CHAPTER Number System and Units of Measurement per Vie te re UES After finishing this chopter, you will be able Understand the key features of Indian Numeral System Appreciate the key role it has played in advancement of Science and Technology Understand how measures for time, length and weight were in use in Ancient India Decipher the unique methods deployed to represent numbers J Identify the roots of modern-day binary system The greatest contribution of India to the development of Science and Technology lies in establishing a robust and a mature number system much before the dawn of the Common Era (CE). This was inherited up by the Arabic world during 8th Century CE and eventually passed on to the West by Ith Century CE.lan Knowledge System=' 140_ Introduction 0 1 ei ey Gautama-Buddha © Lalani Pps umber se 250 2 a ET son of king Suc te whe SAB edt as 6 Ma ompeting with soo others and 2 yd, aong othe things, testing oF kro can of the time, by name anne than sake to express numbers beyond koti (10”) in multiples of 100. In his ay to this question Siddhartha went on UP e i uttered. For example, 10 was ‘tallaksana’ Starting) An epis from koti constituted 23 levels. ‘The astonishing part of this conversation was ‘when Siddhartha mentioned that this number tallaksana forms part of one counting system. He further went on to show that eight more such counting systems are also available to enumerate higher numbers. In each system, there are 23 terms starting from the previous system. The method to get these numbers can be generalized using a formula. At the nth counting system, the last number in the series can be generated using the formula: (20 °°) (207) en n = 0, the number is 10° (tallaksana) 1, the number is 10° (dhvajagravati) n= 2, the number is 10" and so on. Since Siddhartha mentioned of eight more counting systems, at 0 = 8, the number is 10°. Such large numbers are unheard of even today. The existence of unique names to numbers of such a high vale as eary as the time of Gautama- Buddha speaks of the mathematical prowess of ancient indian. Adrock of modern scientific discoveries is th measurement, and computational ms ee echanisms. i fem is an important aspe: is vibrant international trade. To tr need standard means of me; ied number system and ransact umber units of me; for granted today. Little di n Number System ct of this. Another important aspect of ¢l ‘surement, estimation, and communication. This asurement for length, weight, time, ete: id we know or think about where all thes€ © Concepts and Applications Intrigued by his knowledge Asjuna asked Siddhartha about Ws smaller numbers than unity. The Siddhartha can be aptly sums table bel Unit of measure Yojana Krosa Are Cubit Span Phalanx of a finger Grain of Barley Mustard seed 1 1 1 1 1 1 Poppy seed 1 Speck ofdust 7 stirred by acow 1 Speck of dust [7 stirred by aram 1 Speck of dust [7 stirred by a hare 1 Speck of dust | 7 stirred by the wind 1 Tinyspeckof [7 dust History of Numbers Il, pp. 136-139, New Delhi. he use of well-defined number In an era of computer-based data through the exchange of goods andNumber System and Unis of Measuroment_141 ues in this and how it systematically developed through the ages. We shall dwell on these issues chapter. 6.1 NUMBER SYSTEM IN INDIA- HISTORICAL EVIDENCE is well The contribution of ancient Indians to the development of mathematical concepts fs wilt known and acknowledged. Many Scientists and writers from the West have time and ag: acknowledged this aspect, as evident from the following: ‘+ Based on extensive research, Ifrah presented evidence from Europe and the Arabic world to show that modern number systems indeed originated in India. Using several references during 810 CE to 1814 CE, he presented several observations of the past writers on Indian Mathematics*. Laplace remarked, “The ingenious method of expressing every possible number using a set of ten symbols (each symbol having a place value and an absolute value) emerged in India, Its simplicity lies in the way it facilitated calculation and placed arithmetic foremost amongst useful inventions”. In his book on India, composed around 1030 CE, Al-Biruni wrote, “Whilst we use letters for calculation according to their numerical value, the Indians do not use letters at all for arithmetic. And just as the shape of the letters that they use for writing is different in different regions of their country, so the numerical symbols vary”. A number of archaeological excavations supplement the linguistic evidence provided by the early writers about the maturity and supremacy of the Indian mathematical foundations. The street widths in the Indus-Saraswati Civilization were highly standardized. For instance, Kalibangam, a city in the Indus-Saraswati Civilization (in Rajasthan, India) had street widths of 1.8 m, 3.6 m, 5.4 m, and 7.2 m*, These were built to the standard dimensions of 1, 2, 3, and 4 Dhanus (this unit is * Several archaeological excavations rovide eviden: maturit diseussed in the section on measurements) respectively. Prova any pert Such widths are found at other sites also. The excavations Te, supremacy of | at Harappa, Mohenjo Daro, Dholavira, and Lothal show that + An inscription on a temple wall several constructions were done using fired bricks of in Gwalior dating back to the standard dimensions and fine geometrical and material ninth century CE is considered quality. The dimensions of the bricks appeared to be __ the oldest recorded example of standard with length x width x depth in the ratio 4:2:1, __a zero. Weights and linear measures follow a similar pattern wherever they have been found. This similarity across sites spanning several hundred kilometres points to the use of a standard unit of measurement at that time, signalling mature mathematical thinking, In the Arthasastra, there is a mention of two types of Dhanus as units for measuring lengths and distances: Dhanus = 96 Afgulas; Garhapatya-dhanus = 108 Angulas used for measurement of roads and distances. The oldest dated Indian document containing a number written in the place-value format that we use today is a legal document dated 594 CE from the Bharukachcha (or Broach) region in Gujarat. In an inscription at Gwalior dated ‘Samvat 933? in the Vikrama calendar (876 CE) the numbers 50 and 270 were recorded with a small circle appearing at the appropriate positional place for zero. An ancient Indian scroll known as the Bhakshali manuscript was discovered in a field in 1881 giving evidence of the earliest recorded use of4142_Introduction to Indian Knowledge System—Concepts and Applications: t was probably written in the third oF fo all in Gwalior dating back to the ninth ¢ zero. Carbon dating of this has revealed that i century CE, An inscription found on a temple w. CE is another recorded example of a zero. 6.2 SALIENT FEATURES OF THE INDIAN NUMERAL SYSTEM ‘The Indian numeral system has a long history. The origin and the evolution of the numbers cout be traced from the time of the Vedic period. Being an oral tradition, unique and unambi names were to be attributed to the numbers. Therefore, as early as the Reveda time, the of numbers and unique names prevailed. The Sanskrit language has unique names for number Starting from one and going up to very large numbers. The first nine digits have unique n (ckam, dve, trini, catvari, pafica, sat, Sapta, asta, nava). There are unique names for ni from 10 to 100 in steps of ten (dasa, vimSati, trimSat, catvarimSat, pancasat, sasti, saptati, navati, Sata). Beyond 100, there has been the use of names for numbers, which extend up very large numbers. There are many references in the literature pointing to the use of. number names. Spread of Indian Mathematical Concepts Westwards ‘The catalogue of the Sui dynasty (610 CE), pointed to several Chinese translations of Indian works on astronomy and mathematics, which are no longer extant. Records from the seventh century (of the } Tang dynasty), suggest that Indian astronomers were employed at the Astronomical Board of Change) Nan to teach the principles of Indian astronomy and calendar. An Indian named Gautama-Siddhartha, was reported to have constructed a calendar along the lines indicated in the Indian ‘Siddhantas, Indian numerals reached the court of second Abbasid Caliph al-Mansur (753-774 CE) from Sindh Moreover; the Indian decimal place-value system reached at least a century earlier as evident froma passage attributed to Nestorian Bishop Severus Sebokht (662 CE). In a book written during 820 CE by alsKhvwarizmi, the operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and the extraction of square roots according to the Indian system was explained, His work was translated into Latin by) h Century CE and there were several commentaries in Latin on this book. | Jn the transmission of Indian numerals to Europe, via the Arab world, Spain played an important role as it was under Muslim rule for many years. Documents from Spain and coins from Sicily provide | evidence of the spread. Fibonacci (1170-1250 CE) learnt the Indian numerals during his travels in North Africa, Egypt, Syria and Sicily and wrote a book bringing these aspects into focus. The spread, westwards continued slowly, displacing Roman numerals. It was simply a matter of time before the new numerals were put to use by the bankers, traders and merchants for their daily calculations: Jopted from Joseph (2009). “A Passage to Infinity: Medieval Indian Mathematics from Kerala and Its Sage, Chapter 8 One can appreciate the importance of the Indian numeral system in scientific developments contributions are understood the follow # Developing h unique number names for these large numbers alue system for the numerals nd its use beyond being a placeholder opened vast possibilities for arithmetic operations 1e concept of zero + A decimal syNumber System and Units of Measurement 143 6.2.1 The Concept of Zero and Its Importance Today, zero, both as a symbol (or numeral) and a concept meaning the absence of any quantity allows us to perform calculus, solve complicated equations, and to have invented computer operations using binary digits. Among the significant _______— contributions of the ancient Indians is the concept of zero. "@ The concept of zero was ‘The available evidence shows that the concept of zero was __ established during the period established during the period 500-300 BCE and fully _ 500-300 BCE. developed in India by 600 CE. Ancient Indians were able to * Ancient | Ethan oo se a decimal system that allowed them to develop a stem that alowed hm 2 reste B develop @ method for handling ‘method for handling large numbers. In this process, the Use _farve numbers. of number zero became inevitable as a placeholder. The number name to indicate zero is Sanya. Pingala a second century BCE Indian philosopher authored Chandabsastra, which dealt with the metres used in Sanskrit poetry in which the word Stinya was used, which obtained the mathematical connotation of 0. It later became its proper name as a number, Brahmagupta developed a symbol for zero in 628 CE. With this invention, zero could be used as an independent numeral for computational purposes. The real power of zero was evident when the use of zero was beyond a mere placeholder. Ancient Indians used zero in computations ahead of others and thereby elevated zero from a placeholder to a numeral. This is considered one of the greatest breakthroughs in the history of mathematics. Bhaskara II in his Bija-ganita introduced the properties of zero when mathematical operators such as addition and subtraction are operated on it. He stated that its nature does not change when numbers are added to subtracted from zero. 5 used 2 decimal 6.2.2 Large Numbers and Their Representation In the Chandogya Upanisad, in a conversation between Sage Narada and Sanatkumara, it was mentioned, “There is no joy in the finite. The Infinite alone is joy. That which indeed is the Infinite is immortal. On the other hand, that which is finite is mortal”®. The Rgveda has several names of numbers scattered through its ten mandalas. Many of them are names of compound numbers, ie, those which are neither atomic nor a power of 10. In the Taittiriya-samhita, book 7, Chapter 2, there is _* Brahmagupta developed a symbol a reference to numbers up to 10". In a passage in the _ oF zero in 628 CE. Taittiriya-upanisad’, there is a reference to the quantum of * Tete. ae references to, large happiness of an evolved individual who has transcended pase canner works Jainism. the realm of desires. In the description, the numbers are progressively & number of archaeological excavations and linguistic evidence provided by the early writers indieate the maturity and supremacy of the Indian mathematical foundations. > The Indian numeral system has a long history as is evident from the historical artifacts and archaeological evidence. The origin and the evolution of the numbers could be traced from the time of the Vedic period. > The concept of zero was established in India during the period 500-300 BCE and was fully developed by 600 CE. > Ancient Indians developed a systematic approach to the number-names that they developed to describe large numbers. > The method of using a limited set of numerals but assigning them unique names depending con which place they occupy in the number system is an age-old practice in India. > The decimal number system originated in India much before its use in the West. REVIEW QUESTIONS Number System and Units of Measurement 157 Three generic measures are used in the ancient Indian system pertaining to length, weight, and time. Several measures have been in vogue to measure the length in ancient times in India. ‘Arthagastra has elaborate measurements for length suiting different requirements. Time is an important aspect to ancient Indians as they were interested in studying the origin of the Universe. Furthermore, studies pertaining to Jyotisa (Astrology and Astronomy) also requires measures pertaining to time. A detailed description of weights is an essential requirement for Ayurveda to mix the ingredients correctly while formulations are prepared. When dealing with mathematical concepts and numbers, poetry is freely used to communicate the same. Unique methods to represent numbers were developed for this purpose. Chandab-sastra introduces some mathematical concepts including, a formal definition of the ‘word ‘Sanya’ to denote zero, fundamentals of the binary number system, and some interesting concepts in combinatorial mathematics. 1. List down the key inferences that one can make about the Indian Mathematical tradition based on historical evidence. 2. When was the concept of zero discovered in India? What is its special significance? 3. What are the advantages of the Indian numeral system over the Roman numerals? Explain the help of a few examples. 4. What are the key characteristics of a place-value system of numerals? How is it advantageous? 5. What do you understand by the term ‘decimal system’? Where did it originate and what are its advantages? 6. Fill up the table below with correct answers. 1 Nadika = Nimesa 1 Dhanus = Dhanumusti 10 Laghus Lava 5 Bharas Karsa 1 Goruta = Dhanus 20 MaSakas = Sarsapa 1 Muharta Kasta 11 Afguli-parva Liksa-raja188 Introduction o indian Knowledge System~Concepts and Applications 7 Indian mathematics is seamlessly linked with Literature and Poetry. Comment on ti 1 Provide some examples to support your arguments. 5 8. What are the uses of a word or letter numeral system? 1 ®- What are the dliferences between the katapayadi system and bhita-samlehya system? 10. Why is a bhata-samkhya system called 50? q 11. Identify the numbers repres ste by the bhiita-samkhya system in the following cases: 4 (a) ratha-chandra-guha-natida-rtu-padah -veda-nayana-bhujaigah : 3tra-gruha-nanda-risi-vedah (b) giina-adri. (© parna-kh: 12. Use Table 6.3 and rewrite the numbers below using the bhiita-samkhya system: (@) 179,532,695 (b) 345,447 (© 670,087,123 15. For the answers that you obtained for Question 11, express them using the katapayadi system, 14. Rewrite the numbers given in Question 12 using the katapayadi system, 15. Identify the numbers represented by the katapayadi system in the following cases: () arraTATT (anandamrtam) (b) | tarararitera: (raksabandhanotsavah) (©) Frat TTF: (koronarajanasakah) ‘ 16. What is a binary cycle? Can you develop a binary cycle of length four and identify all possible binary words of length four? DISCOVER IKS 1. India’s contribution to mathematics has been a subject that has attracted considerable attention in recent times. Several attempts have been made to inquire into this issue. Watch this video produced by BBC, titled, History of indian Mathematics, Part-1, by pursuing the link: https://youtu, be/pElvQdeaGXE. After watching the video carefully, prepare a write-up to answer the following questions: (3) What are the main contributions of ancient Indians to the number system? (b) What is the importance of the number ‘0'? How does it contribute to science? (©) What are the contributions of Brahmagupta in use of numbers in mathematics? 2. It is often mentioned that India's contribution to the world of mathematics is the number zero. This leaves an impression there is not much other than this contribution. On the contrary, there are Significant contributions by ancient Indians in a number of areas of mathematics that has led to the development of mathematical thought and applications in a significant way in the West. Watch the talk by Prof. C.K. Raju on the topic, “Not just the Zero~ India's gifts of mathematics and science to ‘he world’ by pursuing the link: https://youtu.be/22uZ3DSAgaE, After watching the video, prepare 3 three-page note that covers answers to the following questions: (@) Was India's contribution to Mathematics merely the number zero or something more? Enumerate the other salient contributions and their significance. (®) What are the salient aspects of Madhava's sine table (Katapayaidi)? What is the importance of sine table? ©) What is the value of traditional knowledge in mathematics? Do we need it?