

The departure and destination aerodromes are input to 1L and 1R respectively. Valid data is any
ICAO aerodrome designator held in the database. If the ICAO identifier was input on the POS
INIT, then it will appear at 1L. The company route is inserted at 2L and the flight number at 2R.
The runway in use and the SID and first route waypoint are inserted at 3L and 4L. Note this will
automatically appear if they are defined in the company route. The information at 5L (airway)
and 5R (next reporting point on airway V2) is inserted by the computer from the database. To
access the subsequent Pages of the RTE, select the NEXT PAGE function key on the key on the
keyboard to check or modify the route. The 6R prompt directs the pilot to activate the route.
Pressing 6R will illuminate the EXEC key on the CDU which should in turn be pressed for the
computer to action the route after take-off. After take-off the RUNWAY line is cleared and the
VIA/TO moves up to line 3 and the next waypoint appears at 4. As an active waypoint is passed,
line three is cleared and replaced with the next active waypoint.

The pre-flight actions for the navigation profile are now complete, but the performance
initialisation is yet to be auctioned. This is dealt with elsewhere in the course. The computer will
check the conditions against the performance data and the required cost index profile and inform
the pilots of the power, speed and configuration to achieve the required profile. If a manual input
of a route is required, this can be achieved through the scratchpad, as can any modifications to the
standard company routes. The valid formats for navigation inputs are:

Latitude and Longitude as either a 7 group alphanumeric, (e.g. N05W010) or a 15 group

(e.g. N0926.3W00504.7) Note the leading zeros must be entered for the FMC to accept the
position.

Up to 5 alphanumerics for ICAO aerodrome designators, reporting points, navigation, airway

designators (e.g EGLL, KODAP, DHD, A23) and runway designators

Up to 7 alphanumerics for SID and STAR (e.g TURN05)

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Range and bearing from a navigational aid or reporting point (eg. TRN250.0/76). Note the
decimals are optional, the bearing must always be a 3 or 5 digit group, the distance may be 1 to 5
digits. In this case the FMC would give the positions the designation TRN01, assuming it was the
first or only position specified with reference to TRN. These are known as place bearing/ distance
(PBD) waypoints.

Figure 17.10 Range/Bearing Waypoint

Course interception waypoints are positions defined where the bearing from any valid
database position intersects with a course (e.g.an airway) or the bearing from another
database defined position. The format for input is e.g. GOW167.0/TRN090.5, the FMC now
produces a PBD waypoint which in this case would be designated GOWO1. As above the
bearings must be either 3 or 5 digits.

Figure 17.11 Bearing/Bearing Waypoint

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CLIMB

Normally in the climb the VNAV, LNAV and timing functions will be operative.

Figure 17.12

On the climb page (CLB) at 1L is the planned initial cruising altitude, if one exists and the climb
is active, and at 1R is the current climb restriction. The suffix ‘A’ indicates altitude. 2L gives the
economy speed for the climb and 3L any speed restriction, which defaults to 250 kt and 10,000 ft.
Any other speed/altitude restriction imposed by ATC can be input to 3L from the scratchpad. At
2R is the ETA and distance to go to the next position. 3R gives the height error at the next point
showing the aircraft will be 310 ft low. The climb engine N1 is displayed at 4R.The prompts at 5
and 6 L and R direct the pilots to the other climb mode pages. (RTS is required time of arrival, to
be used if a RTA is specified by ATC).

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CRUISE

In the cruise all three modes will normally be active.

Figure 17.13

The cruise page (CRZ) has the current cruising altitude at 1L with the required cruising speed at
2L; in this case the economy cruise speed. At 3L is the computed EPR/N1 required to maintain
the speed at 2L, with the predicted destination fuel shown at 4L. At 1C is the optimum and
maximum cruising level for the aircraft weight and the ambient conditions. The next step altitude
is displayed at 1R with the time and distance to make the step climb at 2R. 3R shows the
estimated wind velocity and 4R shows the predicted savings or penalty in making the step climb
indicated at 1R. The outer cruise pages are accessed through 5R, 6L and 6R.

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DESCENT

As in the climb the LNAV, VNAV and timing modes are all operative.

Figure 17.14

With the active economy path descent (ACT ECON PATH DES) page selected, the target Mach
number and CAS are at 2L; at 1L is the end of descent altitude. At 1R is the next descent position
and altitude; the suffix A indicates at or above. Position 3L contains the speed transition, which is
10kt less than that stored in the database, and the transition altitude. If none is defined then it
defaults to 240/10000. No input is permitted to this field, but the data can be removed. The next
waypoint and altitude is shown at 3R, with the expected deviation from this required height
displayed at 4L. At 4R FPA is actual flight path angle based on current groundspeed and rate of
descent. V/B is the vertical bearing i.e. the FPA required to achieve the required height at the next
position, and V/S is the actual rat of descent. Access to associated descent pages is gained at 5R,
6L and 6R.

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION – TWIN IRS, TWIN FMC

In a twin IRS system the left FMC will normally receive information from the left IRS and the
right FMC from the right IRS. The systems compare the IRS positions but if there is a
discrepancy, they cannot determine in isolation which system is in error. The FMC must have the
input of an external reference in order to determine the correct position. Using Kalman filtering,
the external reference is compared with the IRS positions to determine the system position. At the
start of a flight the IRS position will predominate but as the flight progresses, the IRS positions
will degrade and the weighting for the external reference will increase, commensurate with the
selection of external reference, and the range from that reference.

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There are four possible modes of operation of a twin FMS system. In the dual mode, one FMC
acts the master and the other as the slave. The systems independently determine position and the
positional information is co-related, to check for gross errors, before being passed to the EFIS.
This means that the position presented on the EFIS may differ from that on each CDU. With
independent operation, each FMC works in isolation with no communication.

The information from one of the FMCs will be used to feed the other systems and there will be a
difference in position between the two FMCs and between the EFIS and the non-selected FMC. If
one FMC is inoperative then the functions can be carried out by the serviceable FMC. If both
FMCs are inoperative then IRS information will be used directly in the EFIS but the automatic
performance functions will not be available.

PRINCIPLE OF OPEARYION – TRIPLE IRS, TWIN FMC

Positional information and heading from the triple INS/IRS is fed into the FMC where
the information is compared to check for any system having gross errors and then
averaged. This position may then be compared with an external reference which may be
DME/DME, VOR/DME LORAN C or GNSS. The FMC uses Kalman filtering to
produce position and velocity. This filtering may be done purely using the IRS
information or using a combination of IRS and external reference.

When operating at latitudes in excess of 84º the FMC will de-couple the IRS with the left
FMC using the IRS in the order left, centre, right and the right FMC in the order right,
centre, left. Over a short period of time each FMC will change the FMC position to the
appropriate IRS position. The reason for the de-coupling is that the calculation of change
of longitude from departure is a function of the secant of latitude, which, at values
approaching 90º, is increasing rapidly (e.g.sec 86º00 = sec 86º01’ = 14.3955). This means
that a small error in latitude will result in a large error in the calculation of change of
longitude. This would give an apparent large divergence between the IRS positions in
terms of the longitude calculated, although in fact the actual difference in position would
be small.

KALMAN FILTERING

Kalman filtering is the process use within a navigation computer to combine the short
term accuracy of the IRS with the long term accuracy of the external reference. The
model assesses the velocity and position errors from the IRS by comparing the IRS
position with the external reference to produce its own prediction of position and
velocity. Initially the IRS information will be the most accurate, but as the ramp effect of
IRS errors progresses, the external reference information will become the most accurate.
The weighting system applied within the model will initially favour the IRS information
but as a flight progresses it will become more biased towards the external reference.
Consequently the position will be most accurate after the position update on the runway
threshold but will gradually decay to the accuracy of the external reference. The position
information will again improve when the aircraft is on final approach using a precision
system (ILS or MLS). The more complex the model used (i.e. the more factors are
included) the better will be the quality of the system position and velocity.

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DME – IRS ACCURACY

The position accuracy of the IRS continually degrades throughout the flight, although the
heading and groundspeed maintain a high degree of accuracy. The measurement of
position is subject to random errors which are dependent on the range and the cut of the
position lines. The second problem is solved by the computer selecting DMEs positioned
so that a good cut will be obtained. Slant range error is compensated for in the
calculation, but the DME error is constant at +/-0.25 nm +/-1.25% of range, so at 100 nm
the error will a maximum of 1.5 nm. At the start of a flight this error will be large
compared with the IRS error, but as the flight progresses the IRS is degrading at around 1
nm/hr. After several hours, since the DME error is constant, the DME fixing will be
significantly more accurate than the IRS.

Requirements for a 4D RNAV System

 Display present position in latitude/longitude or as distance/bearing to selected

waypoint

 Select or enter the required flight plan through the control and display unit (CDU)

 Review and modify navigation data for any part of a flight plan at any stage of flight
and store sufficient data to carry out the active flight plan

 Review, assemble, modify or verify a flight plan in flight, without affecting the
guidance output

 Execute a modified flight plan only after positive action by the flight crew

 Where provided, assemble and verify an alternative flight plan without affecting the
active flight plan

 Assemble a flight plan, either by identifier or by selection of individual waypoints

from the database, or by creation of waypoints from the database, or by creation of
waypoints defined by latitude/longitude, bearing/distance parameters or other
parameters

 Assemble flight plans by joining routes or route segments

 Allow verification or adjustment of displayed position

 Provide automatic sequencing through waypoints with turn anticipation. Manual

sequencing should also be provided to allow f light over, and return to, waypoints

 Display cross-track error on the CDU

 Provide time to waypoints on the CDU

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 Execute a direct clearance to any waypoint

 Fly parallel tracks at the selected (offset distance offset mode must be clearly
indicated)

 Purge previous radio updates

 Carry out RNAV holding procedures (when defined)

 Make available to the flight crew estimates of positional uncertainty, either as a

quality factor or by reference to sensor differences from the computed position

 Conform to WGS-84 geodetic reference system

 Indicate navigation equipment failure

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QUESTIONS

1. The accuracy required of a precision area navigation system is:

a. 0.25 nm
b. 2 nm
c. 1 nm
d. 0.5 nm

2. A basic 2D RNAV system will determine tracking information from:

a. twin DME
b. VOR/DME
c. Twin VOR
d. Any of the above

3. An aircraft using a basic 2D RNAV system is on a section between WPI and WP2, a
distance of 45 nm. The aircraft is 20nm from the phantom station, which is 270º/30 nm
from the VOR/DME. The aircraft is 15nm from the VOR/DME. The range readout will
show:

a. 15 nm
b. 20 nm
c. 25 nm
d. 30 nm

4. The sequence of displays accessed on initialization is:

a. POS INIT, IDENT, RTE

b. IDENT, RTE,POS INIT
c. IDENT, POS INIT, RTE
d. POS INIT, RTE, IDENT

5. The IRS position can be updated:

a. on the ground only

b. at designated positions en-route and on the ground
c. on the ground and overhead VOR/DME
d. at selected waypoints and on the ground

6. Refer to Appendix A. What are the correct selections to insert the most accurate position
into the IRS?

a. 3R then 4R
b. 2R then 4R
c. 4R then 3R
d. 3L then 4R

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7. The position used by the FMC in the B737-400 is:

a. an average of the two IRS positions

b. an average of the two IRS positions, smoothed by the Kalman filtering process
c. taken from the selected IRS, smoothed by Kalman filtering and updated to the
external reference
d. generated from the external reference and updated by the IRS as part of the
filtering process.

8. The FMC position will be at its most inaccurate:

a. on take-off
b. at TOC
c. at TOD
d. on final approach

9. Which positions can be input to the FMC using a maximum of 5 alpha-numerics?

a. SIDS & STARS, reporting points and airways designators

b. Navigation facilities, reporting points and airways designators
c. SIDS & STARS and latitude and longitude
d. Latitude and longitude, reporting points and airways designators

10. The FMC navigational database can be accessed by the pilots:

a.. to update the database

b. to read information only
c. to change information between the 28 day updates
d. to change the information to meet the sector requirements

11. Above latitudes of 84º a twin FMS/triple IRS system will go to de-coupled operations. The
reason for this is:

a. to prevent error messages as the IRS longitudes show large differences

b. to ease the pilot’s workload
c. to improve the system accuracy
d. because the magnetic variation changes rapidly in high latitudes

12. The maximum range at which VOR bearing information will be used by the B737 -400
FMC for fixing is:

a. 10 nm
b. 25 nm
c. 50 nm
d. 60 nm

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13. Concerning FMC operation, which of the following is true:

a. the FMC combines the long term accuracy of the IRS with the short term
accuracy of the external reference
b. the FMC combines the long term accuracy of the IRS with the long term
accuracy of the external reference
c. the FMC combines the short term accuracy of the IRS with the short term
accuracy of the external reference
d. the FMC combines the short term accuracy of the IRS with the long term
accuracy of the external reference

14. The correct format for the input of position 50N 00527E to the CDU is:

a. 5000.0N00527.0E
b. N50E00527
c. N5000.0E00527.0
d. N5000E00527

15. The period of validity of the navigational database is:

a. 28 days
b. 1 month
c. determined by the national authority and may be from 28 days to 91 days
d. 91 days

APPENDIX A

Area Navigation Systems (RNAV) Page 22 of 22

 PERFORMANCE BASED NAVIGATION (PBN)

The continuing growth of aviation increases demands on airspace capacity

therefore emphasizing the need for optimum utilization of available airspace.
Improved operational efficiency derived from the application of area
navigation (RNAV) techniques has resulted in the development of navigation
applications in various regions worldwide and for all phases of flight. These
applications could potentially be expanded to provide guidance for ground
movement operations.

Requirements for navigation applications on specific routes or within a

specific airspace must be defined in a clear and concise manner. This is to
ensure that the flight crew and the air traffic controllers (ATCs) are aware of
the on-board RNAV system capabilities in order to determine if the
performance of the RNAV system is appropriate for the specific airspace
requirements.

RNAV systems evolved in a manner similar to conventional ground-based

routes and procedures. A specific RNAV system was identified and its
performance was evaluated through a combination of analysis and flight
testing. For domestic operations, the initial systems used very high
frequency omnidirectional radio range (VOR) and distance measuring
equipment (DME) for estimating their position; for oceanic operations,
inertial navigation systems (INS) were employed. These "new" systems were
developed, evaluated and certified. Airspace and obstacle clearance criteria
were developed based on the performance of available equipment; and
specifications for requirements were based on available capabilities. In some
cases, it was necessary to identify the individual models of equipment that
could be operated within the airspace concerned. Such prescriptive
requirements resulted in delays to the introduction of new RNAV system
capabilities and higher costs for maintaining appropriate certification. To
avoid such prescriptive specifications of requirements, this manual
introduces an alternative method for defining equipage requirements by
specifying the performance requirements. This is termed performance-based
navigation (PBN).

Page 1 of 17
The PBN concept specifies that aircraft RNAV system performance
requirements be defined in terms of the accuracy, integrity, availability,
continuity and functionality, which are needed for the proposed operations in
the context of a particular airspace concept. The PBN concept represents a
shift from sensor-based to performance-based navigation. Performance
requirements are identified in navigation specifications, which also identify
the choice of navigation sensors and equipment that may be used to meet
the performance requirements. These navigation specifications are defined
at a sufficient level of detail to facilitate global harmonization by providing
specific implementation guidance for States and operators.

Under PBN, generic navigation requirements are defined based on

operational requirements. Operators then evaluate options in respect of
available technology and navigation services, which could allow the
requirements to be met. An operator thereby has the opportunity to select a
more cost-effective option, rather than a solution being imposed as part of
the operational requirements. Technology can evolve over time without
requiring the operation itself to be reviewed, as long as the expected
performance is provided by the RNAV system. As part of the future work of
ICAO, it is anticipated that other means for meeting the requirements of the
navigation specifications will be evaluated and may be included in the
applicable navigation specifications, as appropriate.

PBN offers a number of advantages over the sensor-specific method of

developing airspace and obstacle clearance criteria, i.e.:

a) reduces the need to maintain sensor-specific routes and

procedures, and their associated costs;

b) avoids the need for developing sensor-specific operations with

each new evolution of navigation systems, which would be cost-
prohibitive;

c) allows for more efficient use of airspace (route placement, fuel

efficiency and noise abatement);

d) clarifies how RNAV systems are used; and

e) facilitates the operational approval process for operators by

providing a limited set of navigation specifications intended for
global use.

Page 2 of 17
Within an airspace concept, PBN requirements will be affected by the
communication, surveillance and ATM environments, the navaid
infrastructure, and the functional and operational capabilities needed to
meet the ATM application. PBN performance requirements also depend on
what reversionary, non-RNAV means of navigation are available and what
degree of redundancy is required to ensure adequate continuity of functions.

During development of the performance-based navigation concept, it was

recognized that advanced aircraft RNAV systems are achieving a predictable
level of navigation performance accuracy which, together with an
appropriate level of functionality, allows for more efficient use of available
airspace. It also takes account of the fact that RNAV systems have
developed over a 40-year period and as a result there are a large variety of
systems already implemented. PBN primarily identifies navigation
requirements irrespective of the means by which these are met.

Purpose and scope

This manual identifies the relationship between RNAV and RNP applications
and the advantages and limitations of choosing one or the other as the
navigation requirement for an airspace concept. It also aims at providing
practical guidance to States, air navigation service providers and airspace
users on how to implement RNAV and RNP applications, and how to ensure
that the performance requirements are appropriate for the planned
application.

Recognizing that there are many airspace structures based on existing RNAV
applications, and conscious of the high cost to operators in meeting different
certification and operational approval requirements for each application, this
manual supports those responsible for assessing whether an application can
use an existing navigation specification for implementation. The primary aim
is to provide guidance in the identification of whether, by a suitable
adjustment of the airspace concept, navigation application and/or
infrastructure, it is possible to make use of an existing navigation
specification, thereby obviating the need for a specific and potentially costly
imposition of a new certification requirement for operation in an individual
airspace.

Where analysis identifies that a new standard is needed, the manual

identifies the steps required for the establishment of such a new standard. It
identifies a means by which, through the auspices of ICAO, unnecessary
proliferation of standards can be avoided.

Page 3 of 17
 (PBN) terminology

Two fundamental aspects of any PBN operation are the requirements set out
in the appropriate navigation specification and the navigation aid
infrastructure (both ground- and space-based) allowing the system to
operate.

A navigation specification is a set of aircraft and aircrew requirements

needed to support a navigation application within a defined airspace
concept. The navigation specification defines the performance required by
the RNAV system as well as any functional requirements such as the ability
to conduct curved path procedures or to fly parallel offset routes.

RNAV and RNP systems are fundamentally similar. The key difference
between them is the requirement for on-board performance monitoring and
alerting. A navigation specification that includes a requirement for on-board
navigation performance monitoring and alerting is referred to as an RNP
specification. One not having such requirements is referred to as an RNAV
specification. An area navigation system capable of achieving the
performance requirement of an RNP specification is referred to as an RNP
system.
In elaborating the PBN concept and developing associated terminology, it
became evident to the Required Navigation Performance and Special
Operational Requirements Study Group (RNPSORSG) that the use of RNAV-
related expressions could create some complexities. States and international
organizations should take particular note of the Explanation of Terms and to
Chapter 1, Part A, of Volume I of this manual.

Because specific performance requirements are defined for each navigation

specification, an aircraft approved for a RNP specification is not automatically
approved for all RNAV specifications. Similarly, an aircraft approved for an
RNP or RNAV specification having stringent accuracy requirements (e.g. RNP
0.3 specification) is not automatically approved for a navigation specification
having a less stringent accuracy requirement (e.g. RNP 4).

Page 4 of 17
 Transition strategies

Transition to PBN

It is expected that all future RNAV applications will identify the navigation
requirements through the use of performance specifications rather than
defining equipage of specific navigation sensors.

Where operations exist that were defined prior to the publication of this
manual, a transition to PBN may not necessarily be undertaken. However,
where revisions to the functional and operational requirements are made,
the development and publication of the revised specifications should use the
process and description established in this manual.

Transition to RNP specifications

As a result of decisions made in the industry in the 1990s, most modern

RNAV systems provide on-board performance monitoring and alerting,
therefore the navigation specifications developed for use by these systems
can be designated as RNP.

Many RNAV systems, while offering very high accuracy and possessing many
of the functions provided by RNP systems, are not able to provide assurance
of their performance. Recognizing this, and to avoid operators incurring
unnecessary expense, where the airspace requirement does not necessitate
the use of an RNP system, many new as well as existing navigation
requirements will continue to specify RNAV rather than RNP systems. It is
therefore expected that RNAV and RNP operations will co-exist for many
years.

However, RNP systems provide improvements on the integrity of operation

permitting, inter alia, possibly closer route spacing, and can provide
sufficient integrity to allow only the RNP systems to be used for navigating in
a specific airspace. The use of RNP systems may therefore offer significant
safety, operational and efficiency benefits. While RNAV and RNP applications
will co-exist for a number of years, it is expected that there will be a gradual
transition to RNP applications as the proportion of aircraft equipped with RNP
systems increases and the cost of transition reduces.

Page 5 of 17
PROCEDURES & APPLICATIONS (PBN)

1) The performance system requirement in RNAV or Required Navigation

Performances is accuracy, integrity and continuity.

2) The components of PBN are Navigational aids infrastructure,

navigation specification and navigation application.

3) In oceanic / remote enroute and terminal phase of flight the PBN is

limited to operations with linear lateral performance requirements and
time constraints.

4) Conventional navigation is based on raw data like information

navigation aids and measured air data whereas PBN is based data
which is non sensor-specific.

5) During the approach phase of the flight the PBN accommodates both
linear and angular laterally guided operations.

6) RNAV 2 might be used in enroute continental, arrival and departure

phases of flight whereas RNAV 10 and RNP 4 are used in oceanic and
remote phase of flight. RNAV 1 and RNP 1 are used in arrival and
departure phases of flight RNAV 5 is used in enroute and arrival
phases of flight. RNP AR APCH is used in approach phase of flight. RNP
3 is used in all phases of flight except oceanic, remote and final
approach phase. RNP 2 is used in oceanic and remote phases of flight.

7) Accuracy of RNP 1 is ±1 NM lateral 95% of the flight time and RNP 5 is

±5 NM lateral 95% of the flight time. RNavX or RNPx means the
accuracy 2 NM lateral 95% of the flight time.

8) RNP is RNav which includes the requirement for on board performance,

monitoring and alerting.

9) RNP / RNav navigation specifications means that aircraft approved to a

more stringent accuracy requirement may not necessarily meet some
of the functional requirements of the navigation specification having a
less stringent accuracy requirement.

Page 6 of 17
10) The basic functional requirement of RNav and RNP specification are

a) Continuous indication of lateral deviation

b) Distance / bearing to active waypoint
c) Ground speed of time to active waypoint
d) Navigation data storage
e) Failure indication

11) Following terms in PBN means

a) FRT leg type – Fixed radius path for enroute sector

b) Path terminator FA – Fix to an Altitude
c) Path terminator DT – Designated Fix
d) Path terminator TF – Track to fix
e) Path terminator CF – Course to fix
f) Path terminator CA – Course to an Altitude
g) Path terminator IF – Initial fix

12) Off set flight path means it allows the flight crew to specify a lateral
off set from a defined route.

13) The PBN path terminator defines a specific type of terminator of the
previous flight path.

14) Fly by waypoint and turn means to fly by waypoint which requires
anticipation to allow tangential interception of the next segment of a
route or procedure.

15) Total System Error in PBN means Path definition Errors, Flight
Technical Error and Navigation system error.

16) The Error during PBN operation in the accuracy of determining the
aircraft actual coordinates is called Navigation System Error and the
error related to execution of flight along the defined path is called
Flight Technical Error.

17) An Error during PBN operation arising from the RNAV system and its
inability to accurately specify the desired path is called Path
Destination Error.

Page 7 of 17
18) RNAV 10 operating in oceanic or remote area are to be equipt with
two independent and serviceable Long range navigation system
comprising an INS, IRS / FMS or a GNSS.

19) In PBN the non-precision approach means RNP approach to LNAV

minima

20) In RNAV 10 the operator can extend the capability time by updating

21) In case of any discrepancy between onboard navigation data base and
the published procedure the pilot must not fly an RNP APCH.

22) A RNP in corporates the Navigation specifications from

a) RNAV 1, 2, 5
b) RNP 1 & 2, APCH

Page 8 of 17
PERFORMANCE-BASED NAVIGATION (PBN) (Q & A)

1. List the factors used to define Area Navigation (RNAV) or Required

Navigation Performance (RNP) system performance requirement:

A. Accuracy, integrity
B. Accuracy, integrity, continuity, complexity
C. Accuracy, integrity, continuity
D. Accuracy, continuity

2. List all components of Performance Based Navigation (PBN):

A. Navigational aids infrastructure and navigation specification

B. Navigational regulation, navigational specification and
navigation application
C. Navigational aids infrastructure, navigation specification and
navigation application
D. Navigation specification and navigation application

3. In oceanic/remote, en-route and terminal phases of flight, PBN is

limited to:

A. ILS/MLS/GLS approach and landing operation s.

B. Time constraints and operation with angular lateral
performance requirements.
C. Linear and angular laterally guided operations.
D. Operations with linear lateral performance requirements and
time constraints.

4. Which statement is true if you compare raw data with computed

data?

A. Raw data is based on computed data

B. Conventional radio navigation is based on raw data like
information navigation aids and measured air data.
C. Sensor-based data is often referred to raw data. PBN is mainly
based on such data.
D. PBN is based on computed data which is highly sensor-
specific.

5. What is true about Performance Based Navigation (PBN)?

A. It requires the development of sensor-specific procedures and

route.
B. It is not sensor-specific.
C. It is based on navigation specification which are sensor-
specific.
D. It is similar to conventional navigation, both require ground -
based infrastructure.

Page 9 of 17
6. In the approach phase of flight, PBN accommodates:

A. No laterally guided operation but only longitudinally guided

operation.
B. Linear laterally guided operat ion.
C. Both linear and angular laterally guided operation.
D. Angular laterally guided operation.

7. RNAV 2 might be used:

A. In all phases of flight except approach phases.

B. In all phases of flight.
C. In oceanic and remote phases of flight.
D. In the en-route continental, arrival and departure phases of
flight.

8. RNAV 10 and RNP 4 are used:

A. In the oceanic and remote phase of flight.

B. In all phases of flight, except in oceanic and remote phase of flight.
C. In en-route, approach and departure phase of flight.
D. In the approach phase of flight.

9. State the difference between Area Navigation (RNAV) and Required

Navigation Performance (RNP). RNP is RNAV that includes requirements
for:

A. Satellite-based performance monitoring and alerting.

B. Ground-based and satellite-based performance monitoring and
alerting.
C. Integrating Air Traffic Control (ATC) surveillance monitoring and
alerting. On-board performance monitoring and alerting.

10. "X" in RNAV X or RNP X is the (1)____ navigation accuracy (total system
error) in (2) , which expected to be achieved at least (3)_____ of the
flight time by the population of aircraft operating within the airspace, route
or procedure.

A. longitudinal; (2) NM; (3) 99%

B. lateral; (2) NM; (3) 95%
C. lateral; (2) KM; (3) 90%
D. lateral; (2) NM; (3) 93%

Page 10 of 17
11. RNAV 1 and RNP 1 are used:

A. In the arrival and departure phases of flight

B. In the arrival phases of flight
C. In the departure phases of flight
D. In all phases of flight, except for oceanic and remote phases

12. RNP 5 requires a navigation accuracy of:

A. ±5 NM lateral 99% of the flight time

B. ±0.5 NM lateral 95% of the flight time
C. ±5 NM lateral 95% of the flight time
D. ±5 KM lateral 90% of the flight time

13. RNAV 5 is used:

A. In the en-route and arrival phases of flight

B. In oceanic and remote phases of flight
C. In all phases of flight
D. In the en-route continental, arrival, departure and oceanic phases
of flight.

14. RNP AR APCH is used:

A. In the approach phase of flight

B. In all phases of flight, except for approach phases
C. In the arrival, approach and en-route phases of flight
D. In all phases of flight, except for remote phases

15. RNP 0.3 navigation specification is used:

A. In all phases of flight

B. In all phases of flight, except for oceanic, remote and final
approach phases
C. In all phases of flight, except for oceanic and remote phases
D. In all phases of flight, except for the final approach phase

16. RNP 2 is used:

A. In all phases of flight

B. In the en-route, oceanic and remote phases of flight
C. In the en-route and terminal phases of flight
D. In oceanic and remote phases of flight

Page 11 of 17
17. Which of the following statements is true about RNP/RNAV
navigation specifications?

A. Accuracy requirements are always similar to the functional

requirements
B. Aircraft approved to the more stringent accuracy requirements
may not necessarily meet some of the functional requirements of
the navigation specification that having a less stringent
accuracy requirement
C. Aircraft approved to the more stringent functional
requirements automatically meet the accuracy requirements of
the navigation specification that having a less stringent
functional requirement
D. Aircraft approved to the more stringent accuracy requirements
automatically meet the functional requirements of the
navigation specification that having a less stringent accuracy
requirement

18. RNP APCH is used:

A. In the approach phase of flight

B. In all phases of flight, except for oceanic and remote phases
C. In all phases of flight, except for the approach phases
D. In the arrival and en-route phases of flight

19. List all basic functional requirements of the RNAV and RNP
specifications:

1) Continuo us indicatio n of lateral deviation

2) Distance / be ar ing to acti ve w aypo int
3) G S o r t i m e to a ct i v e w a y p o i n t
4) N a v i g a t i o n d a t a s t o r a g e
5) F a i l u r e i n d i c a t i o n

A. 3),4),5)
B. 1),2),3),5)
C. 1),2),3),4),5)
D. 1),3),4),5)

20. Concerning PBN which of the following terms refers to fixed radius
path for en-route sections?

A. TMA leg type

B. FRT leg type
C . R F le g ty pe
D. AB C le g type

Page 12 of 17
21. PBN path terminator "FA" means:

A. Final Altitude
B. Final Approach
C. Fix to an Altitude
D. Fix to Approach

22. PBN path terminator "DF" means:

A. Destination Fix
B. Doppler Fix
C. Designated Fix
D. Direct Fix

23. Which statement is true regarding an offset flight path?

A. It allows the flight crew to specify vertical offset from a defined

route
B. An offset flight path is used for holdings
C. It allows the flight crew to specify a lateral offset from a defined
route
D. An offset flight path is used for parallel approaches and in terminal
areas

24. PBN path terminator "TF" means:

A. Time to Fix
B. Terminal Fix
C. Tower Fix
D. Track to Fix

25. PBN path terminator "CF" means:

A. Civil Fix
B. Centre Fix
C. Certified Fix
D. Course to Fix

26. The PBN path terminators define:

A. A specific type of termination of a flight plan

B. A specific type of termination of the previous flight path
C. A specific type of termination of ATC clearances
D. A specific type of termination of RNP or RNAV procedures

Page 13 of 17
27. What is correct about fly-by /fly-over waypoints and turns?

A. A fly-by waypoint is a waypoint which requires turn

anticipation to allow tangential interception of the next segment
of a route or procedure
B. A fly-by waypoint is a waypoint at which a turn is initiated in order to
join the next segment of a route or procedure
C. A fly-over waypoint is a waypoint which requires turn anticipation to
allow tangential interception of the next segment of a route or
procedure
D. A turn via a fly-over waypoint is always shorter than a turn via a fly-
by waypoint

28. Concerning PBN, what is the name of a curved terminal or approach

section, defined by fix, radius and arc length?

A. Fixed arc approach

B. Curved terminal approach
C. Fixed radius path
D. Radius approach

29. PBN path terminator "CA" means:

A. C e r tif ie d Al ti tud e
B. C e ntr e Appr o ach
C. Centre Altitude
D. Course to an Altitude

30. PBN path terminator "IF" means:

A. Initial Fix
B. Illuminated Fix
C. Intermediate Fix
D. Inner Fix

31. The Total System Error (TSE) during a PBN operations

encompasses:

A. Path Definition Errors, Flight Technical Errors, Navigation

System Errors
B. Pilot Errors and System Errors
C. Path Terminator Errors, Flight Technical Errors, Navigation
System Errors, Pilot Errors
D. Path Calculation Errors, Flight Crew Errors, Navigation
System Errors

Page 14 of 17
32. An error during PBN operations in the accuracy of determining actual
aircraft coordinates is a:

A. Flight Technical Error (FTE)

B. Crew Coordination Error (CCE)
C. Navigation System Error (NSE)
D. Path Definition Error (PDE)

33. An error during PBN operations related the execution of flight along
the defined path refers to a:

A. Navigation System Error (NSE)

B. Path Definition Error (PDE)
C. Flight Path Error (FPE)
D. Flight Technical Error (FTE)

34. An error during PBN operation rising from the RNAV system and its
inability to accurately specify the desired path is a:

A. Navigation System Error (NSE)

B. Flight Technical Error (FTE)
C. Crew Error (CE)
D. Path Definition Error (PDE)

35. RNAV 10 requires that aircraft operating in oceanic and remote areas be
equipped with at least:

A. Two independent and serviceable long-range navigation system

(LRNSs) comprising an Inertial Reference System (IRS) / Flight
Management System IRS (FMS) or a GNSS
B. Three independent and serviceable long-range navigation system
(LRNSs) comprising an INS, Inertial Reference System (IRS) / Flight
Management System IRS (FMS) or a GNSS
C. Two independent and serviceable long-range navigation
system (LRNSs) comprising an INS, Inertial Reference System
(IRS) / Flight Management System IRS (FMS) or a GNSS
D. Two independent and serviceable long-range navigation system
(LRNSs) comprising an INS or Inertial Reference System (IRS) /
Flight Management System IRS (FMS)

36. From the selection below, choose a PBN procedure which is classified as a
non-precision approach (NPA):

A. RNP approach to GLS minima

B. RNP approach to LPV minima
C. RNP approach to LNAV/VNAV minima
D. RNP approach to LNAV minima

Page 15 of 17
37. Can operators extend their RNAV 10 navigation capability time?

A. Yes, they can extend the time if the aircraft is equipped with two IRS
systems
B. No, this is not possible
C. Yes, they can extend the time by updating
D. Yes, they can extend the time by adding an additional LRNS

38. In case a discrepancy occurred between the on-board navigation database

and the published procedure:

A. Pilot can fly an RNP APCH after they have received a corresponding
clearance from ATC
B. Pilots must not fly an RNP APCH
C. Pilots can fly an RNP APCH if they use higher minima
D. The commander has to decide if an RNP APCH is possible

39. A-RNP incorporates the navigation specifications:

1 ) RNAV 1
2 ) RNAV 2
3 ) RNAV 5
4 ) RNAV APCH
5 ) RNP 1 / RNP 2
6 ) RNP APCH

A. 2,3,4,61,
B. 2,3,5,6
C. 1,2,3,4,5
D. 5,6

Page 16 of 17
ANSWERS

1. C 18. A 35. C
2. C 19. C 36. D
3. D 20. B 37. C
4. B 21. C 38. B
5. B 22. D 39. B
6. C 23. C
7. D 24. D
8. A 25. D
9. D 26. B
10. B 27. A
11. A 28. C
12. C 29. D
13. A 30. A
14. A 31. A
15. B 32. C
16. B 33. D
17. B 34. D

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