Tips for Passing the

PMP Exam the First Time

F 0 U R T E E N

This chapter serves as a review of some of the key things you need to understand as you prepare for
the exam. Now that you've studied each topic individually, let's put your knowledge and understanding
all together. Rita's Process Chart™ is one way to connect the concepts in this book. If you worked through
the exercises in the "Processes and Domains" chapter, you should understand the overall project manage-
ment process, including all the efforts involved in it. Ifyou skimmed over these exercises, go back and spend
time on them. You should also know the commonly occurring terms and concepts covered in the
"Framework" chapter. Understanding these terms and concepts will help you understand how each of
these things relate to the overall project management process.
As you work through this chapter, take this as an opportunity to find any remaining gaps in your
knowledge so you are prepared to pass the exam on your first try.

Putting It All Together

Over the next several pages, we review some of the frequently occurring terms and concepts you need to
understand for the exam.

Organizational Process Assets How many times have you seen the term "organizational process assets"
in this book? Do you understand what it really means? Organizational process assets are an organization's
existing processes, procedures, and historical data that influence the way a project is managed. With this
definition in mind, can you see why organizational process assets are inputs to many of the individual
project management processes from initiating to closing?

Enterprise Environmental Factors Enterprise environmental factors are also frequent inputs to project
management processes. Think of enterprise environmental factors as a company's culture and existing
systems that the project will have to deal with or can make use of. Enterprise environmental factors are
outside the control of the team and may originate from within the organization or from external sources.
Enterprise environmental factors could include the culture, mission, and values of the organization, as well
as governance factors external to the organization.

Management Plans (for Each Knowledge Area) Planning is a key step in addressing the knowledge
areas of scope, schedule, cost, quality, resource, communications, risk, procurement, and stakeholders, as
well as plans for configuration management, change management, and requirements management. It is a
crucial part of a project manager's job. These plans are vital tools that empower team members to take
responsibility for their actions, work, and participation. It's important to note that these areas of planning
may occur within agile and hybrid environments as well but may be less formal. These plans address the
majority of questions and concerns that might come up throughout the life of a project, and they allow the

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Tips for Passing the PMP Exam F 0 U R T E E N

project manager and team to spend more of their time completing the work of the project and less time
dealing with problems.

Project Management Plan The project management plan is described in the "Integration" chapter and
discussed throughout this book. This plan contains the blueprint for the project. It is an input to many plan-
ning, executing, and monitoring and controlling processes, as well as the Close Project or Phase process.
Work is compared against the plan to ensure that the correct work is being accomplished. Because the plan
is the blueprint for the project, it is maintained throughout the project, and it is updated when there are
changes. Therefore, project management plan updates are an output of most of the executing and moni-
toring and controlling processes, as well as some planning processes. (See the "Project Management Plan
Updates and Project Documents Updates" section in this chapter for more on this topic) .

Baselines The scope, schedule, and cost baselines help the project manager control the project. They
combine to create the performance measurement baseline for the project. How well the project is
performing in terms of scope, schedule, and cost is determined by comparing performance measurements
against these baselines. Change requests that affect the baselines must be approved in the Perform Integrated
Change Control process before the baselines can be changed.

Work Performance Data, Information, and Reports The terms work performance data, work perfor-
mance information, and work performance reports differentiate the various stages of project data and infor-
mation. Work performance data is made up of the initial measurements and details gathered during project
work (executing) . When work performance data has been analyzed for conformance to the project manage-
ment plan during the controlling processes, it becomes work performance information. This information
can then be organized into work performance reports, which are distributed to stakeholders.

Expert Judgment Expert judgment, a frequently used tool of project management, refers to the knowl-
edge and experience of someone who has done the types of things necessary to complete the work for the
project. Although it is not often discussed in this book, expert judgment is used throughout the project in
every process, including every aspect of integration management. Expert judgment is particularly valuable
in planning a project and is a tool and technique for most of the individual planning processes.

Project Management Plan Updates and Project Documents Updates Updates to project artifacts are
frequent outputs of the project management processes across planning, executing, and monitoring and
controlling. Updates to the project management plan may include updates to any of the plan's components.
Project documentation is updated to reflect adjustments, actions, and changes. In planning, updates include
iterations of the plan and knowledge gained as planning processes are followed. In executing and moni-
toring and controlling, project documents are updated with work performance data and information.
These updates ensure everyone has a common understanding of the project as it progresses. They also allow
the project manager to reliably use documentation to measure and control the project.

Change Requests Change requests include recommended corrective and preventive actions and defect
repair. They are outputs of some planning processes, most of the executing processes, and all the moni-
toring and controlling processes except Perform Integrated Change Control. Change requests are inputs to
Perform Integrated Change Control, where they are reviewed. The approved change requests (outputs of
Perform Integrated Change Control) are inputs to Direct and Manage Project Work and Control
Procurements, where the changes are implemented. In Control Quality, the approved changes are verified
to make sure that they return the intended results.

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 F 0 U R T E E N Tips for Passing the PMP Exam

14.1 Exercise Here is a way to get more familiar with the project management processes. In your
Exercise Notebook draw a chart with a header as shown here. For each process listed, fill in the
appropriate information in each column.

What Knowledge What Knowledge

Project Management Knowledge Process What Does Area Process Area Process
Process Area Group It Include? Comes Before? Comes After?
Define Activities

Plan Procurement
Management

Monitor and Control

Project Work

Sequence Activities

Collect
Requirements

Direct and Manage

Project Work

Develop Project
Management Plan

Develop Schedule

Validate Scope

Perform Qualitative
Risk Analysis

Identify Stakeholders

Conduct
Procurements

Define Scope

Perform Integrated
Change Control

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Tips for Passing the PMP Exam F 0 U R T E E N

Answer The answers to this exercise provide a description and the associated actions to the given
process. These descriptions align with the required interpersonal skills as well as the project
management and technical activity needed.

What What
Project Knowledge Knowledge
Management Knowledge Process What Does It Area Process Area Process
Process Area Group Include? Comes Before? Comes After?
Define Schedule Planning Creating an activity Plan Schedule Sequence
Activities management list from each work Management Activities
package

Plan Procurement Planning Creating the None Conduct

Procurement management procurement Procurements
Management statements of work,
bid documents,
and the
procurement
management plan

Monitor and Integration Monitoring Measuring and Manage Project Perform

Control Project management and analyzing Knowledge Integrated
Work controlling performance Change Control
against the project
management plan
and baselines

Sequence Schedule Planning Creating a network Define Activities Estimate Activity

Activities management diagram Durations

Collect Scope Planning Documenting Plan Scope Define Scope

Requirements management detailed Management
requirements and
creating the
requirements
traceability matrix

Direct and Integration Executing Facilitating and Develop Project Manage Project
Manage Project management producing work Management Knowledge
Work according to the Plan
project
management plan

Develop Integration Planning Integrating all the Develop Project Direct and
Project management individual Charter Manage Project
Management management plans Work
Plan and baselines, and
creating a project
management plan
that is bought into,
approved, realistic,
and formal

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 F 0 U R T E E N Tips for Passing the PMP Exam

What What
Project Knowledge Knowledge
Management Knowledge Process What Does It Area Process Area Process
Process Area Group Include? Comes Before? Comes After?
Develop Schedule Planning Creating a bought Estimate Activity Control Schedule
Schedule management into, approved, Durations
realistic, and formal
schedule and
schedule baseline

Validate Scope Scope Monitoring Meeting with the CreateWBS Control Scope
management and customer to gain
controlling formal acceptance
of interim
deliverables

Perform Risk Planning Analyzing the Identify Risks Perform

Qualitative management probability and Quantitative Risk
Risk Analysis impact of potential Analysis (don't
risks to determine forget, however,
which risks might that some
warrant a response projects, or
or further analysis individual project
risks, may skip
this process and
go straight to
Plan Risk
Responses)

Identify Stakeholder Initiating Identifying, None Plan Stakeholder

Stakeholders management documenting, and Engagement
analyzing
information about
stakeholders on the
project

Conduct Procurement Executing Selecting a seller Plan Control

Procurements management and obtaining a Procurement Procurements
signed contract Management

Define Scope Scope Planning Creating the Collect CreateWBS

management project scope Requirements
statement

Perform Integration Monitoring Evaluating the Monitor and Close Project or

Integrated management and impact of requested Control Project Phase
Change controlling changes to the Work
Control project and
approving or
rejecting change
requests

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Tips for Passing the PMP Exam F 0 U R T E E N

If you found this exercise helpful, you may want to continue to test yourself on other processes not
listed here, and review your answers against the process descriptions in this book.

14.2 Exercise Use this exercise to practice recognizing processes at work. Read each description
and write down in your Exercise Notebook the process name being described by the scenario.

Scenario
1. When meeting with the customer to obtain acceptance of interim deliverables
2. When measuring project performance against the performance measurement baseline
3. When making sure people are using the correct processes
4. When evaluating whether performance reports are meeting stakeholders' needs
5. When working with the project team
6. When assessing stakeholder relationships
7. When you notice that there are many unidentified risks occurring
8. When evaluating a seller's performance
9. When evaluating team members' performance
10. When making sure deliverables meet quality standards
11. When communicating with stakeholders to resolve issues and manage their perceptions
about the project

Answer

Process Being Described

1. Validate Scope 7. Monitor Risks
2. Control Scope, Control Schedule, 8. Control Procurements
Control Costs
3. Manage Quality 9. Manage Team
4. Monitor Communications 10. Control Quality
5. Manage Team 11. Manage Stakeholder Engagement
6. Monitor Stakeholder Engagement

Understanding Inputs and Outputs

What about other inputs and outputs? Many people who have not had good project management training
stress over memorizing the inputs and outputs.
First, let's review the definitions of inputs and outputs.
An input means:
"What do I need before I can ... "
An output means:
"What will I have when I am done with ... "
Or,
"What am I trying to achieve when I am doing . .. "

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 F 0 U R T E E N Tips for Passing the PMP Exam

Do you realize how many inputs and outputs there are, and how much time you could spend focusing
on memorization? Since the exam will test your ability to apply knowledge, such memorization would
waste your valuable time, and it will not benefit you in the real world. Ifyou understand project management
and the actions that occur in each of the processes, you can use logic to identify most of the key inputs and
outputs that appear on the exam, rather than relying on memorization. For example, if you know what a
WBS is, you should understand that you need information about scope and requirements to create the
WBS. Therefore, the project scope statement and requirements documentation are key inputs. If you
understand the integrated change control process, you should know that it results in changes to project
documents and components of the project management plan affected by approved changes.
The following exercises will give you some additional help with inputs and outputs.

14.3 Exercise The following are some of the project management processes for which you
should know the inputs and outputs. Use logic and your understanding of the process to complete
the following exercise. In your Exercise Notebook, list the key inputs and the key outputs for each
process. Keep in mind that this may include any real-world inputs and outputs that you can think of
that are not in the PMBOK® Guide. When you are finished, check your answers with the PMBOK"'
Guide and the rest of this book.

List the Key Inputs andd Outputs for these Processes

1. Close Project or Phase 9. Define Scope
2. Sequence Activities 10. Identify Stakeholders
3. Develop Project Management Plan 11. Develop Schedule
4. Plan Procurement Management 12. Validate Scope
s. Collect Requirements 13. Monitor Risks
6. Define Activities 14. Manage Stakeholder Engagement
7. Estimate Activity Resources 15. Conduct Procurements
8. Direct and Manage Project Work

If you found this exercise helpful, you maywantto continue to test yourself on other processes
not listed here.

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Tips for Passing the PMP Exam f 0 U R T E E N

Formulas to Know for the Exam

Although we do not suggest you memorize a lot of information to prepare for the exam, the following
formulas are ones you do need to memorize, as well as understand. The exam will not include a lot of
questions involving formulas, but knowing these formulas will enable you to apply them at a moment's
notice. If you are not comfortable with math, you will be happy to hear that you can know none of these
formulas and still pass the exam! The most important formulas are those relating to earned value because
earned value is a key component of monitoring and controlling.

Formulas to Know for the Exam

PMp@ Exam Prep
Name Formula
Chapter Reference
FV
Present value (PV) Integration
(1 + r)"
Expected activity duration (triangular P+M+O
Schedule
distribution)* 3
Expected activity duration P+4M+O
Schedule
(beta distribution)* 6
Total float LS - ES or LF - EF Schedule

Cost variance (CV) EV-AC Cost

Schedule variance ( SV) EV - PV Cost

EV
Cost performance index (CPI) Cost
AC
EV
Schedule performance index (SPI) Cost
PV
Estimate at completion (EAC) AC + Bottom-up ETC Cost
BAC
Estimate at completion (EAC) Cost
CPIC
Estimate at completion (EAC) AC + (BAC - EV) Cost
(BAC - EV)
Estimate at completion (EAC) AC+ Cost
(CPIC x SPIC)

To-complete performance index (BAC-EV)

Cost
(TCPI) (BAC-AC)
Estimate to complete (ETC) EAC - AC Cost

Variance at completion (VAC) BAC - EAC Cost

n (n - 1)
Communication channels Communications
2
Expected monetary value
PxI Risk
(EMV- Cost)
Expected value (EV-Schedule) Pxl Risk

*Remember that these formulas can be used for costs as well as activity durations.

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 F 0 U R T E E N Tips for Passing the PMP Exam

In the "Cost" chapter, we also highlighted some reverse formulas to help you calculate earned
value (EV) . With so many other formulas listed here, you may not want to memorize these
(particularly if you understand the process for reversing the formulas), but they can be useful.
They are EV= CV+ AC, EV= SV + PV, EV= CPI x AC, and EV= SPI x PV.

II Before You Take the Exam ==========================::1

Many people fail the exam because they did not properly prepare. You can avoid that mistake. Read the
following tips slowly, and honestly assess how each item applies to you:
• Know the material thoroughly, but do not approach the exam assuming it simply tests facts that you
must memorize. The exam tests knowledge, application, and analysis. You must understand how to
use all concepts and processes in the real world, including how they work in combination with each
other in the context of a large project.
• Have real-world experience using major project management tools and techniques. If you do not have
this experience now, try to get it. If you cannot get this experience before you take the exam, make
sure you can visualize how tools and processes would be used on real projects. This visualization will
help you understand the benefits of using project management tools and techniques in the real world,
and help you prepare for situational questions on the exam.
• Think in terms oflarge, plan-driven projects when studying for and taking the actual exam. This will
help you remember the importance of processes, tools, and techniques that you may not be using in
your real-world project management. At the same time, be open to the ideas of tailoring, and agile and
hybrid approaches, as questions or situations may call for one of these approaches.
• Understand the areas that PMI emphasizes (PMI-isms, explained in chapter 1 and in the "Quality"
chapter).
• Be familiar with the types of questions you can expect on the exam, but do not be alarmed if you see
new types of questions when you take the exam.
• Be prepared to see situations on the exam that may be ambiguous and wordy. Practice interpreting
these types of questions using the practice exams or PM FASTrack" if you have it.
• If you have PM FASTrack®, practice using analysis to select the best answer from what appears to be
two or more "right" answers. (See the next section for more information.)
• Decide in advance what notes you will write down at the beginning of your exam. This may include
formulas or gaps in your project management knowledge. Practice creating this "download sheet"
before taking the exam. (See the next section for more information.)
• Deal with stress before you take the exam. If you are a nervous test taker, using PM FASTrack" can
give you an opportunity to practice stress control.
• Plan and use a strategy for taking the exam. This may mean you will take a mental break after every 50
questions, or that you will answer all exam questions as quickly as possible and then take a break
before you review, and potentially adjust, your answers.
• Expect that there will be questions you cannot answer or even understand. This happens to everyone.
Be prepared so you do not get anxious or doubt your abilities during the exam.
• Do not expect your exam site to be quiet. If you have PM FASTrack®, practice answering questions in
an environment that is not 100 percent quiet.
• Do not overstudy. Getting completely comfortable with all the material in this book is just not
possible. It is not worth studying for hundreds of hours. It is a waste of time and will not guarantee
you'll pass the exam.

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Tips for Passing the PMP Exam F 0 U R T E E N

• Do not study the night before you're scheduled to take the exam. Instead, do something relaxing and
get extra sleep. You want to be fresh and well rested.

R Tricks for Taking and Passing the PMP E_

xa_m~-~~------..J

This book has presented what you should do and know before you take the exam. Now, let's prepare you for
the big day. The following are some tips for taking-and passing-the exam (at a testing center).
1. You must bring your authorization (email or letter) from PMI to the test site, as well as two forms of
ID with exactly the same name you entered on the exam application.
2. Make sure you are comfortable during the exam. Wear layered clothing so you can remove outer
layers if you become too warm. (Note, however, that you may encounter specific requirements
regarding removed clothing while taking the exam.)
3. Have something to eat and drink available in case you need either during the exam. You will not be
able to access these items while taking the exam but you will be able to take a break, and you may be
thirsty or hungry and you'll want to get rid of that distraction.
4. You will be given something on which to make notes during the exam. It's important to note that this
may be something physical, such as paper and a pencil or a small white board, or it may be electronic.
5. After you start your exam, consider taking no more than five to seven minutes of your test time to
create your "download sheet," which is where you write down anything you have trouble remem-
bering. It will free up your mind to handle exam questions once the information you are most
concerned about is written down.
6. It's important to know that you may have one or two technology and/ or computer tutorials (general
testing tutorial and PMP test-specific) to complete prior to the start of the exam. This will help you
become familiar with the computer-based test functionality. You need to start and complete those
tutorials within their allotted time. Then you can start your four-hour exam.
7. You will have access to a calculator during the exam. The computer will have a calculator function and
the tutorial will show you how to use it.
8. The exam does not adapt to your answers. This means 200 questions are selected when your exam
starts, and those 200 questions will not change.
9. Use deep-breathing techniques to help you relax and focus. This is particularly helpful if you are very
nervous before or during the exam and when you notice yourself reading the same question two or
three times. Breathing techniques can be as simple as breathing deeply five times, to provide more
oxygen to your brain.
10. Smile when taking the exam. This may sound hard to do when you are stressed and taking an exam for
four hours, but studies show that smiling relieves stress and makes you feel more confident.
11. Use all the exam time. Do not submit your exam early unless you have reviewed every question you
skipped or marked for review.
12. Everyone has their own unique test-taking quirks and style. If you have PM FASTrack'", pay attention
to your quirks while you work through the exam simulations. You may have to create a plan to ensure
your style will not negatively impact you while taking the exam.
13. Control the exam; do not let it control you. How would you feel if you read the first question and
didn't know the answer? And then the same thing happened after you read the second and third
questions as well? This can happen because you are just not ready to answer questions and your level

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 f 0 U R T E E N Tips for Passing the PMP Exam

of stress is not allowing you to think. So what do you do? If you do not immediately know the answer
to a question, leave it blank, or use the Mark for Review function and come back to it later.
14. Control frustration, and maintain focus on each question. You might dislike or disagree with some of
the questions on this exam. You might also be surprised at how many questions you mark for review.
Make sure you stay focused on the current question. If you are still thinking about question 20 when
you reach question 120, there will have been 100 questions that you have not looked at closely enough.
15. Answer each question using your knowledge of project management good practices. Be prepared to
separate your experience from PMl's perspective. Many people who failed the exam tried to answer
questions from their real-world experience. If an answer doesn't come to you by applying good
practices of project management from PMl's perspective, then rely on your training. If this still does
not help you answer the question, only then should you rely on your real-world experience.
16. First, identify the actual question in the words provided (it is often the last sentence), and then read
the rest of the text. Note the topics discussed in the question and in the descriptors. This should help
you understand what the question is asking and reduce the need to reread questions.
17. Carefully consider each answer choice listed and choose the best one of the choices given. Don't read
into the answers.
18. One common reason people answer questions incorrectly is they do not read all four answer choices.
Do not make this mistake. Make sure you read the question and all four choices. This will help you
select the best answer. If you find yourself forgetting to read all answer options, start reading the
choices backwards (choice D first, then C, etc.).
19. There may be more than one "correct" answer to each question but only one "best" answer. Make sure
you are looking for the best answer.
20. There will be answer choices that are meant to distract you from the correct answer. These are
plausible choices that less knowledgeable people will pick. Such choices make it appear as though
some questions have two or more right answers. To many people, it seems as though there are only
shades of difference between the choices. As noted earlier, make sure you look for the best answer for
such questions, and think about the situation in terms of project management good practices.
21. Be aware that questions may also include irrelevant information.
22. Look for words and phrases such as "still," "yet," "first'~ "last," "next," "except," "not;' "most likely," "less
likely," "primary," "initial," and "most:' Make certain you clearly read the question, and take note of
these words so you will answer the question correctly.
23. Watch for choices that are true statements but do not answer the question.
24. Watch for choices that contain common project management errors. They are intentionally there to
determine if you really know project management. You can combat this by looking for errors in your
knowledge and correcting those errors as you go through this book. (See the "Common Project
Management Errors and Pitfalls" section in this chapter.)
25. Options that represent broad, sweeping generalizations tend to be incorrect, so be alert for words
such as "always," "never," "must," "completely," "all," and so forth. Alternatively, choices that represent
carefully qualified statements tend to be correct, so be alert for words such as "often," "sometimes,"
"perhaps," "may," and "generallY:'
26. You may see some poorly worded or grammatically incorrect questions or answer choices on the
exam; don't let this distract you.
27. Look for answers that support the value of project management with underlying messages such as,
"Hooray for project management!"; "The project manager is so important"; or "The WBS is so useful:'
They are generally the correct choice.

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Tips for Passing the PMP Exam F 0 U R T E E N

The exam will not be scored until you indicate you are ready, or after four hours have passed. You will
also be asked if you are certain you want to score your exam after you submit it. You will receive a summary
of your test results. If you do not pass, PMI will send you information on retaking the exam. You will have
to pay an additional fee to retake the exam.

Are you ready for some very important tricks to keep in mind when you take the exam? Pay

Ii I
careful attention:
• Recognize that "rules" (what we think should be best) are meant to be broken. Rules,
such as what to do when there is a conflict, can change depending on the situation. This drives some
people crazy-especially those who expect the exam to just test facts. You need to be able to read
and understand the situations on the exam and then be able to figure out the best thing to do in that
situation.
• Unless stated otherwise, assume proper project management was done. If you answer a question
thinking about real-world projects that do not use proper project management, you might miss the
correct answer. If the question makes it clear that proper project management has not been done,
you'll likely need to think about what is missing, how to solve the root cause of the problem, and
how to make sure proper project management is carried out going forward on the project.
• For each question notice which part of the project the scenario is occurring in. If the situation
described is taking place in planning, your answer may be different than if it was occurring
during executing.
• Be prepared for questions with multiple problems. A question may describe a situation with various
problems and ask you to determine which one to address first. Here is an example:
Two stakeholders are disagreeing via a series of emails as to whether a deliverable meets the
acceptance criteria. The cost-benefit analysis done in planning did not support delivering a higher
level of performance, and the stakeholders agreed. A team member has just informed you that a
problem with his work has occurred. The deliverable he is working on must be shipped today or
there will be a project breach. One of the stakeholders having the email disagreement comes to you
to complain about the other. What should you do?
The following tips will help you focus on the most important problem in order to select the best
answer. It is important to note that all these tips will not apply all the time, and they do not have an order
of importance.
• Determine the immediate problem to address.
• Deal with the root cause first.
• Deal with the problem with the greatest negative impact first.
• Solve the problem that occurred the earliest.
• Look for a proactive solution.

lfl Common Project Management Errors and Pitfalls

As mentioned at other points in this book, the exam often includes common errors in project management
as possible answers. Read the following summary of some of the major errors even highly experienced
project managers make, and make sure you understand why these are errors.
Common project management errors include the following:
• Focusing primarily on asking for percent complete

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 F 0 U R T E E N Tips for Passing the PMP Exam

• Holding "go around the room" status meetings

• Spending most of your time micromanaging team members by constantly checking on them
• Asking team members to cut 10 percent off their estimates
• Thinking a bar (Gantt) chart from scheduling software is a project management plan
• Not attempting to obtain finalized requirements
• Not getting real resource commitments
• Not having a rewards and recognition system
• Not focusing on quality
• Not having a change control system
• Not having management plans
• Not measuring against the project management plan
• Not creating metrics to measure and evaluate performance
• Not spending time finding and eliminating root causes of problems or deviations
• Not implementing corrective actions to keep the project in line with the project management plan
• Not reevaluating the effectiveness of the project management plan
• Not reevaluating the accuracy or completeness of scope, schedule, or cost
• Not keeping the project management plan and project documents updated to reflect changes and
revised information about the project
• Ignoring resource managers' responsibilities to manage ongoing business operations in addition to
responding to project needs (team and physical resources)
• Not realizing the project can affect the reputation of team members
• Not realizing the project manager has resource responsibilities; these can include responsibilities to
the project team (such as creating project job descriptions, evaluating individual and team
performance on the project, and adding letters of recommendation to team members' human resource
files) as well as responsibilities related to physical resources
• Blaming unrealistic schedules on management instead of realizing that developing a realistic schedule
is the project manager's responsibility

The following exercise provides one last opportunity to test yourself to see if you really understand what a
project manager does.

14.4 Exercise Many people do not practice the breadth of project management practices
described in the PMBOK® Guide on their real-world projects. This may be because they have not
received the training needed or because they do not understand the project management process or
its value. A lack of experience in using these practices to properly manage large projects can have a
significant impact on how you perform on the exam. This exercise is designed to help you uncover
what you might be doing incorrectly on your projects so differences between your real-world
experience and the world of project management good practices do not get in your way on the
exam. In your Exercise Notebook, list which activities a project manager should spend the most,
average, and least amount of time on during a typical day after planning is complete and the team
has begun working on the project.

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Tips for Passing the PMP Exam F 0 U R T E E N

Answer There are a number of correct answers to this question. Let's first review what should not
be on your "Most" list, and then we will look at what efforts a project manager should focus on
during the course of a day. Think through the items listed here, and identify whether you have any
misconceptions about what you should be doing as a project manager. If you do, you need to clarify
and fix these misconceptions before you take the exam.
Items that should not be on your "Most" list:
• Dealing with problems and unexpected changes (rather than preventing them)
• Schedule and other items related to schedule management
• Meetings
• Micromanaging
• Completing work activities

The following items should have been included in your "Most" list:
• Using project management tools, such as a charter, WBS, and project management plan
• Measuring
• Recommending and taking corrective and preventive actions
• Doing risk management and implementing risk responses
• Coaching, mentoring, and team building
• Communicating and using active listening
• Managing by exception to the plan
• Interacting with stakeholders to maintain and improve stakeholder engagement
• Looking for possible changes

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 F 0 U R T E E N Tips for Passing the PMP Exam

Conclusion
You have reached the end of this book! Congratulations!
As noted in chapter 1, we recommend that you review the information in this book several times to
really retain what you learned. So read through this book again, focusing on the areas where you have
identified gaps in your knowledge. In a second pass through this book you will find that you understand
some topics differently than you did the first time, and other concepts will stand out to you that you
previously missed. In particular, make sure you review the PMl-isms in chapter 1, the most commonly used
tools and techniques in chapter 2, and Rita's Process Chart™ and the project management process exercises
in chapter 3. Having a solid understanding of the project management process and the material presented
in this book will not only help you pass the exam (you can use logic instead of having to memorize
information), it will also enable you to apply what you have learned to your real-world projects.
Thank you for taking this journey with us. We hope you will come back to RMC Learning Solutions
after you have earned your PMP. We can help you continue your training and earn PD Us to maintain your
certification through our advanced instructor-led and eLearning courses and products. So good luck, and
we look forward to seeing you after you pass the exam!

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 Endnotes
The following notes provide the historical background of many of the terms in this book. You do not need
to know this information for the exam. It is simply provided for your interest and reference.

CHAPTER TWO
1. Stakeholder The first use of the word "stakeholder" in management literature was in 1963 in an
international memorandum at the Stanford Research Institute. [Robert Y. Cavana and Arun A. Elias,
"Stakeholder Analysis for Systems Thinking and Modelling." Paper presented at ORSNZ, Wellington,
New Zealand, December 2000.]
2. Organizational project management The concept of organizational project management began in
the information technology sector in the 1980s; within a decade it had become widely popular
throughout management science. [British Standards Institution, Use of Network Techniques in Project
Management: Guide to the Use of Graphical and Estimating Techniques (London: British Standards
Institution, 1984), 1.]
3. Project management office The development of departments within organizations to manage
projects dates back to the beginning of project management as a discipline. [Frank Parth, Cynthia
Snyder, and Cynthia Stackpole, Introduction to IT Project Management (Vienna, VA: Management
Concepts, 2007), 22.]
4. Business case This term has been in wide use for decades; business cases were being written and
studied in the 1920s as part of the scientific management movement. They became popular in the
1950s after the Harvard Business School began using them as a teaching method. [Michael Davis,
Ethics and the University (New York: Routledge, 1999), 145.
5. Benefits management plan The benefits management plan was introduced in the 1990s in the
United Kingdom. The concept spread to the United States in the early 2000s. [Roland Munro and Jan
Mouritsen, Accountability: Power, Ethos and the Technologies ofManaging (Stamford, CT: International
Thomson Business Press, 1996), 133.]
6. Matrix These categories were defined in 1971 by Jay R. Galbraith to help organizations improve
their management efficiency. [Jay R. Galbraith, "Matrix Organization Designs: How to Combine
Functional and Project Forms," Business Horizons 14, no. 1(1971):29-40.]
7. Organizational knowledge repository The concept of the organizational knowledge repository
was created by J. M. An and fellow researchers in 1992, as they began work on early search engines.
The idea was quickly adopted and was common in knowledge management research by the end of the
decade. [J.M. An, R.G. Hung, and G.L. Sanders, "The Role of Domain Coverage and Consensus in a
Network of Learning and Problem Solving Systems," in Proceedings of the Twenty-Fifth Hawaii
International Conference on System Sciences (Los Alamitos, CA: IEEE Computer Society Press, 1992),
443.]

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Endnotes

8. Lessons learned repository The organization of formal systems to integrate experience into cor-
porate management is a fairly recent development.]. G. March and]. P. Olsen published a paper in
1975 that became the basis for "organizational learning:' The concept of the lessons learned reposi-
tory was developed by the US military to build on this as part of its 1985 overhaul of contracting
standards; it was disseminated into wider management practice in the 1990s. [Department of
Defense, Military Standard Specification Practices (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Defense,
1985).]
9. Assumption log The assumption log is a new practice in project management. [John Murdoch et
al, "Measuring Safety: Applying PSM to the System Safety Domain," Proceedings of the 8th Australian
Workshop on Safety Critical Systems 33 ( 2003): SO. J
10. Constraints Dr. Martin Barnes was the first to describe what he called the "iron triangle" of time,
cost, and output in his course "Time and Money in Contract Control" in 1969, laying the foundations
for what has become known as the "triple constraint" (schedule, cost, and scope constraints). [Patrick
Weaver, "The Origins of Modern Project Management" (lecture, Fourth Annual PMI College of
Scheduling Conference, Vancouver, Canada, April 15-17, 2007). ]
11. Present value, net present value, internal rate of return, payback period, cost-benefit analysis,
opportunity cost, sunk costs, depreciation These key terms are borrowed from accounting and
economics. The investment of time and money in a project should be reviewed as carefully as the
investment of time or money in any business venture. [Colin Haslam and Alan Neale, Economics in a
Business Context (London: Thomson, 2000). ]
12. Economic value added (EVA) This term was coined by Thomas B. McMullen in 1997 as a new
label for earlier work by Eliyahu M. Goldratt. [Thomas B. McMullen, Introduction to the Theory of
Constraints (ToC) Management System (Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 1998 ). J
13. Law of diminishing returns This is one of the fundamental principles of modern economics,
developed by David Ricardo and Thomas Malthus in 181 S. It has been applied to many fields of social
science in the two centuries since its discovery. [Mark Skousen, The Making ofModern Economics: The
Lives and Ideas of the Great Thinkers (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 2001), 100.

CHAPTER THREE
1. Project life cycle Dr. Russell Archibald, a founder of PMI, was one of the theorists who refined the
concept of the project life cycle. [R. Max Wideman, The Role of the Project Life Cycle (Life Span) in
Project Management (Vancouver: AEW Services, 2004), 2. J
2. Development life cycle The concept of the development life cycle originated in US military con-
tracting during the Vietnam War, influenced by the lessons learned by NASA during the space race of
the 1950s and 1960s. It spread quickly into IT and general management in the 1970s. [Gerald R.
Holsclaw, "Integrated Logistic Support- The Life-Cycle Task of Support Management," Defense
Industry Bulletin 4, no. 2 (June 1968): 11. J
3. Phase gate The phase gate concept is derived from the "stage gate" system developed by Robert G.
Cooper in the late 1980s, which underlies most modern waterfall deployment models. [Robert G.
Cooper, "Stage-Gate Systems: A New Tool for Managing New Products," Business Horizons 33, no. 3
(May-June 1990): 44. ]
4. Progressive elaboration The term "progressive elaboration" has been present in medical science
since the nineteenth century, and was widely popularized during the twentieth century in a variety of
contexts. Its use in management science dates to the 1980s, when it evolved from the iterative nature
of computer science. [D.K. Hitchins, "Managing System Creation," IEE Proceedings-A 133, no. 6
(September 1986): 343.]

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 Endnotes

5. Rolling wave planning This process was refined by Gregory Githens and]. Rodney Turner in the
1990s to improve the balance of flexibility and structured process in project management. [].Rodney
Turner, The Handbook of Project-Based Management, 3rd ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2008 ), 56. J

CHAPTER FOUR
1. Integration management The concept of"systems integration management" arose from the highly
technical management requirements of post-World War II engineering projects. By the end of the
1960s, integration management was a common term in project management. [Society of Automotive
Engineers, "Jet Plane Costs Need Not Skyrocket with Performance;' SAE Journal, August 1953: 66.]
2. Project charter While the concept of the project charter is very old, it was refined as part of the Six
Sigma methodology. [Penelope Przekop, Six Sigma for Business Excellence (New York: McGraw-Hill,
2003), 61.]
3. Project management plan The integration of various project management techniques into a formal
process began in the 1950s with projects coordinated for the US Department of Defense by the
RAND Corporation and Booz Allen Hamilton. [Lauren Keller Johnson, Richard Luecke, and Robert
Daniel Austin, The Essentials of Project Management (Boston: Harvard Business School, 2006), xv.]
4. Baseline The use of the baseline as a statistical tool dates to the nineteenth century. The word has
been redefined in the context of management science, although it still generally refers to measure-
ment using numerical or statistical methods. [Harold Kerzner, Project Management: A Systems
Approach to Planning, Scheduling and Controlling (Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2001), 1014.]
5. Configuration management system Configuration management was first developed in the 1950s
by NASA. The technique was then borrowed by the US Department of Defense, before it was refined
by private corporations in the 1960s. It was originally intended to manage large, complex projects,
such as the design and launch of rockets. [Frank B. Watts, Engineering Documentation Control
Handbook (Norwich, NY: William Andrew, 2000), 10.]
6. Work authorization system The concept of a refined work authorization system evolved from the
PERT methodology of the 1960s and quickly spread from the US federal government to private cor-
porations. [Gregory A. Garrett and Rene G. Rendon, US. Military Program Management: Lessons
Learned and Best Practices (Vienna, VA: Management Concepts, 2007), 133.]
7. Defect repair Defect repair has been a management term for decades. [Barbara M . Bouldin, Agents
of Change: Managing the Introduction of Automated Tools (Old Tappan, NJ: Pearson Education,
1988).]
8. Integrated change control processes The concept of integrated change control was refined at
NASA, where an Integrated Change Control Board was organized in the late 1970s. [Gale Research
Company, Acronyms, Initialisms and Abbreviations Dictionary (Farmington Hills, Ml: Gale Research
Company, 1980), 1512.]
9. Change control board The change control board was an important part of the change control
process from its earliest days in the 1970s. [John A. Burgess, Design Assurance for Engineers and
Managers (Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 1984), 96.]

CHAPTER FIVE
1. Requirements elicitation This term became widely popular in the field of information science
during the 1980s and quickly assumed an important role in project management. [Rudy A.
Hirschheim, Information Systems Development as Social Action: Theory and Practice (Oxford: Oxford
Institute of Information Management, 1987), 2.]

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Endnotes

2. Work breakdown structure (WBS) The work breakdown structure was developed as part of the
PERT methodology, although it was not mentioned by name in the 1959 paper that introduced
PERT. The term was in widespread use by 1961. [Gregory T. Haugan, The Work Breakdown Structure
in Government Contracting (Vienna, VA: Management Concepts, 2003), 8.]
3. Product backlog The concept of the product backlog predates IT, and was common in industry
from the 1920s on. Editors, "Car and Rail Buying Active;' The Iron Trade Review, vol. LXX, no. 2,
p. 121 (Jan. 12, 1922).
4. Product roadmap This term spread from Motorola into general IT usage in the late 1980s. Michael
Killen, Saa and Unix: IBM's Open Systems Strategy. (Whitby, Ont.: McGraw-Hill Ryerson, 1992),
p. 64.
5. Multicriteria decision analysis This was popularized as a management concept in the 1980s.
[Milan Zeleny, MCDM: Past Decade and Future Trends: A Source Book of Multiple Criteria Decision
Making (Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 1984).J
6. Affinity diagrams Affinity diagrams were devised as part of the total quality management method
in the 1970s. [Shigeru Mizuno, Management for Quality Improvement: The Seven New QC Tools (New
York: Productivity Press, 1988).]
7. Mind maps While similar techniques have been used for centuries, the modern mind-mapping
technique was developed by British consultant Tony Buzan. Buzan first conceived of the mind map in
the 1970s and has continually refined the technique. [Tony Buzan, How to Mind Map (New York:
Thorsons, 2002) .]
8. Nominal group technique This technique was invented by researchers Andre Delbecq and Andrew
Van de Ven in 1971 to overcome the hesitation some participants might feel in a face-to-face meeting.
[Charles M. Judd and Harry T. Reis, Handbook ofResearch Methods in Social and Personality Psychology
(Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 181. J
9. Context diagrams Context diagrams began as a tool for structured analysis management in the
1970s. [Tom DeMarco, Structured Analysis and System Specification (New York: Yourdon, 1978 ). J
10. Requirements traceability matrix The requirements traceability matrix was developed in the soft-
ware industry and was adopted as standard procedure by the US Department of Defense in 1988.
[Deborah A. Cerino, Judith A. Clapp, and Wendy W. Peng, Software Quality Control, Error Analysis,
and Testing (Park Ridge, NJ: Noyes Data Corporation, 1995), 45.]
11. Timeboxing The timeboxing concept was widespread in IT by the 1990s, and heavily influenced
the development of Scrum and XP (extreme programming) . [Steve McConnell, Rapid Development:
Taming Wild Software Schedules (Redmond, Wash.: Microsoft Press, 1996), 575.]
12. Project scope statement The concept of the project scope statement is very old, but the term itself
originated in IT projects of the 1970s. [Maurice Blackman, The Design of Real Time Applications
(Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 1975), 236.]
13. Control account This concept was developed as part of the work breakdown structure; it has been
part of the PERT methodology since 1959. [Gregory T. Haugan, The Work Breakdown Structure in
Government Contracting (Vienna, VA: Management Concepts, 2003). J
14. Scope creep This term was coined by the military during the Vietnam War, but it did not become
widely popular until the 1990s. [U.S. House of Representatives, Military Construction Appropriations
for 1973 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1973), 315.]
15. Decomposition, deconstruction These terms were developed as part of the work breakdown
structure; they have been part of the PERT methodology since 1959. [Gregory T. Haugan, The Work
Breakdown Structure in Government Contracting (Vienna, VA: Management Concepts, 2003) .J

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 Endnotes

CHAPTER SIX
1. Rolling wave planning See note 5 for chapter 3.
2. Network diagrams The network diagram was developed in the 1950s as part of the PERT meth-
odology. [Robert T. Futrell, Donald F. Shafer, and Linda Shafer, Quality Software Project Management
(Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall PTR, 2002), 501.]
3. Precedence diagramming method The precedence diagramming method was developed in 1961
by Dr. John Fondahl as an alternative to the critical path method. [Patrick Weaver, "The Origins of
Modern Project Management" (lecture, Fourth Annual PMI College of Scheduling Conference,
Vancouver, Canada, April 15-17, 2007).]
4. Mandatory, discretionary, external dependency The use of these terms in project management
dates to the 1980s, when they were popularized as part of the Six Sigma methodology. [Mathematical
Sciences Education Board and National Research Council, Reshaping School Mathematics: A
Philosophy and Framework for Curriculum (Washington, DC: National Academies Press, 1990), 34. J
5. Lessons learned register While the general concept of "lessons learned" is centuries old, the
lessons learned register is a recent innovation that did not begin appearing regularly in management
literature until the first decade of the twenty-first century. [Jonathan Paul Scopes, "London 2012: A
New Approach to CDM Coordination," Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineering 162, no. 2
(May 2009 ). ]
6. Resource breakdown structure This concept is related to the work breakdown structure; like that
concept, it was also developed as part of the PERT methodology. [Gregory T. Haugan, The Work
Breakdown Structure in Government Contracting (Vienna, VA: Management Concepts, 2003), 8. J
7. Story point The story point concept originated with Ron Jeffries in the 1990s XP (extreme ·pro-
gramming) methodology. Kent Beck and Martin Fowler, Planning Extreme Programming, (Boston:
Addison-Wesley, 2001), p. 61
8. Analogous estimating This type of top-down estimation is ancient. The term itself derives from
mathematical theory, and its use in project management dates to the 1990s. [American Mathematical
Society, 20 Lectures Delivered at the International Congress of Mathematicians (Providence, RI:
American Mathematical Society, 1974), ll l. J
9. Regression analysis Regression analysis was first developed by the British scientist Sir Francis
Galton as part of his research into human heredity in 1886. [Michael Patrick Allen, Understanding
Regression Analysis (New York: Plenum Press, 1997), 2.]
10. Heuristics Heuristics are as old as human language. Modern computer-assisted heuristics can be
traced to the work of information theorist Claude Shannon in the 1950s. [Bruce Abramson, Digital
Phoenix: Why the Information Economy Collapsed and How It Will Rise Again (Cambridge, MA: MIT
Press, 2005), 86.]
11. Three-point estimating Three-point estimating is part of the PERT methodology. [Christopher D.
McKenna, The Worlds Newest Profession: Management Consulting in the Twentieth Century (New
York: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 294.]
12. Beta distribution This is a statistical term associated with the PERT process. [Rodney D. Stewart,
Richard M. Wyskida, and James D. Johannes, Cost Estimators Reference Manual (New York: Wiley,
1995).J
13. PERT The concept of PERT was developed in 1957 by a team from the US Navy Special Projects
Office, Bureau of Ordinance, and the consulting firm Booz Allen Hamilton. [Patrick Weaver, ''A Brief
History of Scheduling: Back to the Future" (lecture, myPrimavera06, Canberra, Australia, April 4- 6,
2006).]

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Endnotes

14. Standard deviation (SD) The term "standard deviation" was invented in 1893 by the mathemati-
cian Karl Pearson, although the technique had been used by earlier mathematicians, such as Gauss.
[Theodore M. Porter, Karl Pearson: The Scientific Life in a Statistical Age (Princeton, NJ: Princeton
University Press, 2004), 237.]
15. Bottom-up estimating This is an old practice, but time-consuming. Parametric estimating was
developed to solve some of the difficulties with bottom-up estimating. [John C. Goodpasture,
Quantitative Methods in Project Management (Boca Raton, FL: J. Ross, 2004 ), 89.]
16. T-shirt sizing This method spread throughout software development in the late 1990s. Kevin
McDonald, Andreas Wilmsmeier, David C. Dixon, and W. H. Inmon, Mastering the SAP Business
Information Warehouse (New York: Wiley, 2002), p. 458.
17. Planning Poker James Grenning devised the planning poker method in 2002. James Grenning,
Planning Poker, or How to avoid analysis paralysis while release planning (self-published, www.grenning.
net, 2002).
18. Contingency reserve and management reserve These concepts have been part of financial plan-
ning for decades; Samuel Paul suggested integrating reserve analysis techniques into project manage-
ment in 1982. [Peter W. G. Morris, TheManagement of Projects (London: Telford, 1994), 18.]
19. Schedule model This concept was developed by the RAND Corporation in the 1960s and popu-
larized in management theory over the next few years. [William J. Abernathy et al., A Three-Stage
Manpower Planning and Schedule Model (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1972 ). J
20. Critical path method The critical path method was developed in 1956 when E. I. du Pont de
Nemours was trying to find a use for its UNIVAC computer. James E. Kelley and Morgan Walker
presented the critical path method to the public at a conference in 1959. [Patrick Weaver, ''A Brief
History of Scheduling: Back to the Future" (lecture, myPrimavera06, Canberra, Australia, April 4- 6,
2006).]
21. Near-critical path This concept was developed as part of the critical path method. [Patrick Weaver,
''A Brief History of Scheduling: Back to the Future" (lecture, myPrimavera06, Canberra, Australia,
April 4-6, 2006).J
22. Float The concept of float is part of the critical path methodology. [Rocco Martino, Project
Management (Springfield, MO: Management Development Institute, 1968), xiii.]
23. Schedule compression Schedule compression and the terms "fast tracking" and "crashing" are part
of the critical path methodology. [Charles Heath and James L. Riggs, Guide to Cost Reduction Through
Critical Path Scheduling (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1966), 118.]
24. Crashing This informal engineering term was popularized in management theory in the 1980s.
[American Society of Civil Engineers, Proceedings of the Second Conference on Computing in Civil
Engineering (Reston, VA: American Society of Civil Engineers), 1980. J
25. Monte Carlo analysis The Monte Carlo method was first used in 1930 by Enrico Fermi to calculate
the properties of the neutron. It was also used by scientists working on the Manhattan Project during
World War II; the development of the electronic computer allowed the Monte Carlo method to be
refined in the 19 50s. [Jeffrey Seth Rosenthal, Struck By Lightning: The Curious World of Probabilities
(Washington, DC: Joseph Henry Press, 2006 ), 186. J
26. Resource optimization This is an engineering term that entered management theory in the early
twentieth century. [Frank K. Schenck, Application of Time Study to Foundry Operations (Flemington,
NJ: Foran Foundry, 1955).]

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 Endnotes

27. Resource leveling This concept was first used in the construction industry; it rapidly spread to
other areas of management science in the 1980s. [Thomas J. Driscoll, Stephen B. Hurlbut, and Jon M.
Wickwire, Construction Scheduling: Preparation, Liabilities, and Claims (New York: Aspen Publishers,
2003), 423.]
28. Resource smoothing This concept is taken from the critical path management method. [Paul
Barnetson, Critical Path Planning: Present and Future Techniques (London: Newnes Books, 1968).]
29. Velocity Velocity entered Agile methodology via Scrum, which began using the term in the 1990s.
Jeffrey Victor Sutherland, "Business Object Design and Implementation" in OOPSLA '95 Workshop
Proceedings (Austin: OOPSLA, 1995), p. 130.
30. Cumulative flow diagrams First devised in the early twentieth century, the cumulative flow
diagram was introduced into information theory in the 1940s and from there into lean product devel-
opment and Agile. Donald G. Reinertsen, Managing the Design Factory (New York: Free Press, 1997),
p. 49.
31. Milestone charts Milestone charts were developed in the 1940s. [Patrick Weaver, "The Origins of
Modern Project Management" (lecture, Fourth Annual PMI College of Scheduling Conference,
Vancouver, Canada, April 15-17, 2007).]
32. Bar charts The bar chart was first developed by Karol Adamiecki in 1896; it was popularized and
refined during the 1910s by management consultant Henry Gantt. [Peter W. G. Morris, The
Management of Projects (London: Telford, 1994), 18.J

CHAPTER SEVEN
1. Rough order of magnitude (ROM) estimate This type of estimating has been around for a long
time, although the title is fairly new. The RAND Corporation developed parametric estimating to
refine their ROM estimates. [RAND Corporation, The Rand Paper Series (Santa Monica, CA: RAND
Corporation, 1988), 17.]
2. Funding limit reconciliation This term was recently invented. However, the process it describes-
checking costs against the project's budget- has been part of project management since its begin-
ning. [U.S. Department of Defense, Financial Management in the Department of Defense (Washington,
DC: U.S. Department of Defense, 1954), 21.]
3. Earned value measurement The earned value technique was developed by the US Department of
Defense in the 1960s as an alternative to the PERT methodology. It began to spread into the corpo-
rate world in the 1980s. [Wayne F. Abba, "Earned Value Management: Reconciling Government and
Commercial Practices;' PM Magazine, January/February 1997, 58- 63.]
4. Cost performance index (CPI) This is a standard accounting term. Its use in project management
is derived from US Department of Defense contracts of the 1950s. [Cecil Hamilton Chilton, ed., Cost
Engineering in the Process Industries (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1960), 337.]

CHAPTER EIGHT
1. Gold plating This term is commonplace in contracting; it was already the subject of criticism in a
1962 paper analyzing US defense contracts. [Peter W. G. Morris, The Management of Projects (London:
Thomas Telford, 1997), 58.]
2. Kaizen Masaaki Imai made the term kaizen famous in his 1986 book, Kaizen: The Key to Japan's
Competitive Success. [Masaaki Imai, Kaizen: The Key to Japan's Competitive Success (New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1986).]

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Endnotes

3. Total quality management (TQM) Ways to implement total quality management can be traced to
quality gurus such as Philip B. Crosby, W Edwards Deming, Armand V. Feigenbaum, Kaoru Ishikawa,
and Joseph M. Juran. ["Total quality management (TQM);' ASQ Qµality Glossary, s.v., accessed
October 14, 2008, http://www.asq.org/glossary/t.html.]
4. Six Sigma In the late 1980s, Mikel Harry, an engineer at Motorola, developed the concept of Six
Sigma, which became a key method for doing business at Motorola. [George Eckes, The Six Sigma
Revolution: How General Electric and Others Turned Process Into Profits (New York: Wiley, 2001), 5. J
5. Just in time (JIT) JIT systems were refined by Japanese corporations during the 1980s, although
the process may have originated from the observations of Taiicho Ohno, who studied the stocking
systems of US supermarkets during the 1950s. [Ian Inkster, The Japanese Industrial Economy: Late
Development and Cultural Causation (New York: Routledge, 2001), 106.]
6. ISO 9000 The ISO (International Organization for Standardization) introduced the ISO 9000
standards in 1987, just as the European Union (EU) was being formed. The adoption ofISO 9000
standards by the EU led to their widespread adoption throughout the world. [Paul A. Nee, ISO 9000
in Construction (Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 1996), 5.]
7. CISG This acronym stands for the United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International
Sale of Goods, which is a treaty governing international trade. The CISG is in constant change, and
the courts of many nations interpret it in different ways. Periodically, conventions have met to recon-
cile the differing interpretations. [Joseph M. Lookovsky, Understanding the CISG in the USA. (The
Hague, Netherlands: Kluwer Law International, 2004), 34. J
8. Benchmarking The modern benchmarking process originated at Xerox in the 1980s. Dr. Robert
Camp was instrumental in developing and popularizing the benchmarking process. [James L.
Heskett, W Earl Sasser, and Leonard A. Schlesinger, The Value Profit Chain: Treat Employees Like
Customers and Customers Like Employees (New York: Free Press, 2003), 103. J
9. Cost-benefit analysis Cost-benefit analysis was fully developed as a technique by the US Army
Corps of Engineers in the 1930s. The technique spread throughout the US federal government, and
was integrated into corporate planning after World War II. [Michael Power, Accounting and Science:
Natural Inquiry and Commercial Reason (Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 41. ]
10. Cost of quality (COQ) This concept was developed and refined in the 1980s as part of the Six
Sigma methodology. [William Truscott, Six Sigma: Continual Improvement for Businesses: A Practical
Guide (Boston, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2003), 26. ]
11. Costs of conformance and noncomformance These concepts- like other concepts in this
chapter, such as the cost of quality- were refined in the 1980s as part of the Six Sigma methodology.
[William Truscott, Six Sigma: Continual Improvement for Businesses: A Practical Guide (Boston, MA:
Butterworth-Heinemann, 2003), 26.]
12. Marginal analysis Marginal analysis was used by early economists, such as David Ricardo, and
revived as a theory in 1934 by economist Joan Robinson. [Kenneth Ewart Boulding and W Allen
Spivey, Linear Programming and the Theory of the Firm (New York: Macmillan, 1960), 2.]
13. Matrix diagram This tool was popularized in the 1980s after decades of use. [Jack Stone, "Long-
Range Planning: One Formula for Success," Computerworld, Oct. 20, 1980, 35. J
14. Cause-and-effect diagram (fishbone diagram, Ishikawa diagram) The cause-and-effect diagram
is sometimes referred to as the "Ishikawa diagram" because it was developed by Kaoru Ishikawa.
["Cause and Effect Diagram," ASQ Quality Glossary, s.v., accessed October 14, 2008, http:/ /www.
asq.org/ glossary/ c.html. J
15. Histogram Although the word "histogram" was first coined in 1892, the earliest known histogram
appeared in 1786. These tools were well-known and used throughout the nineteenth century. [Yannis
Ioannidis, The History of Histograms (abridged) (Athens, Greece: University of Athens, 2003), 1.]

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16. Scatter diagram The scatter diagram, or scatter plot, was invented by Sir Francis Galton in 1908 as
part of his research on human heredity. [A. Reza Hoshmand, Design ofExperiments for Agriculture and
the Natural Sciences (Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2006), 269.]
17. Design of experiments (DOE) Experimental design has been a central concern of scientists for
centuries. The application of scientific methods to management problems was an important part of
the revolution in management science after World War II. [Jiju Antony, Design of Experiments fo r
Engineers and Scientists (Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2003), 29. ]
18. Process analysis While process analysis is an old concept, it has been refined as part of the Six
Sigma methodology. [George Eckes, Six Sigma for Everyone (Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2003), 49.]
19. Flowchart The flowchart was first invented by Frank Gilbreth in 1921 to better document pro-
cesses and was quickly adopted throughout the management industry. It was refined during the 1940s
by researchers at Procter & Gamble, as well as by Princeton's John von Neumann. [MarkR. Lehto and
James R . Buck, Introduction to Human Factors and Ergonomics for Engineers (New York: Lawrence
Erlbaum, 2008), 100.]
20. Control chart Walter Shewhart came up with the idea of a production control chart in 1924.
[Stuart Crainer, The Management Century: A Critical Review of 20th Century Thought and Practice
(San Francisco:Jossey-Bass, 2000), 82.]
21. Control limits Control limits are part of the control chart, invented by Walter Shewhart at Bell
Labs in the 1920s. [W Edwards Deming, Out of the Crisis: Qualit)'J Productivity, and Competitive
Position (Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press, 1986). J
22. Specification limits Specification limits have been a standard statistical term for decades. [Society
of Quality Control Engineers, Industrial Quality Control, vol. 17 (Buffalo, NY: Society of Quality
ControlEngineers, 1960). J
23. Rule of seven This is a statistical rule of thumb-if seven runs of data produce results on the same
side of the target value, then the mean is assumed to have changed. [Christopher Chatfield, Statistics
for Technology: A Course in Applied Statistics (New York: Chapman and Hall, 1983), 301.]
24. Assignable cause/special cause variation This concept was first developed in 1924 by the
researcher Walter Shewhart. It was later refined in total quality management and Six Sigma. [William
C. Johnson and Richard]. Chvala, Total Quality in Marketing (Delray Beach, FL: St. Lucie Press,
1996), 43.]
25. Pareto chart The Pareto chart or diagram was defined in 1950 by Joseph M.Juran. It is based on the
Pareto principle, which was named after the nineteenth-century economist Vilfredo Pareto. ["Pareto
Chart;' ASQ Quality Glossary, s.v., accessed October 14, 2008, http://www.asq.org/glossary/p.
html. ]
26. Daily stand-up The idea of a brief and focused "standup meeting" originated in the U.S. military
and has been widely used in business for decades. US. House of Representatives, Hearings, Reports and
Prints of the House Committee on Science and Astronautics, vol. 2 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. House of
Representatives, 1970), p. 1706.
2 7. Throughput The concept was firmly established in IT management by the time the Agile Manifesto
emerged. Steven L. Goldman, Roger N. Nagel, and Kenneth Preiss, Agile Competitors and Virtual
Organizations: Strategies for Enriching the Customer (Hoboken: Wiley, 1994), p. 306.

CHAPTER NINE
1. Responsibility assignment matrix (RAM) The RAM was first developed by IT project managers
in the 1970s; it spread into wider use over the next decade. [M. D. Wadsworth, Electronic Data
Processing Project Management Controls (New York: Prentice Hall, 1972 ), 43. J

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2. RACI chart The RACI chart was invented and popularized in the 1990s. [JeffR. Greenberg and].
R. Lakeland, A Methodology fo r Developing and Deploying Internet and Intranet Solutions (Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1998). J
3. Organizational breakdown structure After the work breakdown structure became a common tool
in industry during the 1980s, the organizational breakdown structure also became widespread. [Peter
W G. Morris, The Management of Projects (London: Telford, 1994), 264.]
4. Resource breakdown structure See note 6 for chapter 6.
5. Recognition and reward systems This term derives from the total quality management method.
[Michael B. Weinstein, Total Quality Safety Management and Auditing (West Hartford, CT: CRC
Press, 1997).]
6. Halo effect This effect was first demonstrated with objective data in 1920 by Edward Thorndike,
who was studying the ratings of officers in the US Army. Thorndike's findings were quickly applied to
business. [Neil]. Salkind and Kristin Rasmussen, Encyclopedia of Educational Psychology (Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage, 2008), 458-59. ]
7. Motivation theory Modern motivation theory has its roots in the work of pioneering economists
such as Adam Smith, who asserted that money was the root of all motivation. Twentieth-century
psychologists began developing new concepts as part of modern management theory. [Patrick].
Montana and Bruce H. Charnov, Management (Happauge, NY: Barron's, 2000), 238.]
8. McGregor's theory ofX and Y Douglas McGregor introduced this theory in 1960. He hoped to
persuade managers to trust their employees, and, therefore, to act according to Theory Y. [Donald
Clark, "A Time Capsule of Training and Learning," accessed October 14, 2008, http://www.skagit-
watershed.org/-donclark/hrd/history/xy.html.J
9. Maslow's hierarchy of needs Abraham Maslow introduced this theory in his 1943 article ''A
Theory of Human Motivation:' While later researchers have questioned Maslow's results, the hierar-
chy of needs has become accepted wisdom. [Christopher D. Green, "Classics in the History of
Psychology,'' accessed April 16, 2013, http ://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Maslow / motivation.htm.]
10. McClelland's theory of needs David McClelland first developed this theory at Harvard in the
1960s as part of his research into political power and motivation theory. [Ellen Weisbord, Bruce H.
Charnov, and Jonathan Lindsey, Managing People in Today's Law Firm (Westport, CT: Quorum
Books, 1995), 35.]
11. Herzberg's two-factor theory of motivation Frederick Herzberg refined this theory in a series of
papers between 1959 and 1968. He hoped to help create a new kind of workplace based
on employee satisfaction. [Robert B. Denhardt, Janet Vinzant Denhardt, and Maria Pilar
Aristgueta, Managing Human Behavior in Public and Nonprofit Organizations (Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage, 2001), 150.]
12. Forming, storming, norming, performing Psychologist Bruce Tuckman described the phases of
team development as forming, storming, norming, and performing in 1965. He later added a final
stage of adjourning, also referred to as mourning. ["Forming, Storming, Norming, and Performing:
Helping New Teams Perform Effectively, Quickly," accessed April 16, 2013, http://www.mindtools.
com/ pages/ article/ newLDR_ 86.htm. J
13. Shu-ha-ri model The shu-ha-ri model of mastery developed out ofJapanese artistic tradition: The
Noh playwright Zeami applied the principles of drama to the growth of students, and this spread into
martial arts and other fields. Yoshiro Tamura, Japanese Buddhism: A Cultural History (Tokyo: Kosei
Publishing, 2000), p. 118.

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 Endnotes

14. Dreyfus Model of Adult Skill Aquisition The researchers Stuart E. Dreyfus and Hubert L. Dreyfus
proposed this model while researching training and education for the U.S. military in 1980. Stuart E.
Dreyfus and Hubert L. Dreyfus, A Five-Stage Model of the Mental Activities Involved in Directed Skill
Acquisition (Berkeley, Cal. : Operations Research Center, 1980), 15.
15. Colocation In this context, the term dates from the 1990s and the rise of telecommuting. [Donald
Reinertsen, Managing the Design Factory (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1997). J
16. Conflict resolution framework Speed B. Leas developed this theory in 1985 for church leaders.
This theory was adapted by agile coaches in the early 2000s. [Speed B. Leas, Moving Your Church
through Conflict (Herndon, VA: Alban Institute, 1985).J
17. Expectancy theory Expectancy theory was developed in 1964 by Victor Vroom of the Yale School
of Management to explain the motivations of employees. [Ronald R. Sims, Managing Organizational
Behavior (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2002), 62.]
18. Fringe benefits In 1942, the US War Labor Board approved employee benefits such as health
insurance to allow employers to attract new employees. The term "fringe benefit," first used around
this time, took several years to gain wide acceptance. [Nelson Lichtenstein, Labor's War at Home: The
CIO in World War II (Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press, 1982), 240.]

CHAPTER TEN
1. Communication blockers The term "communication blocker" first appeared in the 1990s in the
therapeutic community. It was introduced to project management theory in the early 2000s. [Cornell
Cooperative Extension, Parent-Caregiver Partnerships: Communication Workshops for Parents and
Child Care Providers. (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University, 1992).J
2. Alistair Cockburn, Agile Software Development: The Cooperative Game, 2nd ed. (Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Addison-Wesley, 2007), 125.
3. Interactive, push, pull communication These categories have been used in communication theory
for decades. More recently they have been popularized by the explosion of the internet and the
replacement of early "pull" technologies, such as websites, with "push" technologies, such as RSS
feeds and email updates. [National Association of Women Deans, Administrators and Counselors,
Journal of the National Association of Women Deans, Administrators and Counselors ( 1958): 61. J
4. Communication channels The literal meaning of this term quickly gave rise to a metaphorical use
in psychological theory. By the end of the 1960s, this new usage was widespread. [Wiener, Morton,
and Mehrabian, Albert. Language Within Language: Immediacy, a Channel in Verbal Communication.
(New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1968).J
5. Trend report The concept of the trend report arose in the scientific management movement of the
1920s; it gained wide popularity in the 1930s because of the planning documents of the New Deal.
[National Opinion Research Center, Do Americans Support Gasoline Rationing? Trend Report Based
on Eight Nation-wide Surveys. (Denver, CO: University of Denver, 1943). J
6. Forecasting report The concept of forecasting arose in the nineteenth century in the field of
meteorology. It was applied to management by the scientific management movement of the 1920s.
[The Problems of Business Forecasting, William Persons, ed. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1924). J
7. Variance report This is an accounting term; its use in project management dates to the 1970s.
[Harold Kerzner, Project Management: A Systems Approach to Planning, Scheduling, and Controlling
(New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1979), 447. ]
8. Earned value report Earned value management techniques were first developed and used by the
US government in the 1960s. [David I. Cleland and Lewis R. Ireland, Project Manager's Portable
Handbook (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2004), 389.]

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Endnotes

9. Information radiators Alistair Cockburn coined this term in 2000 while working to develop the
principles of Agile software development, introducing it widely in his 2001 work, Agile Software
Development. [Alistair Cockburn, Agile Software Development: The Cooperative Game, 2nd ed. (Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Addison-Wesley, 2007), 504.]

CHAPTER ELEVEN
1. Risk management The concept of risk management exploded out of the insurance industry to
become nearly universal in management theory during the 1960s. [U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Farmers' Bulletin No. 2137: Insurance Facts for Farmers (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing
Office, 1967), 3.]
2. Spike The concept of spikes originated with Kent Beck, a leading figure in the 1990s Extreme
Programming movement. Agile Learning Labs, "Spike" (http://agiledictionary.com/209 /spike/:
Retrieved on April 13, 2020), 2010.
3. Fast failure This idea originated in a quote from Tom Peters: "Test fast, fail fast, adjust fast:' Tom
Peters, Thriving on Chaos: Handbook for a Management Revolution (New York: HarperPerennial,
1987), p. 479
4. Risk response This idea came into widespread use as the discipline of risk management moved
from insurance to general management. [Lindon J. Robison and Garth Carman. "Aggregate Risk
Response Models and Market Equilibrium," in Risk Management in Agriculture: Behavioral, Managerial
and Policy Issues (Champaign, Ill.: University oflllinois Press, 1979), 139. J
S. Root cause analysis Root cause analysis was first developed in the 19SOs by the US Department of
Energy to investigate industrial (and specifically nuclear) accidents. The methodology was
refined by the healthcare field, and became popular in management science in the 1980s. [B. S.
Dhillon, Reliability Technology, Human Error, and Quality in Health Care (Boca Raton, FL: CRC
Press, 2008), 45.]
6. Strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT) analysis SWOT analysis was devel-
oped by Albert Humphrey of Stanford University to improve long-range planning techniques.
Humphrey and his colleagues introduced SWOT in 1964, and the first prototype project using
SWOT was completed in 1973. [Regina Fazio Maruca, The Way We Work: An Encyclopedia of Business
Culture (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2008), 244.]
7. Project pre-mortem This technique was developed by psychologist Gary Klein in the 1990s; it
became widely popular a decade later. Gary Klein, "Performing a Project Premortem," The Harvard
Business Review, vol. 85, no. 9, pp. 18-19 (September 2007).
8. Risk register The concept of the risk register began in the United Kingdom as a medical tool in the
1960s; it was later adopted as a project management tool. [Fred Grundy, The New Public Health: An
Introduction to Personal Health and the Welfare Services for Health Visitors, Social Workers and Midwives
(London: H.K. Lewis, 1968), 63.]
9. Qualitative risk analysis In its simplest form-thinking carefully about the risks of any project-
qualitative risk analysis is as old as civilization. In its modern sense, qualitative risk analysis and the
related terms in this chapter have been developed over the last few decades; the term itself first
appeared in the 1970s. [Tom Kendrick, Identifying and Managing Project Risk: Essential Tools for
Failure-Proofing Your Project (New York: AMACOM, 2003 ), 165.]
10. Probability and impact matrix This tool was devised by researcher D. C. Hague in 1984. [Sui
Pheng Low, Marketing Research in the Global Construction Industry (Singapore: Singapore University
Press, 1993).]

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 Endnotes

11. Quantitative risk analysis As the concept of risk management moved from insurance to general
management, the idea of quantitative risk management moved with it. [Mohammed Gahin,
A Theory of Pure Risk Management in the Business Firm. (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press,
1966), 214.]
12. Sensitivity analysis Originally an engineering term, sensitivity analysis entered management
theory in the 1960s. [Rajko Tomovic, Sensitivity Analysis of Dynamic Systems (New York: McGraw-
Hill, 1963).J
13. Tornado diagram Introduced in the 1980s, the tornado diagram became a popular management
tool in the 1990s. [Robert M. Oliver and J. Q Smith, Influence Diagrams, Belief Nets, and Decision
Analysis (New York: Wiley, 1990).]
14. Decision tree This concept is very old-an excellent early example is the system invented by Carl
Linnaeus in the 1730s to classify species by kingdom, phylum, and class. [Michael J. A. Berry and
Gordon Lino ff, Data Mining Techniques for Marketing, Sales, and Customer Relationship Management,
2nd ed. (Indianapolis, IN: Wiley, 2004), 166.]
15. Pure (insurable) risk This term was invented in Britain in the nineteenth century, as the first
modern insurance companies were taking shape. [J. M. Ross, ed., The Globe Encyclopaedia of Universal
Information (Edinburgh, UK: Grange, 1877), 507.]
16. Residual risks Residual risk was defined as a business term during the scientific management
movement after World War I. By 1922, it was familiar to many managers and business owners. [Fred
Emerson Clark, Principles of Marketing (New York: Macmillan, 1922), 361. J
17. Risk trigger This term was in general use by 1980. [United States House of Representatives,
Oversight Hearing on the Child Labor Provisions of the Fair Labor Standards Act (Washington, DC: US
General Printing Office, 1980 ).]
18. Reserves (contingency) The concept of contingency reserve has been used in creating business
and government budgets for over a century. It was popularized during the scientific management
movement of the 1920s. [Actuarial Society of America, Transactions (New York: Actuarial Society of
America, 1907), 109.]
19. Risk backlog The concept of a dedicated risk backlog arose in economics in the 1970s. Simon
Rottenberg, The Economics of Medical Malpractice (Washington, DC: American Enterprise Institute
for Public Policy Research, 1978), p. 237
20. Risk thresholds The concept of a risk threshold became widely popular as a business term in the
1960s. It originated as a medical term and spread into business through engineering. [Max H.
O'Connell, Aircraft Noise (Brooks City, TX: US Air Force School of Aerospace Medicine, 1960 ), 2.]
21 . Risk audits This concept was first used for managing serious problems such as epidemics and disas-
ters. The concept spread in the 1990s to apply to project management. [Alan E. Boyle, Environmental
Regulation and Economic Growth (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994 ), 42.]
22. Risk burndown chart The application of the burndown chart methodology to risk was created in
2004 by John Brothers and became widely popular about a decade ago. David Hillson, Managing Risk
in Projects (Aldershot, UK: Gower, 2009), p. 122

CHAPTER TWELVE
1. Procurement management Procurement management as a discipline dates to the 1930s, when the
federal government massively increased spending and began organizing a number oflarge, long-term
projects. [Michael C. Loulakis, ed., Design-Build for the Public Sector (New York: Aspen, 2003 ), 61. ]

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Endnotes

2. Bid and procurement documents These terms have been in general use since the 1930s, having
originated in federal government contracts. The massive expansion of the federal government in the
1930s due to the Great Depression and the outbreak of World War II required the creation of new
terms and processes to manage large contracts. [U.S. Interior Department, Interior Department
Appropriation Bill for 1940 (Washington, D.C. : U.S. Government Printing Office, 1940), 125.]
3. Fixed-price, time and material, cost-reimbursable contracts Contract law has distinguished
between these types of contracts for a long time- the term "fixed-price contract" appears in legal
documents from 1845. These contract types were defined by the US government in the late nine-
teenth century to streamline military procurement. [US Office of the Federal Register, Code ofFederal
Regulations (Washington, DC: US National Archives, 1901), 15.]
4. Fixed-price with economic price adjustment (FPEPA) Introduced in government contracting in
the late 1980s, this term quickly entered use in private procurement in the 1990s. [John]. Marciniak,
Encyclopedia of Software Engineering, vol. 1, Acquisitions-Outsourcing (New York: Wiley, 1994 ).J
5. Target price, sharing ratio, ceiling price The use of these standard terms was popularized by the
RFPs issued by the US government after World War II. [A. Michael Agapos, Government-Industry and
Defense: Economics and Administration (Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama Press, 1975), 164.]
6. Sharing ratio See note 5.
7. Ceiling price See note 5.
8. Point of total assumption (PTA) The term "total assumption" has a long history, having been used
in government contracts and debates since the nineteenth century. "Point of total assumption" is a
newer term that was introduced by the US government. [John W. Langford, Logistics: Principles and
Applications (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2007), 207. ]
9. Make-or-buy analysis This process relies heavily on the research of consultant Michael Porter, who
introduced analytical tools for make-or-buy analysis in the 1980s. [Chris Argyris, Derek F. Channon,
and Cary L. Cooper, The Concise Blackwell Encyclopedia of Management (Malden, MA: Blackwell
Business, 1998), 681.]
10. Source selection criteria This term entered government contracts in the 1960s and spread into
private sector procurement in the 1970s. [Frederick M. Scherer, The Weapons Acquisition Process:
Economic Incentives (Boston: Harvard University Press, 1964). J
11. Statement of work The first clearly defined statement of work in the modern sense was published
in 1908 by the US government, which issued requirements for an airplane prototype to be purchased
by the US Army. [Michael G. Martin, Delivering Product Excellence with the Statement of Work (Vienna,
VA: Management Concepts, 2003), 4.]
12. Bidder conferences These conferences became common after the concept was introduced at the
1959 conference of the American Society for Quality Control. [American Society for Quality
Control, National Convention Transactions, 1959 (Milwaukee, WI: American Society for Qµality
Control, 1959), 438. ]
13. RFP, IFB, RFQ These terms were first used in the nineteenth century. The US government pio-
neered procurement law, with the first such law in 1795. Corporations adopted many later refine-
ments of procurement by the US federal government. [Margaret M. Worthington, Louis P. Goldsman,
and Frank M . Alston, Contracting with the Federal Government (New York: Wiley, 1998), 1. J
14. Weighting system The concept of a weighting system has a long history in economics. The applica-
tion of this term to project management, and specifically to contracting, is fairly recent. [Michael
Greer, The Project Manager's Partner: A Step-by-Step Guide to Project Management (Amherst, MA:
Human Resource Development Press, 2001), 108.]

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 Endnotes

15. Contract change control system When the concept of change control was introduced in the
1970s, it was quickly adapted for use with contracts, since many of the companies that used change
control for IT projects were also government contractors. [Philip A. Metzger, Managing a Programming
Project (New York: Prentice-Hall, 1973), 84.]

CHAPTER THIRTEEN
1. Stakeholders The concept of stakeholders became central to management in 1984, when R.
Edward Freeman published his book Strategic Management: A Stakeholder Approach. [Robert Y.
Cavana and Arnn A. Elias, "Stakeholder Analysis for Systems Thinking and Modelling:' Paper
presented at ORSNZ, Wellington, New Zealand, December 2000.J
2. Brainstorming/brain writing The term "brainstorm" was coined in the nineteenth century and
first used as a verb in the 1920s. An ad agency in the 1930s was the first to hold a "brainstorming
session," and the idea became a standard part of business management in the mid-1950s. [Metcalf,
Allan and Barnhart, David K., America in So Many Words : Words That Have Shaped America (New
York: Houghton Miffiin Harcourt, 1997), 221. ]
3. Power/interest grid Researchers Kevan Scholes and Gerry Johnson created the power/interest
grid to help managers assess the engagement and strength of project stakeholders. [Gerry Johnson
and Kevan Scholes, Exploring Corporate Strategy, 3rd ed. (New York: Prentice Hall, 1993), 184.J
4. Stakeholder cube The concept of the power/interest grid quickly took hold in the 1990s and was
expanded into the stakeholder cube to take into account a third variable, attitude. [ GIS Applications
in Natural Resources 2 (New York: GIS World Books, 1996), 52.]
5. Salience model Although the salience model has been used in the social sciences since the 1970s,
the application of this model to project stakeholders was developed in 1997 by Mitchell, Agle, and
Wood. [Ronald K. Mitchell, Bradley R. Agle and Donna J. Woo, "Toward a Theory of Stakeholder
Identification and Salience: Defining the Principle of Who and What Really Counts," The Academy of
Management Review 22, no. 4 (Oct. 1997): 853- 86.J
6. Personas The concept of the stakeholder persona originated in organizational behavior studies in
the 1990s. [Janet W Wohlberg and Scott Weighart, OB in Action: Cases and Exercises (Boston:
Houghton Miffiin, 1992), p. 5. J
7. Gulf of evaluation Donald Norman coined this term in his 1988 book The Design of Everyday
Things. [Donald Norman, The Design of Everyday Things (New York: Basic Books, 1988) p. 51.]
8. Stakeholder engagement assessment matrix The stakeholder engagement matrix was developed
in 1991 by a team of researchers at the Academy of Management. [Grant T. Savage, Timothy W Nix,
Carlton J. Whitehead, and John D. Blair, "Strategies for Assessing and Managing Organizational
Stakeholders," The Executive 5, no. 2 (May 1991): 61 - 7 5.J
9. Elevator statement There are several possible origin stories, but the idea of the "elevator pitch" has
been circulating broadly for decades. [Gerald J. Hahn, "Statistics-aided manufacturing: A look into
the future," in The American Statistician, vol. 43, no. 2, pp. 74-79(May1989). ]

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