Preface

This book is a sequel to 106 Geometry Problems from the AwesomeMath

Summer Program. It contains 107 geometry questions used in the Awe-
someMath Year-Round Program which trains and tests top middle and high-
school students from U. S. and around the world.

The book begins with a theoretical chapter, where we review basic facts
and familiarize the reader with some more advanced techniques. We then
proceed to the main part of the work, the problem sections. The problems
are a carefully selected and balanced mix which offers a vast variety of flavors
and difficulties, ranging from AMC and AIME levels to high-end IMO prob-
lems. Out of thousands of Olympiad problems from around the globe we chose
those which best illustrate the featured techniques and their applications. The
problems meet our demanding taste and fully exhibit the enchanting beauty
of classical geometry. For every problem we provide a detailed solution and
strive to pass on the intuition and motivation lying behind. Numerous prob-
lems have multiple solutions.

Directly experiencing Olympiad geometry both as contestants and instruc-

tors, we are convinced that a neat diagram is essential to efficiently solving
a geometry problem. Our diagrams do not contain anything superfluous, yet
emphasize the key elements and benefit from a good choice of orientation.
Many of the proofs should be legible only from looking at diagrams.

In the theoretical part we discuss some advanced theorems from triangle

geometry and develop the theory of transformations, such as homothety, spiral
similarity, and inversion. Employing the latter, we demonstrate the effective-
ness of dynamic geometric thinking.

True mastery of geometry relies on proficient use of common sense. There-

fore, we chose to avoid analytical and computational techniques such as com-
plex numbers, vectors, or barycentric coordinates.
 vi Preface

Although the primary audience for this book consists of high-performing

students and their teachers, anyone with an interest in Euclidean geometry or
recreational mathematics is invited to join this geometric excursion.

Finally, we would like to express our gratitude to Richard Stong and Cos-
min Pohoaţă for critiquing the entire manuscript and providing fruitful com-
ments.

We wish you a pleasant reading.

The Authors
Abbreviations and Notation

Notation of geometrical elements

∠BAC convex angle by vertex A
∠(p, q) directed angle between lines p and q
∠BAC ≡ ∠B 0 AC 0 angles BAC and B 0 AC 0 coincide
AB line through points A and B, distance between
points A and B
AB directed segment from point A to point B
X ∈ AB X lies on the line AB
X = AC ∩ BD X is the intersection of the lines AC and BD
4ABC triangle ABC
[ABC] area of 4ABC
[A1 . . . An ] area of polygon A1 . . . An
AB k CD lines AB and CD are parallel
AB ⊥ CD lines AB and CD are perpendicular
p(X, ω) power of point X with respect to circle ω
4ABC ∼ = 4DEF triangles ABC and DEF are congruent (in this
order of vertices)
4ABC ∼ 4DEF triangles ABC and DEF are similar (in this
order of vertices)
H(H, k) homothety with center H and factor k
S(S, k, ϕ) spiral similarity with center S, dilation
factor k, and angle of rotation ϕ
 viii Abbreviations and Notation

Notation of triangle elements

a, b, c sides or side lengths of 4ABC
∠A, ∠B, ∠C angles by vertices A, B, and C of 4ABC
s semiperimeter
x, y, z expressions 21 (b + c − a), 12 (c + a − b), 12 (a + b − c)
r inradius
R circumradius
K area
ha , hb , hc altitudes in 4ABC
ma , mb , mc medians in 4ABC
la , lb , lc angle bisectors (segments) in 4ABC
ra , rb , rc exradii in 4ABC

Abbreviations
AMC10 American Mathematics Contest 10
AMC12 American Mathematics Contest 12
AIME American Invitational Mathematics Examination
USAMTS United States of America Mathematical
Talent Search
USAJMO United States of America Junior Mathematical
Olympiad
USAMO United States of America Mathematical Olympiad
USA TST United States of America IMO Team Selection Test
MEMO Middle European Mathematical Olympiad
IMO International Mathematical Olympiad
Putnam William Lowell Putnam Mathematical Competition
Contents

Preface v

Abbreviations and Notation vii

1 Advanced Topics in Geometry 1

Overview of Basic Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Homothety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Exploring the Triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Spiral Similarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Inversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

2 Introductory Problems 57

3 Advanced Problems 67

4 Solutions to Introductory Problems 79

5 Solutions to Advanced Problems 123

Further Reading 185

Other Books from XYZ Press 191

Index 193
Chapter 1

Advanced Topics in Geometry

Overview of Basic Techniques

Let us begin with reviewing some basic facts and techniques. Knowing them
is not essential for further reading so don’t get discouraged if you have gaps
now and then. On the other hand, in order to learn the most from this book,
we strongly recommend to get a firm grasp of what is presented in this section.
All proofs (and much more) can be found in the preceding book 106 Geometry
Problems from the AwesomeMath Summer Program.

First Triangle Centers

Proposition 1.1 (Existence of the circumcenter). In triangle ABC the per-
pendicular bisectors of AB, BC, and CA meet at a single point. This point
is called the circumcenter of triangle ABC, is usually denoted by O, and it is
the center of the circumscribed circle (or simply circumcircle).

A A

O I

B C B C

Proposition 1.2 (Existence of the incenter). In triangle ABC the internal

angle bisectors meet at a point. This point is called the incenter of triangle
 2 107 Geometry Problems

ABC, is usually denoted by I, and it is the center of the incircle of triangle

ABC.

Proposition 1.3 (Existence of the orthocenter). In triangle ABC the alti-

tudes meet at a single point. This point is called the orthocenter of triangle
ABC and is usually denoted by H.

Proposition 1.4 (Existence of the centroid). In triangle ABC the medians

meet at a point. This point is called the centroid of triangle ABC and is
usually denoted by G.

A A

H
G
1
B C B C

Proposition 1.5 (Existence of the excenter). In triangle ABC the A-angle

bisector and the bisectors of external angle B and C meet at a point. This
point is called the A-excenter of triangle ABC, is usually denoted by Ia and
it is the center of the A-excircle (circle tangent to the side BC and to the
extended sidelines AB and AC). Similarly, we define points Ib and Ic .

C
Ea

A B

Metric relations
Proposition 1.6 (Equal Tangents). Two tangent lines to the given circle ω
intersect at A. Denote by B, C the points of tangency with the circle. Then
AB = AC.
1. Advanced Topics in Geometry 3

We use the following standard xyz notation in triangle ABC with

semiperimeter s:
1 1 1
x = s − a = (b + c − a), y = s − b = (c + a − b), z = s − c = (a + b − c),
2 2 2
the purpose of which is revealed in the next two propositions.
Proposition 1.7 (Points of contact). Let ABC be a triangle with semiperime-
ter s. Denote by D, E, F the points of tangency of the incircle with the sides
BC, CA, AB, respectively. Also let the A-excircle touch the lines BC, CA,
AB at points K, L, M , respectively. Then the following hold:
(a) AE = AF = x, BD = BF = y, CD = CE = z.
(b) AL = AM = s.
(c) Points K and D are symmetric with respect to the midpoint of BC.

E
F

B D C
K

Proposition 1.8 (xyz formulas). In triangle ABC we can find the area K,
inradius r, and circumradius R in terms of x, y, z as follows:
(a) p
K= (x + y + z)xyz,
 4 107 Geometry Problems

(b) r
xyz
r= ,
x+y+z
(c)
(y + z)(z + x)(x + y)
R= p .
4 xyz(x + y + z)

Theorem 1.9 (The Extended Law of Sines). Let ABC be a triangle. Then

a b c
= = = 2R,
sin ∠A sin ∠B sin ∠C
where R is the circumradius of triangle ABC.

Theorem 1.10 (Angle Bisector Theorem). In triangle ABC let AD, D ∈ BC,
be the internal angle bisector. Then

BD c ac ab
= , BD = , CD = .
CD b b+c b+c

Theorem 1.11 (The Law of Cosines). Let ABC be a triangle. Then

a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos ∠A.

Circles, Tangents
Theorem 1.12 (Inscribed Angle Theorem). Let BC be a chord of a circle
ω centered at O and let A ∈ ω, A 6= B, C. Then the inscribed angle BAC
corresponding to arc BC equals one half of the central angle corresponding to
the same arc.

A
ω

B C

Quadrilaterals which are inscribed in a circle are called cyclic and play
fundamental role in the technique called angle-chasing.
1. Advanced Topics in Geometry 5

Proposition 1.13 (The key properties of cyclic quadrilaterals). Let ABCD

be a convex quadrilateral. Then:
(a) If ABCD is cyclic then any of its sides is visible from the other two vertices
under the same angle, and any of its diagonals is visible from the other
two vertices under angles that sum up to 180◦ .
(b) If there is a side of ABCD that is visible from the other two vertices under
the same angle, then ABCD is cyclic.
(c) If there is a diagonal of ABCD that is visible from the other two vertices
under angles that sum up to 180◦ , then ABCD is cyclic.

C C
D D

A B A B

Corollary 1.14 (Angle between chords or secants). Let ABCD be a quadri-

lateral inscribed in a circle ω and denote by P the intersection of its diagonals.
Suppose that rays BA and CD intersect at R. Finally, denote the inscribed
angles corresponding to arcs BC, DA (not containing A, B) by β, δ. Then
(a) ∠BP C = β + δ,
(b) ∠BRC = β − δ.

δ
D
P
β+δ

β−δ β δ
R A B

Proposition 1.15 (Angle by tangent). Let ABC be a triangle inscribed in

a circle ω. Let ` be a line passing through A different from AB. Let L be a
 6 107 Geometry Problems

point on ` such that AB separates points C, L. Then AL is tangent to ω if

and only if ∠LAB = ∠ACB.

ω B

Antiparallel lines
Given a line n we say that lines ` and m (neither parallel to n) are antiparallel
with respect to line n if the reflection `0 of ` about n is parallel to m. Observe
that the following holds:

(a) If ` is antiparallel to m then it is antiparallel to all lines parallel to m.

(b) (Symmetry) If ` is antiparallel to m then m is antiparallel to `.
(c) Given a line n and a set of mutually parallel lines, then lines antiparallel
to all of these with respect to n form again a set of mutually parallel lines.

m n
0
`

Proposition 1.16. Let line m intersect rays OA, OB of angle AOB at dis-
tinct points X, Y , respectively. Let line `, (` 6= m) intersect lines OA, OB of
angle AOB at (not necessarily distinct) points P , Q, respectively. Then ` and
m are antiparallel with respect to the angle bisector of angle AOB if and only
if one of the following (based on the configuration) holds:

(a) Points X, Y , P , Q are concyclic (if they are pairwise distinct).

(b) Line OA is tangent to the circumcircle of triangle XY Q (if X = P ). A
similar result holds if Y = Q.
1. Advanced Topics in Geometry 7

`1 `2 m m0 `3 `4
A P4
X Y0
P3
P2
Q1
O n
P1 Q2
X0 Y
Q3
Q4
B

m `5 m0 `6 m m0
Y0
X
P5 = X Y0

O
O
Q5 X0
X0
Y
Y

(c) Line ` is tangent to the circumcircle of triangle XY O (if ` passes through

O).

Since antiparallel lines are usually taken with respect to the angle bisector
of some angle, let us in that case call these lines antiparallel with respect to
that angle or simply antiparallel in that angle. Of particular interest are
antiparallel lines that both pass through the vertex of an angle – such lines
are called isogonal . One pair of isogonal lines is especially worth emphasizing.

Proposition 1.17 (H and O are friends). In triangle ABC points H (the

orthocenter) and O (the circumcenter) lie on isogonal lines in each of the
angles ∠A, ∠B, ∠C.

Directed angles mod1 180◦

The magnitude of an angle between lines l, m intersecting at vertex O can be
viewed as a number from interval [0, 180) describing (in degrees) the amount
of counter-clockwise rotation around O which takes l to m. Let us call this
quantity the directed measure of an angle and denote it by ∠(l, m). Note
that order of lines in brackets matters – in fact ∠(l, m) + ∠(m, l) = 180◦ .
This notion will be our main weapon for simplifying angle-chasing casework
throughout the book.
1
This means, we shall work with remainders after division by 180. For example, instead
of 200◦ , we shall work with 20◦ .
 8 107 Geometry Problems

Proposition 1.18. (a) ∠(l, m) + ∠(m, n) = ∠(l, n), with addition mod 180◦ .
(b) For any point P ∠(P A, AB) = ∠(P A, AC) if and only if points A, B, C
lie on a single line in some order.
(c) ∠(AC, CB) = ∠(AD, DB) if and only if points A, B, C, D lie on one
circle in some order.

n0 n C
m
D1
6 (l, m)
6 (l, n)

6 (m, n) A B
D2

Power of a Point
Proposition 1.19. (a) Let ABCD be a convex quadrilateral and let P =
AC ∩ BD. Then the points A, B, C, D are concyclic if and only if

P C · P A = P B · P D.

(b) Let ABCD be a convex quadrilateral and let P = AB ∩ CD. Then the
points A, B, C, D are concyclic if and only if

P A · P B = P C · P D.

(c) Assume points P , B, C are collinear in this order and point A does not lie
on this line. Then the line P A is tangent to the circumcircle of triangle
ABC if and only if
P A2 = P B · P C.

C C
D D A

P
P
A
B P B C
A B

Theorem 1.20 (Power of a Point). Given point P and circle ω, let ` be an

arbitrary line passing through P and intersecting ω at points A and B. Then
1. Advanced Topics in Geometry 9

the value of P A·P B does not depend on the choice of `. Also, if P lies outside
of ω and P T , T ∈ ω, is a tangent to ω then P A · P B = P T 2 .
If we denote the center of ω by O and its radius by R then P A · P B =
|OP 2 − R2 |. The quantity

p(P, ω) = OP 2 − R2

is called the power of point P with respect to circle ω.

Note that the number p(P, ω) is negative when P lies inside ω, zero when
it lies on ω, and positive otherwise.
Proposition 1.21 (Radical axis). Let ω1 , ω2 be two circles with distinct cen-
ters O1 , O2 and radii R1 , R2 , respectively. Then the locus of points X for
which p(X, ω1 ) = p(X, ω2 ) is a line perpendicular to O1 O2 . This line is called
the radical axis of the two circles.

ω1 ω2
ω1
ω2

O1 O2 O1 O2

The radical axis is a powerful tool in many problems involving intersecting

circles since in that case the radical axis is the line joining their intersections,
which both have equal (namely zero) power with respect to the two circles.
Proposition 1.22 (Radical center). Let ω1 , ω2 , ω3 be circles with pairwise dis-
tinct centers. Then their pairwise radical axes are either parallel or concurrent.
The point of concurrence is called the radical center of the three circles.

X `
`3
ω1 ω2 D
C
ω1
ω2

`2 A
B
`1
ω3
 10 107 Geometry Problems

Proposition 1.23 (Radical Lemma). Let line ` be radical axis of the circles
ω1 , ω2 . Let A, D be distinct points on ω1 and let B, C be distinct points on
ω2 such that the lines AD and BC are not parallel. Then the lines AD and
BC intersect at ` if and only if ABCD is cyclic.

Theorem 1.24 (Menelaus’2 Theorem). Let ABC be a triangle and let points
D, E, F lie on the lines BC, CA, AB, respectively, so that either none or
two of them lie on the triangle sides. Then the points D, E, F are collinear
if and only if
BD CE AF
· · = 1.
DC EA F B

A B x

x C y C
z
z
F D E F E D
y

Segments which connect vertex of a triangle with a point on the opposite

side are called cevians.

Theorem 1.25 (Ceva3 ’s Theorem). Let ABC be a triangle, and let P , Q, R

be points on the sides BC, CA, AB, respectively. Then the lines AP , BQ,
CR are concurrent if and only if

BP CQ AR
· · = 1.
P C QA RB

Theorem 1.26 (Existence of isogonal conjugate). Let cevians AP , BQ, CR

concur at point X. Now construct cevians AP 0 , BQ0 , CR0 which are isogonal
to AP , BQ, CR, respectively, in the respective angles. Then the cevians AP 0 ,
BQ0 , CR0 are concurrent. The point of concurrence is called the isogonal
conjugate of X.
2
Menelaus of Alexandria (c. 70–140) was a Greek mathematician and astronomer.
3
Giovanni Ceva (1647–1734) was an Italian mathematician.
1. Advanced Topics in Geometry 11

A A

Q Q0
R
R Q
X X
R0

B P C B P0 P C

Directed segments
A directed segment emanating from A with endpoint B will be denoted by
AB.
The important property of directed segments is that the ratio or the prod-
uct of two directed segments, which are part of the same line, is assigned a
sign. The sign is positive if the directed segments have the same orientation
and negative otherwise. By the same logic we have

AB = −BA.