• Course Code : ECL427

• Course title : SIGNALAS AND SYSTEMS

• Credit Hours :3

• Semester : AT2015

• Refernece Book : A.V.Oppenheim, A.V.Willsky and

S.Hamid Nawab, “Signals and Systems,” PHI, 2nd
Edition, 2013.
 Syllabus - I
• Introduction to Signals
• Spectral Analysis
– Fourier Series
– Fourier Transform
– Frequency Domain Representation of Finite Energy
Signals and Periodic Signals
– Signal Energy and Energy Spectral Density
– Signal Power and Power Spectral Density
• Signal Transmission through a Linear System
– Convolution Integral and Transfer Function
 Outline
• Signals and Systems
– Signals and Systems
– What is a signal?
– Signal Basics
– Analog / Digital Signals
– Real vs Complex
– Periodic vs. Aperiodic
– Bounded vs. Unbounded
– Causal vs. Noncausal
– Even vs. Odd
– Power vs. Energy
CAUSAL AND NON-CAUSAL
SIGNALS
CASUAL AND NON-CAUSAL
SYSTEM
 The Bands
3KHz 30KHz 300KHz 3MHz 30MHz300MHz 3GHz 30GHz 300GHz 3THz

Submillimeter
Far

Range
ELF VLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF Infra-
Red

Radio Optical
300m 1500nm

1PetaHz 1ExaHz
O Y B I V
Near R r e
G
r n i
a l l d o
Infra- e n l
e
u i l Ultraviolet X-Ray
g o e g e
Red d e w n e o t

700nm 600nm 500nm 400nm

 Introduction to Signals
• A Signal is the function of one or more independent
variables that carries some information to represent
a physical phenomenon.
• A continuous-time signal, also called an analog
signal, is defined along a continuum of time.
A discrete-time signal is defined at
discrete times.
 Elementary Signals
Sinusoidal & Exponential Signals
• Sinusoids and exponentials are important in signal
and system analysis because they arise naturally in
the solutions of the differential equations.
• Sinusoidal Signals can expressed in either of two
ways :
cyclic frequency form- A sin 2Пfot = A sin(2П/To)t
radian frequency form- A sin ωot
ωo = 2Пfo = 2П/To
To = Time Period of the Sinusoidal Wave
Sinusoidal & Exponential Signals Contd.

x(t) = A sin (2Пfot+ θ)

Sinusoidal signal
= A sin (ωot+ θ)

Real Exponential
x(t) = Aeat
Complex Exponential
= Aejω̥t =
A[cos (ωot) +j sin (ωot)]

θ = Phase of sinusoidal wave

A = amplitude of a sinusoidal or exponential signal
fo = fundamental cyclic frequency of sinusoidal signal
ωo = radian frequency
 Signal Examples
• Electrical signals --- voltages and currents in a
circuit
• Acoustic signals --- audio or speech signals
(analog or digital)
• Video signals --- intensity variations in an image
(e.g. a CT scan)
• Biological signals --- sequence of bases in a
gene
• Noise: unwanted signal
:
Measuring Signals

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-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1

Period
 Definitions
• Voltage – the force which moves an electrical current
against resistance

• Waveform – the shape of the signal (previous slide is a

sine wave) derived from its amplitude and frequency
over a fixed time (other waveform is the square wave)

• Amplitude – the maximum value of a signal, measured

from its average state

• Frequency (pitch) – the number of cycles produced in a

second – Hertz (Hz). Relate this to the speed of a
processor eg 1.4GigaHertz or 1.4 billion cycles per
second
 Signal Basics
 Continuous time (CT) and discrete time (DT) signals
CT signals take on real or complex values as a function of an independent
variable that ranges over the real numbers and are denoted as x(t).

DT signals take on real or complex values as a function of an independent

variable that ranges over the integers and are denoted as x[n].

Note the subtle use of parentheses and square brackets to distinguish between
CT and DT signals.
 Analog Signals
• Human Voice – best example
• Ear recognises sounds 20KHz or less
• AM Radio – 535KHz to 1605KHz
• FM Radio – 88MHz to 108MHz
 Digital signals
• Represented by Square Wave
• All data represented by binary values
• Single Binary Digit – Bit
• Transmission of contiguous group of bits is a bit
stream
• Not all decimal values can be represented by
binary
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
 Analogue vs. Digital
Analogue Advantages
• Best suited for audio and video
• Consume less bandwidth
• Available world wide

Digital Advantages
• Best for computer data
• Can be easily compressed
• Can be encrypted
• Equipment is more common and less expensive
• Can provide better clarity
 Analog or Digital
• Analog Message: continuous in amplitude and over
time
– AM, FM for voice sound
– Traditional TV for analog video
– First generation cellular phone (analog mode)
– Record player
• Digital message: 0 or 1, or discrete value
– VCD, DVD
– 2G/3G cellular phone
– Data on your disk
 A/D and D/A
• Analog to Digital conversion; Digital to
Analog conversion
– Gateway from the communication device to the
channel
• Nyquist Sampling theorem
– From time domain: If the highest frequency in the
signal is B Hz, the signal can be reconstructed
from its samples, taken at a rate not less than 2B
samples per second
 Real vs. Complex
Q. Why do we deal with complex signals?
A. They are often analytically simpler to deal with than real
signals, especially in digital communications.
 Periodic vs. Aperiodic Signals
 Periodic signals have the property that x(t + T) = x(t) for all t.
 The smallest value of T that satisfies the definition is called the
period.
 Shown below are an aperiodic signal (left) and a periodic signal
(right).
 Causal vs. Non-causal
 A causal signal is zero for t < 0 and an non-causal signal is
zero for t > 0

 Right- and left-sided signals

A right-sided signal is zero for t < T and a left-sided signal is zero
for t > T where T can be positive or negative.
 Bounded vs. Unbounded
 Every system is bounded, but meaningful signal is always
bounded
 Even vs. Odd
 Even signals xe(t) and odd signals xo(t) are defined as
xe(t) = xe(−t) and xo(t) = −xo(−t).
 Any signal is a sum of unique odd and even signals. Using
x(t) = xe(t)+xo(t) and x(−t) = xe(t) − xo(t)
Another Classification of Signals
(Waveforms)
• Deterministic Signals: Can be modeled as a
completely specified function of time

• Random or Stochastic Signals: Cannot be

completely specified as a function of time; must be
modeled probabilistically
 Unit Step Function

1 , t > 0

u ( t ) = 1/ 2 , t = 0
0 , t < 0


Precise Graph Commonly-Used Graph

 Signum Function
 1 , t > 0
 
sgn ( t ) =  0 , t = 0  = 2 u ( t ) − 1
 −1 , t < 0 
 
Precise Graph Commonly-Used Graph

The signum function, is closely related to the unit-step

function.
 Unit Ramp Function

t , t > 0  t
ramp ( t ) =   = ∫ u ( λ ) dλ = t u ( t )
0 , t ≤ 0  −∞

•The unit ramp function is the integral of the unit step function.
•It is called the unit ramp function because for positive t, its
slope is one amplitude unit per time.
Rectangular Pulse or Gate Function

1/ a , t < a / 2
Rectangular pulse, δa ( t ) = 
0 , t > a/2
 Representation of Impulse
Function
The area under an impulse is called its strength or weight. It is
represented graphically by a vertical arrow. An impulse with a
strength of one is called a unit impulse.
Properties of the Impulse Function
The Sampling Property
∞

∫ g ( t ) δ ( t − t ) dt = g ( t )
−∞
0 0

The Scaling Property

1
δ ( a ( t − t0 ) ) = δ ( t − t0 )
a
The Replication Property
g(t)⊗ δ(t) = g (t)
 Unit Impulse Train
The unit impulse train is a sum of infinitely uniformly-
spaced impulses and is given by
∞
δT ( t ) = ∑ δ ( t − nT )
n =−∞
, n an integer
 The Unit Rectangle Function
The unit rectangle or gate signal can be represented as combination
of two shifted unit step signals as shown
 The Unit Triangle Function
A triangular pulse whose height and area are both one but its base
width is not, is called unit triangle function. The unit triangle is
related to the unit rectangle through an operation called
convolution.
Sinc Function

sin ( π t )
sinc ( t ) =
πt
 Signal Properties: Terminology
• Waveform
• Time-average operator
• Periodicity
• DC value
• Power
• RMS Value
• Normalized Power
• Normalized Energy
 Power and Energy Signals

• Power Signal • Energy Signal

– Infinite duration – Finite duration
– Normalized power – Normalized energy
is finite and non- is finite and non-
zero zero
– Normalized energy – Normalized power
averaged over averaged over
infinite time is infinite time is zero
infinite – Physically
– Mathematically realizable
tractable
 The Decibel (dB)
• Measure of power transfer

• 1 dB = 10 log10 (Pout / Pin)

• 1 dBm = 10 log10 (P / 10-3) where P is in Watts

• 1 dBmV = 20 log10 (V / 10-3) where V is in Volts

 What is a communications
system?
• Communications Systems: Systems
designed to transmit and receive
information

Info
Info Comm Info
Info
Source
Source System Sink
Sink
 Block Diagram
Info
Info
Source
Source

m(t)
n(t)
message
noise
from
source

Transmitter Receiver
Channel
Tx s(t) r(t) Rx
transmitted received
signal signal m(t
̃ )
received
message
to
sink Info
Info
Sink
Sink
 Telecommunication
• Telegraph
• Fixed line telephone
• Cable
• Wired networks
• Internet
• Fiber communications
• Communication bus inside computers to
communicate between CPU and memory
Wireless Communications
• Satellite
• TV
• Cordless phone
• Cellular phone
• Wireless LAN, WIFI
• Wireless MAN, WIMAX
• Bluetooth
• Ultra Wide Band
• Wireless Laser
• Microwave
• GPS
• Ad hoc/Sensor Networks
 Comm. Sys. Bock Diagram

Noise

m(t) Tx Channel Rx m(t

̃ )
s(t) r(t)
Baseband Baseband
Bandpass
Signal Signal
• “Low” Frequencies Signal
• <20 kHz • “High” Frequencies Demodulation
• Original data rate • >300 kHz or
• Transmission data rate Detection

Modulation
 Discrete-Time Signals

• Sampling is the acquisition of the values of a

continuous-time signal at discrete points in time
• x(t) is a continuous-time signal, x[n] is a
discrete-time signal
x [ n ] = x ( nTs ) where Ts is the time between samples
 Discrete Time Exponential and
Sinusoidal Signals
• DT signals can be defined in a manner analogous to
their continuous-time counter part
x[n] = A sin (2Пn/No+θ)
Discrete Time Sinusoidal
= A sin (2ПFon+ θ) Signal

Discrete Time Exponential

x[n] = an
Signal
n = the discrete time
A = amplitude
θ = phase shifting radians,
No = Discrete Period of the wave
1/N0 = Fo = Ωo/2 П = Discrete Frequency
Discrete Time Sinusoidal
Signals
Discrete Time Unit Step Function
or Unit Sequence Function
1 , n ≥ 0
u [ n] = 
0 , n < 0
Discrete Time Unit Ramp
Function
n , n ≥ 0 n
ramp [ n ] =   = ∑ u [ m − 1]
0 , n < 0  m=−∞
 Discrete Time Unit Impulse
Function or Unit Pulse Sequence
1 , n = 0
δ [ n] = 
0 , n ≠ 0

δ [ n ] = δ [ an ] for any non-zero, finite integer a.

 Operations of Signals
• Sometime a given mathematical function may
completely describe a signal .
• Different operations are required for different
purposes of arbitrary signals.
• The operations on signals can be
Time Shifting
Time Scaling
Time Inversion or Time Folding
 Time Shifting
• The original signal x(t) is shifted by an
amount tₒ.

• X(t)X(t-to) Signal Delayed Shift to the

right
 Time Shifting Contd.

• X(t)X(t+to) Signal Advanced

Shift to the left