Arbaminch College of Health Science

Department of Clinical Nursing

UNIT SIX
ENDOCRINE SYSTEMS

6.1. Introduction to Endocrine System

The endocrine system is the second great controlling system of the body. Along with the
nervous system, it acts to coordinate and direct the activities of the bodies’ cells. It works
by means of chemical messengers called hormones. Hormone – It is a mediator molecule
that is released in one part of the body but regulates activity of cells in other parts of the
body.
Endocrine system is a more slowly acting system as compared with the nervous system.
Glands of body are composed predominantly of epithelial tissue, which are of two types:
i.)Endocrine: its secretions have intracellular effect & they alter the metabolism of their
target cells, but
ii.) Exocrine glands: its secretions have extra cellular effect such as digestion of food.

Table 6.2.: Comparison of features of the endocrine system and nervous system
Feature Endocrine system Nervous system
Overall function Maintain homeostasis Maintain homeostasis
Control Virtually all tissue Muscles and glandular tissue only
Effectors cell Target cells (throughout the body ) In muscle and glandular cells only
Chemical messenger Hormone Neurotransmitter
Secreted by Glandular epithelial cells Neurons
Distance travel Long(byway of circulating blood) Short(across microscopic synapse)
Speed & action duration Slow to appear long lasting effect Fast, short lived

6.1.1. Hormones:
Hormones are chemical messengers of the endocrine system which are released directly
into the blood stream & carried to the tissue that they affect, called Target tissues. All
hormones are extremely potent, i.e., they are effective in very small quantities.
Hormones chemically fall in two categories:
1.) Proteins:- most hormones are proteins or related compounds composed of aminoacids.
All hormones except those of adrenal cortex & the sex glands are proteins.
2.) Steriods:- are hormones derived from lipids & produced by the adrenal cortex & sex
glands.
6.3. The major endocrine organs
6.3.1. Pituitary Gland

 Also known as hypophysis and called the master gland

 Approximately size of 1.2 to 1.5 cm across, & weighs
0.5gm
 Located on the ventral surface of the brain, resting with in
the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone.
 Hangs from the inferior surface of hypothalamus by
infundibulum – stem-like stalk, which maintain neural &
vascular connections between pituitary and
hypothalamus, which plays a central role in the
integration of neuroendocrine activity.

By: Mesfin Beyene(HO) ,2003EC 66

 Arbaminch College of Health Science
Department of Clinical Nursing
 It has two separate divisions:
A. Anterior pituitary (Adenohypophysis)- it has no nerve connection to hypothalamus
but is connected to it by complex of blood vessels called hypothalamo-hypophyseal
portal system, w/c transports hypothalamic regulating hormones to the glandular
cells of adenohypophysis.
- The Anterior lobe basically secrets six hormones, these are:
 GH(Growth hormone) – stimulate growth of bones & muscles by
accelerating amino acid transport into the cells.
o Also known as somatotrophin (STH)
 TSH(Thyroid Stimulating Hormone) – stimulates thyroid gland
 FSH(Follicle Stimulating Hormone) – Stimulate production of ova & sperm
 LH(Luteinizing Hormone) – Stimulates testosterone production in males &
promotes maturation of ovarian follicles to secrete estrogen in females, w/c
is responsible for ovulation & formation of corpus luteum.
 ACTH (AdrenoCorticoTropic hormone) -Stimulate Adernal cortex
 Prolactin(PRL): stimulates milk secretions in the breast of a lactating mother

B. Posterior pituitary (Neurohypophysis) – Release hormone made by the

hypothalamus
 Nerve fibers arise from cell bodies in the hypothalamus & end in the posterior lobe
bundle – hypothalamohypophyseal tract
 Serve as storage & release site for anti – diuretic hormone (ADH) &
oxytocin (OT) in to blood stream, which is controlled by nervous stimulation
ADH- prevent large volume of urine formation here by helping the body conserve water
Oxitocin- Cause milk ejection from lactating mother
- Also stimulate contraction of uterine muscle during child birth.

6.3.2. Thyroid Gland

 It is the largest endocrine gland having blood supply by superior thyroid artery &
drained by superior thyroid vein
 Situated at the base of the throat just inferior to the Adam’s apple
 Has two lobes (right and left) joined by the thyroid isthmus
 Makes two hormones
A. Thyroxine (T4) and Tri- iodothyronine(T3, ) w/c
 Stimulate metabolism of all cells & cell growth (in reproduction & nervous
/mental development)
 Control the rate at w/c glucose is burned or oxidized and converted to body heat
and chemical energy
 Exert a wide spectrum of metabolic & physiologic actions that affect virtually
every tissue in the body.
 Abnormal conditions
– Hyperthyroidism - ed TH
- Hypothyroidism - ¯ ed TH
- Goiter – the condition in w/c the thyroid gland is unable to produce T 4 & T3
due to low level of TSH from pituitary to stimulate T.G ® the gland becomes
enlarged

By: Mesfin Beyene(HO) ,2003EC 67

 Arbaminch College of Health Science
Department of Clinical Nursing

B. Calcitonin – enhance the storage of calcium in to bone cells by then it decreases

blood calcium level

6.3.3. Parathyroid Glands

 Usually four in number, are embedded in the dorsal surface of the thyroid gland
 Secret parathyroid, or pararthormone (PTH) in response to low plasma calcium
 Antagonist to calcitonin and acts to maintain calcium homeostasis
 Acts on bone & kidney
 Cause demineralization of bone to elevate plasma calcium & phosphate levels.
 Cause phosphate to be secreted by urine
 Cause increased intestinal absorption of calcium by stimulating the kidney to
produce active vitamin D, w/c increase calcium absorption in gut
6.3.4. Adrenal(Suprarenal) Glands

 Paired yellowish masses, situated at superior poles

of each kidney
 Each glands consisting of two distinct entities:
 Adrenal cortex – is an outer structure which is
composed of endocrine tissue. Structurally it is
arranged into three zones; a thin outer zona
glomerusa, a thick middle zona fasciculate, & an
inner zona reticularis bordering on the medulla.

By: Mesfin Beyene(HO) ,2003EC 68

 Arbaminch College of Health Science
Department of Clinical Nursing
 Adrenal medulla – composed of neurosecretary tissue, that secret the catecholamine
hormones epinephrine(Adrenalin) and norepinephrine(Noradrenalin).
 Adrenal cortex produce three major groups of hormone collectively referred to as
corticosteroid
1. Mineralocorticoids, mainly Aldesterone mainly secreted in zona glomerulosa
& has the following actions;
 Regulate mineral (salt) content of the blood (Na+ & K+)
 Regulate water & electrolyte imbalance
 Increase Na+ reabsorption in the kidney
 Increase water retention and promote the loss of potassium & hydrogen
ion
2. Glucocorticoid (cortisone and cortisol), w/c occurs in the zona fasciculate.
 Promote normal cell metabolism & help the body to resist long term
stressors
 It is said to be hyperglycemic hormone, b/c it promote the break down of
accumulated fat & proteins by body cells to be converted to glucose
 Has anti inflammatory effect (decrease edema) & anti pain effect by
inhibiting pain causing molecules (PGs)
 Stimulates gastric acid & pepsin secretion & inhibit protective mucus
secretion in the stomach
3. Sex hormone – Androgen (male) - secondary sex characteristics
- Estrogen (female) - deposition of protein in muscle
 Adrenal medulla releases two similar hormones collectively called catecholamine
(non-steroidals)
 Epinephrine / Adrenaline/, and
 Norepinephrine /Noradrenaline/ released by sympathetic neuron
 Both hormones bind to receptors of sympathetic effectors to prolong and enhance the
effects of sympathetic stimulation by the ANS
 When you feel threatened physically or emotionally SNS bring about “fight or flight “
to cope the situation, it stimulate adrenal medulla to release hormone w/c prolong
effect of SNS
 Catecholamine- es Heart Rate & BP by constricting cutaneous & visceral
vasculatures
- es Blood glucose level by glycogenolysis in the liver & muscle
- Relaxes respiratory smooth muscles
- Pupillary dilation(mydriasis)
- Inhibits GI motility

6.3.5. The Pancreas

 The pancreas is one of abdominal cavity organs, that lies behind the stomach to the
left lateral to duodenum
 Its endocrine functions is performed by the islets of langarhans(also called
Pancreatic islets), w/c are small, highly vascularized masses of scattered cells
throughout the pancreas.
 It is composed of endocrine & exocrine tissues
- Exocrine tissue – secretes a serious containing fluid; digestive enzyme (pancreatic
juice), & releases through ducts w/c drain directly into part of small
intestine(duodenum)

By: Mesfin Beyene(HO) ,2003EC 69

 Arbaminch College of Health Science
Department of Clinical Nursing
- Endocrine tissue – contains four primary types of glands w/c secrets hormones;
 Alpha cells (A cells) – secrete glucagon -es blood glucose
 Beta cells (B cells) – secrete insulin - ¯es blood glucose
 Delta cells (D cells) – secrete somatostatin – indirectly inhibits digestion &
absorption of nutrients
 Pancreatic poly peptide(PP) cells (F cells) – also influence digestion &
distribution of food molecule

6.3.6. Pineal gland (” third eye”)

 Small, cone-shaped gland, which lies in the roof of the 3 rd ventricle of the brain, at the
Epithalamus
 Is member of the nervous system(b/c it receives visual stimuli, called “the 3 rd Eye”),
and also is a member of the endocrine system(because it secretes hormone)
 Principal pineal secretion is melatonin hormone
 Melatonin is believed to have an important role in establishing the body’s day night
cycle (sleep wake cycle)
 In sun light sympathetic nerve fibers release nor-epinephrine results in wakefulness,
and in darkness causes lack of nor epinephrine w/c stimulate the secretion of
melatonin resulting in sleepiness
 Also it coordinate hormones of fertility that affect the reproductive system (regulate
the release of gonadotropins(GTH) from pituitary gland)
 Winter (seasonal) depression is a condition of abnormal emotional state characterized
by sandiness(sleepiness) when day length decrease during winter, causing excess
melatonin secretion

6.3.7. Thymus
 Located on the upper thorax posterior to the sternum, just above the heart
 Because it is most active before birth & early in life, its size is larger in infants &
children & decrease during adulthood
 It is composed of fibrous connective tissue and fat
 Produce a hormone called thymosin (thymic hormone), w/c stimulate development of
T-cells (T-lymphocytes) that help protect the body against foreign organisms.
 The thymus acts as an “incubator” for maturations of T – lymphocytes

6.3.8. Reproductive Glands

[Link]. Gonads
 The female and male gonads(Testes & Ovaries) produce sex hormones
 Testes – paired organs with in the scrotum of males
 Composed of somniferous tubules & interstitial cells
 Secret androgen(testosterone) w/c support sperm formation as well as for
the development & maintenance of male secondary sex characteristics
 Ovaries – primary paired sex organs in the female that secrete two hormones:
 Estrogen – promote maintenance & dev’t of female 20 sexual characteristics
 Progesterone – promote growth of uterine lining for successful pregnancy

By: Mesfin Beyene(HO) ,2003EC 70

 Arbaminch College of Health Science
Department of Clinical Nursing
[Link]. Placenta
 Is temporary organ formed in the uterus of pregnant women
 In addition to its endocrine functions it also has a major role in regulating & aids the
fetal respiratory, excretory & nutritious delivery systems
 During early pregnancy, it produces a hormone called Human Chorionic
Gonadotrophin (HCG) hormone produced from the whole parts of placenta, it is
similar to LH (leutenizing hormone) it stimulate the corpus luteum for continuous
production of estrogen & progesterone hormones
 The placenta also produce other hormones
 Human placental lactogen (HPL) – w/c prepare the breast for lactation
 Relaxin- Placental growth hormone, and
 TSH

N.B.: Besides the major endocrine organs discussed so far hormones are also being
produced by other organs, such as:
 Stomach – secretes gastrin- w/c promote acid secretion
 Kidney – erythropoietin – w/c promote RBC synthesis of bone marrow
 Duedenum – secretin – w/c neutralize the gastric acid when digested
food entering the duodenum
 Heart – ANP (Atrial natriuretic Peptide) hormone
- w/c can decrease BP & blood volume, is an antagonist of ADH

62

By: Mesfin Beyene(HO) ,2003EC 71

 Arbaminch College of Health Science
Department of Clinical Nursing

Table 6.3.9.: Types of Hormones, their source organs & Specific Actions
Hormone Source Target Principal function

GH (STH) Adenohypophysis General - Promotes growth by stimulating protein anabolism and fat mobilization.
PRL (lactogenic) “ “ Mammary glands - Promotes milk secretion by alveolar secretary cells.
Thyroid stimulating hormone Thyroid gland - Stimulates development and secretion in the thyroid gland
(TSH) “ “
Adenocorticotropic hormone Adrenal cortex - promotes dev’t and secretion in the adrenal cortex.
(ACTH) “ “
Follicular stimulating Hormone Gonads glands - Female – promotes dev’t of ovarian follicle – stimulates estrogen secretion
(FSH) “ “
Leutinizing hormone (LH) Gonads glands - Male – promotes dev’t of testis – stimulates sperm production.
“ “ (primary sex organs)
Melanocyte stimulating hormone Skin - Female – triggers ovulation secretion - promote dev’t of corpus luteum
“ “ - Male – stimulates production of testosterone /masculinization/
- May stimulate production of melanin pigment in skin.
Anti Diuretic hormone (ADH) Neurohypophysis Kidney - Promotes water retention by kidney tubules.
Oxytocin (OT) “ “ Uterus - Stimulates uterine contraction
“ “ Mammary gland - Stimulates ejection of milk in to mammary ducts.
Melatonin Pineal gland Adenohypophsis - Inhibit LH secretion
- Sleep-wake cycle & Person’s mood eg, winter depression
T3 & T4 Thyroid gland General - increase rate of metabolism
Calcitonin (CT) Bone tissue - increases calcium storage in bone
“ “ - lowering blood ca2+ levels
- Increases calcium removal from the storage in bone
Parathormone (PTH) Parathyroid gland Bone tissue - Increase absorption of calcium by intestines
- Increase blood ca2+ levels
Aldostrone (mineralocorticoid) Adrenal cortex (Zona Kidney - Promote conservation of H2O by the kidney.
glomerolosa
Cortisol (hydrocortisol) Adrenal cortex General - Influence metabolism of food molecules
- It has an anti inflammatory effect.
Adrenal androgen Adrenal cortex (zona Sex organ - May support sexual functions
reticularis)
Thymosin Thymus gland T-Lymphocytes - Stimulate production of specialized lymphocytes involved in the immune
response called T- cells
Atrial natriuretic Peptide (ANP) Heart (Atrium) Kidney - Promote the loss of sodium from the body by means of the urine

By: Mesfin Beyene(HO) ,2003EC 56