THE INSTITUTE OF FINANCE MANAGEMENT

Module Code: GSU 07101

COMMUNICATION SKILLS

Module Facilitator: Mbwana, W.

Office: Block D, Rm. 16
 Introduction
The Importance of Communication Skills

⚫ Communication is central to everything that we do. We do things in

organizations: Our family, school/college/university, office, hobby group,
community group, etc are the organizations in which we live and act.
⚫ Every organization, whatever its business or its size, is held together by
communication. Without communication an organization cannot function at
all. The primary element in the skills of management is competence in
communication.
⚫ Communication is the tool with which we exercise influence on others, bring
about changes in the attitudes and views of our associates, motivate them and
establish and maintain relations with them.
Cont…
In the present business world, communication is considered as one of the
university’s generic graduate attributes. Hence success or failure of one being
offered a job depends also on the ability to communicate effectively.

For this reason, it is essential that all students acquire:

⚫ the ability to express ideas concisely and clearly,
⚫ an awareness of discourse styles specific to their discipline or professional
area,
Cont…
⚫ skills in verbal reasoning, and
⚫ listening comprehension skills that equip them to deal with varied situations, from
note-taking in lectures to work placement situations.
 Part One
Note Taking and Note Making
What is Note taking?
-Is the process of writing down important information from spoken texts such as lectures,
speeches , or other learning opportunity in order to review and remember the information
later (Sillas, 1980).

Three things to observe from the definition above;

i) Note taking involves active participation (i.e. listening and writing)
ii) Note taking is selective; only central concepts/information are written
iii) Note taking is essential for future reference
Objectives of note taking
Note taking aims at meeting three major objectives;
⚫ To review past lessons regularly
⚫ To recite (repeating key concepts from class)
⚫ To reflect (connect class ideas and other sources or readings)
 Why do We Need to Take Notes?
The following are some reasons;

⚫ Taking notes forces one to listen carefully and test his/her understanding of
the material.
⚫ Notes provide a gauge to what is important in the text when one reviews
later.
⚫ Personal notes are usually easier to remember than the text.
⚫ The writing down of important points helps one to remember them even
before he/she has studied the material formally.
 What to be Taken as Notes?
⚫ Material written on the board
⚫ Repetition
⚫ Emphasis
- Emphasis can be judged by tone of voice and gestures.
Emphasis can also be judged by the amount of time the instructor spends
on points and the number of examples he or she provides.
⚫ Word signals (e.g. "There are two points of view on . . . " "The third reason is . . . " " In
conclusion . . . ")
⚫ Summaries given at the end of a class.
⚫ Reviews given at the beginning of a class.
 Methods of Note taking/Making.

I. The Cornell Method

II. Mind Mapping Method
III. Concept map Method
IV. Cause and effect diagram Method
V. Time line Method
VI. Outlining Method
VII. Sentence Method
 Methods of Note Taking
There are a number of different ways to take notes, and it is best that you use
the method you feel most at ease with.

1. The Cornell Method

The Cornell Method is based on two columns: one containing the keyword or
concept, and the other containing the description or notes associated with the
keyword or concept. For example;
Concepts Descriptions/Explanations

Feedback Reactions given during a communicative situation

Reply A specific response given as per the message

 Methods of Note Taking

2. The Outlining Method

This method involves writing a series of topics and sub-topics, and identifying
them by indenting the text, numbering the lines, or using a dash or bullet point.
For example;
Communication
o verbal communication
-spoken form
-written form
o non-verbal communication
-eye contact
- handshake
 Methods of Note Taking
3. Mind Mapping
A mind map is a diagram in which ideas, concepts and images are linked
together around a central concept, keyword or idea.

verbal communication non-verbal communication

Communication

visual communication technology-mediated communication

 Methods of Note Taking

4. The Charting Method

Charting is effectively a table of rows and columns. The top row normally
classifies the concept with descriptions or keywords listed in the row below.

Concept Application Orientations Philosophical Stance

Objectivism Quantitative Research Reality is external from Reality is a Law-like

society generalizations
Subjectivism Qualitative Research Reality is created within Reality varies according
society to social experiences
 Methods of Note Taking

5. The Sentence Method

With this method you simply write every new concept, or topic on a
separate line. You can also number the information if you wish. It is
recommended that you use some form of visual aid to group related
points together.
 The Do’s and Don’ts in Note Taking
When taking notes from lectures, speech or any occasion that provides spoken
texts, an individual needs to observe the following;

1. Make your notes brief!

Never use a sentence where you can use a phrase. Never use a phrase where you can use a word.
Use abbreviations and symbols, but be consistent.

2. Put most notes in your own words. However, the following should be noted exactly:
- Formulas
- Definitions
- Specific facts
 The Do’s and Don’ts ni Note Taking?
3. Use outline form and/or a numbering system. Indentation helps you to distinguish major from minor points.

4. If you miss a statement, write key words, skip a few spaces, and get the information later.

5. Don't try to use every space on the page. Leave room for coordinating your notes with the text after the
lecture. (You may want to list key terms in the margin or make a summary of the contents of the page.)

6. Date your notes. Perhaps number the pages.

 Note Making

Introduction
Learning to make notes effectively will help a student to improve his/her study
and work habits and to remember important information. As a student makes
notes, s/he will develop skills in selecting important material and in discarding
Unimportant material. The secret to developing the skills is practice. Notes
enable a student to retain important facts and data and to develop an accurate
means of arranging necessary information.
⚫ Note making is the process of compiling the notes you have taken from multiple sources, lectures, readings,
e.t.c in an organised way.
⚫ Assembling more detailed information about the phenomenon from several sources.
⚫ Here you construct your knowledge about the topic and the main points or key ideas.
Note making involves also active participation (i.e. reading and writing).
 How does One Read and Make Notes?
We read to receive what others have communicated to us through the written
communication. In order to understand or comprehend the written materials,
there are strategies/techniques that we normally use to go through variety of
texts. The use of these techniques will, however, depend on the purpose of
the reader. So, reading can be done in any of the four strategies;

i) Scanning (look for a particular piece of information from a text)

ii) Skimming (running the eyes over quickly to get the gist of the entire text)
iii) Extensive /study reading (reading for the purpose of fully understand and be able to remember as much as
possible of what you are reading)
iv) Intensive/critical reading (extracting specific information for more details and deep understanding)
 Critical Reading as a Good Strategy for Note Making
Seven Critical Reading Strategies
Critical reading makes someone to comprehend a text in its holistic perspective
in relation to other realities. This kind of reading, in academia, is probably the
most effective way for understanding a variety of texts. The following are
strategies for critical reading.

1. Previewing: learning about a text before really reading it (skimming).

2. Contextualizing: placing a text in its historical, geographical, and cultural contexts.
3. Questioning to understand and remember: ask questions about the content.
4. Reflecting on challenges to your beliefs and values: examine your personal responses.
 Critical Reading as a Good Strategy for Note Making

5. Outlining and summarizing: identify the main ideas and restate them in your own words.
6. Evaluating an argument: testing the logic of the text as well as its credibility and emotional impact.
7. Comparing and contrasting related readings: exploring likenesses and
differences between texts to understand them better.
 The Do’s and Don’ts of Note Making
⚫ Don't write down everything that you read. Be attentive to the main points; focus on the "meat" of the
subject and forget the trimmings.

⚫ Notes should consist of key words or very short sentences.

⚫ Take accurate notes. You should usually use your own words, but try not to change the meaning. If you
quote directly from an author, quote correctly.

⚫ Think a minute about your material before you start making notes. Don't make notes just to be making
notes! Make notes that will be of real value to you when you look over them at a later date.
 The Do’s and Don’ts of Note Making
⚫ Have a uniform system of punctuation and abbreviation that will make sense to you. Use a skeleton outline
and show importance by indenting. Leave lots of white space for later additions.

⚫ Omit descriptions and full explanations. Keep your notes short and to the point. Condense your material so
you can grasp it rapidly.

⚫ Don't keep notes on oddly shaped pieces of paper. Keep notes in order and in one place.

⚫ Shortly after making your notes, go back and rework (not re-do) your notes by adding extra points and
spelling out unclear items. Remember, we forget rapidly. Budget time for this vital step just as you do for
the class itself.
 The Do’s and Don’ts of Note Making
⚫ Review your notes regularly. This is the only way to achieve lasting memory.
⚫ Take down some tips about the source you read;

-Author’s names
-Title of the source
-Year of publication
-Place of publication (town or city)
-Publishers and
-Page number (in cases of quotations)

These pieces of information will help you to remember the source for
citation and referencing.
 Referencing Skills
Referencing has to do with documenting others’ ideas/contributions on a topic
that one writes. This is generally called citation (in-text citation and
referencing)

Why citation?
There are three main reasons for this.
i) To document the contribution of other writers on the topic that one writes.
ii) To tell readers where your information comes from
iii) To give credit to the writers from whom you have borrowed words or ideas.
If one borrows others’ ideas or words without proper acknowledgement, it
becomes an academic dishonest known as plagiarism (Adam, 2016).
Visit [Link] for
more information.
 How to Cite Other’s Works?
There are mainly three ways;

a) By paraphrasing (means use your own words to restate, reword, interpret, or translate the works of other
scholars, with a condition that the meaning and voice of the principle authors are maintained (Hashim,
2005 in Adam, 2016)).

b) By quoting (means reproducing the exact words of the author using quotation marks “” in case of a word,
a phrase, a sentence or indention in case of two sentences or more).

c) By Summarizing (means rewriting the authors’ ideas in a digested form without adding your own ideas
(Robert, 2010 in Adam, 2016)).
 Referencing Formats/Styles
❑ There are different referencing styles that one can use; here are some of them which are commonly used.
❖ APA = Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA); mostly used in
science and social science fields.

❖ Harvard Style; mostly used in biological studies, humanities, social sciences and history.

❖ Chicago Humanities; mostly used in law, history, anthropology, and philosophy

❖ MLA = Publication Manual of the Modern Language Association of America (Arts & Humanities)
 The American Psychological Association (APA)
❑ The APA style as said is mainly used in science and social science
❑ Uniformity or consistency is insisted in every referencing and citation format
❑ The materials we cite and refer are of different nature
❖ Books, journal articles, electronic sources
❖ Sources written by one or more than one author
❖ Sources of the same author but different or same year of publication
❖ Sources published or unpublished, with(out) date or year of publication
❑ So the nature of the sources of your text will determine the way you will cite it in the given
format.
 APA in-text Citation

❑ Mentioning the Author’s name and publication date in your sentence.

For example;
…In a 1993 study, Samwel Ebenezer found out that supervisor motivation helped research students reduce
anxiety…
❑ Mentioning the author’s last name at the beginning of your sentence.
Examples;
- Magasila (1983) suggested that…
- Magasila (1983, p.7) defines motivation as…
- Magasila, M. (1983, p.7) defines motivation as “the urge to go on despite hardships…”
 APA in-Text Citation

❑ Author’s name or date of publication not mentioned in the sentence (parenthetical referencing).
Examples;
-A former study (Kanyama, 1983) shows that ...
-A former study by (Kanyama, 1983) indicates that…
-…. this is what was formerly proposed in earlier research (Kanyama, 1983b).
❑ If a source has two authors, cite both names every time.
Examples;
-Mabiki and Kikwala (1978) claim that……
-… a claim put forward by modern sociologists (Mabiki & Kikwala, 1978)…
-Some scientists (Mabiki & Kikwala, 1978) have claimed …
 APA in-Text Citation
❑ If a source has three authors or more, cite all of them the first time, and use et al. in subsequent
citations.
-… this is called politicking (Mnenuka, Bwagalilo, & Haule, 2007). (note comma before ampersand)
- … this is called politicking (Mnenuka, Bwagalilo & Haule, 2007).
-…. this is called politicking (Mnenuka et al., 2007).
-Baregu et al. (2007) have argued that…
❑ If a source has no author, cite it by the first three words of the title. Also, for articles, use the first
three words or shorten the title.
-In Managing Citations (2007), students get introduced to rules about …
❑ If the source has no date use n.d.
- Maze (n.d.) claims that there is correlation between the size of the head and IQ.
 APA in-Text Citation
❑ If the information has more than one source by the same author(s), use commas to separate years of
publication.
-…this is evident from his recent publications (Rwehumbiza, 2006, 2007).

❑ If the same information has more than one author, use semi colons and commas. (Authors to be listed
in alphabetical order).
-…this is evident from various researches (Kayungi, 2004; Maliwa, 2005; Mkotani, 2007).
 APA in-Text Citation

❑ Citing from an indirect source – use the phrase as cited in.

-Kibonde observed, “While growing square tomatoes may seem to be engineering ingenuity …” (as cited in
Livingstone, 1992, p.45).
❑ Personal communication, e.g. e-mail, letters, conversations, interviews etc.

-According to the theatre attendant Mr. Matatizo (personal communication, November 22, 2007), the operation
was an absolute mistake. (Do not include personal communication sources in the Reference List).
 APA in-Text Citation

❑ Direct quotations and paraphrases

-When you can do both, paraphrasing is more acceptable (academic).
-Nyerere (1966, p.3) once said, “The world is becoming more and more uncomfortable to live in.”
Nyerere (1966, p.3) once said, “The world is becoming too fragile; unlike glass please, handle with
prayer.”

❑ Incorporate shorter (4 lines or less) quotations within your paragraphs.

-Nyerere (1966, p.3) once said, “The world is becoming too fragile; unlike glass please, handle with prayer.”
 APA in-Text Citation

❑ Block-indent longer quotations (longer than 4 lines/40 words).

-Kothari (1990) proposes:

In order to make the questionnaire effective and to ensure quality to the replies received, a researcher
should pay attention to the question-sequence in preparing the questionnaire. Proper sequencing reduces the
possibility of individual questions being misunderstood (p.126).
 Reference List

❑ The Pattern
- Include only the sources you have cited, not everything you read.
-Entries are listed alphabetically by the last name of the author or by the first major word of the title if no
author is mentioned.
-For more than one author, alphabetize by last name of the author whose name appears first.
-For several sources by same author – list according to year of publication, the earliest first.
-All run-on lines are indented ½” to the right.
 Layout

❑ Book by one author.

Kothari, C. R. (1990). Research Methodology: Methods & Techniques (2nd Edition). New Delhi: Wishwa
Prakashan.

-Kothari, C. R. (1990). Research Methodology: Methods & Techniques (2nd Edition). New Delhi: Wishwa
Prakashan.

-Kothari, C. R. (1990). Research Methodology: Methods & Techniques (2nd Edition). New Delhi: Wishwa
Prakashan.

❑ Book by two authors

-Kothari, C. R. and Kendall, B. (1991). Questionnaire Techniques. Madison: Sage Publishers.
 Layout
❑ For more than two authors
-All names have to be included; et al. IS NEVER USED IN REFERENCE LIST, and no ampersand.

❑ Same author, two sources, same year

-Mwalali, G. (2007a). Globalization ….
-Mwalali, G. (2007b). Free Trade …..

❑ Same author, two sources, different years

- Ngeze, J. (2004). Managing Samples..
-Ngeze, J. (2005). Validity Vs Reliability in Data Collection…
_______ (2007). Methods or Methodology? …..
 Layout

❑ Edited book
Onuya, I. S. (Ed.).(2005). Making Sense of Interviews. Dar es Salaam: DUP.

❑ Book without an Author or Editor

-Managing Strikes in Higher Education Institutions (1982). Dar es Salaam: DUP. (Ignore non-content
words)

❑ Source without a date

-Shapiro, T. (n.d.). Educational Research….
❑ Chapter in a book
- Sikawa, E. (1980). Giving the World a Face Lift. In Ngongi, W. (Ed.) Biodiversity. London:
Appleby, pp. 37-50.
❑ Article in a Journal
-Rubagumya, C. (2008). Second Language Acquisition. Multilingual Matters, Vol.3, No.4, pp. 78-89.
 Layout

❑ Dissertation
-Zitto, K. (2007). Raping the Earth: Effects of Uncontrolled Mining in Tanzania. Unpublished MA.
Dissertation, University of Dar es Salaam.

❑ Newspaper Articles

-Mruma, T. (2007, November 17). Financing Higher Education in Developing Countries. Daily News
(Tanzania’s Daily Newspaper), p.3.
 Latinate Abbreviations

• ibid. = ibidem
• op. cit. = opere citato
• et al. = et alii

Visit [Link] for

further understanding on in-text citation for various documents.
 Part II
Communication

⚫ The word communication is used in common talk, usually to mean speaking or writing or
sending a message to another person.
⚫ Communication is really much more than that. It involves ensuring that messages reach
the persons to whom they are sent, that the receivers understand and respond as we want
them to; and that we ourselves are able to understand, interpret, and respond to messages
that are sent to us.

What is Communication?

⚫ Sillars (1988) defines communication as ‘the giving, receiving or exchange of

information, opinions or ideas by writing, speech or visual means-or any combination of
the three-so that the materials communicated is completely understood by everyone
concerned.’
Communication
⚫ Generally, communication can be defined as the purposeful transfer of information from one person to
another, or from one person to a group, or from one group to another.
⚫ It is a purposeful transfer because whenever we communicate we have a certain goal to achieve, in other
words conscious or intended communication has a purpose. We communicate because we want to make
someone do something or take some action, or think or feel in a certain way.

⚫ Is a two-way process in which the speaker must have a listener and the writer a reader to share experience
(Baselmi, 1979) .

From this three definitions we get three things.

1. Communication should always be a purposeful process.
2. Communication should be mutually shared.
3. In any communication cycle, the message communicated should be completely understood.
Effective communication
⚫ Communication is effective only when the message is understood and when it stimulates
action or encourages a receiver to think in a new ways and give the sender expected
response.
⚫ Effective communication produces the desired effect or result. All communications,
intentional or unintentional, have some effect. It serves its purpose for which it was
planned or designed.
Ineffective communication

⚫ If there is no feedback or the expected response by the receiver to the sender,

communication is ineffective.

⚫ Ineffective communication can be caused by certain barrier or noise in the process

of communicating and can interfere with sound business solutions and can make
problems worse.
Communication process
⚫ Communication is a dynamic, transaction (two ways) process that can be broken into six phases:-
⚫ 1ST phase- The sender has an idea: You conceive an idea and want to share it.
⚫ 2nd phase- The sender encodes an idea: When you put your idea into a message that your receiver will
understand, your are encoding it.

⚫ Encoding is how an idea is crafted into a message. It involves choices of words , sentences, needs and
different forms of conventions by which a message will be communicated. The message is normally
converted into a suitable form for transmission. For example, the message will take a different form if the
communication will be spoken or written. The basic question to ask at this level is “What has to be
communicated to Who and How?”
Cont…
⚫ 3rd phase- The sender transmits the message: Physically to transmits your message to
your receiver, you select a communication channel
⚫ 4th phase- The receiver gets the message: For communication to occur, your receiver
must first get the message.
Cont…
⚫ 5th phase-The receiver decodes the message: Your receiver must decode (absorb
and understand) your message must then be stored in the receiver’s mind.
⚫ Decoding is the process where the Message is interpreted for its content. It
also means the Receiver thinks about the message's content and internalizes
the message. In this process , the receiver compares the message to prior
experiences or external stimuli.
⚫ 6th phase-The receiver sends feedback: Feedback is the response or return
message which may be in words (spoken or written) sign or behaviour, both
conscious and unconscious.
Cont…
⚫ Feedback is the final step in the communications process. Once the
message is understood (encoded) by the Receiver. The Receiver formats an
appropriate reply following the same series of events/steps and sends it to the
Sender of the original message.
“This is to say the communication process is cyclic”.
Elements of Communication
In order for any communication to take place there should be the following
basic elements;
⚫ Sender/Source
⚫ Message
⚫ Channel
⚫ Receiver
⚫ Feedback
Consider the following Berlo’s SMCR Communication Model
Sender Message Channel Receiver
Knowledge content hearing knowledge
Com. Skills code Seeing Com. Skills
Social Systems treatment touching Social Systems
Attitude structure Smelling Attitude
tasting
feedback
FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN SELETING A MEDIUM/CHANNEL
⚫ When choosing the channel/medium a sender needs to consider the following factors;
⚫ The speed with which the message should be conveyed.
⚫ Need for confidentiality
⚫ Need for accuracy in transmission
⚫ Need for reliability of the medium is an important factor.
⚫ The type of audience you want to reach/ who is the receiver?
Cont…
⚫ Cost of the medium
⚫ Availability of a particular medium
⚫ Feedback capacity of the medium/ do you need immediate feedback
⚫ Availability of hard copy for record.
⚫ Formality
⚫ Intensity and complexity of the message is a major factor.
TYPES OF COMMUNICATION
⚫ You cannot state the kind of communication you are involved in and the number of the
types of communication that people involve in until you decide specific criteria for your
judgment. This means that the classification communication is not such a straight forward
task. It depends on the criteria used which obviously tend to vary and overlap from one
scholar to another.
⚫ The table below will help you learn different criteria that scholars use to classify
communication and the respective kinds of communication.
Cont…
CRITERIA KIND OF COMMUNICATION
⚫ Number of individuals and size of a group ⚫ Intrapersonal communication.
⚫ Interpersonal communication
⚫ Small group communication
⚫ Large group communication
⚫ Public communication
⚫ Mass communication
Cont…
CRITERIA KIND OF COMMUNICATION
⚫ Channel ⚫ Verbal communication
⚫ Nonverbal communication
Cont…
Cont… Cont…
⚫ Power relation ⚫ Vertical communication
⚫ Top-down communication
⚫ Down-top communication
⚫ Horizontal communication
Forms of Communication
Communication takes different forms which can be broadly divided into two.

1. Verbal Forms

Written Spoken/Oral
-letters -planned informal talk
-memo -unplanned exchange
-informal note -interview
-press release -telephone call
-forms -group meeting
-notice -committee meeting
-reports -formal presentation
-electronic means (fax, telex, emails, telemessage etc.)
-newsletters, committee documents etc.
Non verbal Communication
⚫ Non Verbal is communication without words, it is an important form of communication, without saying a
single word, you can express your feelings with body language-gestures, facial expression and body
movements or position etc.

⚫ Non verbal communication can add emphasis and depth to spoken words and can even tell you whether or
not to believe a speaker. “ACTION SPEAKS LOUDER THAN WORDS”.
⚫ Non-verbal message may reinforce or contradict the verbal message.
Forms of Non verbal Communication
⚫ Different ways of communicating nonverbally:
❖ Facial expression and gestures e.g. rolling, shrinking, winking and twinkling of the eyes, frowning,
twisting the lips, wobbling the head, fidgeting in the seat, fumbling the pockets, biting the nails etc
❖ Auditory symbols e.g. sirens and whistles, Bells and buzzers

❖ Touching behavior/physical: contact governed by relatively strict customs that establish who can touch
whom and how
❖ Vocal characteristics/Paralanguage: Voice carries both intentional and unintentional messages.
Cont…
❖ Use of Time and Space e.g. punctuality, occupying the best space
❖ Silence: multiple meaning to both sender and receiver.
the employees talking, boss arrived unexpected suddenly become silent, is it respect???, or fear ????.
An employee requests a raise in salary and the boss remains silent, does it signify refusal???
❖ Colour e.g. outfit, valentine colours, funeral, outings etc
❖ The use of symbols and signs, diagrams, graphs, charts, bolding
 Oral vs. Written Communication
Advantages and Disadvantages

ORAL COMMUNICATION WRITTEN COMMUNICATION

⚫ It can be stored
⚫ It is direct and easy to get immediate feedback ⚫ It is accurate and precise: It is usually formulated with great
⚫ It allows interactions care.
⚫ It make use of body language ⚫ It facilitate the assignation of responsibilities
⚫ In most of the cases (e.g., when it is within the ⚫ It is permanent and therefore people can make reference
organization) oral communication saves money also. ⚫ It can be revised
⚫ It is effective for relatively simple ideas
⚫ It can be used to transfer information which is bulky,
⚫ Most effective for messages with visual or hands on complex, or confidential
elements
⚫ It ensures accuracy when message is passed from one person
⚫ The informal plane on which oral communication is to another/ It ensures transmission of information in a
mostly carried out helps to promote friendly relations uniform manner.
between the parties communicating with each other.
⚫ It can be quoted as legal evidence in case of any disputes
⚫ It has a wide access
 Oral vs. Written Communication
Advantages and Disadvantages

ORAL COMMUNICATION WRITTEN COMMUNICATION

⚫ It does not allow interactions

⚫ It is not permanent, records cannot be kept ⚫ It is limited to those who know how to read and write,
⚫ It cannot be revised/ there is no chance of the literates/ it is selective
revising what is to be spoken. ⚫ Delayed or nonexistent feedback
⚫ Possible loss of accuracy when message ⚫ Quick clarification is not possible
passes through several people. ⚫ It is costly
⚫ Can be denied incase of any dispute/ oral ⚫ What has been written can be used as evidence in case
messages do not have any legal validity of dispute
unless are taped and made a part of
⚫ Since it keeps permanent records, it does not allow
permanent record.
alteration
⚫ It is not appropriate for information which is
⚫ No use of body cues
bulky, complex or confidential
Benefits of effective communication

Effective business communication has the following benefits;

⚫ Stronger decision making and faster problem solving.
⚫ Earlier warning of potential problems
⚫ Increased productivity and steadier work flow
⚫ Stronger business relationships
⚫ Clearer and more persuasive marketing messages
⚫ Enhanced professional emerge for both employers and companies
⚫ Lower employee turnover and higher employee satisfactions
⚫ Better financial results and higher returns for investors.
Cont...
▪ Better quality documents
▪ Lesser misunderstanding
▪ Increased awareness among employees
▪ Improved customer relations
▪ Healthier business relationships
▪ Quicker problem solving
Barriers to effective Communication
⚫ Communication is not always successful; several things can prevent the
message from reaching the intended recipient or from having the desired
effect on the recipient.
⚫ In order to bring about effective communication carefully manipulation of the
five elements of communication is needed.
⚫ The following can hinder/interfere/bring noise or communication breakdown:
❖ Perception: people’s individual interpretation of the sensory world around
them.
Barriers to Effective Communication
❖ Language/linguistic barrier. This can appear in various ways:
The use of foreign language
The use of jargons or technical terms/words
The use of slangs or street words/language or expressions
⚫ The manager likes the company than the personnel.
⚫ The manager likes the company more than he/she likes the personnel.

⚫ The manager likes the company more than the personnel like it.

Mishandling of punctuation marks

The use of unknown abbreviations
Accent/ pronunciation
Dialect
Barriers to Effective Communication
❖ Psychological: all about mental agitation
❖ Total failure to communicate which can be brought by; Social distance or
Geographical distance
❖ Organisational barrier: structure and the size
❖ Inappropriate medium
❖ Vague purpose
❖ Inability to understand non-verbal cues/ways
❖ Lack of knowledge or interest in the subject
❖ Information overload
❖ Social distance/Cultural differences
Inter and Intra Personal Communication
⚫ Intrapersonal communication is communication within oneself for the purpose of clarifying ideas, or
analysing a situation and to reflect upon or appreciate something.
⚫ It stays within a person’s mind, but it is the basis of all other communication. It can be called Inner
Monologue
⚫ The aspects of Intrapersonal communication are:
❖ Self-Concept
❖ Perception
❖ Expectation
❖ Motivation
Cont…

⚫ Self Concept – determines how person sees himself/herself and is oriented towards others. How we think
about and evaluate ourselves

⚫ Perception – organisation, identification and interpretation of sensory information inorder to present and
understand the environment
⚫ Expectation – Future oriented messages dealing with long term roles or life scripts
⚫ Motivation - Intrinsic and extrinsic factors that stimulate desire and energy in a person to be continually to
do something or to make an effort to attain a goal
Cont…
Intrapersonal Communication is of three types
1. Internal discourse (thinking, concentration, analysis, prayers, meditation)
2. Solo vocal communication ( speaking aloud to yourself)
3. Solo written communication (writing for yourself; personal journal or diary)
Interpersonal communication
What is interpersonal communication?
Is a face-to-face communication though which people exchange information,
opinions, feelings and meaning through verbal and non-verbal messages.
Interpersonal communication is not just about what is actually said – the
language used - but how it is said and the non-verbal messages sent through
tone of voice, facial expressions, gestures and body language.
People often use speech and non-verbal behaviour to communicate varied
messages.
Cont…
Even if, for instance, a person appears in a particular dress, he/she
might not be intentionally communicating but the dress may still
communicate a lot to others around. Thus, interpersonal communication does
not necessarily focus on the intended messages in actual communication but
also it considers the unintended ones.
Interpersonal Communication
Much research has been done to try to break down interpersonal
communication into a number of elements in order that it can be more easily
understood.
▪ The Communicators
▪ The Message
▪ Noise
▪ Context
▪ Channel
▪ Feedback
Elements of Interpersonal Communication
▪ The Communicators
For any communication to occur there must be at least two individuals
involved. Sending and receiving messages is always done simultaneously;
while one person is talking the other is listening - but while listening they are
also sending feedback in the form of smiles, head nods etc. In other words,
the communicators are in an interactive process.

▪ The Message
Message not only means the speech used or information conveyed, but also the
non-verbal messages exchanged such as facial expressions, tone of voice,
gestures and body language. Non-verbal behaviour can convey additional
information about the spoken message. In particular, it can reveal more about
emotional attitudes which may underlie the content of speech.
Elements of Interpersonal Communication
▪ The Noise
It refers to anything that distorts the message, so that what is received is
different from what is intended by the speaker. The use of complicated
jargon, inappropriate body language, inattention, disinterest,
and cultural differences can be considered 'noise' in the context of
interpersonal communication. In other words, any distortions or
inconsistencies that occur during an attempt to communicate can be seen as
noise.
Elements of Interpersonal Communication
▪ The Context
All communication is influenced by the context in which it takes place.
Apart from looking at the situational context of where the interaction
takes place, for example in a room, office, or perhaps outdoors, the social
context also needs to be considered, for example the roles, responsibilities and
relative status of the participants. The emotional climate and participants‘
expectations of the interaction will also affect the communication.

▪ Channel
The channel refers to the physical means by which the message is transferred
from one person to another. In face-to-face context the channels which are
used are speech and vision, however during a telephone conversation the
channel is limited to speech alone.
Elements of Interpersonal Communication
▪ Feedback
Feedback consists of messages the receiver returns, which allows the sender to
know how accurately the message has been received, as well as the receiver's
reaction. The receiver may also respond to the unintentional message as well
as the intentional message. Types of feedback range from direct verbal
statements, for example "Say that again, I don't understand", to indirect non-
Verbal cues, for example a thumb up sign to agree or like something, to
subtle facial expressions or changes in posture that might indicate to the
sender that the receiver feels uncomfortable with the message. Feedback
allows the sender to regulate, adapt or repeat the message in order to improve
communication.
Intra and Inter Personal Communication in Johari Window Model
What is Johari Window?
Is a simple useful tool for understanding and training self-awareness, personal
development, improving communication, interpersonal relationships, group
dynamics, team development and intergroup relationships within the context of
communication.

The Model was developed by two American Psychologists- Joseph Luft and
Harry Ingham in the 1950’s calling it ‘Johari’ after combining their first names
Joe and Harry.
⚫ Also referred to as a 'disclosure/feedback model of self awareness', and an 'information processing tool'
The four Johari Window
perspectives
⚫ Called 'regions' or 'areas' or 'quadrants'.
⚫ Each contains and represents the information - feelings, motivation, etc – in
terms of whether the information is known or unknown by the person, and
whether the information is known or unknown by others in the team

⚫ Open area, Open self, Free area, Free self, or 'the

Arena‘: what is known by the person about him/herself and is also known
by others -1248
Cont…
⚫ Blind area, Blind self, or 'blindspot‘: what is unknown by the person about
him/herself but which others know

⚫ Hidden area, Hidden self, Avoided area, Avoided self or 'façade’: what the
person knows about him/herself that others do not know

⚫ Unknown area or Unknown self: what is unknown by the person about

him/herself and is also unknown by others
Johari Widow Model

I know I don’t know

Other Ask
Know Feedback

Open Area (Arena) Blind Spot

Others Tell
don’t
know Hidden Area (Façade) Unknown Area
Part III
The English Tense System
⚫ What is tense?
Is a verb with an inflectional category that indicates time of an event and
aspect variations-the status of events .
English has two tenses; the inflectional distinction between past (loved) and
present (love), but in addition the auxiliary ‘will’ is often said to mark a future
tense (will love) (Oxford Concise Dictionary of Linguistics, 2007).
⚫ What is Time?
It is a continuous measurable quantity extending from the past to the present
and through the future.

Thence time is divided into three areas that can be represented on a timeline.
Now-The current moment
Past-The earlier time before the current moment
Future-The time later than the current moment
The English Tense System

Past Now Future

From this Timeline we can derive the following three major tense aspects.

Past Present Future

-Simple past - Simple present -Simple future
-Past Progressive -Present Progressive -Future Progressive
-Past Perfect -Present Perfect -Future Perfect
-Past Perfect Prog -Present Perfect Prog -Future Perfect Prog
The English Tense System
The Present Tense (the Now time)
It is divided into four sub-tenses.
▪ Simple Present Tense: this refers to actions that are generally true or habitual; that is they took place in the past,
they continue to take place in the present, and they will take place in the future.

The action does not necessarily take place at the actual moment of speaking
but can be at any point on the Timeline surrounds the present time.
For example;
-We attend GSU 07102 Lecture at 7:00 every Monday.
-They live in a small house outside the township.
-She goes to work on foot everyday.
How to form Present Simple?
Use a bare verb and mark it with –s or -es for person and number
(singular/plural)
The English Tense System
Simple Present Tense is used in the following ways;
▪ You use the simple present to talk about something which is happening now, and which will continue to
happen in the future. You often use the simple present in this meaning to talk about things that are true about
your life, for example where you live, your job, or the kinds of things you like (Longman Dictionary of
Contemporary English UPDATED EDITION, n.d).
For example;
-Miriam lives in Mwanza.
- I work in a hospital.
- She likes watching action movies.
- He likes reading English Newspapers.
- We play darts every Sunday.
The English Tense System
Simple Present Tense is used in the following ways;
▪ You use the simple present when you talk about something which happens again and again, or when you say
that something happens regularly at a particular time. Use words such as always, often, sometimes,
occasionally, and never, or phrases such as on Tuesdays or every day with the simple present in this
meaning (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English UPDATED EDITION, n.d).
For example;
- I get up at 5 o’clock everyday.
- They always go out to restaurants.
- She never gives up easily in her struggles.
-We meet on Thursdays every month.
- Occasionally, she visits her boyfriend.
The English Tense System
Simple Present Tense is used in the following ways;
▪ You use the simple present to talk about something which stays the same for ever - such as a scientific facts
or universal truths (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English UPDATED EDITION, n.d).
For examples;
- Oil floats on water.
- Two and two make four.
- The sun sets in the west.
- The moon rotates around the earth.
- Water boils at 100˚C degrees.
The English Tense System
Simple Present Tense is used in the following ways;

▪ You use the simple present when you are describing what is happening at the exact moment when you are
speaking. This meaning of the simple present is used for example in sports commentaries or in occasions
(Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English UPDATED EDITION, n.d).

- …Damian gets the ball from Masha; he shoots ‑ and scores!

- …here arrives the guest of honour, and the audience cheers at him as he steps up to the platform…
The English Tense System
▪ Present Progressive Tense: this indicates that an action is taking place at the moment of speaking. Not in
the past or future.
For example;
-Other students are attending classes now.
-We are listening to the lecturer.
-The lecturer is talking right now.
-I am listening and taking some notes.
How to form a Present Progressive Tense?
Use the following form.
present form of ‘be’ + verb + ing

- She is look-ing at me.

- I am going home.
The English Tense System
Present Progressive Tense is used in the following ways;

▪ You use the present progressive to talk about something which is happening now at the time you are
speaking or writing. You often use this meaning with words and phrases that express present time, such as
now, at the moment, and currently (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English UPDATED EDITION,
n.d).
For example;
-John is writing something down.
- I am looking for my book.
The English Tense System
Present Progressive Tense is used in the following ways;

▪ You use the present progressive to say that something is happening now, but will only continue for a limited
period of time. Compare these pairs of sentences:

- I live in Dar es Salaam. (‘Dar es Salaam’ is my permanent residence)

- I am living in Dar es Salaam. ( I live for a limited period of time)
- I work in a hospital. (I permanently work in a hospital)
- I am working in a hospital. ( I temporarily work in a hospital)
The English Tense System
Verbs that Cannot be Used with the Progressive Aspect

Verbs which express a situation or process (abstract actions), rather than

describing a definite action (concrete action), are not usually used in the
progressive. Thus, do not use the progressive with the following verbs:

be have see
believe like agree
know love disagree
recognize hate mean
remember prefer need
understand want deserve
wish belong
The English Tense System
▪ Present Perfect Tense: this indicates an action that has been completed
sometime before ‘Now’ with a result that still affects the current situation.

For example;
- I have entered in the class.
-We have seated to listen to the lecturer.
-He has gone outside for a while.

How to form Present Perfect Tense?

Use the present perfective form ‘have’ + past participle

-She has cook -ed some food. (regular verbs)

-We have left the place. (irregular verbs)
The English Tense System
Present Perfect Tense is used in the following ways;
▪ You use the present perfect to talk about something that happened in the past and is finished, but which still
affects the situation now.
For example;
-The taxi has just arrived!
-Someone has broken the window.
-They have arrived!
-I have given her all what she needed.
▪ You use the present perfect to say that something started to happen in the past, and has continued to happen
up to now.
For example;
-I have worked for you since 1990.
-They have lived in Dar es Salaam for many years.
The English Tense System
Present Perfect Tense is used in the following ways;
▪ You use the present perfect to talk about something that happened at some time in the past before now, but it
is not important to say when it happened.
For example;
-There have been concerns about poor working conditions in the past.
-He has had some serious problems with his boss.

This meaning of the present perfect is often used in news reports.

“There has been a big earthquake in Japan, and hundreds of people have been
killed”.
The English Tense System
▪ Present Perfect Progressive: this indicates an action that started in the past
and is continuing at the present time.
For example;
-He has been teaching GSU 07102 since 2008.
-We have been studying GSU 07102 since October, 2015.
-The lecture has been running for about thirty minutes now.

How to form Present Perfect Progressive?

Use the present perfective form ‘have’ + been + verb + ing

- She has been attend-ing lectures the whole day.

-They have been playing netball for an hour.
The English Tense System
Present Perfect Progressive Tense is used in the following ways;
▪ You use the present perfect progressive to talk about something which has continued to happen for a period
of time in the past, and which may still be happening now.
For example;
-For how long have you been studying English?
-She has been attending her mathematics remedial class since last year.

▪ You use the present perfect progressive to talk about something which has been taking place recently and
which affects the situation now.
For example;
-“You look so tired”! “I have been working really hard”.
-It has been raining all day.
The English Tense System
The Past Tense (the bygone time)
Like the Present Tense, Past Tense is also divided into four sub-tenses.
▪ Simple Past Tense: this indicates an action that took place before the current moment and has no
connection with the current time.
For example;
-She grew up in Mwanza.
-We got our independence in 1961.
-We had dinner last night.
How to form a Past Simple Tense?
verb + ed

-They play-ed tennis.

-She wrote a letter.
The English Tense System
▪ Past Progressive Tense: this indicates an action in the past that is longer in duration than another action in
the past.
For example;
-When you called me, I was watching a football match.
-He was cleaning the kitchen.
-They were going to see him.

How to form a Past Progressive Tense?

Use past tense of ‘be’ + verb + ing

- She was giv-ing me a book.

-We were dancing on the stage.
The English Tense System
Past Progressive Tense is used in the following ways;
▪ You use the past progressive when you want to talk about something that happened in the past, and
continued to happen for only a limited period of time.
For example;
-We were going to see her .
-I was attending some customers in my office.
-She was doing her homework at that time.

▪ You use the past progressive to talk about something which continued to happen for a period of time, during
which another thing happened.
For example;
I was watching TV by the time my father arrived home.
They were helping one another before you entered the class.
The English Tense System
▪ Past Perfect Tense: this indicates an action in the past that had been completed before another time or
event in the past. In other words, this is a ‘past of past’ tense.
For example;
-I had finished my homework before you arrived.
-She had fed her bay before it started to rain.

How to form Past Perfect Tense?

Use past form of ‘have’ + verb + ed

-We had clean-ed our room.

- They had gone to school before the bell rung.
The English Tense System
▪ Past Perfect Progressive Tense: this indicates an action in the past that took place before another time or
event in the past and continued during the second event or time in the past.
For example;
-She had been completing her assignment when I called her.
-They had been jogging when we entered the gym.

How to form a Past Perfect Progressive Tense?

Past form of ‘have’ + been + verb + ing

- It had been eat-ing its meal.

-I had been going to school before I was seven.
The English Tense System
The Future Tense (the predictable time)
‘Future Tense’ has no distinctive forms like the other tenses (present and
past). This is because, we project or plan events in the future basing on the
present time. Thus, there are various forms of describing future events. But the
basic ones are four.
▪ Simple Future: this indicates an action that will take place after the current moment, and that has real
connection with the current time.
For example;
-He will walk home.
-We shall come back early.
How to form Future Simple Tense?
Use the modal auxiliary verb ‘will’ + verb (in its bare form)

They will go to pray.

The English Tense System
▪ Future Progressive Tense: this indicates an action in the future that is longer than another event or time in
the future.
For example;
-They will be graduating when the college opens.
-She will be writing her novels when her husband gets home.

How to form Future Progressive Tense?

Use modal auxiliary ‘will’ + be + verb + ing

I will be play-ing netball when my father arrives.

The English Tense System
▪ Future Perfect Tense: this indicates an action in the future that will have been completed before another
event or time in the future.

For example;

-I will have finished this task by the time my father arrives home.
-She will have gone to see her grandma by next month.

How to form a Future Perfect Tense?

Use modal auxiliary ‘will’ + have + verb + ed

-He will have giv-en Anna what she deserves by the moment you arrive.
The English Tense System
▪ Future Perfect Progressive Tense: this indicates an action in the future that will have been continuing until
another time or event in the future.

For example;

-She will have been going to school in 2016.

-We will have been cultivating the land when it rains on March, 2016.

How to form a Future Perfect Progressive Tense?

will + have + been + verb + ing

-They will have been marking the scripts in December.

Modal Auxiliary Verbs

Modal Auxiliary are eight with different meanings.

Can-Could (ability, request, permission, possibility)
Shall-Should (futurity, willingness, obligation, necessity,
suggestion, insistence, advisability, expectation)
Will-Would (futurity, willingness, habitual in the past, intension,
prediction, request, insistence, wishes, desire, )
May-Might (permission, possibility, concession, reproach,
wishes, purpose)
Must-Ought to ( necessity, obligation, duty, certainty, probability,
moral obligation, desirability, compulsion )
Used to (past discontinued act)
Need (necessity, importance, desirability)
Dare (challenge, courage, boldness, disapproval)
The English Tense System
Other forms of expressing Future events.
THE FUTURE WITH ‘GOING TO’

▪ You use a form of ‘going to’ to say that something will happen soon.
For example;
-It’s going to rain.
-Watch out ‑ you’re going to hit that tree!
-I think I’m going to be sick.

▪ You also use a form of ‘going to’ to talk about someone’s intentions, or
what they have decided to do.
For example;
-I’m going to ask for my money back.
-Lucy is going to travel round the world when she leaves school.
The English Tense System
Other forms of expressing Future events.
THE FUTURE WITH ‘ABOUT TO’

▪ You use ‘about to’ to say that something will happen almost immediately.

For example;
-Take your seats, please! The guest of honour is about to arrive.
-I was about to go out when the phone rang.
References

Galvin, K., and Book, C. (1994). An Introduction to Speech Communication: Person to Person. National
Textbook Company: Illinois.

Murthy, J. D. (1998). Contemporary English Grammar. Book Palace: New Delhi.

Sillars, S. (1988). Success in Communication. John Murray Ltd: London.

Wren, P.C, H. Martin and R.N. Prasada (2003), High School Grammar, S. Chand & Co, New Delhi.

Visit [Link]/tips/[Link]
 PART IV
Writing Skills
Sentence Structure (Clause level)
What is sentence?
A sentence is a group of words with at least one main clause that expresses a
complete idea.
For instance:
-Our semester will end in three months time.
-Honorable Samia Suluhu becomes the first woman to the position of Vice
President of the United Republic of Tanzania.
-Fast moving cars can be dangerous to our safety.
-Before we begin our session, an attendance has to be taken first.
-Unless we study hard, the doors to discontinuation are widely open.

Notice: A clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a predicate, but which is usually only part of a
sentence (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English UPDATED EDITION, n.d).
 Sentence Structure (Clause level)
What is Subject?
We often hear people saying “the subject” is the doer of an
action’; the one who performs an action in a sentence. This is true
to some extent on one hand. But on the other hand ‘Subject’ of a
sentence is just a realization of ‘the first position’ that is
occupied by some elements of a clause.
For instance;
-Damian killed a lion. (‘Damian’ is a subject because he is the doer of an action-killed).
-Damian was killed by a lion. (‘Damian’ is a subject not in the sense of performing an act of
killing, but in the sense of being the concern of the message, (i.e. it is Damian who got
killed and nobody else)
 Sentence Structure (Clause level)
What is Predicate?
A predicate is that part of a clause which describes a process
(i.e. action with its duration) and all its elements that have to be
associated with it.
For instance;
Damian killed a lion. (‘killed’ is a predicate with one element
called an ‘object’-a lion).
The money is lost. (‘is’ is a predicate with one element called a
‘complement’-lost).

Notice:
Subject and Predicate are the two components which make a
sentence to have a complete thought.
 Sentence Structure (Clause level)
Sentence

Clauses

Independent clause Dependent clause

Examples: Examples:
-I am going to swim. -If I am done with my work
-You must close the doors. -Before it gets dark

A sentence can be formed of more than one clause

-Before it gets dark, you must close the doors.
-I am going to swim if I am done with my work.
 Sentence Structure (Clause level)
Sentence types
Sentences can be categorised according to their structures and
functions.

Sentence types

Structure Function
-Simple sentence -Declarative function
-Compound sentence -Imperative function
-Complex sentence -Interrogative function
-Compound-Complex sentence -Exclamatory function

Notice: there is no one to one relationship between structure and function

 Sentence Structure (Clause level)
Sentence Structure
▪ Simple sentence: This sentence is formed by one clause (independent one) which has a
complete thought.
For example;
-I wake up early in the morning everyday.
-I once lived in Mwanza City.
-Could you take your seat please?
-Mr. Johnson and I will be best friends in some months to come.
-It has been raining all day.
-Where are you going?
-It is amazing!
-Get me some water please!
 Sentence Structure (Clause level)
▪ Compound Sentence: This sentence is formed by two clauses
joined by a coordinate conjunction or a semi colon.
Coordinate conjunctions such as and, but, or, for, nor, so, and yet
are used to join words, phrases or clauses of equal grammatical
function or importance.
For example;
-I like this book very much, for it explains each concept well.
-John was late to class, yet he was not punished.
-We can pay them all the dues, but we need to verify the details.
-They went to see their lecturer, so they can have a talk with her.
-What is your name?, and why are you here?
-You can take that one, or the other one.
-The equipment is neither accurate nor safe.
 Sentence Structure (Clause level)
A compound sentence can also be formed by using semi colon.
A semi colon is used, among other uses, to join two independent
clauses that are related and that are not connected by a coordinate
conjunction.
For example;
-The house was very old; it had been built in 1915.
-The Scholastic Aptitude Test is widely used in US; each year
over million students take it.
-The National Assembly seconded the new tax bill; it favours
public interests.
 Sentence Structure (Clause level)
▪ Complex sentence: This sentence is formed by at least two
clauses; one independent and the other dependent.
A complex sentence has no coordinate conjunction; it has
subordinate conjunction.
For example;
If I were you, I would have completed this assignment.
Make sure that you wash all the dishes before it gets dark.
When it started raining, Miss. Grace was not around.
You will not pass the test unless you study hard everyday.
Provided that we are together, nobody will separate us.
 Sentence Structure (Clause level)
▪ Compound-Complex Sentence: This sentence is formed by
at least three clauses; two independent clauses joined by a
coordinate conjunction and one dependent clause.
For examples;
-As I was waving a hand to them, Jane was reading a book and
Asha was swinging.
-Before we started a meeting, the chairperson entered the
venue awkwardly and all members stood up and shouted at him.
 Sentence Functions
Sentences have different functions (i.e. what purpose the
speaker or writer wants to achieve?).

Whenever we speak or write, we don’t just do that because we

have to do; we do that for various purposes that we would want
our listeners or readers to get involved in.

The point to remember and notice is this. ‘functions of sentences

are determined by the context in which the sentences are used’.
 Sentence Functions
▪ Declarative function: This function is that of giving or
providing information to a reader who needs that information. To
declare is to state something publicly or to let something known
to people. A declarative sentence always ends with a period (.).
Examples;
John is my uncle.
I am a student at the Institute of Finance Management.
Tanzania attained her independence in 1961.
Our classes end at 9:00 pm.
I have brought you some juice and fruits to eat.
Notice: Since this function is that of giving or providing, the
speaker or writer will have the authority of deciding on what to
be given, to what extent and how to be given.
 Sentence Functions
However, there are some declarative sentences that do not just
end by providing information. They also have another function in
them-the function of causing something to happen.
For instance a sentence like;
-I hereby pronounce Lucia and John wife and husband.
This sentence does not only declare, but it also causes a marriage
to happen (i.e. changing a couple from being fiancé/fiancée to
married couple).
-I declare war between X and Y.
Once a sentence like this is said by a head of state, at the
point of finishing saying it, the actual fight at the battle ground
begins.
Sentences of these kinds do perform some acts.
 Sentence Functions
▪ Imperative function: This function is that of causing
someone to do something in favour of a writer or speaker. It is
the function that makes a reader or a listener to act in some ways
according to the writer or speaker’s wish.

Imperative sentences are of three types;

i) command,
ii) request/entreaty, and
iii) suggestion
 Sentence Functions
i) Command: This function is that of manifesting power,
control, or order one has over another person.
Examples;
-Get out of my office!
-Shut up!
-Go and bring me a glass of water!
-Open the door!
-Provide us some chairs, please!

In most cases, commanding sentences do have hidden subjects

and they end up with an exclamatory mark to indicate that they
have a rising tone.
 Sentence Functions
ii) Request/entreaty: This function is that of manifesting a polite
form for demanding something or a serious politeness for
demanding something.
Examples;
-Please call our number in case you have any problem.
-Could you assist me to carry this luggage?
-May I take this bag inside?
-Please our dear Lord, have mercy on us!

Notice: Sentences that perform this function may end up with

different marks.
 Sentence Functions
iii) Suggestion: This function is that of making someone accept
or get convinced or influenced with an idea, or a plan in favour of
someone who has it.
Examples;
-What do you think if you and I get married?
-It is too dark now; shall we go home?
-I think it is time that you start your own business.
-What if we have a break for a few minutes and then we
continue?

Notice: Sentences of this function may also end up with different

marks.
 Sentence Functions
▪ Interrogative function: This function is that of seeking
information or confirmation about something from another
person who has the information or knows something.
Interrogative sentences are of two types;

i) The Yes/No questions (using forms of Primary auxiliaries and some modal auxiliary
verbs).
ii) Wh-questions (using wh-words like why, where, how etc).
 Sentence Functions
i) The Yes/No questions: these kind of questions are used in two conditions;
a) A person who asks has the ‘provided information’ of which s/he wants to confirm form
another person.
b) A person who asks assumes that the ‘provided information’ is shared by another person
from whom s/he wants to confirm.
Examples;
-Is this house yours?
-Do you know that man?
-Is this chair mine?
-Does this kid go to school?
 Sentence Functions
▪ The Wh-questions: These kind of questions are used when a
person is in need of information and believes that there
is someone who knows or has that information.
Examples;
-How did you get here?
-Why do you want to withdraw your membership?
-When are you coming?
-What are you doing over there?
 Sentence Functions
▪ Exclamatory function: This function is that of expressing
individual personal feelings or emotions towards something. The
feelings or emotions could be anger, surprise, excitement, pain,
happiness, sadness, shocks etc.
Examples;
-Wow! This looks great!
-Ouch! That hurts!
-Awesome! What a wonderful score this is!
-Aha! So you planned all this, did you?
-That is pretty good!
 PART V
Writing Skills
Paragraph Writing
What is Paragraph?
Is a unit of writing that discusses one idea. It can also be defined as a number of sentences
grouped together and relating to one topic.
Types of Paragraph
i) Introductory paragraph (this begins an essay; often it states the essay’s thesis)
ii) Body paragraphs (information that provides more details about the thesis)
iii) Concluding paragraph (ends an essay in logical and memorable way)

Notice: The most important paragraphs in a text are two; introductory and concluding paragraphs.
The two paragraphs should always correspond in terms of the theme and the general argument
or orientation of the writing.
 Paragraph Writing
Principles of Paragraph Writing
A good written paragraph has in-built principles. It is these principles which provide
guidance and direction on how coherent ideas could be in an essay.

The following are basic principles;

i) Unity (togetherness)
ii) Order (logical arrangement)
iii) Coherence (connectivity)
iv) Variety (good appearance)
v) Concluding or transitional sentence
 Paragraph Writing
Principles of Paragraph Writing
For example;
Communication is a word of Latin; it means sharing of information or intelligence. The most common medium of
communication is language. While speaking we often resort to physical gestures. We wave our hands, shrug our shoulder,
smile and nod to reinforce what we say. Besides, there are several other means of communication available to us.
We use non-linguistic symbols such as traffic lights, road signals, railway signs to convey information relating to

movement of vehicles and trains. We also use telegraphic code for quick transmission of messages and secrete codes for
communicating defense and other highly confidential information. For communication all these codes are valid in their

frames of references…(Book & Galvin, 1994).

Notice: In the paragraph above, the central concept/idea has been stated y the first sentence (the topic sentence).
 Paragraph Writing

i) Unity: This means that a paragraph must deal with only ONE idea. And that ALL sentences in a paragraph
must support the idea. In other words, the sentences must be connected to the central idea. (Refer to the
above paragraph)

iii) Order: This principle has to do with how sentences are arranged in a logical way. There should be always a
systematic way of putting ideas according to their relationship. The question of which ideas should come
first or last is of important.

iv) Coherence: This principle has to do with connectivity of ideas within a paragraph. A paragraph is coherent
if all of its sentences are logically connected.
 Paragraph Writing
How do we connect words, phrases, clauses and ideas?
Connection of words, phrases, clauses or ideas can be done by;
a) Using transitions
b) Referring to words and ideas that have been mentioned earlier.

a) Using Transitions
Transitions/connectives are words, phrases, and even sentences that make a clear connection between one idea
and another, between one sentence and another, or between one paragraph and another.

When writing a paragraph, we use transitions/connectives for different purposes.

 Purposes for Using Connectives in Paragraph Writing
1. We use transitions to indicate time
Transitions that relate to time are; afterwards, after a short while, all the while, as soon as, all of a sudden,
a short time later, at that time, by then, by that time, during, in a few hours, in the mean time, in those
days, mean while, since, soon, suddenly, then, thereafter, thereupon, until then, when, whenever, while etc.

2. We use transitions to show similarities and differences

Similarities Differences
Similarly, in the same way although, even though
Likewise, as, as if, as though etc though, in contrast, on the
contrary, on the other hand etc.
 Purposes for Using Connectives in Paragraph Writing
3. We use transitions to add information
Transitions used to add information are; and, also, as well, besides, further, furthermore, in addition,
moreover,
too etc.

4. We use transitions to introduce information that contrasts, changes, or qualifies what we have said
earlier.
Examples of transitions;
Although, even so, even though, in contrast, nevertheless, nonetheless, on the other hand, otherwise, still,
though, then again, while, yet, however, but etc.

5. We use transitions to introduce examples, repeat information, or emphasize a point.

Examples of transitions;
 Purposes for Using Connectives in Paragraph Writing
Introduce examples Repeat information Emphasize a point
as an example again as a matter of facts
for instance once again indeed
specifically, once more more important
such as to be

6. We use transitions to show cause and effects.

Examples of transitions;
as a result, because, hence, since, so that, then, therefore, thus, consequently, etc.

7. We use transitions to show condition.

Examples of transitions;
as long as, as soon as, in case, in order to, provided that, unless, when, if, etc.
 Purposes for Using Connectives in Paragraph Writing
Try to make sense out of the following paragraph.

Communication is a word of Latin; means sharing of information intelligence. The most common medium of
communication is language. Speaking we resort to physical gestures. We wave our hands, shrug our shoulder, smile nod to
reinforce we say. There are means of communication available to us. We use non-linguistic symbols traffic lights, road
signals, railway signs to convey information relating to movement of vehicles trains. We use telegraphic code for quick
transmission of messages secrete codes for communicating defense other highly confidential information. For
communication codes are valid in frames of references…(Book & Galvin, 1994).

(Do you feel that some ‘ingredients’ are missing and that is why the paragraph becomes incoherent?)
 Purposes for Using Connectives in Paragraph Writing
Identify different types of transitions used in the following paragraph.

Communication is a word of Latin; it means sharing of information or intelligence. The most common medium of
communication is language. While speaking we often resort to physical gestures. We wave our hands, shrug our shoulder,
smile and nod to reinforce what we say. Besides, there are several other means of communication available to us. We use
non-linguistic symbols such as traffic lights, road signals, railway signs to convey information relating to movement of
vehicles and trains. We also use telegraphic code for quick transmission of messages and secrete codes for
communicating defense and other highly confidential information. For communication all these codes are valid in their
frames of references…(Book & Galvin, 1994).

(
 Purposes for Using Connectives in Paragraph Writing
a) Using referring words and ideas that have been mentioned earlier.
Sometimes we connect ideas by using words like pronouns, or restating important details or ideas.
1. Pronouns
Pronouns can be personal pronouns, relative pronouns, demonstrative pronouns, or indefinite pronouns. [see examples
below]

Several months ago, my son, who is only six years old, came home from school with an unusual drawing. What made this
picture different from his others was its brilliant array of colours. Ordinarily, Ibrahimu’s drawings consist of a fast dash of
pencil or marker with the scribble of a single colour to fill in the outline. They are unusual, to say at least. But even more
amazing, Ibrahimu had been careful with lines and borders. Each was clear and distinct. Obviously, something had
intrigued him to sit still longer than his normal 30 seconds; I wanted to know what it was…(Buscemi et al, 1998)
 Purposes for Using Connectives in Paragraph Writing

[See another example]

The Basics is a designed for use both as a classroom tool and as a reference guide that even beginning writers can use
independently. As its subtitle indicates, it offers college writers an introduction to important writing strategies as well as an
accessible handbook of grammar and usage. One of the most important features of The Basics is its comprehensive
coverage of rhetoric. It also contains three chapters on how to build effective paragraphs and to practice methods of
development and organization. Another special feature is the “Guides for ESL Students,” which appear the end of several
chapters. They provide clear, concise advice on problems unique to speakers of English as a second language and have been
placed within appropriate chapters so that ESL students can continue their study of specific points without the convenience
of having to turn to an appendix at the end of the book…(Buscemi et al, 1998).
 Purposes for Using Connectives in Paragraph Writing
2. Restating important details or ideas.
We normally use synonyms (words with similar meaning) to refer to ideas that mentioned earlier.

For example;
Radon is not new. It is a naturally occurring substance that results when radium disintegrates. However, only
during the last decade has the Environmental Protection Agency labeled prolonged exposure to radon a health
hazard. The gas seeps through the ground and through cracks in the foundations of houses… (Carole A. Leppig
in Buscemi et al, 1998).
 Paragraph Writing
Paragraph Development
Paragraph development means to use details to support and explain paragraph’s central idea and arrange those
details in a logical way. Developing paragraphs depends on the purpose of the writer. And the following
methods can be used to develop paragraphs.

1. Narration
Use narration when you want to recall an event or when you want to explain how a process works. This method
mostly uses action verbs, which moves a story or a process along. Transitions that are commonly used are
words like first, then, soon, after, suddenly etc. A paragraph or an essay that has been developed using this
method is called a narrative paragraph or a narrative essay.
 Paragraph Writing
Paragraph Development
2. Description
To describe means to present the salient features of a thing as they appear. Unlike narration which presents
information from beginning to end, information under description method can be arranged in any how as they
appear.

3. Explanation, Persuasion, and Convincement

-Explaining means presenting information as it is.
-Persuading means presenting information that needs actions to be taken.
-Convincing means presenting information based on facts to make one accepts.

Several techniques can be used to develop paragraphs by using the above methods.
 Techniques for Developing a Paragraph

-By illustration: means offering vivid examples to explain, persuade, or convince .

-By comparison and contrast: means giving similarities and difference of something .

-By definitions: means providing authoritative meaning of some things.

-By classification: means providing distinctive features among types.

-By cause and effect: means explaining why something happens.

-By conclusion and support: means using facts and statistics to clarify an idea, to support an opinion, or to
support an assumption.
 Paragraph Writing
Paragraph Organisation
Ideas in a paragraph or an essay need to be organized in such a way that readers can easily understand and
follow the flow of the writer. There are mainly four patterns that ideas can be organized (reasoned).

1. General to Specific (deductive reasoning)

This kind of reasoning presents an idea in its broad perspective then it moves to particulars.

Example of a deductive reasoning;

Every day, I leave for work in my car at eleven o’clock. The drive to work takes 45 minutes. And I arrive
to work on time. Therefore, if I leave for work at eleven o’clock today, I will be on time.
 Paragraph Writing
Paragraph Organisation
2. Specific to General (Inductive Reasoning)
This kind of reasoning moves from the particular to general. It provides series of observations of individual
entities and arrives at a general conclusion through inferences. An Inference is any conclusion drawn from a
set of propositions.

Example of inductive reasoning

Last year I had a cat; it was black in colour. The same year I visited Jane and I saw a black cat laying on
the sofa. The newly born cat that you brought today is also black. Therefore all cats are black.
 Paragraph Writing
Paragraph Organisation

Which Pattern is more appropriate in writing?

NOTE: Deduction and induction by themselves are inadequate to make a compelling

argument. While deduction gives absolute proof, it never makes contact with the real
world, there is no place for observation or experimentation, no way to test the validity of
the premises. And, while induction is driven by observation, it never approaches actual
proof of a theory. Therefore an effective paper will include both types of logic.
 Paragraph Writing
Paragraph Organisation
3. Order of Importance
This pattern normally starts a paragraph (s) with least important details and ends with the most important.
Graphically, the pattern appears in the following form.

Conclusion
(High)
Most ideas
Body paragraphs

Introduction

Least ideas
(Low) Coverage of details
 Paragraph Writing
Paragraph Organisation
4. Question to Answers
This patterns follows the ways questions have been set and arranged?
For example;
When setting an outline on an essay about Malaria, one may start by saying;
-What is Malaria?
-When did the disease actually begin?
-What causes Malaria?
-What are the symptoms of Malaria?
-How can it be combated?
-What consequences Malaria brings to human beings?
 Essay Writing

What is essay?
Is a unit of written information based on the writer’s point of view about
certain subject matter (Nkoko, 2013). An essay presents writer’s own
understanding of the reality.

In academia, writing essay is probably the prime activity. Stuff such as term
papers, reports, essay papers require someone to be skillful in essay writing.
Parts of Academic Essays

Academic essays have four parts:

1. Introduction (explains a thesis statement)

2. Main body (provides supportive details/facts)
3. Conclusion, and (provides a summary of what has been covered)
4. List of references/Bibliography (shows variety of sources used)
Classification of Essays
Essays are generally classified into two types.

Essays

Expository Essays Argumentative Essays

-Narrative essay -Persuasive essay
-Descriptive essay -Analytical essay
Essay Writing
The Structure of Essay Questions
In order to respond correctly to essay questions, one needs to understand the
core structure of essay questions. Most of essay questions will have the
following three structure;
i) Instruction words/Key words (nature of an essay to be)
ii) Content (central theme)
iii) Requirements/Special requirements (limits of the question)
For example;
Examine the major factors for low quality education among African nations.
Italicized word: Key word
Underlined words: content/theme
Bolded words: special requirements.
Essay Writing
Examples of some of key words that are commonly used in essay questions.

-Name, mention, state, identify, list, etc. (do have similar meaning in
different contexts)
-Explain, account for, discuss, illustrate, trace, outline, describe, differentiate,
distinguish, demonstrate, etc. (they are of expository nature)
-Analyze, examine, assess, evaluate, appraise, scrutinize, study, explore, investigate, probe, etc. (they are of
analytical nature) .
Report Writing
What is a report?
Many authors provide meanings of a ‘report’ according to contexts in which
the term is applied. One general definition of a report could be;
“Is a communication from someone who has information to someone who
wants to use that information” (Brown, 1971).

A report always communicates information to someone. Such kind of

information must be organized in such a way that it meets the
purpose of its audience. Thus, reports have the following features.
Report Writing
General Characteristics of Reports
⚫ A report is a formal statement of facts that account for something.
⚫ A report is presented in a conversational form.
⚫ A report is written for a specific audience.
⚫ A report includes procedures for data collection and significance of such data.
⚫ A report contains conclusions reached by the writer.
⚫ A report often includes recommendations.

Types of Reports

Generally there are two types; Oral and Written.

Report Writing
Reports
Oral Written

Informal Formal

Informational Interpretive Routine

(descriptive) (analytical) (descriptive)

memos/letters
-Informational Report: contains observed facts in an organized form; it
presents the situation as it is and not as it should be. It does not contain
conclusions and recommendations.
-Interpretive Report: contains observed facts and includes an evaluation or
interpretation or analysis of the data together with the writer’s conclusions. It
may also have recommendations for action.
Report Writing
Routine Report: is written in prescribed form for recording routine matters
at regular intervals. For example, confidential reports on employees, periodic
reports on the progress of projects, reports on inspection of equipment, etc.

Structure and Layout of Formal Reports (Informational and Interpretive

Reports)
Formal Reports’ layout is divided into three part;
i) Front Matters: Cover page, Title page, Copyright Notice, Acknowledgements, Table of Contents, List of
Illustrations, an Abstract or Executive Summary
ii) Main Body: Introduction, Description, Analysis and Discussion, Conclusion, and Recommendations
iii) Back Matters: List of References/Bibliography, Appendices, Glossary, and Index
Part VI
The Writing Process

What is Writing?

⚫ Is a medium of communication that represents language through the

inscription of signs and symbols.

⚫ Is a method of representing language in visual or tactile form. Writing systems use sets of symbols to
represent the sounds of speech, and may also have symbols for such things as punctuation and numerals.

Writing is a learned skill; it needs someone to practice a lot to become a good

writer. Through practice we also lean new insights that relate with the writing
process.

As a process, writing involves the following stages;

The Writing Process
Buscemi, et al (1998) outline five stages in writing; prewriting,
drafting/writing, revising, editing and proofreading.

Stage 1: Prewriting
At this stage, one needs to gather information about a subject/topic. Gathering
information can take three forms: recording what is known already,
interviewing, and research.
-Writing down what is already known: this can be done through focused free writing, brainstorming.
-Interviewing: this can be done to persons who know something about a subject matter.
-Researching: this is about investigating a subject matter in books, magazine, articles, and many other
relevant materials
The Writing Process
Stage 2: Writing a Rough Draft
At this stage, one needs to clarify the purpose of writing and also to decide on
a preliminary central idea. This is a focal point to which all details are
centered. The main idea has to be provided by a thesis statement.

Once the central idea has been developed, one needs to set an outline that
indicates the number of points to support the central idea. An outline should be
set in such a way that it limits the manageability of the central idea.
After setting an outline, a first version has to be written.

Stage 3: Revising the Rough Draft

At this stage, one has to rewrite the draft several times until it becomes more
clear. Revising helps to clarify ideas, develop concepts in greater details, and
reorganize sentences and paragraphs.
The Writing Process
At this stage, the following questions may be helpful:
a) Has my main point about my subject changed? Should I revise my thesis statement to make it clearer or
more accurate?
b) Is my writing unified? Have I included details that are unrelated to my thesis or are unnecessary?
c) Should I reorganize my writing by rearranging paragraphs?
d) Is each Paragraph unified? Should some details be shifted from one paragraph to another?
e) Is each Paragraph adequately developed, or does it need more details?
f) Are my paragraph coherent, or do I need to add transitions and linking pronouns?
g) Have I written an interesting introduction and conclusion?
The Writing Process
Stage 4: Edit the Draft
To edit means to read carefully the work and to correct distracting problems.
The most common problems are wordiness and mistakes in subject-verb
agreement, verb tenses, sentence structure, punctuation, word choice, spelling,
and capitalization. Editing also involves going through the entire work and see
if it is coherent and organized well.

Tips for Editing Final Draft

i) Put the work away for a while so it can be given a fresh look during editing
ii) Check every sentence individually to make sure it is complete. Correct run-ons and comma splices
iii) Find the subject of every sentence and make sure its verb agrees with it in number.
The Writing Process
iv) Read the work aloud at all stages and listen for errors in grammar and punctuation.
v) Read every word carefully. Eliminate unnecessary words and redundancies. Make sure that every word is
used according to its correct meaning.

Stage 5: Proofread the final Draft

Proofread means carefully reading the work to correct typing errors, to
eliminate repeated words, to add missing words or marks of punctuation, or to
fix other minor problems.

Tips for Proofread

i) Read it aloud and listen carefully. Correct all typographical errors.
ii) Check for punctuation problems, especially missing commas, periods, and apostrophes.
iii) Make sure you have capitalized words that begin each sentence, letters of first proper nouns, and other
words require capitals.
PART VII
ORAL PRESENTATION
What is Presentation?
Various definitions are offered on this term. The variations arise
due to contexts in which each definition is given.
⚫ Wilctionary defines presentation as a lecture of speech given in front of an audience.
⚫ Kernerman English Learner’s Dictionary defines presentation as an occasion when
somebody shows or explains something to somebody.
⚫ Princeton’s WordNet defines presentation as the act of making something publicly
available.
Oral Presentation

What is Presentation?

Raman and Singh, (2006) define presentation as a formal talk

addressed to one or more people and ‘present’ ideas or
information in a clear, structured way.

Sillars, (1988) defines presentation as a modern formal talk in

which one person talks to a group of others about a topic of
business interest-a new product, a change in company policy, or
an aspect of training etc.
Oral Presentation
What is Presentation?
Brail (1991:249) defines presentation as “a quick and potentially
effective method of getting things done through other people”.
He adds that, presentations are used as a formal method for
bringing people together to plan, monitor, and review progress of
an activity.

The definition above implies that any presentation should be

Interactive so that both the presenter and the audience become
familiar on the subject matter..
Why Presentation Should be Interactive?
⚫ First; it puts someone on display. An audience needs to see evidence of decisive planning
and leadership so that it is confident in the position of the presenter. In the case of
undertaking a task, an audience needs to be motivated and inspired to undertake the
task(s) which are presented.

⚫ Second; it allows someone to ask questions and to initiate discussion; it does allow the
presenter to raise issues, present problems and at least to establish who amongst the
audience could provide valuable input for decision making. And,
Why Presentation Should be Interactive?

⚫ Third; presentations can be fun. They give chances to speak one’s mind, to tell people
what the world is really like. While the presenter is on stage, the audience is bound by
good manners to sit still and watch the performance.
How to do a Presentation

Being able to express information and ideas clearly and in a well

organized way in front of a group of people is a learned skill.
People enjoy presenters who are inviting, engaging, and
informative.

Suppose you have a talk to give, where do you start?

Planning
What do you Plan?
You plan on the following;
⚫ Occasion
⚫ Audience
⚫ Purpose
⚫ Thesis
⚫ Materials
⚫ Structuring
⚫ Delivery

What to consider on each of these?

1. Occasion

The factors under occasion are facilities available, time, and

context.
Facilities include the venue, seating, light, projection facilities,
ventilation, acoustic provision etc.

Time refers to the time of the day one will present and the
duration of a presentation.

Context refers to the events surrounding the presentation.

2. Audience
Factors to consider under audience are position, size, preferences,
attitudes, knowledge, and demographic characteristics.

Position of the audience: In what status is the audience?

Managers, co-workers, customers, subordinators etc.

Size of the audience: Is there a large group, small group, or just

few individuals?

Preferences: What does the audience prefer? A formal

presentation, a casual one, does the audience like humor, does the
audience prefer speed or slow talking?
2. Audience

Attitudes: Is the audience friendly or hostile towards the

presenter ? How does the audience feel about the topic?

Knowledge: At what level of education is my audience?

Is the audience skilled in a particular field? As a presenter, do I
share knowledge with my audience?

Demographic characteristics: What cultural background is my

audience? What economic status is my audience? What is the
age? What is the ratio of sex?
3. Purpose
Before one presents, the following question has to be asked?

“Why am I making this presentation?”

-Do I need to INFORM, PESUADE, or ENTERTAIN?

The statement of purpose should not only indicate what one

wants to accomplish but also help to know whether one has
achieved the same.
4. Thesis
Thesis is a central idea. This is normally stated in a single
statement that summarizes the message.
Thus everything that is presented should revolve around this core
idea so that the audience is not confused.
Here below are examples of a thesis and statement of purpose.

⚫ Recent advances have changed the course of our project

⚫ I want my project team members to change over to the new technique
5. Materials
Once one has formulated a thesis, she needs to develop the
information which elaborates it. Information to be collected could
be researched projects, company’s records, statistics, publications
or through survey and interviews.

The collected information needs to be assembled at one place and

organized.
6. Structuring
For effective presentation, the collected materials need to be well-
structured. A well-organized presentation makes the message
more comprehensible, keeps the audience happy, and boosts the
image of the presenter.

A well-structured presentation is organized in three patterns;

1. Introduction
2. Main body
3. Conclusion
6. Structuring

Introduction: at this point, a presenter needs to grab audience’s

attention, introduce a topic, establish credibility, preview a
presentation, establish rules for questions and discussion, and
establish a smooth transition to the main text.

Main topic: at this stage, arrange sub-topics sequentially and in a

logical way, talk about one point in a time and move to another
Point.

Here below are six basic pattern to organize the main body.
6. Structuring
1. Chronological order
Here is when the points are arranged in the way in which they
occurred or were observed. For instance, if one presents on the
historical growth of the company, she will need to adopt this
approach.

2. Spatial Pattern
Here the points are arranged in the order of relationship. For
instance, if one presents on the production processes of
machines, she will have to show the ways each machine relates
with another machine in production.
6. Structuring
3. Topical Pattern
Here the points are presented in forms of categories or logical
themes of divisions.

4. Cause and Effect Pattern

Here the presenter organizes her presentation in a chain of cause
and effect. For instance, how and why conflicts arise in the
company and what are the impacts of those conflicts.
6. Structuring
5. Problem and Solution Pattern
This pattern is mostly used in persuasive speaking when a
presenter wants changes in opinion or behaviour by establishing
that problems exist, then providing solutions.

6. Climactic Pattern
Here the presenter structures her presentation in the order of
importance starting from the least to the most important.
6. Structuring

Conclusion: at this stage, a presenter has to briefly highlight all

main concerns, re-emphasizing points, giving vote of thanks and
invite questions from the audience.

Like the introduction part, the conclusion also needs to be

designed carefully as it reflects back on what has been taking
place at the main body stage.
7. Delivery
This is how to do the actual presentation. The ways a presenter
adopts or uses to get across what she has prepared.

Raman and Singh, (2006) claim that Successful speakers are

always remembered not because of eloquent, humorous, or had a
good dressing style, but primarily and principally because of their
message and ideas caused a change in their audience’s actions,
attitudes, lives, or made the purpose clear to them.

Here below are modes one can adopt when presenting.

7. Delivery

1. Speaking from notes

This is technically known as extemporaneous delivery. A
presenter delivers her speech by the help of an outline, or note
card, or visual aids she has prepared.
Advantages of this mode:
⚫ Conversational quality will be good under the control of the presenter.
⚫ It can be used in a wide range of situations because of its adoptability.
⚫ Speakers have precise more control of ideas and language
⚫ Speakers will be able to freely use non-verbal cues appropriate to situations.
7. Delivery

2. Speaking Impromptu
This is unprepared talks that someone gives before the audience.
For example, it may happens that during a presentation one finds
that certain information which is probably important to be linked
with what has already been prepared is unknown by the audience;
as a result, a presenter will have to make it known first. By so
doing, she will have to deliver a talk that she never formally
prepared.

An impromptu presentation can effectively be given when the

following guidelines are observed.
7. Delivery
▪ One needs to anticipate that she may be asked to speak.
As a presenter prepares her presentation, she needs to know the
questions that she might be asked by the audience.

▪ One needs to decide immediately the points to speak.

As a presenter, one needs to make quick decision on what points
to be spoken.

▪ One needs to present her viewpoints.

As a presenter do not attempt to memorize on what others had
said rather one has to give her ‘understandings’ on a topic asked.
7. Delivery
▪ One needs to be as brief as possible.
As a presenter do not try to give unnecessary explanations.
Remember that few explanations with firm points will make the
audience understand more. Lots of explanations may end up
confusing the audience. Brevity is an important characteristic of
all impromptu presentations.
7. Delivery
3. Speaking from Memory
It is advisable that one memorizes quotations, an opening or a
concluding remarks. It not advisable to keep memorizing the
whole presentation. This will make a presenter lose rapport with
her audience. Memorizing is probably the most difficult mode of
presentations. If one decides to use it, she must have good
memories.
7. Delivery
4. Reading from Manuscript
Some business presentations requires verbatim reading, that is,
reading words after words. This mode is mostly used by
presidents when addressing people, or used when one presents a
technical or complex text, or when one presents a court decision
or policy statements.

Note: Whatever mode one chooses, a good presentation needs to

sound natural, that is, coming direct form a presenter and not
form a written text. A text has to be used as a guideline. But what
appears on a text has to be paraphrased.
 -END-
PREPARE WELL FOR THE ONCOMING INSTITUTE EXAMINATIONS
-THANKS-